Energy 210 (2020) 118577

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

The calculation of solar energy used by hot water systems in

permafrost region: An experimental case study for Yakutia
Nikolay Aleksandrovich Tsvetkov a, Ujriy Olegovich Krivoshein a,
Aleksandr Vital’yevich Tolstykh a, Andrey Nikolaevich Khutornoi a, Stanislav Boldyryev b, *
a
Tomsk State University of Architecture and Building, Russia
b
Tomsk Polytechnic University, Russia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents a mathematical model for the collection and efficient use of solar energy in hot water
Received 21 April 2020 systems at permafrost regions. A case study was presented for northern territories of the Russian
Received in revised form Federation in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Daily maximum diffuse solar radiation on a horizontal and
5 August 2020
inclined surface was predicted during the year taking into account cloud coverage. The cloud coverage
Accepted 6 August 2020
Available online 22 August 2020
data was taken from the results of five-year monitoring on the heliometric station of the Yakutsk city. The
modelling of the hourly, daily, monthly, and annual amount of solar radiation was performed. The
mathematical model was turned and finally proved by experimental data obtained from the testing rig.
Keywords:
Solar energy
The modelling of the domestic hot water supply system of particular northern territories was performed
Renewable energy using solar energy and energy storage. Both models were integrated and verified by experimental data
Hot water supply accounting a seasonal fluctuation. The estimation of the solar energy potential for practical application in
Permafrost region Yakutia was executed. The operating features of permafrost regions were analysed by the developed
Mathematical modelling experimental unit. The application of solenoid valve reduces the heat losses during the night by 57% in
June and by 69% in November. The case study provides the results of modelling and efficient use of solar
energy for different daily water flow rates during January and June. The results of the case study show
the possibility to use of solar energy in a hybrid energy system at permafrost regions, decarbonize the
energy input and contribute regional sustainability of northern territories.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Huge areas of Russia are the northern territories and a signifi-
cant part of them is located in permafrost zones. These territories
have large deposits of different mineral resources. The develop-
ment of these territories requires the construction of residential
buildings. However, the use of fossil fuels for heating, ventilation
and hot water supply of the residential sector is limited by high
transportation cost and other issues. For instance, burning of fossil
fuels causes significant environmental damage of northern terri-
tories, which are particularly pollution-sensitive. Moreover, the
placement of underground communications is complicated by
permafrost to a depth of 200e250 m [1]. Sustainable development
of northern territories is naturally associated with energy-saving
and enhancement of energy efficiency by applied technologies
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sboldyryev@tpu.ru (S. Boldyryev).
and equipment including the use of clean and renewable energy
[2]. Studies of the Joint Institute for High Temperatures of Russian
Academy of Sciences showed that the total solar radiation in
Yakutia is comparable with many southern regions of Russia as
demonstrated in Fig. 1 [3].
The duration of sunshine in Yakutia is more than 2000 h per
year, which is favourable for the use of photovoltaic systems and
the generation of electric energy [4]. Therefore, the use of solar
energy is promising for the development of hot water supply sys-
tems [5].
According to Ref. [6] the human population growth will be up to
9.5e11 billion by 2050 and solar engineering harvesting will be
very important to cover total energy demands. Nevertheless, the
use of solar energy has to be justified economically [7] and prac-
tically to prove the advantages of this type of energy for particular
cases. For example, there is a difference in solar energy growth in
different states of the USA. It is due to climate difference and other
drivers such as regulation, investment, etc. [8]. Some research tried

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118577
0360-5442/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577
Fig. 1. Total solar radiation on an inclined surface, kW∙h/m2 per day (the angle of inclination is equal to latitude in AprileSeptember).
to compare the attractiveness of investment to residential space
heating by natural gas and solar energy combined with under-
ground thermal energy storage [9]. This study considers a North
America case through the conventions of finance and risk mitiga-
tion to be competitive on the market. Energy storage is also dis-
cussed in Ref. [10] considering seasonal fluctuation.
Solar irradiation has three components: direct part, diffuse part
and reflected part. The complexity of measuring and modelling of
solar radiation is an important goal for different territories. In
Ref. [11] the model for reflected radiation was presented and the
deviation between modelled and measured average results was
calculated to prove model parameters. The investigation of the
solar irradiance at inclined surfaces on real atmospheric conditions
was determined by latitude and time of the year [12]. It was carried
out at the National Observatory of Athens. Since solar radiation is
different for different territories and countries, the proper model-
ling of solar energy use for different needs should be developed.
There have been a lot of approaches created since sustainable
development was prioritized in different countries [13]. Authors in
Ref. [14] analysed the possibility of heating and domestic hot water
(DHW) with the use of renewable energy and applied photovoltaic
façade with an air heat pump. They improved the seasonal per-
formance of solar energy by 14.8% in the Bilbao region. The inte-
grated multi-objective optimization model was developed in
Ref. [15] to get an optimal solution of a solar thermal system and
more than 30 million scenarios were considered to shortlist 131 of
them. The model was validated in Korea but its complexity and
possible local optimum make it difficult to use. Alternative use of
solar energy by heat pipes to utilize energy for water heating sys-
tem is discussed in Ref. [16]. Daily energy and energy performance
of the whole system were analysed for region Fez, Morocco with an
average daily temperature of 9.6
C during the coldest month.
Other research analyses water heating by solar energy for Medi-
terranean climate [17], south Spain region [18], Azerbaijan [19],
Botswana [20]. As an option for rural permafrost territories, the
combination of solar energy and fossil fuels is possible but proper
modelling of solar energy use should be investigated.
The research in Ref. [21] demonstrated how gas-fired power
plant facilities may be coupled with solar energy to reduce gas
consumption and CO2 emissions. However, rural northern areas
usually do not have big power plants satisfying hot water supply
demands by the system of small gas boilers. On the other hand, the
solar irradiation model of northern regions has not been described
in the literature and has not been studied and proved experimen-
tally. Solar energy policy has been discussed in Finland to identify
the barriers, potential and possible transition to renewable energy
at northern territories [22]. Strategic and systematic integration of
solar thermal energy in the building sector can lead to energy se-
curity and emission reduction [23]. Comparison of hourly model
based on energy balance and the simulation tool Polysun was
investigated in Ref. [24]. The authors concluded that Polysun
approach leads to a higher or lower electrical auxiliary heating and
it considers the temperatures stratification while the developed
model considers the energy balance in the tank as a whole. This
research was conducted for Maputo, Mozambique where the low
average temperature is 13
C. The design of the water storage tank
impacts temperature distribution [25]. DHW system was investi-
gated by applying heat pump to improve the overall efficiency. The
modelling of the DWH in Korea allowed the simple system
configuration with lower capital cost [26]. Optimization of resi-
dential centralized solar DHW system proposed system perfor-
mance evaluating index, and the strategy of reducing the water
cycling time. This index can be also applied for local solar DHW
system accounting its features [27]. The modelling of thermal
stratification in the water storage tank is important for overall
system performance that was proved by numerical modelling with
the use of CFD [28]. Different DHW systems may be used to improve
the energy efficiency and sustainability of residential sector [29]
but not all of them can be used in permafrost region due to climate
features.
World experience shows that in the vast majority of cases, the
equipment layout of solar hot water supply systems assumes the
storage tanks below the solar collectors. In this case, stimulation of
the coolant’s motion in the circuits of “collector e storage tank” is
 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577
possible due to natural convection. In this regard, the accumulated
thermal energy will be dissipated from the external pipelines and
collectors into the environment at night when outdoor tempera-
tures are lower than the temperature of the coolant in the storage
tank. In northern territories, this effect will substantially reduce the
efficiency of solar systems operation compared to the application in
southern territories.
This paper is trying to fill a research gap of solar energy use at
permafrost regions that were not sufficiently presented before.
Several issues may demonstrate the novelty and scientific impor-
tance of current research. First, the theoretical model of solar
irradiation of the permafrost region in Yakutia is developed. The
model was adopted with the use of real experimental data that was
taken by the testing unit. Second, the modelling of the DHW system
of studied northern territories was performed by the use of solar
energy and energy storage model. Both models were proved by
testing rig and experimental data with seasonal fluctuation that lets
estimating the solar energy potential for practical application in
Yakutia.
2. Methods
The methodology is based on the use of a range of maximum
daily values of total and diffuse solar radiation obtained over the
past 5 years at a weather station in the Yakutsk city. The applied
approach was developed based on methodology summarised in
this section.
The general procedure of the proposed method is based on the
next steps:
 modelling of solar radiation into a horizontally oriented surface
in Yakutsk city;
 the definition of the angle of the solar collectors and modelling
of solar radiation into the inclined surface;
 modelling of the useful energy gained by the solar collector;
 the heat balance simulation of the storage tank accounting un-
steady conditions;
Fig. 2. Daily integral values of total solar radiation of Yakutsk city.
Table 1
Comparison of average annual values of total solar radiation.
Source Estimated value using Fig. 2
2
Total value for the year, MJ/m 3.848
Difference, % e 3.2
3
 day-by-day modelling of temperature distribution inside the
storage tank accounting seasonal changes;
 definition of the most efficient operating modes of the solar unit
and energy input for the hot water supply system.
Based on the results of the analysis of global solar radiation [30],
hot water supply model [31] and meteorological data [32] the au-
thors propose a simple and reliable method for characteristics
calculation of solar radiation entering a horizontally oriented sur-
face [33]. Calculation results of the daily solar radiation during the
year are shown in Fig. 2.
Table 1 demonstrates the comparison of the calculated average
annual value of the total solar radiation entering a horizontal sur-
face with the data taken from other sources. The characteristics of
solar radiation given in Ref. [34] were obtained from meteorological
observations and data recordings for Yakutsk city during
1960e1980. The result of averaging the mean monthly data of
NASA’s database were obtained over twenty years from 1998 to
2017. The comparison results obtained by the proposed method
show good convergence of the calculations with the data from
other studies.
The known values of the direct solar flux Rdh and the diffuse solar
flux Rsch
on a horizontal surface help finding solar energy input on
an inclined surface Rh using the ratios [35e37], which were ob-
tained while determining the position of the surface relative to
solar rays at that time. Total solar radiation flux entering an inclined
surface is determined according to (Eq. (1)):
Rh ¼ Rdh Kd þ Rsc
h Ksc ; (1)
where Kd ; Ksc are coefficients of solar collector placement relative
to direct and diffuse solar radiation. These coefficients can be found
using the following ratios (Eq. (2)):


cosi
Kd ¼ ; Ksc ¼ cos2 b 2; (2)
sinas
where cosi is the cosine of the solar incidence angle, as e is the
Calculation from [32] Data from NASA SSE Data from Ref. [34]
3.727 3.825 3.827
0.6 0.6
4 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577
angle of the solstice altitude, b e is the angle of incidence of the
surface towards the horizon.
The cosine of the solar incidence angle on an arbitrarily oriented
surface is calculated by Eqs. (3) and (4):
cosi ¼ sinb½cosdðsinf cosg cosu þ singsinuÞ  sind cosf cosg
þ cosbsina;
dcw rw Ttan k 3600  
¼ kex Fex; out Theat; av  Ttan k þ cw ðmw1 ðTw2  Ttan k Þ
dt Vtan k
mw2 ðTtan k  Tw2 Þ  mw3 ðTtan k  Tw3 ÞÞ  ktan k Ftan k ðTtan k  Ta Þ ;
sinas ¼ cosdcosfcosu þ sindsinf;
where g is the azimuth of an inclined surface, u is the hour angle, f,
d are the width and solar declination, respectively. In the case of
southwards orientation of the inclined surface, when g ¼ 0, the
formula for Kd coefficient becomes as follows (Eq. (5)):
cosðf  bÞcosdcosu þ sinðf  bÞsind
Kd ¼
cosdcosfcosu þ sindsinf
During operation of the dual hot water supply system in Yakutsk
city [4] the shortage of thermal energy supply from the system of
solar evacuated collectors was compensated by an additional
source, i.e. a gas boiler. It is possible to predict the need for thermal
energy from an additional source by modelling thermal conditions
of the storage tank intended for heat accumulation and its further
use.
Useful energy gained by the collector’s absorber with the total
area of A can be calculated according to the equation of Hottel-
Whilier-Bliss (Eq. (6)) [35]:
Qu ¼ h0 h1 h2 A½Rh ta  UðTheat  Т en Þ ;
where U is the heat losses coefficient, its value is from 1.5 to 2 W/
m2
C; Theat ; Т en are the temperature of the coolant and ambient
temperature. Optical efficiency ta for solar evacuated collector
varies within the range of 0.75e0.85. The efficiency factor of the
solar collector h0 is determined while testing evacuated solar col-
lectors within a range of 0.65e0.8. h1 ; h2 coefficients consider the
transparency degree of the atmosphere and heat losses from the
solar collector to a consumer accordingly and they are accepted of
h1 ¼ 0.8 … 1.0, h2 ¼ 0.85 … 0.98.
Based on the heat balance of the coil heater of the storage tank, a
differential equation was built that is similar to the one given in
Ref. [38]. Eq. (7) describes the non-stationary conditions of tem-
perature change of the coolant entering the heat exchanger tube:

vTheat vT Qu
fex rheat сheat ¼ 3600 mheat сheat heat þ
vt vl Lex

 kex pdex ðTheat  Ttan k Þ ;
where fex ; dex are inner dimension area and the inner diameter of
the tube respectively; rheat ; сheat ; mheat are density, heat capacity
and mass flow of the coolant; t is time in hours; l is coordinate
calculated along the heat exchanger tube in the storage tank,
0  l  Lex, Lex e is the length of heat exchanger tube in the storage
tank; kex is a heat transfer coefficient for the copper coil of the heat
exchanger; Ttan k is the instant average temperature of the heated
water in the storage tank.
Given the uniform distribution of instant temperature in the
storage tank, water heating can be described using the differential
equation (Eq. (8)):
(3)
(8)
where cw ; rw are a specific heat capacity and water density
(4) calculated by approximating dependencies obtained in Ref. [39];
Vtan k e is an operating capacity of the storage tank; Fex; out ; Ftan k
are heat transfer area of the heat exchanger and the outer surface of
Z Lex
the storage tank, respectively; Theat; av ¼ L1ex Theat dl is the
0
instant temperature of the coolant, averaged along the length of
heat exchanger tube; mw1, mw2, mw3, Т w1, Т w2, Т w3 are mass flow
rate and the outlet temperature of water of the gas boiler, of the
(5)
main return line of hot water supply and the feed pipe; ktan k is a
heat transfer coefficient through the outer walls of the storage tank;
Т а is inside temperature of the room where the storage tank is
placed.
Approximate daily fluctuations in ambient temperature Ten can
be considered harmonically as it was done in Ref. [40] then the
daily changes in ambient temperature can be estimated using Eq.
(9):
p 
Ten ¼ Ten; dav þ Aen; d cos z ; (9)
12
where Ten; dav ; Aen; d are mean daily temperature and daily ampli-
(6) tude of ambient temperature; z is a time of days in hours
(0  z  24).
To determine the most appropriate operating modes of the solar
unit, it is necessary to evaluate the integral amount of energy
entering the hot water supply system during the month
(ti  t  te ). This can be done using the data on averaged thermal
performance (Eq. (10)):
ðte
1
Qho; av ¼ Qho dt; (10)
ðte  ti Þ
ti
3. Case study
The system of Eqs. (1)e(8) was solved numerically using the
finite element method. Modelling of heat transfer processes was
carried out using the FlexPDE software [41], which supports the
(7)
finite element method for modelling of objects with distributed
variables described by nonlinear partial differential equations. In
the FlexPDE environment, when integrating partial differential
equations by the Galerkin method for solving a system of algebraic
nonlinear equations a standard solver was used that implements
 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577 5

the Newton-Raphson method [42]. The standard FlexPDE solver
implements iterative convergence control, which provides an
automatic selection of the time step and the number of nodes of the
finite element mesh based on taking into account the temporal and
spatial errors. In most cases, good convergence for the accuracy of
the temperature determination of 103
C is achieved at 60e65
nodes of the spatial grid in the computational domain and at values
of the time step 103 - 102 h. The initial data for calculation of
thermal conditions of the storage tank and thermal performance of
solar power system was taken as follows: А ¼ 5.2 m2; dex ¼ 0.014 m;
rheat ¼ 1082 kg/m3; с heat ¼ 3500 J/(kg$
C); mheat ¼ 6.25$102 kg/s;
Lex ¼ 30 m; kex ¼ 840 W/(m2$
C); Vtan k ¼ 700 l; Fex; out ¼ 1.32 m2;
ktan k ¼ 2 W/(m2$
C); Ftan k ¼ 5.88 m2; Ta ¼ 20
C. Approximate
daily fluctuations in ambient temperature Ten were calculated and
the daily changes in ambient temperature were estimated based on
the daily amplitude of ambient temperature, which was calculated
basing on the data of meteorological observations during
1989e2018 at the meteorological station of Yakutsk city. In the case,

Fig. 3. Changes in solar flux Rh (a, b) and hourly integral values RSh (c, d) of the total solar radiation on an inclined surface (b ¼ 46
) in Yakutsk city depending on local daily time: a, c
e January, b, d e July.

Fig. 4. Daily integral values RSd of total solar radiation on an inclined surface (b ¼ 46
) for Yakutsk city.
6 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577

Fig. 5. View of the external and internal part of the solar water heating system:a) e the location of two collectors and solar panels; b) e internal pipelines; c) e control unit for
collecting and transmitting measurement data; d) storage tank.

Fig. 6. Principle process and instrumentation diagram of the experimental rig for investigation of water heating by solar energy. 1 e solar insolation sensor; 2 e temperature sensor;
3 e control unit; 4 e the device for collecting and transmitting data; 5 e server; 6 e flow meter; 7 e storage tank; 8 e circulation pump; 9 e the solenoid valve; 10 e the collector.
 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577
if more accurate calculations are required, it is possible to use
measurement data of the ambient temperature of time of any day
averaged over the entire observation period and make approxi-
mations based on these data.
Fig. 3 illustrates the changes in the intensity of the total solar
radiation flux Rhon an inclined surface (b ¼ 46
) and its hourly
integral values RSh during the day for the Yakutsk city in January
and July. It can be seen in Fig. 3a that close to sunrise and sunset in
January there is a significant increase in the solar flux falling on an
inclined surface. This is due to very small values of the sin of the
altitude angle at sunrise and sunset current month.
As a result of solar radiation modelling, its daily values on an
inclined surface were obtained for yearly bases as illustrated in
Fig. 4.
The experimental solar unit was built in the Kaftanchikovo
village close to the Tomsk city and it was equipped by elaborated
hardware and software [43] with external access (Fig. 5). The
principle process and instrumentation diagram of the experimental
rig are presented in Fig. 6. Experimental data from primary sensors
are registered every 30 s. Two collectors were installed under the
slope angle of 47
employing absorber 3.98 m2. They can be con-
nected in parallel or series. The testing rig uses a vertical storage
tank with a volume of 1000 l Unlike the known schemes of
Fig. 7. Monthly heat output of solar collectors:a) e January; b) e July.
7
experimental plants of solar water heating systems, e.g. Refs. [17,
44], a circulating loop of collectors was additionally equipped by a
controller-operated solenoid valve. Its main goal is to eliminate
heat losses from collectors and external tubes of the circulating
loop at night. The solenoid valve closes automatically after the
sunset. The average temperature of the coolant in the collectors is
3
С lower than the water temperature in the lower part of the
storage tank. The solenoid valve opens automatically after the
sunrise and the average temperature of the coolant in the collectors
is 3
С higher than the temperature in the middle part of the storage
tank. In the morning the circulation pump automatically turns on
10 s after the valve opens and in the evening it automatically turns
off before the valve closes.
4. Results and discussion
The calculation of heat energy input from solar collectors into
the storage tank for the conditions of Yakutsk city during January
and June is shown in Fig. 7. The calculation was carried out under
the conditions that thermal energy from an external source does
not enter the tank; cold water from the feed pipe does not enter the
tank and thermal energy is not consumed for the needs of hot water
supply. The low thermal performance of the collectors in January
8 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577
Fig. 8. Water temperature correlation within the storage tank during the investigated period for different water flow rates V of hot water supply: a) e January; b) e July.
(Fig. 7a) ensures that the water in the storage tank is not heated
over 37
C (Fig. 8a). The better thermal performance of the collec-
tors in June (Fig. 7b) ensures that the water in the storage tank is
heated over 53
C (Fig. 8b).
Different flow rates of hot water were investigated to prove the
behaviour of the system and define the maximum possible water
temperature outlet during winter and summer operation. The
analysis of calculation results (Fig. 8) at different flow rates of
heated water equal to the flow rates of cold water that entered the
storage tank allows making the following conclusions. The increase
of the water consumption used for the needs of hot water supply
leads to a gradual decrease in the temperature of water in the
storage tank. During the coldest month of the year (January), the
water with a flow rate exceeding 20 l/h is not heated up above the
indoor temperature of the storage tank placement. In July, the
temperature of the heated water is changed insignificantly
increasing consumption of the hot water supply (V > 20 l/h).
Fig. 9 shows the reason for the changes in the thermal perfor-
mance Qho of hot water system when using thermal energy from
solar collectors in January and July. In the cold period of the year
(January) generation of thermal energy even at a flow rate of 20 l/h
is negligible, and a further increase of water consumption in hot
water supply, it will approach zero. In July, on the contrary, in the
case of relatively high costs at the peaks of solar energy input, the
unit has maximum thermal performance with a small decrease of
power in the absence of additional heat input. To determine the
most rational operating modes of the solar unit, the integral
amount of energy entering the hot water supply system during the
month (ti  t  te ) was obtained and shown in Fig. 10.
The calculation results presented in Fig. 10 enable to conclude
that for the conditions in which the numerical simulation of the
solar power plant operation was carried out, its maximum thermal
performance can be achieved: in January when the water flow rate
of the hot water supply system is close to 6e7 l/h; in June, at the
flow rate of 15e20 l/h.
As a result of the simulation, the correlations of thermal per-
formance of solar collectors, the temperature of the coolant and
water in the storage tank were obtained, with the daily changes
record of ambient temperature and the intensity of solar radiation
coming to an inclined surface of the collector. The collector is
azimuth-oriented in the southern direction with a slope of 46

relatively the horizontal.
The developed methodology and software for collection and use
of solar energy can be applied as a part of the optimization design of
solar water heating systems of various types for the Yakutsk city.
Fig. 11 demonstrates a comparison of calculation results of the
average temperature of the coolant in two collectors and the
temperature of water in the storage tank with the data obtained at
 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577
Fig. 9. The heat output (Qho) of the hot water supply using only solar collectors: a) e January; b) July.
the experimental solar water heating unit. Analysis of calculation
and experiment results proved that the developed methodology is
applicable for the approximate analysis of solar water heating
systems in Siberia and other Northern regions. When performing
the calculation, the effect of turning off the natural circulation of
the coolant by solenoid valve closing in the circulation circuit of the
collector was taken into account by zeroing the last term on the
right side of the heat balance equation for the heating coil (Eq. (7)).
It is associated with heat transfer between the coolant and water in
the tank. It should also be noted that after sunset and solenoid valve
closing, when the temperature of the coolant in the collector circuit
is higher than the ambient temperature, the term Qu/Lex becomes
negative, which ensures coolant cooling to the ambient tempera-
ture. After sunrise, the last term on the right side of Eq. (7) is used.
At this moment, the solenoid valve opens after reaching the coolant
temperature higher than the water temperature in the tank by 3
C.
The efficiency of the solenoid valve application is illustrated by
the experimental data shown in Figs. 12e14. It demonstrates the
changes in the average collectors’ temperature and the water
temperature in the lower part of the storage tank during June
20e22, 2019. For the study of a very important issue of stratifica-
tion, the authors intend to use 3 temperature sensors, which are
associated with a controller (shown in Fig. 6). Current work con-
siders the limiting cases of water heating and cooling when the
9
consumption of heated water is absent. The temperature sensors in
the lower and middle parts of the storage tank are used to control
the operation of the solenoid valve. It was established based on the
average temperatures of solar collectors No 1 and No 2 (Figs. 12 and
13). When valve 9 (Fig. 6) is open, after sunset, the movement of the
coolant changes to the opposite direction. Warmer water of the
middle part of the storage tank contributes to the emergence of free
convections of the coolant in the hydraulic circuit of the collectors.
The coolant moves through the collector # 2 and then through the
collector # 1. The collectors are connected in series. The tempera-
ture difference between the sensors installed in the lower, middle
and upper parts of the storage tank averaged from 3 to 5
C at night
and during the day. Thermal energy came from the upper part to
the middle part of the tank due to the downward movement of
water along the inner walls due to heat losses through the vertical
wall of the tank. If the valve is open in winter at permafrost areas,
there may be a danger of water freezing in the storage tank, since
the used coolant in the collectors has a freezing temperature of -
60
C. Detailed investigation of temperature stratification inside the
storage tank may be the task of another research.
Water heating in the storage tank had been carried out since
8.30 a.m. (Fig.12) to 7.30p.m (Fig. 13). in cloudy weather with
clearings. The temperature of the lower part of the storage tank was
equal to 45
С by the end of heating.
10 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577
Fig. 10. Average heat output (Qho,
Since 7.30 p.m. on June 20, 2019, the water in the storage tank
had been cooled until 9.20 a.m. on June 21, 2019, with the opened
Fig. 11. Correlation of coolant temperature Theat and water temperature Ttank. in the
storage tank from the daily time (June 20, 2019).
av) of hot water unit during the time in a) January; b) July.
solenoid valve (Fig. 13). Heat lost through the walls of the storage
tank, as well as from collectors and external pipelines. By the end of
cooling, the temperature at the bottom of the storage tank reached
28.5
С. After that, during the day on June 21, 2019, the water in the
storage tank was heated up to 50
С, and since 7 p.m. it had been
cooled with a closed solenoid valve to 43
С. The approximate
calculation of heat losses of the accumulated thermal energy with
opened and closed solenoid valve is given in Table 2 for the storage
tank with 900 L of water. The average heat capacity of water was
taken as 4180 J/(kg∙K). The similar results were obtained in
November (November 2e4, 2019) by a solar radiation sensor
(Figs. 15e17).
The results illustrated in Fig. 15 reveal that the solenoid valve
opened at 10:35:30 and closed at 17:24:30. The temperature in the
tank increased from 26.3
C to 35.1
C during the time between the
opening and closing of the valve on this cloudy day with
clearings. Fig. 16 illustrates the water cooling in the tank and the
coolant in collectors with the closed valve. The maximum tem-
perature drop in the collectors was observed up to 7.1
C; at
10:36:30, the solenoid valve was opened. During the time after
closing and opening the valve, the water temperature in the tank
decreased only by 5.0
C and became equal to 30.1
C.
Fig. 17 presents the data of water cooling in the storage tank and
coolant cooling in collectors with the opened solenoid valve after
 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577 11

Fig. 12. Water heating in the tank with variable cloud conditions on 20.06.19.

Fig. 13. The temperature change of the water in the tank and the coolant. in the solar collectors with the solenoid valve open (20.06.19e21.06.19).

Fig. 14. The temperature change of the water in the tank and the coolant. in the solar collectors with the solenoid valve closed (21e22 June 2019).
12 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577

Table 2
The efficiency of conservation of the accumulated solar energy while using the solenoid valve in June (June 20, 2019eJune 22, 2019).

Solenoid valve open

Ttan k1 , Ttan k2 , I1 , I2 I1 - I2 , Qprem þ Qkoll, MJ Qkoll,

C
C MJ MJ MJ MJ
45 28.5 169.29 107.22 62.07 62.07 35.74
Solenoid valve closed
Ttan k1 , Ttan k2 , I1 , I2 , I1 - I2 , Qprem, Qkoll,

C
C MJ MJ MJ MJ MJ
50 43 188.10 161.77 26.33 26.33 e

Fig. 15. Water heating in the tank with variable cloud conditions.

Fig. 16. Water temperature changes of the in the tank and the coolant temperature changes in solar collectors with closed solenoid valve.

Fig. 17. Water temperature changes of the in the tank and the coolant temperature changes in solar collectors with opened solenoid valve.
 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577 13

Table 3
The efficiency of the conservation of the accumulated solar energy while using the solenoid valve in November (November 02, 2019eNovember 04, 2019).

Solenoid valve closed

Ttan k1 , Ttan k2 , I1 , I2 , I1 - I2 , Qprem, Qkoll

C
C MJ MJ MJ MJ
35.1 30.1 132.05 113.24 18.81 18.81 e
Solenoid valve open
Ttan k1 , Ttan k2 , I1 , I2 I1 - I2 , Qprem þ Qkoll, MJ Qkoll

C
C MJ MJ MJ MJ
41 25 154.24 94.05 60.19 60.19 41.38

the sunset during a clear day on November 3 of 2019. As it is seen
from the data in Fig. 17, when sunset finished the average tem-
perature of the coolant in collectors becomes equal to the water
temperature in the lower part of the tank, i.e. 41
С.
When collectors reach the minimum temperature (22.37
С), the
coolant convection through the collector 1 and collector 2 stops and
natural convection occurs in the circulation loop. The flow of the
coolant changes in the opposite direction through both collectors 1
and 2. It is because the temperature in the middle part of the tank is
higher than in the lower part of the tank. From 17:40:30 on
November 3 of 2019 to 10:39:30 on November 3 of 2019, the water
temperature of the storage tank was decreased to 25
C. The water
temperature drop of the storage tank was of 16
C. The losses of the
accumulated thermal energy in the tank, in this case (Table 3), is
more than three times higher than in the case when the solenoid
valve is closed.
The heat losses from the storage tank in northern territories
during the cold season will be useful for heating of indoor envi-
ronment. It is assumed that the solenoid valve eliminates nonpro-
ductive losses and makes it possible to use all solar energy
accumulated in the tank more efficiently.
Heat losses through collectors Qkoll (nonproductive) increase
when the temperature of external air decreases, as expected. It
should be noted that the insignificant part of solar energy before
the valve opening (Fig. 16) does not enter the storage tank and it is
used upon the collectors and the coolant heating.
5. Conclusion
The calculation method of the solar radiation flow based on the
maximum daily values of the total and diffused solar radiation was
proposed. The modelling of hourly, daily, monthly and annual
values of solar radiation for the conditions of the Yakutsk city were
performed. The obtained results were compared with the available
experimental data and their sufficient agreement was proved. The
developed methodology may be used for preliminary assessment of
the efficiency of solar hot water supply systems in northern
permafrost regions. It is shown that the use of solar energy in
Northern territories has several features and solar units must be
equipped by the additional advanced control system to avoid heat
losses of accumulated thermal energy in the storage tank. The
application of advance control system reduces the heat losses
during the night by 57% in June and by 69% in November. The re-
sults of this paper may be used for the development of the
renewable energy system in different Northern regions to reduce
environmental pressure. Further research foresees the use of solar
energy for other needs of permafrost regions adapting existing
technologies and new approaches. Though, deeper research is
needed in terms to prove energy security, economic efficiency and
overall sustainability.
Credit author statement
Nikolay Aleksandrovich Tsvetkov: Conceptualization, Writing -
original draft, Supervision; Ujriy Olegovich Krivoshein: Resources,
Data curation; Aleksandr Vital’yevich Tolstykh: Investigation,
Formal analysis; Andrey Nikolaevich Khutornoi: Methodology,
Investigation; Stanislav Boldyryev: Validation, Writing - original
draft, Writing - review & editing, Funding acquisition.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The work was performed with the financial support of the
Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project N
16-48-700367)
and the Ministry of Science and Education of the Russian Federation
(project 02.G25.31.0107).The research was also supported by Tomsk
Polytechnic University (project VIU-199-2020).
Nomenclature
Rh total solar radiation flux on an inclined surface (W/m2)
Rdh direct solar flux on a horizontal surface (W/m2)
Rsc
h
diffuse solar flux on a horizontal surface (W/m2)
RSh hourly integral values of total solar radiation flux on a
horizontal surface (MJ/(m2$h))
RSd daily integral values of total solar radiation flux on an
inclined surface (MJ/(m2$h))
Kd coefficient of solar collector placement relative to direct
solar radiation
Ksc coefficient of solar collector placement relative to
diffuse solar radiation
i solar incidence angle (
)
Qu useful gain by the collector’s absorber (W)
А solar collector surface area (m2)
U heat losses coefficient inside the solar collector circuit
(W/(m2$
С))
Theat the temperature of the coolant circulating inside the
heat exchanger and in the circuit of the solar collector
(
С)
Т en ambient temperature (
С)
fex inner dimension area of the heat exchanger tube (m2)
dex the inner diameter of the heat exchanger tube (m)
с heat heat capacity of the coolant circulating inside the heat
exchanger and in the circuit of the solar collector (J/(kg$

С))
14 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577

mheat mass flow of the coolant circulating inside the heat References
exchanger and in the circuit of the solar collector (kg/s)
t time, (h) [1] Varlamov SP, Skachkov YB, Skryabin PN. Evolution of the thermal state of
permafrost under climate warming in central Yakutia. Holocene 2019;29(9):
l coordinate calculated along the heat exchanger tube, 1401e10. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683619855959.
(m) [2] Semenov A, Shipulin VS, Rushkin EI, Savvinov PV, Eremeeva PE. Prospects for
Lex the length of heat exchanger tube (m) the use of renewable energy in the republic of Sakha (Yakutia). International
scientific journal Alternative Energy and Ecology 2013;(121). 03, http://
kex heat transfer coefficient for the copper coil of the heat naukarus.com/perspektivy-ispolzovaniya-vozobnovlyaemyh-istochnikov-
exchanger (W/(m2$
С) energii-v-respublike-saha-yakutiya. [Accessed 13 March 2020].
Ttan k the instant average temperature of the heated water in [3] Poppel OS, Frid SE, Kolomiyets YuG, Kiseleva SV, Terekhova EN. Atlas of solar
energy resources in Russia. Moscow: Joint Institute for High Temperatures of
the storage tank (
С) the Russian Academy of Sciences; 2010.
Ttan k1 the temperature of water in the lower part of the storage [4] Gafarov AA, Smorodin GS, Kopeikin DA. Efficiency of the extraction of solar
tank by the end of the heating (
С) energy in the solar collector - solar panel system. Young Scientist
2016;20(124):139e41. https://moluch.ru/archive/124/34273/. [Accessed 5
Ttan k2 the temperature of water in the lower part of the storage March 2020].
tank by the end of the cooling (
С) [5] Khutornoi AN, Tsvetkov NA, Krivoshein UO. Efficiency of using solar vacuum
I1 enthalpy of water in the storage tank by the end of the tubular collectors in the climatic conditions of Yakutia. Bulletin of Tomsk State
University of Architecture and Building 2016;3(56):156e65.
heating (J/kg)
[6] Hanna SHS, Obiomon P, Osborne-Lee IW, Cesaretti GP, Misso R. Global solar
I2 enthalpy of water in the storage tank by the end of the energy availability model and use in relationship to ecological human imprint:
cooling (J/kg) economic sustainability impact and assessment. Renewable Energy and Power
cw specific heat capacity of water (J/(kg$
С)) Quality Journal 2019;17:522e9. https://doi.org/10.24084/repqj17.363.
[7] Fu F. Economic analysis of solar and air energy systems for energy demand of
Vtan k the volume of the storage tank (m3) space heating and domestic hot water of buildings. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ
Fex; out heat transfer area of the heat exchanger (m2) Sci 2019;295:052047. https://doi:10.1088/1755-1315/295/5/052047.
Ftan k the outer surface of the storage tank (m2) [8] Chakraborty J, Banerji S. Evaluating predictive models for solar energy growth
in the US states and identifying the key drivers. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci
Theat; av the instant temperature of the coolant averaged along 2018;127:012002. https://doi:10.1088/1755-1315/127/1/012002.
the length of the heat exchanger tube (
С) [9] Reed AL, Novelli AP, Doran KL, Ge S, Lu N, McCartney JS. Solar district heating
with underground thermal energy storage: pathways to commercial viability
mw1 mass flow of water from the gas boiler, (kg/s)
in North America. Renew Energy 2018;126:1e13. https://doi.org/10.1016/
mw2 mass flow of water from the main return line of hot j.renene.2018.03.019.
water supply, (kg/s) [10] Kubin
ski K, Ł Szabłowski. Dynamic model of solar heating plant with seasonal
mw3 mass flow of water from the feed pipe, (kg/s) thermal energy storage. Renew Energy 2020;145:2025e33. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.renene.2019.07.120.
Т w1 temperature of outlet water from the gas boiler, (
С) [11] Ziar H, So €nmez FF, Isabella O, Zeman M. A comprehensive albedo model for
Т w2 temperature of outlet water from the main return line of solar energy applications: geometric spectral albedo. Appl Energy 2019;255:
hot water supply, (
С) 113867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113867.
[12] Raptis PI, Kazadzis S, Psiloglou B, Kouremeti N, Kosmopoulos P, Kazantzidis A.
Т w3 temperature of outlet water from the feed pipe, (
С) Measurements and model simulations of solar radiation at tilted planes, to-
ktan k heat transfer coefficient through the outer walls of the wards the maximization of energy capture. Energy 2017;130:570e80. https://
storage tank (W/(m2$
С) doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.04.122.
[13] Kılkış Ş, Kraja
ci

c G, Dui

c N, Montorsi L, Wang Q, Rosen MA, et al. Research
Та temperature inside the room where the storage tank is frontiers in sustainable development of energy, water and environment sys-
placed, (
С) tems in a time of climate crisis. Energy Convers Manag 2019;199:111938.
Ten; dav mean daily ambient temperature (
С) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.111938.
[14] Martin-Escudero K, Salazar-Herran E, Campos-Celador A, Diarce-Belloso G,
Aen; d the daily amplitude of ambient temperature (
С) Gomez-Arriaran I. Solar energy system for heating and domestic hot water
V water consumption used for hot water supply, (l/h) supply by means of a heat pump coupled to a photovoltaic ventilated façade.
Sol Energy 2019;183:453e62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.03.058.
Qho heat performance of dual hot water supply system (W)
[15] Kim J, Hong T, Jeong J, Lee M, Koo C, Lee M, et al. An integrated multi-objective
Qho; av heat performance of dual hot water supply system optimization model for determining the optimal solution in the solar thermal
averaged by time (W) energy system. Energy 2016;102:416e26. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2016.02.104.
Qprem heat losses from the storage tank into the room (MJ)
[16] Allouhi A, Benzakour Amine M, Buker MS, Kousksou T, Jamil A. Forced-cir-
Qkoll heat losses from solar collectors and exterior pipes (MJ) culation solar water heating system using heat pipe-flat plate collectors:
energy and exergy analysis. Energy 2019;180:429e43. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.energy.2019.05.063.
Greek letters [17] Maraj A, Londo A, Gebremedhin A, Firat C. Energy performance analysis of a
a angle of the solstice altitude (
) forced circulation solar water heating system equipped with a heat pipe
evacuated tube collector under the Mediterranean climate conditions. Renew
b angle of incidence of the surface towards the horizon (
) Energy 2019;140:874e83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.03.109.
g the azimuth of an inclined surface defining its [18] Torres Ledesma J, Lapka P, Domanski Caseres FS. Numerical simulation of the
orientation in the cardinal directions, (
) solar thermal energy storage. Therm Sci 2013;17(2):431e42.
[19] Salamov OM, Aliev FF. Prospects for jointly using solar and wind energy for
u the hour angle of the sun (
) heat supply and hot water supply to private houses under the conditions of
f width of the location (
) Baku. Appl Sol Energy 2013;49:165e73. https://doi.org/10.3103/
d solar declination (
) S0003701X13030080.
[20] Kumar VS, Prasad J, Samikannu R. Computational linear model for predicting
h0 efficiency factor, reflecting energy losses while the solar energy in Botswana. International Conference on Energy. Chennai
transfer of absorbed solar radiation to the flow of the Communication, Data Analytics and Soft Computing (ICECDS) 2017:2371e86.
coolant in the tubes https://doi.org/10.1109/ICECDS.2017.8389876.
[21] Wang X, Levy EK, Romero CE. A thermodynamic model of solar themal energy
h1 the coefficient that considers the transparency degree of assisted natural gas fired combined cycle (NGCC) power plant. Energy Pro-
the atmosphere cedia 2016;100:92e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.10.138.
h2 the coefficient that considers the heat losses from the [22] Haukkala T. Does the sun shine in the High North? Vested interests as a
barrier to solar energy deployment in Finland. Energy Research & Social
solar collector to a consumer
Sciense 2015;6:50e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.11.0.
ta the optical efficiency of the solar evacuated collector [23] Abikoye B, Cucek L, Isafiade AJ, Kravanja Z. Synthesis of solar thermal network
rheat the density of the coolant circulating in the heat for domestic heat utilization. Chemical Engineering Transactions 2019;76:
1015e20. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1976170.
exchanger and the circuit of the solar collector, (kg/m3) ~o AJ. Comparison of two dynamic
[24] Artur C, Neves D, Boaventura CC, Lea
rw the density of water, (kg/m3)
 N.A. Tsvetkov et al. / Energy 210 (2020) 118577
approaches to modelling solar thermal systems for domestic hot water. Sus-
tainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 2018;30:292e303. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2018.10.012.
[25] Erdemir D, Atesoglu H, Altuntop N. Experimental investigation on enhance-
ment of thermal performance with obstacle placing in the horizontal hot
water tank used in solar domestic hot water system. Renew Energy 2019;138:
187e97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.01.075.
[26] Kim T, Choi BI, Han YS, Do KH. A comparative investigation of solar-assisted
heat pumps with solar thermal collectors for a hot water supply system.
Energy Convers Manag 2018;172:472e84. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.enconman.2018.07.035.
[27] Hongbing C, Yutong G, Haoyu N, Xiaoli Y, Xilin C. Optimization and perfor-
mance study of residential centralized solar domestic hot water system. En-
ergy Procedia 2019;158:6431e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.egypro.2019.01.176.
[28] Bouhal T, Fertahi S, Agrouaz Y, El Rhafiki T, Kousksou T, Jamil A. Numerical
modeling and optimization of thermal stratification in solar hot water storage
tanks for domestic applications: CFD study. Sol Energy 2017;157:441e55.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.08.061.
[29] Pomianowski MZ, Johra H, Marszal-Pomianowska A, Zhang C. Sustainable and
energy-efficient domestic hot water systems: a review. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev 2020;128:109900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109900.
[30] Jun Z, Wang-ping L, Fei L. Climatological calculation and analysis of global
solar radiation in the loess plateau. Arid Zone Res 2008;25(1):53e8. https://
doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1148.2008.00053.
[31] Bastron AV, Mikheyeva NB, Sudayev EM. Hot water supply of rural household
consumers of the Krasnoyarsk Territory using solar energy. Krasnoyarsk: State
Agrarian University Press; 2016.
[32] Karamov DN. Mathematical modeling of solar radiation based on open access
long term meteorological observation data. Bulletin of the Tomsk Polytechnic
University Geo Assets Engineering 2017;328(6):28e37. http://isem.irk.ru/
publications/article2017000004065/. [Accessed 10 March 2020].
15
[33] Tsvetkov NA, Krivoshein UO, Tolstykh AV, Khutornoi AN. Modeling insolation
on a horizontal surface to calculate hourly values of solar radiation. News of
higher educational institutions. Construction 2019;6(726):81e92. https://
doi.org/10.32683/0536-1052-2019-726-6-81-92. https://www.elibrary.ru/
item.asp?id¼41207653. [Accessed 17 March 2020].
[34] Khutornoi AN, Tsvetkov NA, Krivoshein YuO. Effective utilization of solar
vacuum tube collectors in the climatic conditions in Yakutia. Vestnik of Tomsk
State University of Architecture and Building 2016;3(56):156e65.
[35] Bekman UA, Kleyn SA, Daffi DA. Calculation of solar heating systems. Moscow:
Energoizdat Pres; 1982.
[36] Bǎdescu V. Calculation of direct solar radiation on tilted surfaces. Sol Energy
1992;48(5):321e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092x(92)90060-n.
[37] Vissarionov VI, Deryugina GV, Kuznetsova VA, Malinin NK. Solar power.
Moscow: National Research University MEI Press; 2008.
[38] Vysochin VV. A mathematical model of a solar system with a seasonal heat
accumulator2. Transactions of Odessa Polytechnic University; 2011. p. 125e9.
[39] Rivkin SL, Aleksandrov AA. Thermophysical properties of water and water
vapor. Moscow: Energy; 1980.
[40] Kupriyanov VN. Ivantsov AI Condensation of vaporous moisture in the outer
walls with daily fluctuations in the temperature of the outside air. Volga
Scientific Journal 2013;2:17e22.
[41] PDE Solution Inc. Available at: https://www.pdesolutions.com. [Accessed 17
February 2020].
€
[42] Newton-raphson method. In: Altenbach H, Ochsner A, editors. Encyclopedia of
continuum mechanics. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2020.
[43] Tsvetkov NA, Krivoshein YuO, Khutornoi AN, Kolesnikova AV, Savrasov FV.
Automated heterogeneous dispatching and energy management system.
Vestnik of Tomsk State University of Architecture and Building 2015;5:
138e50.
[44] Herrero Martín R, García Pinar A, Pe
rez García J. Experimental heat transfer
research in enhanced flat-plate solar collectors. World Renewable Energy
Congress. Solar Termal Applications. Sweden: Linkoping; 2011. p. 3844e51.