International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

A compact and lightweight liquid-cooled thermal management solution

for cylindrical lithium-ion power battery pack
Yongxin Lai a, Weixiong Wu a, Kai Chen a,⇑, Shuangfeng Wang a,⇑, Chuang Xin b
a
Key Laboratory of Enhanced Heat Transfer & Energy Conservation, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, South China University of
Technology, Guangzhou 510640, Guangdong, China
b
Dongguan DRN New Energy Co., Ltd, Dongguan 523775, Guangdong, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Battery thermal management (BTM) is indispensable to the battery pack of electric vehicles (EVs) for
Received 27 December 2018 safety. Among different types of BTM technologies, liquid cooling shows its superiority with high heat
Received in revised form 12 July 2019 transfer coefficient and low power consumption. However, the previous works paid little attention to
Accepted 13 August 2019
the compactness and weight ratio of liquid-cooled BTM system, which is vital to the specific energy of
Available online 27 August 2019
battery pack. In this study, a compact and lightweight liquid-cooled BTM system is presented to control
the maximum temperature (Tmax) and the temperature difference (DT) of lithium-ion power battery pack.
Keywords:
In this liquid-cooled solution, one thermal conductive structure (TCS) with three curved contact surfaces
Battery thermal management
Cylindrical battery
is developed to cool cylindrical battery. The influences of mass flow rate (mf), inner diameter (d), contact
Liquid cooling surface height (h) and contact surface angle (a) of the TCS are investigated through numerical study. It is
Lightweight found that for the 5C discharge rate process of battery, Tmax can be maintained within 313 K when mf is
Structure design larger than 1
104 kg/s. A weight sensitive factor is defined to evaluate the influences of d, h and a on
DT and the weight of TCS. It is found that d is the most important parameter that influences the weight. h
is the secondary parameter, and a is the parameter with the minimal impact on the weight. Then the val-
ues of d, h, and a are designed to reduce the weight of TCS while maintaining its cooling performance. The
designed TCS can control Tmax under 313 K with DT as 4.137 K. Compared to the original TCS, DP, DT and
the weight are respectively reduced by 80%, 14% and 46% for the designed TCS. Furthermore, the perfor-
mance of liquid-cooled system with parallel TCSs is discussed. The flow distribution among parallel TCSs
is improved through designing the positions of the inlet and the outlet, which enables that Tmax and DT of
battery pack is similar to the ones of a single battery. The present study facilitates the guideline for com-
pact and lightweight design of liquid-cooled battery thermal management system.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction temperature rise and large temperature difference of the battery

To relieve the pressure of energy consumption and carbon
emissions, the majority of nations are promoting the development
of electric vehicles (EVs). Among various types of batteries,
lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is the most promising power source
for EVs for the advantages of high specific energy, long cycle life
and non-memory effect. However, the performance of Li-ion bat-
tery is highly correlated with the operating temperature [1]. Dur-
ing the discharge or charge process, considerable amount of heat
will be generated through internal resistance effect and exother-
mic reactions inside the battery [2]. The heat will lead to high
⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: chenkaihb09@126.com (K. Chen), sfwang@scut.edu.cn
(S. Wang).
pack, causing capacity fade [3], thermal runaway [4] and instability
[5]. Besides, severe operating conditions such as extreme fast-
charging [6], adverse climate [7] and aging of batteries [8] will
result in excessive heat generation to battery pack. According to
existing studies, the favorable temperature range for Li-ion battery
is between 298 K and 313 K, and the favorable temperature differ-
ence (DT) is below 5 K [9–11]. Therefore, an efficient battery ther-
mal management (BTM) is fundamental for Li-ion battery to
guarantee the lifespan, safety and stability.
The existing BTM technologies mainly include air cooling [12–
14], liquid cooling [15–17], phase change cooling [18–20] and
hybrid cooling [21–23]. Moreover, in recent years, some novel
methods have been developed by using ammonia [24], nanofluid
[25], sodium alginate film [26] or hydrogel [27] to dissipate the
heat, providing more feasible options to BTM. With the increase

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.118581
0017-9310/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581
Nomenclature
T temperature (K)
m weight (g)
d inner diameter (mm)
h contact surface height (mm)
k thermal conductivity (W m1 K1)
mf mass flow rate (kg/s)
cp specific heat capacity (J kg1 K1)
DP pressure drop (Pa)
p static pressure (Pa)
Q heat generation rate (W)
V volume (m3)
U battery voltage (V)
I discharge current of battery (A)
R equivalent internal resistance (mX)
L thermal conduction length (m2)
! Acronyms
v velocity vector (m s1)
A thermal conduction area (m2)
t time (s)
N the number of parallel flow channels (1)
Greek symbols
a contact surface angle (°)
q density (kg m3)
l dynamic viscosity (N s m2)
W weight sensitive factor (1)
of specific energy density, the cooling load of the battery pack gets
higher correspondingly. Among various BTM technologies, liquid
cooling shows excellent thermal management performance with
high heat transfer coefficient and low parasitic power consumption
[15]. According to the BTM strategies report by National Renew-
able Energy Laboratory (NREL) of the U.S., liquid-cooled BTM is
the optimal choice for current commercial electric vehicle market
[6]. In recent years, liquid-cooled BTM technology has become
more and more popular for EVs. Many commercial EVs such as
Tesla Model 3, Chevrolet Volt, BYD Song DM and BMW i8 have
employed liquid-cooled BTM technology.
Numerous studies have been done to investigate liquid-cooled
BTM systems. The proposed solutions include two ways, direct liq-
uid cooling and indirect liquid cooling. Direct cooling has higher
thermal management efficiency by using mineral oil silicone oil,
etc. However, this method needs more power consumption and
involves more risk of leakage. After comprehensive comparison
of different cooling methods, Chen et al. [15] suggested that indi-
rect liquid cooling was more suitable for practical applications.
For prismatic and pouch batteries, sandwiching them by liquid
cold plate (LCP) is a prevalent solution to tackle the thermal issue.
The generated heat of the battery is transferred to LCPs by thermal
conduction and then is dissipated by liquid coolant inside the mini
channels of LCPs by thermal convection. Panchal et al. [16] consid-
ered one LCP with a serpentine channel inside for prismatic bat-
tery. The LCP was assessed at different discharge rates and
boundary conditions. The temperature rise of the battery was well
controlled by this type of LCP at 2C discharge rate. Jin et al. [28]
proposed a LCP with oblique fins inside for BTM. These fins can
re-initialize the boundary layers of the coolant to achieve higher
heat transfer coefficient. The experimental and numerical results
showed that this plate had better thermal management perfor-
mance than those conventional straight-channel plates. Lan et al.
[29] developed a novel mini-channel based cooling tube, which
can maintain the battery temperature in rational range, with only
g variation percentage (%)
D change in variable
c the dimensionless uneven coefficient (1)
Subscripts
w water
b battery
ir irreversible
re reversible
r radial direction
a axial direction
X the considered structural parameters
max maximum
TCS thermal conductive structure
BTM battery thermal management
Li-ion lithium-ion
SOC state of charge
CFD computational fluid dynamics
OCV open-circuit voltage
LCP liquid cold plate
HPPC hybrid pulse power characterization
5 mW power consumption. An aluminum flat tube was introduced
by Zhang et al. [30] for liquid cooling. On both side of each battery
cell, three aluminum flat tubes were arranged in stagger. To
improve the temperature difference of the battery, the flexible gra-
phite was added between the cell surface and the flat tubes. The
results showed that the temperature of the battery was under
313 K and the temperature difference was effectively reduced by
flexible graphite.
Compared to prismatic and pouch battery, cylindrical battery
possesses the superiority of better consistency, more mature craft
and longer lifecycle [31,32]. However, due to the shape of cylindri-
cal battery cell, surface thermal contact is not available for conven-
tional LCPs. To realize liquid cooling, researchers have designed
some special structures to construct adequate thermal contact
with the cylindrical batteries. Basu et al. [17] proposed and ana-
lyzed a conduction element sheet made by aluminum with
1.5 mm in thick and 44 mm in height. Each 18650-type battery
was contacted with two conduction elements. The conduction ele-
ment could effectively reduce the temperature difference of the
battery. Besides, the maximum temperature rise was controlled
under 7 K. For the Tesla Model S battery pack, Jiang et al [33] dis-
cussed the BTM performance of a wavy cooling channel wound
around the batteries. It is found that increasing liquid flow rate
and heat exchange area were beneficial to the performance of cool-
ing channel. Rao et al. [34] employed the aluminum block with arc
shape surfaces for 26650-type battery. The camber surfaces of the
blocks matched the battery surfaces to build enough thermal con-
tact arc. The effects of the inlet velocity and the block length on the
cooling performance were carried out by simulation. It was found
that the performance of the blocks can be improved by varying the
blocks length linearly. Zhao et al. [35] numerically investigated the
performance of the liquid-cooled cylinder for 42110-type cylindri-
cal battery. The thermal contact surface was established by filling
the battery cell into each cylinder. In the cylinder, there were num-
bers of mini-channels to dissipate the heat. The results showed
 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581
that the cylinder could maintain the maximum temperature under
313 K, but it was difficult to make the temperature difference
below 5 K due to the aging effect of the battery.
The above-mentioned works either focus on thermal behaviors
of the battery thermal management system or different cooling
methods, while less research has discussed the compactness and
lightweight design for liquid-cooled BTM systems. In practical uti-
lization, a battery pack with higher specific energy is desirable to
achieve longer mile range of EVs. Although liquid cooling shows
excellent cooling performance comparing with other BTM tech-
nologies, the relatively large weight ratio is an issue needed to
be solved. A compact and lightweight BTM design can improve
the specific energy of battery pack and reduce the general weight
of finished vehicle. Previous studies have pointed out that energy
consumption was decreased by 3.3–8% when the weight of vehicle
got 10% reduction [36,37]. Moreover, the lightweight of the vehicle
enhances the acceleration performance and reduces the braking
length. Department of Energy of America also puts forward a 30%
reduction lightweight plan for EVs [38]. However, the compact
and lightweight design for liquid-cooled BTM system has been
rarely considered in the existing literature.
In this study, a liquid-cooled BTM system is designed to realize
suitable temperature range and temperature difference for Li-ion
battery pack. The novelty of the proposed solution concerns a com-
pact and lightweight design for EVs application, improving the
cooling performance and reducing the weight of battery pack. In
the present work, the 18650-type battery cell is introduced and
the 5C high discharge rate process is considered. Experiment is
conducted to obtain the thermal model of the battery cell. A novel
thermal conductive structure (TCS) is proposed to cool the battery
cell. Based on the numerical method, the influences of mass flow
rate and structural parameters on the cooling performance and
the weight of the TCS are investigated. Then, the structural param-
eters are designed to reduce the weight of the TCS while maintain-
ing its thermal management performance. Finally, the performance
of liquid-cooled system with parallel TCSs is investigated and is
improved through designing the positions of the inlet and the out-
let of the system. The present work is intended to facilitate the
guideline for compact and lightweight design of liquid-cooled bat-
tery thermal management system, which is beneficial to increasing
the mile range of EVs.
2. Methodology and simulation
2.1. A lightweight liquid-cooled BTM system
To realize a long mile range, battery pack comprising dozens of
battery cells is needed for power supply of EVs. In this study, a
liquid-cooled BTM system is proposed to cool battery pack.
Scheme of the liquid-cooled BTM system is illustrated in Fig. 1.
As shown in Fig. 1(a), the battery pack includes 18650-type battery
cells, IC control unit, base plates, and the liquid-cooled BTM sys-
tem. The liquid-cooled BTM system contains upper reservoir, ther-
mal conductive structures (TCSs) and bottom reservoir. The upper
reservoir and bottom reservoir are made of engineering plastics to
reduce the weight. The cells are arrayed in staggered structure
with constant distance among them. As shown in Fig. 1(b), the TCSs
are inserted into the gaps of the cells for a compact size consider-
ation. Each cell is surrounded by three TCSs. In the center of each
TCS, circle liquid channel is set for coolant. To construct effective
thermal contact, each TCS is designed with three curved contact
surfaces as shown in Fig. 1(b) and (c). The curvature radius of the
curved contact surface is identical to the radius of cylindrical bat-
tery cell. Fig. 1(c) also shows the main structural parameters of
TCS, including the inner diameter (d), the contact surface height
3
(h) and the contact surface angle (a). These parameters can be
changed to adjust the cooling performance and the weight of the
TCS (mTCS).
For the liquid-cooled BTM system in Fig. 1, the cooling water is
distributed by the upper reservoir and then flows into each parallel
TCS. The heat generated by the batteries is transferred to the TCSs
through heat conduction and dissipated by the cooling water in the
channel of TCS, so that the temperature control of battery pack is
achieved. The heated cooling water is gathered by the bottom
reservoir and then leaves the system through the outlet. It can be
observed that the proposed TCS is one of the most important com-
ponents in the liquid-cooled system, and the parameters of TCS
have significant influence on the thermal performance of the sys-
tem. Therefore, the structure of TCS needs to be designed to
improve the cooling performance and reduce the weight.
2.2. Numerical simulation
To investigate the performance of the TCSs, computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) method is introduced. The governing equations are
the continuity equation, the momentum conservation equations
and the energy equations. For the cooling water, the governing
equations are expressed as follows.
@ qw !
þ r  ðqw v Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
@t
@ ! ! ! !
ðq v Þ þ rðqw v  v Þ ¼ rp þ r  ðlw r v Þ ð2Þ
@t w
@ !
ðq cpw T w Þ þ r  ðqw cpw v T w Þ ¼ r  ðkw rT w Þ
ð3Þ
@t w
For the battery cell and the TCS, the governing equations are
given by
@ Q gen
ðq cpb T b Þ ¼ r  ðkb rT b Þ þ ð4Þ
@t b Vb
@
ðq cpTCS T TCS Þ ¼ r  ðkTCS rT TCS Þ ð5Þ
@t TCS
In Eqs. (1)–(5), q, cp, k and T are density, specific heat, thermal
conductivity and temperature, respectively. The subscripts w, b
and TCS represent the cooling water, the battery and the thermal
!
conductive structure. v , p and l denote the velocity vector, the
static pressure and the dynamic viscosity, respectively. Qgen and
Vb are the heat generation rate and the volume of battery cell.
2.3. Battery model and validation
When discharging, the battery temperature will increase due to
irreversible and reversible heat generation. Generally, the heat
generation can be divided into reaction heat, Joule heat, polling
heat and side reaction heat. In 1985, Bernardi et al. [39] presented
a lumped model for the heat generation of the battery cell, which
can be expressed as
@U OCV
Q gen ¼ Q ir þ Q re ¼ IðU OCV  UÞ  IT ð6Þ
@T
where Qgen is the total heat generation rate of battery cell, Qir and
Qre are the irreversible heat and the reversible heat, respectively. I
is the discharge/charge current of battery cell. UOCV is the open-
circuit voltage. U is the battery voltage. T is the battery temperature
and @UOCV/oT is the temperature coefficient of open-circuit voltage.
During the discharge process, it obtains
U ¼ U OCV  IR ð7Þ
4 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581

Fig. 1. The scheme of the liquid-cooled battery management module.

where R is the equivalent internal resistance, including the ohmic Ri qi cpi V i

qb cpb ¼ ð10Þ
resistance and the polarization equivalent resistance. By substitut- Ri V i
ing Eq. (7) into Eq. (6), it obtains
The thermal conductivity of the battery is considered as aniso-
2 @U OCV tropic. The radial thermal conductivity kr and the axial thermal
Q gen ¼ Q ir þ Q re ¼ I R  IT ð8Þ
@T conductivity ka are calculated by the following equations.
where Qre can be endothermic or exothermic depending on the dis- Ri Li
charge stage of battery. kr ¼ ð11Þ
Ri ki =Li
In the present study, the NCR 18650-type cylindrical Li-ion bat-
tery is used and its properties are shown in Table 1. For the lumped
model of the battery, the equivalent density (qb) and the heat Ri Ai ki
ka ¼ ð12Þ
capacity (cpb) are calculated as follows. R i Ai
To identify the heat generation rate of the battery during the
mb
qb ¼ ð9Þ discharge process, the equivalent internal resistance (R) and open
Vb circuit voltage coefficient (@UOCV/oT) of one NCR 18650-type cell
 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581 5

Table 1
Physical properties of materials inside the battery cell [40].

Thickness (lm) Height (mm) Density (kg/m3) Thermal conductivity (W/(mK)) Specific heat capacity (J/(kgK))
Can 300 65 7800 16.8 478
Separator 22 59 1200 1 700
LiCoO2 92 53 2291.6 1.85 1172.8
LiNiCoMnO2 N/A N/A 1500 5 700
LiC6 87 53 5031.7 5 700
Cathode foil 10 55 2700 200 870
Anode foil 10 57 9000 380 381
Electrolyte N/A N/A 1290 0.45 133.9

Table 2
were measured experimentally. Specifically, R is specified by Polynomial fitting of the equivalent internal resistance (R) in various temperatures.
means of Hybrid Pulse Power Characteristic (HPPC) test under Polynomial fitting of equivalent internal resistance (R) Temperature/
the conditions of various values of SOC (from 1.0 to 0.1 with 0.1 K
intervals) and temperatures (from 293 K to 333 K with 10 K inter- 166 – 1334
SOC + 6559
SOC2 – 293
vals). The experimental results are shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen 16,531
SOC3 + 22,391
SOC4 –
that for each SOC, R decreases as the temperature increases, but 15,496
SOC5 + 4301
SOC6
the tendency is weakened when the temperature increases further. 107 – 793
SOC + 4036
SOC2 – 303
10,514
SOC3 + 14,700
SOC4 –
For example, when T changes from 323 K to 333 K, R changes only
10,480
SOC5 + 2989
SOC6
about 5%. Moreover, for each temperature, R has a relatively con- 66 – 382
SOC + 1962
SOC2 – 313
stant value at the early discharge process (SOC > 0.2) and increases 5181
SOC3 + 7378
SOC4 – 5365
SOC5 + 1559
SOC6
notably at the end of discharge process (SOC < 0.2). Based on the 58 – 355
SOC + 1898
SOC2 – 323
experimental data, R can be incorporated as the function of tem- 5121
SOC3 + 7367
SOC4 – 5374
SOC5 + 1559
SOC6
48 – 233
SOC + 1225
SOC2 – 333
perature and SOC by polynomial fitting. The final expressions are 3263
SOC3 + 4667
SOC4 – 3406
SOC5 + 992
SOC6
shown in Table 2. Based on the data in Table 2, R can be obtained
when T is 293 K, 303 K, 313 K, 323 K and 333 K, respectively. When
the temperature is between two testing temperature of R, it can be
calculated by interpolation method. In addition, when the temper-
ature is above 333 K, the value of R can be represented by the inter-
nal resistance when T = 333 K because R changes little at high
temperature.
The values of UOCV were also measured from 293 K to 333 K for
each SOC, and the values of @UOCV/oT for different SOC were
obtained. The curve of @UOCV/oT is depicted in Fig. 3. Generally,
@UOCV/oT increases from SOC = 1.0 to SOC = 0.5 and then decreases
when SOC is below 0.5. @UOCV/oT can also be summarized as the
function of SOC by polynomial fitting. The fitting expression is
shown as
@U OCV
¼  0:355 þ 2:154
SOC  2:869
SOC2 þ 1:028
SOC3
@T
ð13Þ

Fig. 3. Experimental results of open circuit voltage coefficient (@UOCV/@T) with SOC.

Based on the expressions of R and @UOCV/oT, the heat generation of

Fig. 2. Experimental results of the internal equivalent resistance (R) with SOC and
temperature.
the battery can be determined by Eq. (8).
In order to verify the fitting heat generation model, the thermal
behavior of one 18,650 cylindrical battery was experimentally
investigated. The battery with 5C discharge rate process was tested
by a battery testing system (CT-4008-5V10A-204, Shenzhen New-
are Technology Co. Ltd, China) at ambient temperature of 300 K. K-
type thermocouples were arranged at the surface of the battery cell
to measure the surface temperature by Agilent data acquisition
instrument (Agilent 34970 A). During the test, the battery was
wrapped by heat preservation cotton to minimize the heat loss.
The simulation for the same situation as the experiment was con-
ducted. The comparison of the experimental data and the numeri-
cal results are shown in Fig. 4. It can be observed that the
experimental data and numerical results coincide very well. The
maximum temperature error and the average temperature error
6 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581
Fig. 4. Comparison of the experimental data and the simulation results.
between them are 1.4 K and 0.6 K, respectively. The comparison
indicates that the fitting heat generation model is feasible to be
employed in numerical simulation.
3. Calculation parameters
In order to investigate the performance of the proposed liquid-
cooled BTM system, one 18650-type battery cell with three one-
third TCSs as shown in Fig. 1(b) is employed for numerical simula-
tion. 5C high discharge rate process is considered. The spacings
among the batteries are set as 2 mm for compact design of the bat-
tery pack. The TCS is made of aluminum. The cooling medium in
the channel of the TCS is water due to its high heat capacity.
The numerical calculation is conducted by commercial CFD
software ANSYS FLUENT. Firstly, transient model is considered
due to the unsteady heat generation of battery. As the Reynolds
number of the flow in the TCS does not exceed 2300, the flow is
treated as laminar flow. Mass-flow-inlet and pressure-outlet con-
ditions are set as the boundary conditions of the cooling water.
The initial temperature of the cooling water, the TCS and the bat-
tery are set as 300 K. In practical applications, when the battery
is in contact with the heat dissipation structure, the contact ther-
mal resistance between the battery surface and the TCSs can be
reduced using thermal grease or thermal conductive adhesive.
Contact thermal resistance may influence the temperature of the
battery cell, but it has little influence on the optimal structure of
the TCS. Based on the above considerations, the contact thermal
resistance between the battery surface and the TCSs is ignored in
this study. The interface between the battery cell and the TCS is
set as the continuity condition. The outer wall of the TCS and the
rests of the battery surfaces are chosen as thermal insulation.
The source term of the battery is implemented by coding User
Define Function (UDF) in software. Time step of 1 s and 50 itera-
tions per time step are set. The relevant convergence residuals of
the continuity equation, the velocity equations and the energy
equation are set as 106, 106 and 109, respectively.
Set the mass flow rate as 1
104 kg/s and take the TCS with
a = 80°, d = 2 mm, h = 65 mm as an example. Grid independent
analysis is carried out to confirm the appropriate grid size. The
results show that when the grid number changes from 91,544 to
201,995, the temperature difference of the battery cell (DT)
changes by 0.3 K. While the grid number further changes from
201,995 to 415,694, DT only changes by 0.04 K. Therefore, the grid
number of 201,995 is enough for simulation, and the similar grid
size is used for the following studies.
4. Effects of the parameters on the performance of TCS
The mass flow rate and the structural parameters significantly
influence the cooling performance and the weight of the TCS
(mTCS). In this section, the effects of the mass flow rate of cooling
water (mf), the inner diameter (d), the contact surface height (h)
and the contact surface angle (a) of the TCS on the performance
of TCS are investigated.
4.1. Effects of mass flow rate of water
In this section, setting h, a and d as 65 mm, 80° and 2 mm,
respectively, the cooling performances of TCS for different values
of mf are investigated. Fig. 5 depicts the values of maximum tem-
perature (Tmax) and temperature difference (DT) of the battery cell
with time for various values of mf. As shown in Fig. 5, three stages
exist during the discharge process. At the first stage (0–100 s), Tmax
and DT increase with time no matter what mf is. At this stage, the
temperature of battery is relatively low and the temperature dif-
ference between the water and the battery is small. Thus, the heat
generation of the battery cell is much larger than the one removed
by the cooling water, resulting in rapid temperature rise for the
battery. In this stage, when larger mf is provided, the heat transfer
coefficient between the battery and the water is larger, so Tmax
increases slower. Moreover, high heat transfer coefficient can make
the surface temperature of the battery rising at slower rate than
the temperature inside, which makes DT grow faster. From 100 s
to 600 s, when mf is larger than 1
104 kg/s, the temperature of
the battery is in relatively stable condition, which means that the
heat generation can be effectively removed by the water. At the
end of the discharge process (600–720 s), the temperature of the
battery goes higher, reaching to maximum temperature. This is
because the internal resistance of the battery increases dramati-
cally at the end of the discharge process, causing remarkable
enlargement of the heat generation rate, which can be seen from
Fig. 2. For this situation, the temperature rise can be controlled
by larger mass flow rate. As for DT, it becomes larger when mf is
larger than 4
105 kg/s. This phenomenon is driven by two
mechanisms. On one hand, the temperature of battery is lower
with larger mf. According to the experimental results in Fig. 2,
lower temperature causes larger R. Thus, larger heat generation
rate is induced for lower temperature of battery cell, which will
deteriorate the temperature homogeneity of battery. On the other
hand, the larger heat transfer coefficient is achieved for larger mf,
which induces excessively low temperature at the coolant entrance
side of battery. Thus, lower minimum temperature for the battery
is created.
Table 3 lists the numerical results at the end of the 5C discharge
process for various values of mf. It can be seen that Tmax is reduced
as mf increases. When mf is larger than 1
104 kg/s, Tmax is con-
trolled below 313 K (40 ), which meets the requirement of battery
temperature. With the additional increase of mf, the improvement
of cooling effect is weakened. For instance, when mf is risen from
1
103 kg/s to 2
103 kg/s, Tmax is decreased by only 0.80 K.
Compared to Tmax, DT changes less with mf. At mf as 1
104 kg/
s, DT is 4.806 K, satisfying the demand of the temperature differ-
ence of battery. Besides, the pressure drop of the cooling channel
for the TCS is 128 Pa. Table 3 also shows that DP increases rapidly
as mf increases. For example, both the situations with mf as
1
103 kg/s and 1
104 kg/s satisfy the temperature demand
of BTM, but DP of the former is more than 20 times than that of
the latter. Too large mf is less economical due to large power con-
sumption. Therefore, the moderate mf should be chosen by consid-
ering both the cooling performance and the pressure drop.
 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581 7

Fig. 5. Tmax (a) and DT (b) with time for 5C discharge rate process for various mass flow rates.

Table 3 Table 4
Temperature and pressure drop for various values of mass flow rates. The performance of the TCSs with various parameters.

mf Tmax DT DP D h a Tmax DT mTCS DP W

(kg/s) (K) (K) (Pa) (mm) (mm) (°) (K) (K) (g) (Pa)
1
105 323.49 4.756 11 1 65 80 312.30 4.6242 9.77 1992 –
2
105 318.11 4.591 22 1.5 65 80 312.28 4.6764 9.60 403 6.60
4
105 314.83 4.533 45 2 65 80 312.22 4.8059 9.36 128 3.72
1
104 312.22 4.806 128 2.5 65 80 312.24 4.7989 9.05 53 87.97
2
104 310.74 5.057 302 3 65 80 312.23 4.8410 8.67 26 18.00
1
103 308.19 5.338 2681
2 65 80 312.22 4.8059 9.36 128 –
2
103 307.39 5.338 7224
2 64 80 312.25 4.5741 9.21 128 0.62
2 62 80 312.30 4.2860 8.93 128 0.50
2 60 80 312.36 4.0585 8.64 128 0.63
2 58 80 312.42 3.8670 8.35 128 0.75
2 56 80 312.49 3.7004 8.06 128 0.86
2 55 80 312.62 3.6991 7.92 128 108.24
2 54 80 312.83 3.8180 7.77 128 1.21
2 53 80 313.06 3.9419 7.63 128 1.16
2 65 40 312.68 5.5771 5.68 128 0.20
2 65 60 312.40 5.1233 7.52 128 0.29
2 65 80 312.22 4.8059 9.36 128 0.47
2 65 100 312.08 4.5459 11.79 128 0.94
2 65 120 311.97 4.3447 15.58 128 –

result in smaller frictional resistance. Moreover, mTCS is decreased

significantly as d increases. However, considering the structural
strength, d cannot be too large due to the demand of the structural
strength. Therefore, moderate d should be chosen under the con-
sideration of DP and mTCS.
Fig. 6. Tmax, DT and pressure drop for various inner diameters of TCS.

4.3. Effects of the contact surface height of TCS

4.2. Effects of the inner diameter of TCS
In this section, mf, a and h are set as 1
104 kg/s, 80°, 65 mm,
respectively, and the effects of d on the performance of TCS is
investigated. The values of Tmax, DT and DP at the end of the dis-
charge process for various values of d are shown in Fig. 6. The rel-
ative results are also summarized in Table 4. It can be seen that
Tmax and DT change little with d. As mf is fixed, smaller d leads to
larger velocity, resulting in a larger convective heat transfer coeffi-
cient. Meanwhile, the heat transfer area is reduced as d is
decreased. Thus, the total convective heat transfer changes little
with d. That is, the value of d does not influence the cooling perfor-
mance of the TCS much. As for the pressure drop of the channel in
the TCS, DP decreases as d increases. This is because larger d will
In this section, mf, d and a are set as 1
104 kg/s, 2 mm and
80°, respectively, and the influence of h is investigated. As the tem-
perature of the battery cell around the TCS inlet is lower than the
one around the outlet, the contact surface height of the TCS is
reduced from the inlet part, the schematic of which is shown in
Fig. 7. Tmax, DT and mTCS for various values of h are shown in
Fig. 8. The relative results are summarized in Table 4. It can be
observed that Tmax increases gently as h decreases. DT decreases
first and then increases with h, finally achieving the minimum
value when h = 55 mm. It can be concluded that the TCS achieves
the best cooling performance when h = 55 mm. Note that the cool-
ing water around the inlet has lower temperature than the one
around the outlet, which is one of the reasons causing the temper-
8 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581

ature difference inside the battery cell. Fig. 9 depicts the tempera-
ture distributions of the battery with various values of h. It can be
seen that the slice reduction of the TCS around the inlet can
increase the temperature of battery around the inlet, which can
also reduce the temperature difference of battery. However, when
h is reduced too much, the battery part without contacting the TCS
is difficult to be cooled by the TCS due to small thermal conductiv-
ity of the battery cell, causing obvious increase of Tmax. This can be
seen from the temperature contours in Fig. 9. When h = 65 mm or
h = 55 mm, Tmax exists at the bottom center of the battery. When
h = 53 mm, Tmax exceeds 313 K and exists at the top center of the
battery. As for mTCS, it decreases linearly with h. Therefore, choos-
ing moderate value of h is effective to reduce mTCS while maintain-
ing the cooling performance of the TCS.

4.4. Effects of contact surface angle of TCS

In this section, mf, d and h are set as 1
104 kg/s, 2 mm,

65 mm, respectively. The effect of the contact surface angle (a) of
TCS is studied. The values of 40°, 60°, 80°, 100° and 120° are con-
sidered for a. Fig. 10 depicts the comparison of Tmax and DT at
Fig. 7. Schematic of the contact surface height of the TCS.
the end of the 5C discharge process and the weights of the TCSs.

Fig. 8. Tmax, DT and mTCS for various contact surface heights of the TCS. Fig. 10. Tmax, DT and the weight for various contact surface angles of the TCS.

Fig. 9. Temperature contours of battery for three values of contact surface height (h) of TCS.
 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581 9

The relative results are also summarized in Table 4. The numerical

results show that Tmax and DT are reduced as a increases. Larger a
increases the heat transfer area between the battery cell and the
TCS, which enhances the heat conduction. When a changes from
40° to 120°, Tmax and DT are reduced by 0.7 K and 1.2 K, respec-
tively. However, larger a will remarkably increase mTCS. Changing
a from 40° to 120°, mTCS is increased by about three times. There-
fore, the appropriate contact surface angle should be chosen after
considering the cooling performance and mTCS.

5. Design of the structure of TCS

In this section, the structural parameters of the TCS are

designed to improve the cooling performance and reduce mTCS.
From the analysis above, DT is more sensitive to the structural
parameters than Tmax, so DT is mainly considered. To evaluate
the influences of three structural parameters (h, a and d) on DT
and mTCS, a weight sensitive factor is defined as




mTCS;1  mTCS;2

wX ¼


ð14Þ
ðDT 1  DT 2 Þ  ðX 1  X 2 Þ

where WX is the weight sensitive factor. X represents the considered
structural parameters, such as h, a and d. The subscripts x and y rep-
resent two parameter values. W represents the variability of mTCS to
the change of DT for the unit change of one certain parameter.
When the value of W is larger, the influence of the parameter on
mTCS is more obvious. Note that X1 and X2 are the adjacent values
of X. For example, for the parameter point as h = 55 mm, d = 2 mm
and a = 80°,Wh is defined as (8.061379  7.917426)/
((3.70043  3.69910)
(56–55)) = 108.24. The values of W for var-
ious situations are also listed in Table 4. It can be seen that d is the
most important parameter that influences on mTCS. h is the sec-
ondary parameter, and a is the parameter with the minimal impact
on mTCS. Based on this characteristic, the structural parameters of
the TCS are designed. Table 5 lists the performances of the TCSs
with various parameters during the design process. The TCS with
h, a and d as 65 mm, 80°, 2 mm is defined as the original TCS, which
is denoted as TCS-0. In Table 5, gDT represents the variation percent-
age of DT compared to the one of TCS-0. A negative value of gDT
means DT is decreased after design. gmTCS represents the variation
Fig. 11. Comparisons of weight ratios of different schemes.
percentage of mTCS compared to the one of TCS-0. Similarly, a neg-
ative value of gmTCS means mTCS is reduced. The subscripts n repre-
sents the values of TCS-n and 0 represents the value of TCS-0.
DT n  DT 0
gDT n ¼ ð15Þ
DT 0
mTCS;n  mTCS;0
gmTCS;n ¼ ð16Þ
mTCS;n
When designing TCS, d is designed first with other parameters
fixed. According to the results in Table 5, the cooling performance
changes little, and mTCS and DP are reduced remarkably as d
increases. Thus, from the view of mTCS and DP, d is desirable to
be large. However, considering the structural strength of the TCS,
d cannot be too large. Considering the cooling performance, pres-
sure drop and the structural strength, d is chosen as 3 mm, and
the TCS with h = 65 mm, a = 80° and d = 3 mm is denoted as TCS-
1. The results in Table 5 show that TCS-1 has similar cooling perfor-
mance as TCS-0, but mTCS is reduced by 7%, and DP is reduced by
80%. Based on TCS-1, the value of h is designed. Various values of
h are considered and the performance of the relevant TCSs are

Table 5
The performance of the TCSs during the design process.

d h a Tmax DT gDT mTCS gmTCS DP

(mm) (mm) (°) (K) (K) (%) (g) (%) (Pa)
TCS-0 2 65 80 312.22 4.806 0.0% 9.36 0.00% 128.11
1 65 80 312.30 4.624 4% 9.77 4% 1992.06
1.5 65 80 312.28 4.676 3% 9.60 3% 403.35
2 65 80 312.22 4.806 0.0% 9.36 0.00% 128.11
2.5 65 80 312.24 4.799 0.2% 9.05 3% 53.21
TCS-1 3 65 80 312.23 4.841 0.7% 8.67 7% 26.13
3 65 80 312.23 4.841 0.7% 8.67 7% 26.13
3 64 80 312.25 4.596 4% 8.53 9% 26.13
3 62 80 312.30 4.296 11% 8.27 12% 26.13
3 60 80 312.36 4.060 16% 8.00 14% 26.13
3 58 80 312.42 3.865 20% 7.73 17% 26.13
3 56 80 312.49 3.692 23% 7.47 20% 26.13
TCS-2 3 55 80 312.60 3.696 23% 7.33 22% 26.13
3 54 80 312.82 3.807 21% 7.20 23% 26.13
3 53 80 313.05 3.930 18% 7.07 24% 26.13
3 55 40 313.07 4.369 9% 4.22 54% 26.13
TCS-3 3 55 50 312.90 4.137 14% 5.03 46% 26.13
3 55 60 312.77 3.953 18% 5.78 38% 26.13
3 55 70 312.67 3.805 21% 6.53 30% 26.13
3 55 80 312.60 3.696 23% 7.33 22% 26.13
3 55 90 312.55 3.604 25% 8.27 12% 26.13
10 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of the 4 types inlet and outlet directions of the reservoir plate.

listed in Table 5. It can be observed that when h = 56 mm, the min- decreases. In order to make sure that Tmax is controlled below
imum DT as 3.692 K is obtained. When h changes from 56 mm to 313 K, a is chosen as 50° and the relevant TCS is denoted as TCS-
55 mm, mTCS is reduced further with DT almost unchanged. Thus, 3. DT of TCS-3 is only 4.1 K. Compared to TCS-0, DT is reduced by
h is chosen as 55 mm and the relevant TCS is denoted as TCS-2. 14% and mTCS is reduced by 46% for TCS-3. In general, considering
Compared to TCS-0, DT is reduced by 23% and mTCS is reduced by the improvement of DT and mTCS, the structural parameters are
22% for TCS-2. Based on the structural parameters with chosen as d = 3 mm, h = 55 mm and a = 50°. With the designed
h = 55 mm and d = 3 mm, a is designed. The results for various val- parameters, the TCS can meet the temperature control require-
ues of a are summarized in Table 5. The results show that Tmax and ments of battery cell.
DT increase gradually as a decreases, and mTCS decreases as a To test the effectiveness of the present lightweight design, the
solutions in previous studies [17,34] are introduced to compare
Table 6 with TCS-0 and TCS-3. For various solutions, the weight ratios of
Effect of different inlet and outlet directions on flow distribution uniformity of flow the cooling structure to the whole battery system are calculated,
channel structure. and the results are shown in Fig. 11. It can be seen from Fig. 11 that
System c DP (Pa) before the lightweight design, the weight ratio of TCS-0 is similar
AA1-00 0.090 146.5
to the ones of the cooling structures in previous studies. After
AA1-10 0.023 150.1 the present lightweight design, the weight ratio of TCS-3 is reduced
AA1-01 0.091 182.0 by at least 36% compared to other solutions, which verifies the
AA1-11 0.022 186.1 effectiveness of the present design.

Fig. 13. The flow rate distribution among the parallel TCSs for AA1-00 and AA1-01.
 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581
6. Performance of liquid-cooled BTMS
In this section, the performance of parallel liquid-cooled BTMS
shown in Fig. 1 is discussed. In the system, the designed TCS com-
poses the parallel channels. Note that the uniformity of the flow
rates among parallel TCSs significantly influences the temperature
uniformity of battery pack. The mass flow rate in different parallel
channels in the system is calculated by numerical method. In order
to evaluate the uniformity of the flow rates among parallel chan-
nels, the dimensionless uneven coefficient c is defined by
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
PN  2
i¼1 ðmf  mf Þ
i
c¼  pffiffiffiffi
mf N
 the liquid-cooled BTM system.
where mif and mf are the mass flow rate of the ith channels and the
average flow rate among the parallel flow channels, respectively. N
is the number of parallel flow channels. The smaller the c value is,
the better the uniformity of the flow rates is. When c is equal to 0,
the flow rates among parallel channels are the same. Four systems
with different positions of inlets and outlets are considered, which
are denoted as AA1-00, AA1-10, AA1-01 and AA1-11, respectively.
The schematics of the systems are shown in Fig. 12.
The comparison of the performances for various systems are
shown in Table 6. It can be seen from Table 6 that AA1-10 performs
better than other systems. The dimensionless uneven coefficient
and the pressure drop of AA1-10 are both small. It means that
AA1-10 can achieve uniform flow rates among the parallel channels
as well as small power consumption. Fig. 13 shows the flow rate
distribution among the parallel channels for AA1-00 and AA1-10.
It can be seen that the flow rates of the channels in AA1-10 are
much more uniform than the ones in AA1-00. Therefore, the tem-
perature difference of the battery pack for AA1-10 is close to the
one of a single battery. For AA1-10, the maximum and the mini-
mum mass flow rates among the parallel channels are
1.15
104 kg/s and 9.79
104 kg/s, respectively, which are sim-
ilar to 1
104 kg/s. According to the results in Section 5, Tmax and
DT of a single battery for the mass flow rate as 1
104 kg/s are
313 K and 4.1 K, respectively. Therefore, it can be implied that
AA1-10 with multiple parallel TCSs can meet the temperature con-
trol requirements of battery pack.
7. Conclusions
In this study, a compact and lightweight liquid-cooled BTM sys-
tem is presented to control the temperature of Li-ion batteries. The
18650-type battery cell is introduced and the 5C high discharge
rate process is considered. A novel thermal conductive structure
(TCS) with three curved contact surfaces is proposed to cool bat-
tery cells. Effects of mass flow rate (mf), inner diameter (d), contact
surface height (h) and contact surface angle (a) of TCS on the per-
formance of the TCS are systematically discussed. Then the struc-
tural parameters are designed to reduce the weight of TCS (mTCS).
The conclusions are obtained as follows.
1. After introducing the TCS, for the situation of 5C discharge rate
process, Tmax can be controlled below 313 K and DT is con-
trolled below 5 K when mf is 1
104 kg/s, satisfying the
demand of battery temperature. When mf increases, Tmax
decreases and DP increases rapidly.
2. Increasing d can effectively reduce DP and mTCS with negligible
changes in Tmax and DT. The moderate reduction of h from the
inlet part can reduce DT and mTCS with slight increase of Tmax.
Increasing a can reduce Tmax and DT and increase mTCS. For
the three structural parameters of TCS, d is the most important
11
parameter that influences mTCS, h is the secondary parameter,
and a is the parameter with the minimal impact on mTCS.
3. The three structural parameters of TCS are designed according
to the order as d, h and a. Compared to the original TCS, DP,
DT and mTCS are respectively reduced by 80%, 14% and 46% for
the designed TCS while Tmax is controlled below 313 K.
4. For the liquid-cooled system with parallel TCSs, the flow rates
among the parallel channels can be homogenized through
designing the directions of the inlet and the outlet of the sys-
tem. For the improved system, the temperature difference of
battery pack is similar to the one of a single battery cell.
It is worth noting that the design process in this study is avail-
ð17Þ able for various types of cylindrical batteries. The present study
facilitates the guideline for compact and lightweight design of
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by National Natural Science Founda-
tion of China (Grant No. 51536003) and Dongguan Innovative
Research Team Program (No. 2014607119).
References
[1] C.F. Lopez, J.A. Jeevarajan, P.P. Mukherjee, Experimental analysis of thermal
runaway and propagation in lithium-ion battery modules, J. Electrochem. Soc.
162 (2015) A1905–A1915.
[2] A. Lazrak, J. Fourmigué, J. Robin, An innovative practical battery thermal
management system based on phase change materials: Numerical and
experimental investigations, Appl. Therm. Eng. 128 (2018) 20–32.
[3] P. Ramadass, B. Haran, R. White, B.N. Popov, Capacity fade of Sony 18650 cells
cycled at elevated temperatures Part II. Capacity fade analysis, J. Power Sources
112 (2002) 614–620.
[4] A. Hofmann, N. Uhlmann, C. Ziebert, O. Wiegand, A. Schmidt, T. Hanemann,
Preventing Li-ion cell explosion during thermal runaway with reduced
pressure, Appl. Therm. Eng. 124 (2017) 539–544.
[5] T.M. Bandhauer, S. Garimella, T.F. Fuller, A critical review of thermal issues in
lithium-ion batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 158 (2011) R1–R25.
[6] M. Keyser, A. Pesaran, Q. Li, S. Santhanagopalan, K. Smith, E. Wood, S. Ahmed, I.
Bloom, E. Dufek, M. Shirk, A. Meintz, C. Kreuzer, C. Michelbacher, A. Burnham,
T. Stephens, J. Francfort, B. Carlson, J. Zhang, R. Vijayagopal, K. Hardy, F. Dias, M.
Mohanpurkar, D. Scoffield, A.N. Jansen, T. Tanim, A. Markel, Enabling fast
charging – battery thermal considerations, J. Power Sources 367 (2017) 228–
236.
[7] S. Shojaei, A. McGordon, S. Robinson, J. Marco, Improving the performance
attributes of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles in hot climates through key-off
battery cooling, Energies 10 (2017) 2058.
[8] N. Yang, X. Zhang, B. Shang, G. Li, Unbalanced discharging and aging due to
temperature differences among the cells in a lithium-ion battery pack with
parallel combination, J. Power Sources 306 (2016) 733–741.
[9] A.A. Pesaran, Battery thermal models for hybrid vehicle simulations, J. Power
Sources 110 (2002) 377–382.
[10] M. Malik, I. Dincer, M.A. Rosen, Review on use of phase change materials in
battery thermal management for electric and hybrid electric vehicles, Int. J.
Energy Res. 40 (2016) 1011–1031.
[11] K. Chen, W. Wu, F. Yuan, L. Chen, S. Wang, Cooling efficiency improvement of
air-cooled battery thermal management system through designing the flow
pattern, Energy 167 (2019) 781–790.
[12] S. Park, D. Jung, Battery cell arrangement and heat transfer fluid effects on the
parasitic power consumption and the cell temperature distribution in a hybrid
electric vehicle, J. Power Sources 227 (2013) 191–198.
[13] R. Mahamud, C. Park, Reciprocating air flow for Li-ion battery thermal
management to improve temperature uniformity, J. Power Sources 196
(2011) 5685–5696.
[14] K. Chen, M. Song, W.F. Wei, S. Wang, Design of the structure of battery pack in
parallel air-cooled battery thermal management system for cooling efficiency
improvement, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 132 (2019) 309–321.
[15] D. Chen, J. Jiang, G. Kim, C. Yang, A. Pesaran, Comparison of different cooling
methods for lithium ion battery cells, Appl. Therm. Eng. 94 (2016) 846–854.
[16] S. Panchal, R. Khasow, I. Dincer, M. Agelin-Chaab, R. Fraser, M. Fowler, Thermal
design and simulation of mini-channel cold plate for water cooled large sized
prismatic lithium-ion battery, Appl. Therm. Eng. 122 (2017) 80–90.
12 Y. Lai et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118581
[17] S. Basu, K.S. Hariharan, S.M. Kolake, T. Song, D.K. Sohn, T. Yeo, Coupled
electrochemical thermal modelling of a novel Li-ion battery pack thermal
management system, Appl. Energy 181 (2016) 1–13.
[18] S. Al Hallaj, J.R. Selman, A novel thermal management system for electric
vehicle batteries using phase-change material, J. Electrochem. Soc. 147 (2000)
3231–3236.
[19] J. Smith, R. Singh, M. Hinterberger, M. Mochizuki, Battery thermal
management system for electric vehicle using heat pipes, Int. J. Therm. Sci.
134 (2018) 517–529.
[20] Z. Wang, X. Li, G. Zhang, Y. Lv, J. He, J. Luo, C. Yang, C. Yang, Experimental study
of a passive thermal management system for three types of battery using
copper foam saturated with phase change materials, RSC Adv. 7 (2017) 27441–
27448.
[21] W. Wu, X. Yang, G. Zhang, K. Chen, S. Wang, Experimental investigation on the
thermal performance of heat pipe-assisted phase change material based
battery thermal management system, Energy Convers. Manage. 138 (2017)
486–492.
[22] S. Wang, Y. Li, Y. Li, Y. Mao, Y. Zhang, W. Guo, M. Zhong, A forced gas cooling
circle packaging with liquid cooling plate for the thermal management of Li-
ion batteries under space environment, Appl. Therm. Eng. 123 (2017) 929–
939.
[23] B. Coleman, J. Ostanek, J. Heinzel, Reducing cell-to-cell spacing for large-
format lithium ion battery modules with aluminum or PCM heat sinks under
failure conditions, Appl. Energy 180 (2016) 14–26.
[24] M. Al-Zareer, I. Dincer, M.A. Rosen, Electrochemical modeling and performance
evaluation of a new ammonia-based battery thermal management system for
electric and hybrid electric vehicles, Electrochim. Acta 247 (2017) 171–182.
[25] Y. Huo, Z. Rao, The numerical investigation of nanofluid based cylinder battery
thermal management using lattice Boltzmann method, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf.
91 (2015) 374–384.
[26] Y. Ren, Z. Yu, G. Song, Thermal management of a Li-ion battery pack employing
water evaporation, J. Power Sources 360 (2017) 166–171.
[27] S. Zhang, R. Zhao, J. Liu, J. Gu, Investigation on a hydrogel based passive
thermal management system for lithium ion batteries, Energy 68 (2014) 854–
861.
[28] L.W. Jin, P.S. Lee, X.X. Kong, Y. Fan, S.K. Chou, Ultra-thin minichannel LCP for EV
battery thermal management, Appl. Energy 113 (2014) 1786–1794.
[29] C. Lan, J. Xu, Y. Qiao, Y. Ma, Thermal management for high power lithium-ion
battery by minichannel aluminum tubes, Appl. Therm. Eng. 101 (2016) 284–
292.
[30] T. Zhang, Q. Gao, G. Wang, Y. Gu, Y. Wang, Investigation on the promotion of
temperature uniformity for the designed Battery Pack with Liquid Flow in
cooling process, Appl. Therm. Eng. 116 (2017) 655–662.
[31] Q. Wang, B. Jiang, B. Li, Y. Yan, A critical review of thermal management
models and solutions of lithium-ion batteries for the development of pure
electric vehicles, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 64 (2016) 106–128.
[32] H. Liu, Z. Wei, W. He, J. Zhao, Thermal issues about Li-ion batteries and recent
progress in battery thermal management systems: a review, Energy Convers.
Manage. 150 (2017) 304–330.
[33] C. Zhao, W. Cao, T. Dong, F. Jiang, Thermal behavior study of discharging/
charging cylindrical lithium-ion battery module cooled by channeled liquid
flow, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 120 (2018) 751–762.
[34] Z. Rao, Z. Qian, Y. Kuang, Y. Li, Thermal performance of liquid cooling based
thermal management system for cylindrical lithium-ion battery module with
variable contact surface, Appl. Therm. Eng. 123 (2017) 1514–1522.
[35] J. Zhao, Z. Rao, Y. Li, Thermal performance of mini-channel liquid cooled
cylinder based battery thermal management for cylindrical lithium-ion power
battery, Energy Convers. Manage. 103 (2015) 157–165.
[36] S. Pagerit, P. Sharer, A. Rousseau, Fuel Economy Sensitivity to Vehicle Mass for
Advanced Vehicle Powertrains, Society of Automotive Engineers, 2006.
[37] H. Li, X. Li, The present situation and the development trend of new materials
used in automobile lightweight, Appl. Mech. Mater. 189 (2012) 58–62.
[38] J.F. Miller, D. Howell, The EV Everywhere Grand Challenge, IEEE, 2013, pp. 1–6.
[39] D. Bernardi, E. Pawlikowski, J. Newman, A general energy balance for battery
systems, J. Electrochem. Soc. 132 (1985) 5–12.
[40] D.H. Jeon, S.M. Baek, Thermal modeling of cylindrical lithium ion battery
during discharge cycle, Energy Convers. Manage. 52 (2011) 2973–2981.