Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 735e741

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Two-dimensional transient thermal analysis of PCM canister of a heat pipe

receiver under microgravity
Gui Xiaohong a, *, Lin Bin b, Guo Yongxian c, Yuan Xiugan d
a
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
b
University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
c
School of Mechanic-Electronic Engineering, Xidian University, xi’an 710071, Shaanxi, China
d
Institute of Man-Machine-Environment Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: High temperature phase change material (PCM) is used as a thermal storage medium of a heat pipe
Received 27 May 2010 receiver in an advanced solar dynamic system. With both void cavity and phase change considered,
Accepted 15 October 2010 thermal performance of the heat pipe receiver was numerically analyzed under microgravity. The results
Available online 23 October 2010
indicate that the PCM contained in the integrated heat pipe performs the averaging function of heat
loads. Normal working of wick ensures the uniformity of the heat pipe, thus heat pipe receiver alleviates
Keywords:
thermal spot and thermal ratcheting. Void cavity influences the process of phase change. The thermal
Heat pipe receiver
resistance of void cavity is much higher than that of PCM canister wall. Void cavity prevents heat transfer.
Phase change
Void cavity
PCM melts slowly during sunlight periods and freezes slowly during eclipse periods with the effect of
void cavity. Void cavity reduces the utility and thermal storage ability of PCM. The temperature gradient
in the PCM zone is very significant because of void cavity. So the thermal stress of heat pipe receiver may
increase, and the lifetime may decrease. The research results can be used to guide the designing and
optimization of PCM canister for heat pipe receiver.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction systems [6e8]. A PCM canister is a basic thermal storage unit of

A heat pipe receiver with high temperature phase change
material is a very important component for advanced solar
dynamic power generation system during traversal of low earth
orbit spacecraft through the eclipse phase of their orbit cycles. The
main functions of the receiver are the absorption of solar energy,
thermal energy storage for the eclipse period, and the heating of
working gas [1,2].
A heat pipe receiver contains an array of heat pipes with
mounted cylindrically toroidal thermal energy storage modules.
The heat pipe receiver is composed of a cavity receiver, thermal
energy storage and a sodium heat pipe, and aimed at transporting
solar heat to a bottoming system with minimized heat loss. Strumpf
and Coombs designed a heat pipe receiver [3]. Takeshi et al.
developed a heat pipe receiver for future space energy experiments
on an experimental module in Japan [4]. Fujiwara et al. conducted
a concept design and test of a heat pipe receiver for the closed
Brayton cycle [5].
High temperature phase change material is commonly used for
heat pipe receivers in advanced solar dynamic power generation
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: guixiaohong@mail.etp.ac.cn (G. Xiaohong).
a heat pipe receiver. When heat network of a heat pipe receiver is
analyzed, the nodes of a PCM canister are usually simplified. In
order to find out the working condition in a PCM canister, the
thermal performance of a PCM canister needs to be analyzed in
detail. Thus, the transient temperature distribution of the PCM
canister can be obtained. The thermal analysis by simulation can be
used to revise the calculation of heat network for receiver cavity.
2. Structural design and working principle of a heat pipe
receiver
Heat pipes, using a liquid metal such as sodium, can be uniformly
utilized to transfer the solar flux to the PCM and circulating fluid in
the receiver. A heat pipe receiver of national aeronautics and space
administration (NASA) is shown in Fig. 1 [3]. The heat pipe receiver
comprises a cylindrical receiver cavity, the walls of which are lined
with 24 heat pipes along the sides of the cavity .The heat pipes
comprise three functional zones, the receiver portion, the thermal
storage device (TSD) portion, and the heat source heat exchanger
(HSHX) portion. The receiver section is located nearest to the
receiver aperture and includes no PCM canister. The TSD section of
each heat pipe is rounded by 24 PCM canisters. The annular canisters

1359-4311/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2010.10.016
736 G. Xiaohong et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 735e741

Table 1
Physical properties of phase change material.

Physical properties LiF 80.5LiF-19.5CaF2

Melting point (K) 1121 1040
Latent heat (kJ/kg) 1040 790
Dynamic viscidity (kg/m.s) 2.23
105 2.21
105
Density in solid (kg/m3) 2330 2670
Density in liquid (kg/m3) 1800 2100
Coefficient of heat conductivity 6.2 5.9
in solid (W/m.K)
Coefficient of heat conductivity 1.7 1.7
in liquid (W/m.K)
Specific heat capacity in solid 2.35 1.841
Specific heat capacity in liquid 2.45 1.97

Fig. 1. The configuration of the heat pipe receiver.

of PCM are axisymetric to the heat pipe axis. The PCM canisters are
stacked and brazed to the TSD section of heat pipes. The outer radius
of each heat pipe is equal to the inner radius of each PCM canister.
The PCM canisters are not bonded to each other but are separated by
ceramic fiber spacers. The HSHX comprises individually sheathed
heat pipes for heat exchange with the engine working fluid.
A heat pipe receiver is operated in the following manner. During
sunlight periods, the insolation in the receiver evaporates the heat
pipe fluid. Condensation of the heat pipe fluid occurs in the TSD
portion, melting the PCM, as well as in the HSHX portion.
During eclipse periods, the receiver portion of the heat pipe is
essentially in an adiabatic region though some condensation may
occur due to heat losses. The TSD region acts as a heat pipe evap-
orator, with condensation occurring in the HSHX. In any operating
condition, the heat pipe fluid attains certain temperature and
thermal conductance. Since the heat pipe is basically an isothermal
device, the same heat pipe fluid temperature exists throughout the
entire length of the heat pipe. The internal pressure is the fluid
vapor pressure at an existing temperature. The heat pipe temper-
ature and pressure vary with time throughout an orbit.
As shown in Fig. 2, a portion of the energy from the heat pipe
fluid is conducted into the PCM and stored as latent energy while
the remaining energy is transported by the heat pipe to the last
section of the receiver where a heat exchanger couples the heat
pipe to the engine. During a solar eclipse, pressure and temperature
in the heat pipe drop, and energy starts to escape from the PCM via
the heat pipe fluid, which transports it to the heat exchanger in the
last section of the receiver.
3. Numerical simulation of the PCM canister of the heat pipe
receiver
In general, the eutectic salt such as LiF and 80.5LiF-19.5CaF2 is
selected as the PCM for heat pipe receiver. LiF is used as PCM for
NASA designing of a heat pipe receiver [3]. 80.5LiF-19.5CaF2 is used
as PCM on an experimental module in Japan [4]. Some physical
properties of LiF and 80.5LiF-19.5CaF2 are shown in Table 1. It shows
Fig. 2. The configuration of the unit heat pipe receiver.
that the melting point of LiF is higher than that of 80.5LiF-19.5CaF2,
so the temperatures of heat pipe wall and PCM canister wall for LiF
are higher than that for 80.5LiF-19.5CaF2. Compared with LiF, the
thermal stress of wall material for 80.5LiF-19.5CaF2 maybe decrease
and the working lifetime of wall material for 80.5LiF-19.5CaF2
maybe increase. Therefore, the eutectic mixture 80.5LiF-19.5CaF2 is
selected as PCM for our research.
3.1. Physical model
The heat transfer of PCM canister of the heat pipe receiver [9]
includes
(1) heat conduction among solid, liquid in PCM zone and saturated
vapor in void cavity, heat conduction among PCM canister wall,
fin and other enhanced heat additions,
(2) radiation among the interfaces of void cavity with different
temperature, radiation among different PCM crystals, and
(3) evaporation and condensation heat transfer between high and
low temperature interfaces in void cavity.
The above process of heat transfer is transient. If all the above
are considered, it is very difficult to solve the problem. To find easy
solutions and simplify the calculations, some assumptions are
made as follows when the heat transfer model of the PCM canister
is built.
(1) The temperature along heat pipe wall is uniform. All canisters
on a given heat pipe operate identically. A single canister is
sufficient to model the entire TSD. This is due to the assumed
symmetry in incident flux (all heat pipes operate identically)
and the uniformity in the heat pipe wall temperature in the
TSD region. The model is simplified by the heat pipe wicking
system, which, if operating properly, ensures an essentially
uniform temperature around the circumference of the heat
pipe. Thus, only a two-dimensional canister model (axial and
radial) is required [3].
(2) The initial void volume of PCM canister is fixed. Void cavity
distributes along the outer wall of PCM canister. During eclipse
periods, PCM in the TSD region freezes. PCM releases latent
heat to heat pipe. At the same time, PCM shrinks and void
cavity appears. Since the temperature of PCM close to canister
inner wall decreases more quickly than that of PCM close to
canister outer wall, PCM close to canister inner wall freezes
earlier. PCM in canister freezes gradually along the radial from
inner wall to outer wall. Void cavity appears near the outer wall
in canister [10].
(3) Heat convection of liquid PCM is ignored. Natural convection
disappears under microgravity. Marangoni convection caused
by surface tension exists. The order of magnitude for Marangoni
 G. Xiaohong et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 735e741 737

Fig. 5. The temperature fluctuation on heat pipe wall and PCM canister outer wall
Fig. 3. The physical model of PCM canister of the heat pipe receiver. during 0e20 orbital periods.

8
convection is smaller than that for natural convection. Mar- < Tm þ e=c; e  0
angoni convection appears only near the void cavity when PCM T ¼ T 0 < e < DHm (2)
melts during sunlight periods. Liquid PCM flows in a small scale. : m;
Tm þ ðe  DHm Þ=c; e  DHm
During eclipse periods, the temperature differences among
different liquid PCM interfaces decrease to about 1 K quickly. So PCM is solid (e  0). PCM is liquid (e  DHm ). PCM is in phase
Marangoni convection driven by the temperature gradient on change (0 < e < DHm ), that is, PCM is mushy.
free surface disappears very quickly during eclipse periods.
Therefore, heat convection under microgravity can be ignored 3.2.2. Zone of void cavity
during both sunlight and eclipse periods. Since the axial temperature gradient is very small, the temper-
(4) The contact resistance between the PCM canister and heat pipe ature of void cavity is defined by radial steady heat transfer
wall is ignored. In fact, there is a gap between the PCM canister equation,
and heat pipe wall. The gap is very small and about 2e3 mm.  
1 v vT
(5) The surfaces of all void cavities are the ones of gray bodies with r ¼ 0 (3)
diffusion reflection. r vr vr

The physical model of PCM canister of the heat pipe receiver is

3.3. An approach to solution
shown in Fig. 3.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software (Fluent 6.2) is
3.2. Mathematical model used to simulate the heat transfer of PCM canister of the heat pipe
receiver. Software (gambit 2.1) is used as a pre-processor [11]. In
3.2.1. Zone of PCM Fluent 6.2, the separate solver is used to solve the equations. Finite
Two-dimensional axisymmetric energy equation for z-orienta- control volume (FCV) method is used to solve the above equations.
tion and r-orientation are expressed by enthalpy method. These Thus, non-linear differential equations are linearized. Alternate
equations are defined as follows. direction iteration (ADI) method is used as a method of solution. In
Energy Equation
!
vðreÞ v2 T 1 vT v2 T
¼ k þ þ (1)
vt vr 2 r vr vz2

The relationship between enthalpy and temperature is given as

follows.

Fig. 6. The temperature fluctuation on heat pipe wall and PCM canister outer wall in
Fig. 4. The grid meshes of the PCM canister of the heat pipe receiver. a steady period.
738 G. Xiaohong et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 735e741

Fig. 9. The temperature field distribution of PCM canister at the end of sunlight with
void cavity.

3.6. Initial conditions

Fig. 7. A comparison between our numerical results and NASA numerical results.

The initial temperature is set to 950 K. PCM is solid. Each orbit

Fluent 6.2, a solidification-melting model is specially provided to
deal with phase changes.
Upon the enthalpy porosity method in Fluent 6.2, the energy
equation for PCM zone and that for void cavity can be connected.
3.4. Grid meshes
Fig. 4 shows the grid meshes of PCM canister of the heat pipe
receiver. Triangle meshes are used in the PCM zone, void zone and
on PCM canister wall.
cycle consists of 90 min. Each sunlight period consists of 54 min.
Each eclipse period consists of 36 min.
The physical properties of the canister wall and phase change
material are constant. The eutectic mixture 80.5LiF-19.5CaF2 is
selected as the PCM, with a melting point of 1040 K, and the cobalt-
base super alloy Haynes 188 as the canister material.
The temperature of the heat sink is 200 K. The height of orbit is
500 km. The pressure of low earth orbit is 108e107 Torr.
4. Results and discussion

3.5. Boundary conditions 4.1. Comparison and analysis of our numerical results and NASA
numerical results

vT
z ¼ 0; ¼ 0; (4) Fig. 5 shows the temperature fluctuation on heat pipe wall and
vr PCM canister outer wall during 0e20 orbital periods by our simu-
lation. Fig. 6 shows the temperature fluctuation on heat pipe wall
vT and PCM canister outer wall in one steady period by our simulation.
z ¼ l; ¼ 0; (5)
vr Fig. 7 shows a comparison between our numerical results and NASA
numerical results [3]. In the comparison, it can be seen that the
vT corresponding temperature differences between our simulation
r ¼ RCO ; ¼ 0; (6)
vz and NASA simulation on both heat pipe wall and PCM canister outer
wall are small. The temperature change trend of our numerical
vThw results agrees with that of NASA numerical ones. Therefore, our
r ¼ Rhw ; khw ¼ Q =A (7)
vz numerical results are credible. The model of the PCM canister of the
The boundary condition of heat pipe wall (canister inner wall) is heat pipe receiver built under microgravity in this paper is accurate
taken as periodic various heat flux. The user defined function (UDF) and reasonable. As it can be seen, when a heating cycle is stable, the
is used in simulation. The canister outer wall and side wall are temperature fluctuation both on heat pipe wall and in PCM canister
adiabatic with the outside. In the void cavity, thermal radiation is remains less than 16 K throughout a sunlight and eclipse cycle.
considered. These data indicate that the PCM contained in the integrated heat

Fig. 8. The temperature field distribution of PCM canister at the end of sunlight Fig. 10. The temperature field distribution of PCM canister at the end of eclipse
without void cavity. without void cavity.
 G. Xiaohong et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 735e741 739

Fig. 11. The temperature field distribution of PCM canister at the end of eclipse with
void cavity.

pipe performs an averaging function of heat loadings. Normal

working of wick ensures the uniformity of heat pipe, thus heat pipe
receiver alleviates thermal spot and thermal ratcheting.
Fig. 13. The Melting ratio of the PCM in the canister with void cavity.

4.2. Influence of void cavity on thermal performance of heat pipe

very significant because of void cavity. Void cavity influences the
receiver
process of phase change.
Fig. 10 shows the temperature field distribution of PCM canister
Fig. 8 shows the temperature field distribution of PCM canister
at the end of eclipse without void cavity. Fig. 11 shows the
at the end of sunlight without void cavity. Fig. 9 shows the
temperature field distribution of PCM canister at the end of eclipse
temperature field distribution of PCM canister at the end of
with void cavity. In the figures, it can be seen that, during eclipse
sunlight with void cavity. In the figures, it can be seen that, during
periods, the temperature distribution of canister reduces gradually
sunlight periods, the temperature of canister inner wall is higher
from centre to outside. The temperature of canister outer wall is
than that of canister side wall. The temperature of canister side wall
higher than that of canister side wall. The temperature of canister
is higher than that of canister outer wall. The reason is that the
side wall is higher than that of canister inner wall. The reason is that
temperature of heat pipe wall is uniform along the axial, and the
PCM releases latent heat, and heat pipe absorbs heat from PCM
direction of heat transfer in canister is from inner wall to side wall,
canister. The temperature of canister wall is lower than that of PCM
then from side wall to outer wall. The temperature of canister wall
along the axial. PCM (close to canister’s side wall) freezes earlier
is higher than that of PCM along the axial. PCM (close to canister’s
and proceeds inward along the axial during eclipse periods. The
side wall) melts earlier and proceeds inward along the axial during
temperature gradient of PCM zone is very significant when void
sunlight periods. The reason is that the thermal resistance of PCM is
cavity exists. The thermal storage ability of PCM canister decreases
higher than that of canister wall material (Hayness188 is cobalt-
because of void cavity.
base super alloy). The whole temperature field changes a lot and
Void cavity enhances the temperature difference between
the temperature contour in the middle of canister is much more
sunlight and eclipse. Void cavity prevents heat transfer during both
flexural when void cavity exists. The temperature distribution with
sunlight and eclipse periods. The temperature gradient of PCM zone
void cavity is more non-uniform than that without void cavity. The
thermal resistance of void cavity is much higher than that of
canister’s side wall. Canister’s side wall has a great effect on heat
transfer of PCM canister. The temperature gradient of PCM zone is

Fig. 12. The Melting ratio of the PCM in the canister without void cavity. Fig. 14. The liquid contour of PCM canister at the end of sunlight without void cavity.
740 G. Xiaohong et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 735e741
Fig. 15. The liquid contour of PCM canister at the end of sunlight with void cavity.
is very significant when void cavity exists. So the thermal stress of
heat pipe receiver may increase, and the lifetime may decrease.
Fig. 12 shows the melting ratio of the PCM in the canister during
0e28 orbital periods without void cavity. Fig. 13 shows the melting
ratio of the PCM in the canister during 0e12 orbital periods with
void cavity. In the figures, it can be seen that, the melting ratio of
the PCM in the canister reaches 88% without void cavity and 84%
with void cavity. So the utility of PCM decreases with the effect of
void cavity.
Fig. 14 shows the liquid contour of PCM canister at the end of
sunlight without void cavity. Fig. 15 shows the liquid contour of
PCM canister at the end of sunlight with void cavity. In the figures,
it can be seen that, the minimum liquid contour of PCM canister at
the end of sunlight is 77% without void cavity and 68% with void
cavity. So PCM melts slowly with the effect of void cavity. Void
cavity prevents the heat transfer from the canister wall to the PCM
zone during sunlight periods. The thermal performance of heat
pipe receiver may decrease when void cavity exists. The thermal
storage ability of PCM canister may decrease because of void cavity.
Fig. 16 shows the liquid contour of PCM canister at the end of
eclipse without void cavity. Fig. 17 shows the liquid contour of PCM
Fig. 16. The liquid contour of PCM canister at the end of eclipse without void cavity.
Fig. 17. The liquid contour of PCM canister at the end of eclipse with void cavity.
canister at the end of eclipse with void cavity. In the figures, it can
be seen that, PCM freezes totally without void cavity. PCM freezes
about 85% with void cavity. Void cavity prevents the heat transfer
from the PCM zone to the canister wall during eclipse periods. PCM
freezes slowly during eclipse periods with the effect of void cavity.
PCM can’t release latent heat totally because of void cavity.
5. Conclusions
With both phase change and void cavity considered, thermal
performance of the PCM canister of the heat pipe receiver is analyzed.
The numerical results are compared with NASA numerical results.
(1) In the comparison, it can be seen that the corresponding
temperature differences between our simulation and NASA
simulation on both heat pipe wall and PCM canister outer wall
are small. The temperature change trend of our numerical
results agrees with that of NASA numerical ones. Therefore, our
numerical results are credible. The model of the PCM canister
of the heat pipe receiver built under microgravity in this paper
is accurate and reasonable.
(2) When heating cycle is stable, the temperature fluctuation both
on heat pipe wall and in PCM canister remains less than 16 K
throughout a sunlight and eclipse cycle. These data indicate
that the PCM contained in the integrated heat pipe performs an
averaging function of heat loadings. Normal working of wick
ensures the uniformity of heat pipe, thus heat pipe receiver
alleviates thermal spot and thermal ratcheting.
(3) Void cavity reduces the utility and thermal storage ability of
PCM. PCM melts slowly during sunlight periods and freezes
slowly during eclipse periods with the effect of void cavity.
PCM can’t release latent heat totally because of void cavity.
(4) Void cavity influences the process of phase change. The thermal
resistance of void cavity is much higher than that of PCM
canister wall. Void cavity prevents heat transfer during sunlight
and eclipse periods. The temperature gradient of PCM zone is
very significant because of void cavity. So the thermal stress of
heat pipe receiver may increase, and the lifetime may decrease.
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