Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 18 (2020) 100591

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/csite

Measurement of global and direct normal solar energy radiation in

Seri Iskandar and comparison with other cities of Malaysia
Sanan T. Mohammad b, Hussain H. Al-Kayiem a, *, Mohammed A. Aurybi a,
Ayad K. Khlief a
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Bandar Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
b
Dura Thermal Power Plant, Iraq Ministry of Electricity, Baghdad, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Potential solar data are an essential tool for successful solar design and application. However,
Clearness index because of the limited availability of solar radiation stations, spatial resolution is affected
Direct normal irradiation whenever an attempt to construct a solar radiation map is made. In this paper, actual solar data
Global radiation
were acquired in Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP), Seri Iskandar, Malaysia (4� 240 latitude,
Pyranometer
100� 580 E longitude, 24 m altitude). The measurements of global solar radiation and direct normal
Solar energy
radiation were gathered and analyzed for the whole of 2018. In addition to solar data collection,
real-time solar radiation, high accuracy, and related meteorological data were also obtained. With
1-min recorded average values the everyday and monthly solar radiation averages were deter­
mined. A record of 1068.10 W/m2 as maximum daily global solar radiation and 915 W/m2 for
direct normal radiation was observed on 9 September 2018. Discussions on daily and monthly
average clearness index differences are also elaborated in this paper. The acquired data were
compared with corresponding data obtained from other selected Malaysian cities and the widely
useable data resource, the NASA solar energy model and surface meteorology. Investigation of the
data indicated that Seri Iskandar obtains an ample amount of global solar radiation, indicating the
strong potential for the use of solar energy.

1. Introduction

Obtaining accurate information on the intensity of solar radiation at a given location is essential for the development of solar
energy-based projects. This information is utilized in the design, cost analysis, and calculation of the efficiency of a project. As crucial
as the assessment of the humidity and temperature data collection for a specific period, assessment of the clearness index of an area is
also essential in the feasibility of a solar-driven project [1,2]. Studies have also shown that insolation, which refers to the incidental
solar radiation measured as irradiance (or energy per time unit area or per unit area) is also an important factor [3,4]. Solar energy is
one of the most valuable sources of energy capable of supplying additional energy to the world in the upcoming decades. A study
carried out by Ref. [5] stated that the monthly average of daily solar radiation in Malaysia is recorded as 4000–5000 Wh/m2. The
monthly average of sunshine ranges from four to 8 h or about 2200 h of sunshine a year [6]. Malaysia’s geographical position provides
the opportunity to have abundant solar energy with rich resources such as natural gas. With respect to developing renewable energy
technologies in the Malaysian region, the country has the opportunity to utilize this natural energy resource effectively, while ensuring

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hussain_kayiem@utp.edu.my (H.H. Al-Kayiem).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2020.100591
Received 27 October 2019; Received in revised form 16 January 2020; Accepted 17 January 2020
Available online 18 January 2020
2214-157X/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S.T. Mohammad et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 18 (2020) 100591

a clean environment. The usage of photovoltaic devices, which is concentrated solar power (CSP) technology, has become more
suitable for rural electrification. Moreover, water pumping from walls forms cathodic protection for the pipelines as well as for
telecommunications, and for building facades. Solar thermal devices have multiple uses, including sea-water desalination, crop drying,
and water heating. Hence, applying the usage of solar energy in the region has significant potential. Global solar radiation distribution
has been measured through various regions of Malaysia. Being one of the developing countries, solar radiation measurements are not
easily accessible because of high equipment and maintenance costs and calibration requirements of measurement equipment. Several
researchers have suggested that an alternative solution towards the stated difficulties is to use a modeling approach for solar radiation
[7–14]. A number of studies have reported global solar radiation measurements in Malaysian cities [15–23]. Consequently, several
models have been proposed and tested to estimate solar energy potential.
A study by Ref. [16] estimated solar radiation in Malaysia for three major cities: Kuala Lumpur, Penang, and Kota Bharu, while
using an Angstorm-type regression equation to estimate clear date radiation at the location stated. Sopian and Othman (1992) [17]
used a simplified Angstrom model to calculate the monthly average solar radiation on horizontal surfaces in areas including Kuching,
Kota Kinabalu, Kota Bharu, Senai, Bayan Lepas, Kuala Lumpur, Petaling Jaya, and Bandar Baru Bangi. Azhari et al. (2008) [22] used
two statistical methods to forecast the monthly average daily solar radiation based on meteorological factors, including sunshine
hours, relative humidity, total rainfall, and wind speed at Lapangan Terbang Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Subang. The study employed
satellite images to predict solar energy as an alternative method presented by Ref. [23] who used the Box-Jenkins method to provide a
prediction of global solar radiation at Bangi. Global solar radiation at University Malaysia Terengganu was measured from the year
2004–2010 by Ref. [24]. The study found that the highest monthly mean global solar radiation values on a 24-h basis were recorded at
314.9 W/m2 and 7556 Wh/m2/day. In the state of Terengganu, the largest value of hourly average solar radiation intensity was
recorded at 1139 W/m2.
A study by Filho et al. (2016) [25] demonstrated the observational characteristics and empirical modeling to estimate the diffused,
global, and direct solar radiation in Rio de Janeiro, whereas Wattan and Janjai (2016) [26] investigated 14 radiation models in two
cities in Thailand, namely Nakhon Pathom and Ubon Ratchathani, and conducted an analysis of the predicted diffused sky radiation.
Another recent study presented the estimation of solar radiation through satellite pictures processing or horizontal ground-based
surface measurements with devices, such as pyranometer, at meteorological stations [27,28].
Although solar radiation data have been reported in various regions in Malaysia, reliable and year-long global radiation data are
still required for the Perak region. Solar data are required to support a project of solar trough power plant model in UTP. Such solar
data are essential for the proper design and implementation of the concentration solar power plant (CSPP) in this region in Malaysia.
Hence, the objectives of this paper are as follows:

(i) To provide and discuss in-site measured global and direct solar radiation to determine the region’s ability for the establishment
of CSPPs.
(ii) To discuss the measured data and compare the mean of 22-year satellite data from the NASA surface meteorology and solar
energy model (http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/) [29].
(iii) To compare the measured global solar radiation with other cities in Malaysia to demonstrate the solar energy potential of the
Seri Iskandar region in Perak state.
(iv) To predict and discuss the clearance index.

2. Climate data of study area

Malaysia is situated in the equatorial region and has a tropical climate that is usually warm and humid during the entire year. The
diurnal deviation can differ at various locations. Seri Iskandar is located close to Ipoh City at 4� 240 000 N 100.58� ’ 000 E within the state

Fig. 1. (a) EKO Pyrheliometer sun tracking device, (b) CMP 11 Pyranometer in UTP.

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S.T. Mohammad et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 18 (2020) 100591

of Perak. In particular, Seri Iskandar has a tropical rainforest climate and the temperature remains almost the same with negligible
change. The average temperature of the city is around 30 � C. Seri Iskandar also witnesses a high rate of precipitation during the year
with an average monthly rainfall of 200 mm (7.9 in) and an average yearly rainfall of 2427.9 mm (95.59 in). October has the most
rainfall, with an average of 297.2 mm (11.70 in) and January is the driest month, with an average rainfall of 132.3 mm (5.21 in) [30].
According to the measurement of global solar radiation in the solar research center at UTP, Ipoh receives an average of 7.0 h of
sunshine per day.

3. Experimental setup and procedure

The measurement station is located at UTP Seri Iskandar, Perak (4� 240 latitude, 100� 580 E longitude, 24 m altitude), Malaysia. This
study was carried out for an entire year (January–December 2018). The direct normal irradiation (DNI) and global solar radiation
measurement instruments were set at 5 m above ground level. An EKO Pyrheliometer was used to measure the direct normal irra­
diation (DNI). The EKO Pyrheliometer is situated at the solar side zone of UTP as displayed in Fig. 1(a). This instrument can record
maximum irradiance values up to 2000 W/m2 at a typical accuracy of �0.005%. Its dimensions are (430(W) x 380(D) x 440(H) mm). A
two-CMP 11 Pyranometer was also used to measure global solar radiation as shown in Fig. 01(b). It was mounted on the roof to avoid
being in the shade. Both devices were cleaned periodically to check for differences between their readings. Global solar radiation data
from the two devices were compared, but no significant differences were noticed. The CMP 11 Pyranometer is highly sensitive and
hence, data from this machine were used. From the raw data stored for every minute, the mean, maximum, and minimum hourly
values were calculated. From the hourly data set, daily and monthly statistics of the solar radiation data were prepared.
The monthly average daily clearness index was calculated by taking the ratio of the measured global solar insolation to the
calculated extraterrestrial horizontal insolation [31]. The values of the monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation (Ho) were
calculated for days, thereby providing the average for each month.
Ho was calculated from the following equation [11]:
24
Ho ¼ Isc ðws sin ϕ sin δ þ cos ϕ cos δ sinws Þdr (1)
π

where Isc is the solar constant (¼1367 W/m2), ϕ refers to the latitude of the site, δ represents the sun declination and ws refers to the
mean sunrise hour angle for the given month. δ and ws can be computed by the following equations [11,23]:
δ ¼ 23:45 sin½360ðn þ 284Þ = 365�; (2)

where n is the day number of the year starting from 1 January.

� �
360 n
dr ¼ 1 þ 0:0033 cos (3)
365

ws ¼ cos 1 ð tanðϕÞtanðδÞÞ (4)

The clearance index could be predicted as follows:
H
K¼ (5)
Ho

Fig. 2. Daily averages and daily recorded peaks of global solar radiations throughout the year 2018.

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4. Results and discussion

The data clearly show that the average daily and maximum global radiations are higher during the drier seasons and lower during
the high rain season. Fig. 2 describes the daily average and daily maximum global solar radiation for the entire year. The graphs
demonstrate that the daily maximum global radiation of 1068 W/m2 was recorded on 9 September 2018, and the highest daily average
solar radiation of 399 W/m2 was recorded on 4 April 2018. The average daily energy input for the entire year was 20.29 MJ/m2/day,
which is consistent with the global solar map [32]. Fig. 2 also demonstrates the downward excursions throughout the year, especially
in October, November, and December. These excursions might be because of rain events and higher air mass during these months. The
higher air mass caused a reduction in clear sky data by absorption along the longer path length.
The daily average and maximum direct normal solar irradiation for 2018 are displayed in Fig. 3. The highest 24-h based daily
average direct normal solar irradiation of 298.9W/m2 was recorded on 4 April 2018. Maximum direct normal solar irradiation was
recorded around 915 W/m2 on 9 September 2018. In addition, the amount of direct normal solar irradiation is considerably high
particularly from January to July 2018. However, starting August 2018, the line pattern dropped gradually until January next year.
More fluctuations and intra-daily variability characterization are observed to occur in the direct normal beam for all months because of
cloud covers in Malaysia.
Fig. 4 shows the daily averages for each month, and peak daily global solar radiation for the entire year. The highest monthly
average of daily radiation was recorded in February 2018 as 282 W/m2/day. Meanwhile, the highest peak in solar radiation was
recorded as 1068 W/m2 during the month of September. November had the lowest monthly average recordings of solar radiation of
209.2 W/m2/day. Lastly, the error bars in the monthly average mean values of global solar radiation are less than 5%, indicating that
significant values were observed throughout the seasonal variation.
The dry season months of January–July has high solar energy potential in terms of global solar radiation. Long sunshine duration
with mostly clear skies led to the high availability of solar energy in these months. Minimum global solar radiation is observed during
the rainy season months of August–December because of the heavy fog and precipitation that usually occur during these months.
Large time-series data comparison carried out using data from the NASA satellite from Ref. [29] to measure the monthly daily
values of global solar radiation for Seri Iskandar (MJ/m2/day) and (Assadi et al., 2014) [33] can be found in Table 1. The recorded
measurements correlated with the 22-year average global solar radiation of the NASA Surface meteorology and Solar Energy (SSE)
model. The SSE Web Mapping Application and Services contain geospatially enabled solar-, meteorology-, and cloud-related pa­
rameters formulated for assessing and designing renewable energy systems. The measurements are also compared with the three-year
average data obtained by Ref. [33]. Hence, the measurements recorded in the year 2018 are representable.
The table shows that the measured values of the ground-based global solar radiation at Seri Iskandar city are slightly higher than
those predicted by the NASA SSE elevation model. The highest value was observed for February as 21.37 MJ/m2-day, whereas the
minimum value was observed for the month of November as 15.08 MJ/m2-day. In the month of November, ground-based and NASA
data show equal values of global solar radiation with relative differences percentage of 1.9%. The annual average value of global solar
radiation for ground-based data is 17.98 MJ/m2-day, which is higher than NASA measurements at 17.23 MJ/m2-day.
The ground-based solar radiation measurement data obtained under the present study was compared with Assadi et al. (2014) [33]
as presented in Table 1. The measured values of the ground-based global solar radiation at Seri Iskandar city are slightly lower than
those predicted by the model of Assadi et al. (2014). The annual average value of global solar radiation for ground-based is 17.98
MJ/m2/day which is lower than the measurements of 18.25 MJ/m2/day with annual relative difference percentage of 1.5%.
The daily averages of each month and peak daily direct normal solar radiations for 2018 are based on data measured at the solar

Fig. 3. Daily averages and daily recorded peaks of direct normal irradiations throughout the year 2018.

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Fig. 4. Monthly averages and monthly peaks of daily total global solar radiation.

Table 1
Monthly mean daily values of global solar radiation for Seri Iskandar.
Months Global radiation, H (MJ/m2/day) Relative differences between the Relative differences between the
measured and NASA (%) measured and Assadi et al. (%)
Present NASA SSE model Assadi et al. (Average
measurement (22-year average) 2010–2012)

January 19.33 17.52 17.18 9.3 11

February 21.37 19.72 20.45 7.7 4.3
March 20.23 19.04 19.29 5.8 4.6
April 19.51 18.97 19.88 2.7 1.8
May 19.21 17.74 18.54 7.6 3.4
June 18.59 17.46 18.53 6.4 1
July 18.34 17.31 18.42 5.6 0.43
August 16.36 16.84 18.46 2.9 12
September 17.47 16.81 18.32 3.7 4.8
October 15.20 16.09 17.63 5.8 15
November 15.08 14.79 16.82 1.9 11.5
December 15.13 14.58 15.48 3.6 2.3

Annual 17.98 17.23 18.25 4.1 1.5

Fig. 5. Monthly averages and monthly peaks daily total direct normal irradiation DNI.

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research site (SRS) as shown in Fig. 5. The figure shows that August had the lowest monthly average of daily solar radiation of 120W/
m2/day. September had the highest daily peak in direct solar radiation at 915 W/m2. Data from February had the highest monthly
average of daily radiation of 191 W/m2/day.
Table 2 shows the comparison with the monthly mean of the daily values of direct normal solar irradiation for Seri Iskandar (MJ/
m2/day) and the NASA SSE model time-series data [29]. Two differences were observed in the measurements:

(1) The NASA SSE model measured values for 22 years while the current study measured values for one year, and
(2) Weather conditions that vary from year to year have led to minor differences in measurements related to 22-year average global
solar radiation data of the NASA SSE model.

The measured values of the direct normal irradiance (DNI) at Seri Iskandar city are slightly higher those predicted by the NASA SSE
elevation model as observed from Table 2. The minimum value was observed for the month of November at 8.6 MJ/m2-day. The
highest value was observed for the month of February at 14.92 MJ/m2-day. In the month of August, ground-based and NASA mea­
surements had equal values of DNI with relative differences percentage of 0.09%. The annual average value of DNI for ground-based is
12.08 MJ/m2-day, which is higher than the NASA measurements at 10.99 MJ/m2-day.
The reasons behind the differences in present data and those already available can be attributed to two reasons. First, the present
data represent measurement of global and direct normal solar energy radiation for one year only, whereas NASA satellite comprised a
22-year average and that of Assadi et al. (2014) [33] spanned two years (2010–2012). Second, the present data are measurements on
the ground. However, NASA satellite elevation on earth provides results close to reality with error ratio. Assadi et al. (2014) presented
a model prediction by MATLAB program that slightly equal to the present data. These reasons validate the solar radiation measure­
ments and confirm the potential of solar energy for the region. Therefore, the ground-based measurements can be utilized to improve
the world solar radiation database.
The daily values of the monthly mean of Seri Iskandar global solar radiation were compared with several cities in Malaysia (shown
in Table 3) as reported by Sopian and Othman (1992) and Muzathik (2013). The table shows clearly that the average monthly global
radiation over the course of the year was comparatively good for Seri Iskandar. The annual mean global radiation for recorded for Seri
Iskandar was also close to that obtained for the other cities.
The monthly average global radiation over the course of the year is comparatively higher for Kota Kinabalu, although in the dry
season months, several Malaysian cities had higher values. The peak radiation month in Kota Kinabalu is April (21.64 MJ/m2 day) and
the month with the lowest radiation was in January (17.71 MJ/m2/day). The annual mean global radiation for Seri Iskandar was good
as compared with the Malaysian cities. The total annual global solar radiation received in Seri Iskandar on a horizontal surface is about
17.91 MJ/m2/day. More than 63% of this total is contributed by the dry season months (January to July) and about 37% in August to
December. The global solar radiations in the major cities of Malaysia are approximately the same within 7.5%.
The daily variation of the clearness index throughout the year in Seri Iskandar is shown in Fig. 6. The figure shows that the variation
is within range from 0.2 to 0.9. A variety of conditions contributed to the fluctuation of values throughout the rainy season and clear
skies. Fig. 7 shows the monthly average clearness index, which varies between 0.45 and 0.55; based on these data, 0.50 as the average
clearness index value was approximately measured. During the rainy season, both the clearness index and global solar radiation were
recorded to be low. When the clearness index is low, the solar radiation energy is reduced dramatically.
Sopian and Othman (1992) and Muzathik (2013) [17,24] have reported the monthly clearness indices of Malaysian cities, such as
Kuala Terengganu, Kuching, Kota Kinabalu, and Kota Bharu and have identified Malaysian cities with higher solar energy potential
areas, which is why we compared these data with the Seri Iskandar monthly mean clearness index (see Table 4). The comparison
provides evidence that the monthly average clearness index over the course of the year is good for Seri Iskandar, although Kota
Kinabalu experiences higher monthly mean clearness index values at certain months. With respect to the current comparison of the
climate conditions in various cities, clearness index, direct normal irradiation, and global radiation, Seri Iskandar has been

Table 2
Monthly mean daily values of direct normal solar radiation for Seri Iskandar.
Months Direct normal irradiation, H (MJ/m2/day) Relative differences between the measured and NASA (%)

Present measurement NASA SSE model (22-year average)

January 13.67 12.91 5.5

February 14.92 13.972 6.3
March 14.19 12.42 12.4
April 14.02 13.71 2.2
May 13.45 12.88 4.2
June 13.21 11.91 9.8
July 12.71 11.44 9.9
August 10.27 10.26 0.09
September 11.47 8.96 21
October 9.72 7.812 19.6
November 8.60 8.42 2
December 8.79 7.23 17.7

Annual 12.08 10.99 8.9

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Table 3
Monthly mean daily values of global solar radiation for Seri Iskandar and other cities for one year (Muzathik, 2013) [24].
Months Global radiation (MJ/m2/day) Relative differences
Between Seri Iskandar
Seri Iskandar Kuala Terengganu Kuching Kota Kinabalu Kota Bharu
And Kota Kinabalu
(2018) (2013) (2013) (2013) (2013)
(%)

January 19.33 17.91 12.02 17.71 16.26 8.3

February 21.37 21.60 13.35 19.36 17.72 9.4
March 20.23 21.40 15.39 20.97 19.72 3.6
April 19.51 23.64 13.07 21.64 19.74 10.7
May 19.21 20.34 13.42 20.16 18.23 4.9
June 18.59 17.42 16.28 19.11 17.10 2.8
July 18.34 19.43 16.57 19.41 17.17 5.5
August 16.36 19.15 15.14 19.44 17.42 18.8
September 17.47 20.20 15.79 18.20 18.12 4.1
October 15.20 16.40 15.23 19.21 17.09 26
November 15.08 16.24 14.92 18.08 13.28 19.8
December 15.13 13.38 12.56 18.00 12.15 18.9

Annual 17.91 18.92 14.48 19.27 17.00 7.5

Average

Fig. 6. Daily average clearness index (K) variation. H is the total solar radiation and Ho is the extraterrestrial solar radiation.

Fig. 7. Monthly average clearness index.

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Table 4
Monthly averaged clearness index of Seri Iskandar and other cities compared with data obtained by Refs. [17,24], and NAS SSE [29].
Months Monthly averaged insolation clearness index, K (0–1)

Seri Iskandar (measured) NASA SSE model (22-year average) Kuala Terengganu Kuching Kota Kinabalu Kota Bharu

January 0.52 0.48 0.54 0.35 0.55 0.51

February 0.55 0.51 0.62 0.38 0.57 0.52
March 0.54 0.51 0.57 0.41 0.56 0.53
April 0.53 0.51 0.64 0.36 0.59 0.54
May 0.52 0.49 0.54 0.37 0.53 0.48
June 0.51 0.5 0.48 0.48 0.53 0.48
July 0.49 0.49 0.53 0.45 0.51 0.45
August 0.47 0.46 0.53 0.41 0.51 0.46
September 0.48 0.45 0.53 0.43 0.50 0.50
October 0.47 0.44 0.44 0.41 0.53 0.47
November 0.45 0.42 0.49 0.41 0.53 0.39
December 0.46 0.43 0.42 0.36 0.54 0.37

Annual Average 0.50 0.47 0.53 0.40 0.54 0.47

demonstrated to utilize the greatest solar energy.

Malaysia is a tropical country with one season of weather all around the year. Fig. (8) shows the temperature with average global
radiation. the average temperature in Malaysia is around 32 � C in the day and around 26 � C in the night with a very small change
around the year. There is an agreement on the design temperatures of the HVAC system and other solar systems assuming 32 � C in the
daytime and 26 � C in the night time.
Fig. (9) describe wind speed during all seasons. Sometimes the result is high the wind speed and sometimes low the wind speed.
Again, it is probably caused by the cloudy sky which clouds sometimes suddenly come and disappears. In the rainy season, normally
the intensity of the cloud is higher than the dry season. That is why more high wind speed is observed in the rainy season.

5. Conclusions

The Solar Thermal Research Center (STARC) of UTP has decided to implement various solar research projects, hence, this study
presents the potential for a project utilizing the global solar radiation and direct normal irradiation of solar energy at Seri Iskandar city,
Malaysia. A key for meteorological parameters and its implications is solar radiation and weather conditions. These data are crucial in
the design of solar thermal systems (such as solar collectors, desalination systems, and dryers), PV-systems, environment-conscious
buildings, and HVAC designs, as well as in the applied aspects of solar radiation, such as human-environment interactions and dy­
namics of agricultural and biological systems. Data have been used in the design of the CSPP model in STARC. The total solar radiation
recorded at Seri Iskandar throughout the period of a year exhibited better potential as compared with other cities in Malaysia. With
respect to the data obtained, solar radiation was found to be greater in its average values during the dry season (January to July) as
compared with the rainy season (August to December). The current measurement data were compared with NASA SSE model results

Fig. 8. Monthly average temperature.

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S.T. Mohammad et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 18 (2020) 100591

Fig. 9. Monthly average wind speed.

and are in good agreement. In addition to solar radiation data, the clearness index was also predicted using meteorological data and
currently measured data. These data are in good agreement. The predicted clearness index for Seri Iskandar was within values ranging
from 0.45 to 0.55, with yearly average of 0.50. The acquired solar data evidently show that Seri Iskandar town gains ample amount of
solar radiation and is a good location for solar application and utilization.
It is hoped that this study would be of interest to researchers and designers of solar thermal systems. However, further in­
vestigations for long term meteorological data from different cities in Malaysia are required to obtain more effective results.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Sanan T. Mohammad: Conceptualization, Methodology. Hussain H. Al-Kayiem: Writing - review & editing. Mohammed A.
Aurybi: Data curation, Writing - original draft. Ayad K. Khlief: Visualization, Investigation.

Acknowledgment

We acknowledge the utmost support from Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia. We also would like to express our appre­
ciation to the Ministry of Higher Education-Malaysia (MOHE) for the financial support to publish the paper and utilization of in­
struments under the research grant FRGS/1/2015/TK10/UTP/03/2; CS: 0153AB-K81.

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Nomenclature

Ho : monthly mean extraterrestrial horizontal solar radiation (MJ/m2-day)

H: is the global solar insolation on a horizontal surface at any location on any given day(MJ/m2-day)
Isc : solar constant (¼1367 W/m2)
ϕ: latitude of the site (degrees)
δ: angle of declination (degrees)
n: day of the year
ws : mean monthly sunset hour angle (degrees)

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