Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Research Papers

Numerical and experimental investigations of thermal performance of

lithium-ion battery with hybrid cooling system under dry-out condition
P.M. Sutheesh , A.P. Atul, B. Rohinikumar *
CFD Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, Kerala, India, 673601

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Thermal management is essential for Lithium-ion batteries used in electrical vehicles. The present study focussed
BTMS on numerical simulation of thermal performance of six configurations of hybrid cooling system at dry out
Hybrid cooling condition (HCSDC) and compared with simple air cooling system (SACS) under different discharge and flow
Air cooling
conditions. SACS could not keep the required average temperature and temperature uniformity at 2C and 3C
Lithium-ion battery
conditions for Re values of 764–6113. BP-4 configuration of HCSDC has the best thermal performance in higher
CFD
Numerical method Re values at all discharge conditions. Maximum increase in temperature uniformity of 27.54 % over SACS and 26
% over threshold and maximum reduction in average temperature is 2.86 K lower than SACS for BP-4 at 2C
condition. Simulation predictions of SACS and BP-4 configurations are validated with experimental results ob­
tained and the maximum deviation in absolute temperature was observed as 0.48 % and 0.31 %, respectively.
Actual capacity of the cell is 54 % of the rated capacity by experiments. Experimental and simulation results
indicate that the penultimate cell experiences highest temperature than last one due to difference in the wake
regions. The non-uniformity of temperature within the battery is associated with the temperature difference
between the first and penultimate cells.

EVs and energy storage systems rely on complex arrangements of

1. Introduction
Automobiles powered by internal combustion engines that utilize
gasoline and diesel fuels are recognized as significant emitters of carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas responsible for global warming [1]. The
transportation sector contributes almost 25 % of the world’s greenhouse
gas emissions [1,2]. Capping global warming below 1.5 K will demand a
significant reduction of emissions from the transportation sector [1]. A
pivotal phase in reducing carbon emissions will be the electrification of
transportation sector. Recent advances with electric vehicles (EVs),
indicate a positive trend for the EV industry. With the major automakers
joining the race, production and sales of EVs are expected to increase
rapidly in the upcoming years [1,3]. In modern EVs, the rechargeable
battery is a critical component that requires outstanding performance.
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as the preferred choice for
EVs due to their superior energy and power density, long operational
lifespan [4–6], and environmental-friendly characteristics compared to
alternatives such as Ni–Cd, Ni-MH, and Lead-acid batteries [7].
cells in series and parallel to form battery packs, but their adoption is
hindered by limited battery pack temperature limits [5]. The operating
temperature of battery packs plays a critical role in determining their
lifespan [8]. Maintaining the temperature range between 20 and 40 ◦ C
for lithium-ion batteries, is crucial for their longevity [9–11]. Without
an effective thermal management, excess thermal energy can accumu­
late, posing safety risks and potentially leading to explosions. Operating
the battery pack beyond optimal temperature limits accelerates its
degradation. Additionally, the temperature homogeneity of the battery
pack affects its charging and discharging capabilities [12]. In colder
conditions, the power of the battery pack is controlled by the cell with
the lowest temperature, while in elevated temperatures, the cell with the
highest temperature assumes the control. This temperature disparity
results in uneven charging and discharging rates among individual cells,
causing electrical imbalances that negatively impact the battery pack’s
operational effectiveness.
Several investigations explored different cooling strategies for ther­
mal regulation of batteries, including cooling by air, water, and phase

Abbreviations: BTMS, Battery Thermal Management System; eff , Effective; Calib, Calibration; BP, Battery Pack; EV, Electric Vehicle; TCS, Thermal Conductance
Structure; SACS, Simple Air Cooling System; HCSDC, Hybrid Cooling System under Dry out Conditions; SEI, Solid Electrolyte Interface; LCP, Liquid cooling plate;
PCMs, Phase Change Materials.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rohinikumar@nitc.ac.in (B. Rohinikumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.110889
Received 30 August 2023; Received in revised form 31 January 2024; Accepted 8 February 2024
Available online 16 February 2024
2352-152X/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

Nomenclature Q̇total Volumetric heat generation (W m− 3)

Dh Hydraulic diameter (mm)
T Temperature (K) k Turbulence kinetic energy (J/kg)
C Charge/Discharge rate Vn Normal velocity (m/s)
ρ Density (kg m− 3) S@Tsen Sensitivity of the heat flux sensor
c Lithium concentration at electrolyte-electrode interface ηi Over potential between positive and negative electrodes
(mol m− 3) (V)
t Time (s) t+ Transport number
V Voltage (V) F1 Blending function in SST model
ṁ Mass flow rate (kg s− 1) Rcc Electrical resistance of connector contact (Ω)
u x-directional velocity (m/s) Acc Connector contact area on the terminal (m2)
D Diameter (mm) Ei Equilibrium potential (V)
Nu Mean Nusselt number e Effective
→
V Velocity vector (m/s) σk Turbulent Prandtl numbers for turbulence kinetic energy
k Thermal conductivity (W m− 1 K− 1) σω Turbulent Prandtl numbers for specific dissipation rate
R Characteristic gas constant (J/kg K− 1) y Nearest wall distance (mm)
F Faraday’s constant (9.64845604C mol− 1) CDkω Cross-diffusion term
v y-directional velocity (m/s) kf Coolant thermal conductivity (W m− 1 K− 1)
P Pressure (Pa) TS Average surface temperature (K)
f Coefficient of molar activity of electrolyte Tm,i Mean temperature at inlet (K)
w z-directional velocity (m/s) Uavg Average velocity at inlet (m/s)
U Average velocity (m/s) Tm,o Mean temperature at outlet (K)
Re Reynolds number Ainlet Area at inlet (m2)
H Width (m) ∀ Volume (m3)
L Length (m) ke Cell effective thermal conductivity (W m− 1 K− 1)
Z Height (m) cp Cell effective specific heat capacity (J/kg K− 1)
h Average convective heat transfer coefficient ji Specific reaction
Subscripts and Superscripts ai Surface area (m2)
cp Specific heat capacity (J/kg K− 1) Ca Cell capacity (A h)
σeff ,i Effective electric conductivity (S m− 1) td Cell discharge time (s)
keff ,i Rate constant of electrochemical reaction (m/s) Id Discharge current (A)
ϕs,i Electric potential (V) Greek symbols
∅ Properties (Pressure, Temperature etc.)
ΔϕSEI Voltage drop at SEI film (V)
ω Rate of specific dissipation (s− 1)
ϕe,i Electrolyte potential (V)
Cl Solution phase electrolyte concentration (mol m− 3) α, β* SST model constant
μ Dynamic viscosity (Pa s)
h Average heat transfer coefficient (W m− 2 K− 1)
Δ Small change
TS Average surface temperature (K)
V0 Open circuit voltage (V)

change material (PCM) [13]. Yang et al. [14] conducted a comparative
study on battery pack arrangements, revealing the impact of longitudi­
nal distance variations on average cell temperature in both aligned and
staggered configurations. Notably, aligned arrangements demonstrated
superior thermal performance. Zhao et al. [15] investigated the influ­
ence of a liquid-cooled cylinder around cylindrical Li-ion cells,
observing enhanced heat transfer rates with an increased number of
channels. Saw et al. [16] evaluated thermal performance of air-cooled
battery packs through numerical simulations, establishing a correla­
tion between Reynolds number and Nusselt number for estimating
thermal management effectiveness.
Jaguemont et al. [17] reviewed the performance loss and degrada­
tion of LIBs in cold climates and compared conventional cooling ap­
proaches using gas, liquid, and PCM. Choudhari et al. [18] numerically
compared different battery pack (BP) configurations with and without
PCM and with fins inside the PCM, concluded that the design with PCM
and fins significantly reducing the maximum temperature during high C-
rates. Saw et al. [19] compared the thermal behaviour of mist-cooled
and air-cooled battery thermal management systems (BTMS),
concluded that mist cooling can effectively maintain battery pack tem­
perature below the optimum levels. Shahid et al. [20] investigated the
impact of additional inlets on thermal management in simple air-cooled
BPs, inferred that thermal uniformity was improved with additional
inlets within the BTMS. Mangrulkar et al. [21] studied the staggered BPs
with and without a splitter plate, finding that the introduction of a
splitter plate increased the Nusselt number while reducing pressure
drop. Shahid et al. [22] developed a non-active technique using an inlet
plenum in the BP, optimized the geometrical dimensions and Reynolds
number through numerical analysis and experimental validation.
Sheng et al. [23] employed the numerical techniques to assess six
distinct serpentine-channel liquid cooling plate (LCP) designs for pris­
matic lithium-ion cells. Parameters such as coolant flow rate, inlet/
outlet positioning, C-rate, and single versus double serpentine channels
were systematically studied. Key performance metrics, including
maximum temperature, temperature difference and pumping power
were analyzed. The results highlighted the significant impact of inlet/
outlet locations and flow directions on cell temperature distribution and
LCP power consumption ratio. Increased fluid flow rates were found to
effectively reduce maximum temperature rise, while channel width
influenced power consumption. The study highlights the superior ther­
mal management capabilities of serpentine-channel design, offering a
promising approach for efficient and cost-effective LIB thermal systems.
Shang et al. [24] have introduced an innovative cellular liquid cooling
jacket design for thermal management of Li-ion 21,700 cells. Through a
comprehensive analysis encompassing both experimental and simula­
tion methodologies, the findings elucidate that the adoption of

2
P.M. Sutheesh et al.
interlaced flow directions yields a notably more uniform thermal dis­
tribution. A meticulous comparison between numerical and experi­
mental outcomes indicated a negligible deviation of <1.5 ◦ C.
Wei et al. [25] conducted a comprehensive experimental investiga­
tion on a novel hybrid cooling method aimed at enhancing heat transfer
through evaporative cooling. Hydrophilic fibers were strategically
placed around each cell in the study, which yielded to superior thermal
efficiency compared to configurations employing liquid cooling or no
cooling. Furthermore, in a separate set of experiments [26], Wei et al.
explored a system that utilized a hybrid cooling approach combining
evaporative cooling and simple air cooling. The incorporation of hy­
drophilic fibers between the cells in the system resulted in a substantial
improvement in thermal efficiency compared to configurations without
cooling or relying solely on air cooling.
Lu et al. [27] numerically analyzed the impact of channel dimensions
and air flow pattern on the thermal performance of staggered cell ar­
rangements within the BP. The results showed improved thermal per­
formance when the inlet was located on top and the outlet on the bottom
of the BTMS. Jiang et al. [28] analyzed different cooling strategies by
adjusting the inlet and outlet positions and introducing baffles within
the BP. A design equipped with baffles and inlet and outlet on different
sides demonstrated the improved thermal performance. Ji et al. [29]
developed a numerical model for optimizing the placement of cells
within the BP cooling channel based on arithmetic and geometric ratios.
The BP configuration with cells arranged based on arithmetic ratio
achieved the better temperature uniformity.
Lai et al. [30] conducted a computational analysis to optimize the
dimensions of a thermal conductance structure while maintaining
thermal performance. The study focused on parameters such as height,
diameter, and surface angle to make the structure more compact. The
optimized structure successfully maintained the highest temperature
and temperature difference within the optimal range. Xu et al. [31]
performed a computational analysis to optimize the design of serpentine
and U-shaped cooling channels. The results showed that the serpentine
channel exhibited better thermal performance compared to the U-sha­
ped channel. Elmekawy et al. [32] conducted a computational analysis
on the effect of a splitter plate in a BP with staggered cells. The presence
of a splitter plate reduced the pressure drop and enhanced the Nusselt
number. Shahid et al. [33] conducted research on a hybrid cooling
system using a numerical model, including vortex generators, multiple
inlets, and a liquid cooling jacket surrounding the cells. The findings
demonstrated a significant improvement in temperature uniformity
within the BP.
In the field of thermal management for lithium-ion batteries, earlier
investigations were focused on evaluating the performance of hybrid
cooling systems with the combined effect of air and evaporative cooling
under the normal operating conditions. Regrettably, the performance of
the hybrid cooling systems during dry out conditions, which result in
suboptimal behaviour of the BTMS, has not been explored in the liter­
ature. Additionally, the influence of number of fibers, position of fibers
and inter-fiber distance on the fluid flow and subsequently thermal
performance of lithium ion battery is yet to be investigated. In the light
of these research gaps, the present study is focussed to identify a supe­
rior configuration of hybrid-cooled battery pack under dry out condi­
tions, surpassing the capabilities of simple air cooling. This study
presents a novel approach, wherein the authors have developed a nu­
merical model of the BTMS incorporating fibers in hybrid cooling system
under dry out conditions. Subsequently, the performance of various
configurations of the hybrid-cooled BTMS at dry out conditions has been
simulated and compared against simple air cooling system. The most
promising hybrid cooling arrangement determined through simulation
and simple air cooling system have been fabricated and subjected to
experimental analysis. Simulation predictions of both the systems are
validated with the corresponding experimental results.
3
Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889
2. Physical system
Electric vehicles employ a battery pack (BP) comprised of inter­
connected cells arranged in series and parallel configuration, which
deliver the required power. The system considered for the present work
consists of a sub module of the BP with eight rows and twenty-three cells
in each row as shown in Fig. 1. To ensure optimal performance, it is
crucial to keep the temperature of the BP within a specific range of 20 ◦ C
to 40 ◦ C, with a maximum temperature difference of 5 ◦ C within the BP
[9–11]. Hence, thermal management of the BP is necessary. Hybrid
cooled BTMS and simple air cooled BTMS are the two different thermal
management strategies considered in the present work.
The main goal of the hybrid cooling technique is to enhance the rate
of heat dissipation from cells, especially during rapid charging/dis­
charging. A hybrid cooled BTMS consisting of forced-air cooling and
passive evaporative cooling, as shown in Fig. 2. The cells are arranged in
a rectangular channel and surrounded by fibers. These fibers are
partially submerged in a water bath and possess hydrophilic properties.
Capillary action allows water to move up through fibers. As air flows
through the system, evaporation of water in the fibers takes place,
absorbing latent heat from the surrounding water and air during the
phase transition. Consequently, the passing air becomes humidified and
cooled. This cooled air, at a lower temperature, passes over the higher
temperature cells, resulting in a higher rate of heat dissipation from the
cells and subsequently reducing their temperature.
The hybrid system functions as a simple air cooling system (SACS) in
the absence of fibers and water bath, which is one of the thermal man­
agement solutions studied in the present work. Hybrid cooling system
under dry out conditions (HCSDC) is the second thermal management
strategy considered in the current work. HSCDC is the configuration of
hybrid cooling system in the absence of water and with the presence of
fibers.
3. Problem definition
3.1. Computational domain
The thermal condition and fluid-cell interactions in the battery
module, with one inlet and one exit, are considered when defining the
system. A single layer of eight cells, shown in Fig. 3, is chosen for nu­
merical and experimental studies of the battery module [34]. The
computational domain for SACS will resemble Fig. 3 and for HCSDC, the
domain is slightly modified with the inclusion of fibers.
3.2. Modelling of the system
Mathematical model is developed to simulate both HCSDC and SACS.
The model development is based on the following assumptions and
considerations:
• System is in steady state
• Fluid flow is three-dimensional, incompressible, and turbulent
• Effect of gravity is neglected
• Homogeneous heat generation with in the cell
• All thermo-physical properties of the working fluid, except density,
are assumed to remain constant
• Effect of radiation is neglected
3.2.1. Heat generation and conduction in the cells
Heat generation in the cell stems from reversible processes,
connector resistance, polarization, and internal resistance [14,35]. In­
ternal resistance encompasses electrical resistance, ion conductive
resistance, and solid electrolyte interface (SEI) film resistance on the
negative electrode. Hence, the general thermal energy equation for the
cell is expressed as follows
P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

Fig. 1. Schematic of the battery submodule.

( )2 ( )
∂ϕs,i ∂ϕe,i 2
Q̇ohm =σ eff ,i + keff ,i
∂x ∂x
( ) (5)
2keff ,i RT(1 − t+ ) dlnf ∂lnCl ∂ϕe,i
+ 1+ + ai ji FΔϕSEI
F dlnCl ∂x ∂x
Where ji is the specific reaction, ai is the specific surface area, F is
Faraday’s constant. The product of these three parameters yields the
current Ii generated by the given area [26].
Ii = ai ji F (6)
The Bernardi Eq. [36] is a widely used simplified method for
calculating the rate of heat generation, and it is commonly employed for
this purpose, given by
dVo
Q̇total = Ii (V0 − V) − Ii T (7)
dT
The right-hand side of Eq. (7) consists of two terms. The first term
integrates Eq. (3) and represents irreversible heat generation due to over
potential across the entire circuit, encompassing polarization and in­
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of hybrid cooling system. ternal resistance. The second term integrates Eq. (5) and represents
reversible entropic heat generation resulting from the overall chemical
∂T reaction within the cell [36].
ρc p = ∇.ke ∇T + Q̇p + Q̇rea + Q̇c + Q̇ohm (1)
∂t
3.2.2. Fluid flow and heat transfer in the system
Where ke is the overall effective thermal conductivity of the cell in The governing equations for fluid flow and heat transfer in the
the BP. Q̇p , Q̇rea , Q̇c and Q̇ohm represent the rate of heat generation due to domain are obtained using mass, momentum, and energy balances as.
polarization, reversible chemical reactions, resistance of connectors, and Continuity:
internal cell resistance, respectively, and they are calculated using [26]. ( →)
∇ • ρV = 0 (8)
Q̇p = ai ji Fηi (2)
Momentum conservation:
dEi
Q̇rea = ai ji FT (3) → (→) →
dT V .∇ V = − ∇P + μ∇2 V (9)
( )
Menter [37] introduced the SST k-ω turbulence model, which com­
Ii2 RAcccc
bines the k-ϵ and k-ω turbulence models. The k-ϵ model is used for the
Q̇c = (4)
v free stream region, while the k-ω model is effective in predicting flow
near the walls.
[ ]
∂(ρUi k) ̃ ∂k ∂k
= Pk − β * ρk ω + (μ + σk μt ) (10)
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi

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P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

Fig. 3. System for the present study.

∂(ρUi ω) ∂
[
∂ω
]
1 ∂k ∂w respectively. Table 1 illustrates the boundary conditions associated with
= αρS2 − β* ρω2 + (μ + σk μt ) + 2(1 − F1 )ρσω2 the system.
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi ω ∂xi ∂xi
(11)
{{ [ ( √̅̅̅ ) ] }4 } 3.4. Computational domain, grid generation and mesh independence
k 500v 4ρσω2k
F1 = tanh min max * , 2 , study
β ωy y ω CDkω y2

(12) 3.4.1. Computational domain

( ) In HSCDC, fibers act as solid obstructions to airflow and do not
1 ∂k ∂ω − contribute significantly to heat transfer between the air and fibers. This
CDkω = max 2ρσω2 , 10 20
(13)
ω ∂xi ∂xi study considers different configurations of HCSDC alongside SAC. A
three-dimensional computational domain is created. The distance be­
Energy equation
tween adjacent cell centers in the flow direction and transverse direction
( )
→
V .∇(ρcP T) = ∇ kf ∇T (14) is 32 mm and 34 mm (2H), respectively. The stream wise length of
computational domain is 1056 mm. The fiber structure is having a
Ideal gas relation is used for finding the density, diameter of 3 mm and height of 65 mm. The total height of the
P = ρRT (15) computational domain is 65 mm, which is equal to the height of the Li-
ion cell. The detailed dimensions of the computational domain are
shown in Fig. 3.
3.3. Boundary conditions
3.4.2. Grid generation
Interaction between the cells in the system and fluid is existing in the
The computational domain is discretized using unstructured hex­
domain between upstream and downstream regions within the x-co­
ahedral and triangular prism elements. The solid-liquid interface is
ordinates x = 0 and x = L. Where, L is the total length of the channel.
refined with a growth rate of 1.2 to capture boundary layer effects. A
The point at the centre inlet of channel serves as the reference point for
biasing is applied in the direction perpendicular to the main stream flow
the coordinate system. The height and width of the domain in which the
to ensure fine mesh near the walls compared to free stream region. Fig. 4
fluid and cells are interacting are 2Z and 2H, in z and y directions,
shows the mesh for SACS, and different HCSDC configurations are also
meshed accordingly.
The SIMPLE scheme is used to interconnect the pressure and velocity
Table 1 fields. A second-order partial discretization method is employed to
Boundary conditions.
discretize the energy, momentum, pressure, and turbulence equations.
# Parameter Flow condition Thermal Under-relaxation factors of 0.3, 0.7, and 0.8 are applied to pressure,
condition momentum, and turbulent kinetic energy, respectively, while a factor of
u (0.y.z) = uaverage T (0.y.z) = 1 is used for density, turbulent viscosity, and energy. Convergence is
1 Inlet
v (0.y.z) = 0, w (0.y.z) = 0 Tambient achieved by maintaining residuals below 10− 3 for continuity and mo­
2 Outlet P (L.y.z) = Pambient ~
mentum, and 10− 8 for energy.
∂T(x, y, +Z)
Top (z = +Z) and =0
3 u = 0, v = 0, w = 0 ∂z
bottom wall (z = − Z) ∂T(x, y, − Z) 3.4.3. Mesh independence study
=0
∂z A mesh sensitivity study was conducted to ensure numerical precision
∂w(x, +H, z) ∂u(x, +H, z) ∂T(x, +H, z)
∂y
= 0,
∂y
= = and optimize the computational time. Meshes with varying numbers of
∂y
Lateral surfaces ∂w(x, − H, z) 0 elements, ranging from 2 × 104 to 150 × 104 , were considered. The dif­
0, = 0,
4 y = +H and y = − H ∂y ∂T(x, − H, z) ference in cell count between adjacent meshes was maintained above 20 %
(Symmetry face) ∂u(x, − H, z) ∂y
=
[22]. For SACS at 1 m/s air velocity with a 5C charge/discharge condition,
= 0,
∂y 0
v =0
a grid independence study was performed using the outlet temperature as
the parameter. The results of each mesh were compared with those of a

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P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

Fig. 4. Discretized computational domain.

Fig. 5. Mesh independence study.

Fig. 6. Comparison of variation of outlet temperature with Reynolds number.

very fine mesh consisting of 4.4 × 106 elements. Fig. 5 illustrates the
variation of the battery module’s outlet temperature with the number of Table 2
elements. A mesh with 139.56 × 104 cells was selected as the grid- Comparison of steady state mean temperature of the cells.
independent mesh for SACS simulation. A similar approach was adopted Sl. No. Average battery module temperature (K) Percentage deviation
for simulating the different configurations of HSCDC. Current model Tete et al. study [37]
(%)

1 299.83 299.14 0.23

3.5. Validation of the model

To establish the reliability of model, a comparison was made be­
tween numerical results and an analytical solution. The outlet temper­
ature of the battery module was determined for various input velocities
with thermodynamic energy balance using
Q̇total
Tm,o = + Tm,i (16)
ṁcp
Where, Q̇total is the total heat released from cells. Tm,o and Tm,i are the
temperature of coolant at outlet and inlet, respectively. Fig. 6 shows the
comparison of the outlet temperature obtained from numerical simula­
tion and analytical results. The maximum difference between the two is
0.001 %. Furthermore, the numerical model developed for this system
was compared with the model by P. R. Tete et al. [38], as shown in
Table 2. Temperature of the cells at steady state from both studies was
compared, revealing a difference of 0.23 %. Hence, the current model
can effectively simulate the performance of BTMS considering fluid flow
and heat transfer phenomena.
4. System simulation
4.1. Different configurations for simulation
Six arrangements of fibers were considered for different configura­
tions of HSCDC, along with one SAC configuration in this study. The

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P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

Table 3 cells in equidistant manner in BP-1, BP-2 and BP-3a configurations,

Specifications of different configurations. respectively. Five fibers are arranged between two adjacent cells with
Sl. Battery module Number of Geometry Specification varying distance between the fibers in BP-3b and BP-3c configurations.
No. configuration fibers The gap between the fibers are in geometric progression (GP) and
1 BP-0 0 Simple air-cooling arithmetic progression (AP), respectively in BP-3b and BP-3c. The
2 BP-1 3 3 equidistant fibers common ratio and first term in the GP in BP-3b is 0.5 mm and 8 mm,
3 BP-2 4 4 equidistant fibers respectively, whereas the common difference and first term in the AP in
4 BP-3a 5 5 equidistant fibers BP-3c is − 2 mm and 8 mm, respectively. In BP-3b and BP-3c, the gap
5 fibers with varying distance (GP
5 BP-3b 5 configuration with common ratio 0.5
between fibers increases towards the center to enhance density in the
mm and first term as 8 mm) high-velocity region for improved heat transfer rate. BP-4 was an
5 fibers with varying distance (AP extension of BP-2, with an additional fiber placed between each cell and
6 BP-3c 5
configuration with common symmetry plane on both sides, resulting in two layers of fibers for each
difference − 2 mm and first term as 8
cell (except the last cell), with the first layer having two fibers and the
mm)
4 fibers with equal distance between second layer having four fibers. BP-0 represents SACS without any
7 BP-4 4+2 them and two fibers at the minimum fibers.
area

4.2. Flow chart of simulations and inputs to the simulation

fibers, with a diameter of 3 mm and length of 65 mm, were placed
downstream of each cell in the flow direction, except for the last cell.
Table 3 provides the specifications of the various configurations used,
while schematic representations of the same are depicted in Fig. 7. Three
fibers, four fibers and five fibers are placed between each two adjacent
Table 4 presents the thermophysical properties of the working fluid.
The simulations include SAC and HCSDC configurations at 1C, 2C, and
3C charge/discharge conditions, with inlet velocities ranging from 0.25
to 2 m/s. The battery module outlet is assumed to be open to ambient.
Symmetric faces have a zero magnitude of normal gradient for all

Fig. 7. Top view of different configurations: (a) BP-0, (b) BP-1, (c) BP-2, (d) BP-3a, (e) BP-3b, (f) BP-3c, and (g) BP-4.

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P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

Table 4 Table 5
Properties of the working fluid. Specifications of the cell. [39].
Property Unit Value Property Specifications/Values

Specific heat J/kgK 1006.43 Chemical notation NMC

5
Dynamic viscosity Pa s 1.7894 × 10− Chemistry LiNiMnCoO2
Thermal conductivity W/mK 0.242 Weight (g) 45.9
Density (kg/m3) 2775
Specific heat (J/kg K) 880
solution variables (pressure, velocity, and temperature). Fig. 8 illus­ Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 3
trates the simulation flow chart. Samsung 18,650-30Q cells are used in Diameter of cell (mm) 18
both SACS and HCSDC battery modules, with their parameters listed in Height of cell (mm) 65
Rated nominal capacity (mAh) 3000
Table 5. Different boundary parameters in the computational domain
Maximum cell voltage (V) 4.2
are listed in Table 6. The entropy coefficient for the simulated lithium- Cut-off voltage (V) 2.5
ion cell is 0.01116 [38]. Volumetric heat generations inside the cell at
various C-rates are estimated using Bernardi formula and presented in
Table 7 [36,38]. Table 6
Inputs to simulation.
4.3. Performance parameters Location/Region Parameter Value

Velocity 0.25 to 2 m/s

Inlet
The steady-state heat transfer rate from the cells to the air in the Temperature 300.15 K
battery module can be calculated using [16]. Outlet Pressure 101,325 Pa
Ambient Temperature 300.15 K
Q̇total = Q̇convection + Q̇radiation + Q̇losses (17) Symmetry surface All solution variables (∅)
∂∅
=0
∂n
Taking into account the physical conditions of system and the un­
derlying assumptions of the model, the Q̇total is given by
Table 7
Q̇total = Q̇convection (18) Rate of heat generation at different discharge rates.

From thermodynamic energy balance, rate of heat transfer is eval­ Parameters Values
uated by, C-rate 0.5 1 2 3 4 5
( ) Discharge
1.5 3 6 9 12 15
Q̇convection = ṁcp Tm,o − Tm,i (19) current (A)
Volumetric heat
Using heat transfer principles, the convection heat transfer rate is generation 3733 12,907 47,579 104,017 182,220 282,189
calculated with [16] rate (W/m3)
[ ( )]
Tm,o + Tm,i
Q̇convection = hAext TS − (20)
2
Where TS is the average temperature of the cell’s surface. Reynolds
The average convective heat transfer coefficient is given by number is estimated using
Q̇ ρUavg Dh
h= [ convection
( )] (21) Re = (22)
Aext TS −
Tm,o +Tm,i μ
2
The mean Nusselt number is computed with

Fig. 8. Flow chart of simulations.

8
P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

hD 5.2. Battery module of the system

Nu = (23)
k
The SACS battery module comprises eight Samsung INR 18650-30Q
Temperature uniformity in a battery module can be expressed in
cells connected in 8S1P configuration and housed within a rectangular
terms of the difference between the module’s highest and lowest tem­
channel made of transparent acrylic sheets (4 mm thick) with di­
peratures as
mensions of 65 mm × 34 mm. The cells are placed in alternative manner
ΔT = Tmax − Tmin (24) in which the positive terminal of the first cell near the inlet is on top
while the last cell, positive terminal is at the bottom side. The experi­
The actual deliverable capacity of the cell is calculated from exper­
ment is carried out by discharging the cell from the maximum cut off
imental results using
voltage of 4.2 V to the lower cut off voltage of 2 V at specified constant
td current condition. A fan with a speed controller is connected to the inlet
Ca = × Id × 1000 (25)
3600 through a converging rectangular duct. Two K-type thermocouples are
Where, td is the battery discharge time, and Id is the constant current positioned on alternate cells in the system, 28 mm from the positive
maintained during the discharge experiment. terminal [40]. One thermocouple is placed on the rear side of the cell,
The volumetric average temperature of each cell is given by where the wake region is present, anticipating higher temperatures. The
∫ second thermocouple is placed on the cell’s surface near the side wall,
1∑ where the distance between the cell and the wall is minimal, as shown in
n
Td∀ = Ti ∀i (26)
∀ i=1 Fig. 9, with lowest anticipated temperature. Additional thermocouples
measure ambient and outlet temperatures. Differential temperature
5. Experimental studies thermopile based heat flux sensor (PHFS-01) made by Fluxteq is wrap­
ped around the cell to measure the heat flux and estimate the actual heat
5.1. Determination of heat generation rate of a cell generation rate. The specifications of heat flux sensor used in the
experiment are given in Table 8. Heat flux sensor consist of thin layer of
Ampere-hour capacity is specified for a cell at a given current or thermally resistive material and a series of electrically connected ther­
time, as increased currents result in more heat dissipation across the mocouples. The thermocouples generates voltage proportional to the
cell’s internal resistance, altering chemical reactions and leading to temperature difference across the thin layer, which is measured to es­
shorter discharge times. The volumetric heat generation rate predicted timate the heat flux by using Eq. (27).
by the Bernardi Eq. [36] is suitable for ideal cells, but commercially
available cells exhibit different heat generation rates. The actual rate of
Table 8
volumetric heat generation and deliverable capacity of commercially Heat flux sensor specifications [41].
available cells were determined through experiments conducted on a
Property Specifications/Values
single cell. During heat generation experiment, the cell is subjected to
cooling by forced circulation of air in order to avoid significant rise in Sensor type Differential temperature thermopile
average temperature of the cell. Heat generated within the cell is Encapsulation material Kapton (polyimide)
Nominal sensitivity 8.0 mV/(W/cm2)
dissipated to the ambient medium and surrounding surfaces through Sensor Thickness (t) 380 μm
convection and radiation, respectively. Notably, convective heat trans­ Specific thermal resistivity 0.9 K/(kW/m2)
fer dominates due to a higher convective heat transfer coefficient. To Absolute thermal resistance 1.0 K/W
quantify heat transfer, a precision heat flux sensor mounted on the cell Heat flux range ± 150 kW/m2
Temperature range − 50 ◦ C to 120 ◦ C
surface measures heat flux, allowing for accurate estimation of heat
Response time 0.6 s
generation rate. Sensor surface thermocouple Type-T
Sensing area 6.45 cm2

Fig. 9. (a) Thermocouple locations on a cell, (b) thermocouples connected to a cell, (c) heat flux sensor on a cell, and (d) thermocouple locations in battery module.

9
P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

ΔV
q́ = (27)
S@Tsen
S@T◦ C is the sensitivity of the heat flux sensor, which is estimated
using
S@Tsen = [0.00334 Tsen + 0.917] Scalib (28)
Tsen is the temperature of thermocouple in C associated with the flux
◦

sensor. Scalib is the sensitivity of the flux sensor at 25◦ C, and it is

1.34 ± 0.03 μV/(W/m2 ). The experimental setup of HSCDC is the
modified version of SACS with the inclusion of fibers. Table 9 shows the
thermophysical properties of the high density polyethylene (HDPE) fiber
structure used in the experiment.
Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.
5.3. Experimental setup of the system
Uncertainty in heat generation is calculated with
A 32 V, 5 A DC supply was used to charge battery, while a 20 Ω, 4 A √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2 ( )2 ( )2̅
rheostat served as the discharger (load) for the battery. The battery, q́gen δScalib δV δT
δ = 2 + + (32)
discharger, and ammeter were connected in series, the resistance q́gen Scalib V T
adjusted manually to maintain a constant current. The air velocity was
The maximum values obtained during the experiments are used as
measured using a thermal anemometer positioned at 10 mm upstream of
references to estimate uncertainties, which are shown in Table 11.
the first cell. Temperature and voltage data were recorded using a data
acquisition (DAQ) system at a frequency of 1 Hz. The experimental
6. Results and discussions
configuration of both SAC and HCSDC systems is illustrated in Fig. 10.
The charging process follows a constant current constant voltage
6.1. Simple air-cooling system
(CCCV) protocol until the cells reach their maximum voltage. A specific
time interval is maintained between the charging and discharging pro­
Numerical simulations were performed at different inlet velocities
cesses to ensure the battery module returns to room temperature.
(0.25–2 m/s) and charge/discharge rates to evaluate thermal behaviour
Throughout the experiment, the load is adjusted to maintain a constant
of different BTMSs. The effectiveness of various BTMSs was compared
current in the circuit. One-day gap is maintained between consecutive
based on the volume averaged temperature and temperature uniformity
experiments. Fig. 11 illustrates the experimental setup for the charging
of battery. The battery module centerline temperature profile was uti­
and discharging experiments.
lized to determine the temperature variation in the wake region between
two neighbouring cells in the battery module.
5.4. Uncertainty analysis

6.1.1. Flow pattern inside the battery module

Moffatt [44] proposed a method to calculate uncertainty in experi­
Fig. 12 shows the temperature contour of the battery module at a
ments, where R represents a variable dependent on several other
discharge rate of 2C and an inlet velocity of 1 m/s. As the fluid flows
variables.
from the inlet to the outlet, the temperature of the cells increases due to
R = R(X1 , X2 X3 ….Xn ) (28) heat interaction between the cells and the progressively warmer fluid.
The seventh cell experiences the highest temperature than eighth cell
Where X1 , X2 , X3 , ….Xn represent the independent variables. Let δXi
due to changes in fluid dynamics and heat transfer after the eighth cell.
represent the uncertainty in the measurement of Xi , so that the mea­
Fig. 13 illustrates the presence of a wake region between adjacent cells,
surement of Xi can be represented as Xi ± δXi . The uncertainty in Xi
where the fluid circulates at a lower velocity. The fluid in the wake re­
affect the variable R as given below
gions has elevated temperatures compared to the fluid flowing close to
δR the symmetry walls, as the prevailing dynamic conditions and heat
δR = δX i (29)
δXi transfer mechanisms differ in these two locations. The cell surface
Final uncertainty associated is given as temperature near the wake region is higher than that near the symmetry
face, indicating improved heat interaction with the fluid near the sym­
{ )2 }1/2
n (
∑ δR metry face. In contrast, the high-velocity region near the symmetry face
δR = δXi (30) shows less heat interaction, resulting in inefficient utilization of air for
δXi
heat exchange. The wake region after the eighth cell is the largest,
i=1

The uncertainties associated with different instruments are given in allowing sufficient area for heat transfer to the surrounding high-
Table 10. velocity fluid.
Volumetric heat generation rate in the cell is given by
6.1.2. Centerline temperature
4V
q́gen = (31) Fig. 14 illustrates the simulation of the system’s centerline temper­
([0.00334 Tsen + 0.917] Scalib )0.018
ature along its length at a discharge rate of 2C and fluid velocity of 1 m/
s, highlighting the hottest region within the system. Each peak in the
trend represents temperature variation along the centerline of a cell in
Table 9 the battery module, following the flow direction. The temperature shift
Thermophysical properties of HDPE fiber structure [42,43]. between successive maxima corresponds to temperature variation along
the center of the wake region between cells. The absence of cells beyond
Property Specifications/Values
the eighth cell results in a larger wake region. This expanded wake re­
Density (Kg/m3) 954 gion increases the contact area between the wake and the high-velocity
Specific heat (J/kg K) 1600
fluid regions. The high-velocity fluid, having a lower temperature,
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 1.21

10
P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

Fig. 11. (a) Battery module of HCSDC, (b) Battery module of SACS, and (c) Battery charge/discharge experimental setup.

absorbs heat from the wake region, resulting in lower temperatures in

Table 10
the wake region and the last cell.
Uncertainties of different instruments.
Parameter Uncertainty 6.1.3. Effect of Reynolds number
Thermocouple and DAQ ±1.03 + 0.0075 × reading (◦ C) Fig. 15 shows the simulation results illustrating the impact of Reynolds
Temperature number on the performance of the SACS during 1C discharge. At a lower
DAQ Voltage ±(0.00004 + 0.000006) × reading (V) + (0.000006
Reynolds number of 764, the average temperature is 308.71 K, which is
+ 0.000001) × Range
Anemometer ±0.1 m/s + 0.005 × measured value comfortably below the limiting temperature of 313.15 K. As the Reynolds
Ammeter ±0.003 × measured reading number increases, the average temperature of the module decreases which
indicates enhanced heat transfer at higher mass flow rates. The percentage
difference in average temperature between Reynolds numbers 3056 and
Table 11 4584 is 0.25 %, while it is only 0.135 % between Reynolds numbers 4584
Maximum uncertainty of different variables. and 6112. This indicates that the rate of reduction in average module
temperature decreases as Reynolds number increases.
Parameter Reference Absolute bias Uncertainty associated with
value error each value (%)
The heat transfer coefficient between the fluid and the surface of the
cells increases with Reynolds number. This is because the higher ve­
Temperature 34.99 1.29
locity of fluid leads to frequent replacement of fluid near the cell surface.
±3.68
(◦ C)
Heat flux (W/ 66,536.39 3.380 ±5.08 Additionally, increasing the velocity improves the temperature unifor­
m2) mity of the battery module. Under 1C discharge conditions, the SACS
Voltage (V) 30.22 0.00069 ±0.0023 effectively maintains temperature uniformity below the optimum level
Velocity (m/s) 1.57 0.107 ±6.87
of 5 K at higher Reynolds numbers. However, when the Reynolds
number is <1528, the temperature uniformity exceeds 5 K. Specifically,

Fig. 12. Temperature contours of SACS at 2C discharge and 1 m/s.

11
P.M. Sutheesh et al.
Fig. 13. Velocity contours in the flow field of SACS at 2C discharge and 1 m/s.
Fig. 14. Centerline temperature of SACS at 2C discharge and 1 m/s.
at the lowest Reynolds number of 764, the temperature nonuniformity is
38.06 % higher than the optimum value.
The average temperature of the battery module provides a compre­
hensive overview of the temperatures of individual cells within the
module. It is crucial to maintain the temperature of each cell below the
optimum value. Fig. 16 illustrates the volumetric average temperature
Fig. 15. Variation of (a) average temperature of the module and temperature difference in the module (b) average heat transfer coefficient of the SACS with Reynolds
number at 1C discharge.
12
Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889
of each cell at 1C discharge with an inlet velocity of 1 m/s. The average
cell temperature generally increases in the direction of the flow, except
for the final cell, which has a lower temperature compared to the
second-to-last cell. The first cell experiences the lowest temperature
among all the cells since it interacts with the air at the lowest temper­
ature, resulting in increased heat transfer rate and lowest temperature.
As the air temperature increases in the flow direction, the volumetric
average temperature of the cells rises accordingly.
6.1.4. Effect of charge and discharge rates
Simulations were conducted at discharge rates of 1C, 2C, and 3C to
evaluate the performance of the SACS. Fig. 17 illustrates the comparison
of thermal performance of the battery module at different charge/
discharge rates based on the average temperature of the module and the
temperature difference within the module. The trends of the temperature
and temperature difference with Reynolds number are similar at higher C-
rates compared to the 1C-rate. Increasing the C-rate at a specific Reynolds
number results in higher volume-averaged temperature and temperature
difference across the module. This is due to the increased rate of heat
generation in the cells during higher charge/discharge rates, interacting
with air under the same thermal conditions. The SACS successfully keeps
the average temperature of the battery module below the limiting tem­
perature at 1C and 2C-rates for higher Reynolds numbers (Re ≥ 2292).
However, at lower Reynolds numbers (Re ≤ 2292), the SACS fails to
maintain the required optimal temperature at 2C-rate. At the 3C-rate, the
average temperature of the module exceeds the limiting value even at
higher Reynolds numbers. Additionally, the SACS does not achieve tem­
perature homogeneity across the entire range of Reynolds numbers at
higher charge/discharge rates. Temperature homogeneity in the system is
P.M. Sutheesh et al.
Fig. 16. Volumetric average temperature of the cells according to location at
1C condition.
achieved when the Reynolds number exceeds 1528 and 3056 at the 1C
and 2C discharge rates, respectively.
6.2. Hybrid cooling system at dry out condition
The hybrid cooling system at dry-out condition (HCSDC) employs
solid fibers placed between the cells of the system, which influences the
fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics, resulting in a different
thermal management approach compared to SACS. To analyze the
impact of position of and number of fibers on thermal performance, six
different configurations of HSCDC were simulated at a 2C discharge rate
with a fluid velocity of 1 m/s. Fig. 18 depicts streamlines plotted for
HCSDC and SACS configurations at the horizontal central plane of the
system, illustrating the flow patterns. The inclusion of fibers helps to
redirect the flow towards the gaps between consecutive cells, reducing
the wake region compared to BP-0 configuration. BP-4 configuration
exhibits the maximum velocity due to the minimum flow area it pos­
sesses. Fig. 19 displays temperature contours at the central horizontal
Fig. 17. Variation of (a) average temperature of battery and (b) temperature difference in the battery with Reynolds number at different discharge conditions.
13
Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889
plane for different configurations at a 2C discharge and 1 m/s velocity.
The seventh cell consistently exhibits the highest temperature in all the
configurations. Among the different configurations of HSCDC, BP-4
demonstrates the lowest temperatures due to augmented fluid velocity
resulting from the reduced flow area caused by the incorporation of fi­
bers in the minimum area section.
Fig. 20 illustrates the variations of temperature and temperature
difference of the system with Reynolds number for different configura­
tions at a velocity of 1 m/s and a 2C charge/discharge condition. The
trends of temperature and temperature difference are consistent across
all the configurations. The inclusion of fibers in the HCSDC system does
not significantly improve the temperature of the battery module
compared to SACS, except for the BP-4 configuration. At lower Reynolds
numbers, all HCSDC configurations exhibit lower temperatures
compared to SACS. Among the different configurations, BP-4 maintains
the best temperature uniformity throughout the entire Reynolds number
range compared to SACS. The temperature uniformity of BP-4 is 27.4 %
better than that of BP-0 at lower Reynolds numbers below 764, and as
the Reynolds number increases, the deviation in temperature uniformity
between the two configurations decreases.
Fig. 21 presents a comparison of the trends of centerline temperature
and cell-wise volumetric temperature for different configurations. Each
peak in the plots represents the diametrical temperature variation inside
the cell, while the region between two peaks signifies the wake region
where air with very low velocity is present. Notably, the temperature of
the wake region is lower than the solid cell temperature, facilitating heat
transfer from the cell to the coolant air in the wake region. The intro­
duction of a fiber structures in the flow field serves to divert the low-
temperature main stream flow away from the near-symmetry region
into the intercellular space. This diversion contributes to a reduction in
the size of the wake region in the direction perpendicular to the main
stream flow. Consequently, the centerline temperature trend in all
HCSDC configurations differs from that of the SACS configuration. Each
battery pack configuration experiences a redistribution of centerline
temperature while maintaining a comparable average temperature. BP-4
configuration, in particular, exhibits superior performance with the
minimum centerline temperature and individual cell temperatures
compared to all other configurations. The enhanced performance of BP-
4 is attributed to the presence of two additional fibers in the minimum
cross-sectional flow area, which accelerates the fluid and increases the
convective heat transfer coefficient.
P.M. Sutheesh et al.
Fig. 18. Velocity contours of (a) BP-0, (b) BP-1, (c) BP-2, (d) BP-3a, (e) BP-3b, (f) BP-3c, and (g) BP-4 configurations at 1 m/s and 2C condition.
Out of the six configurations of HCSDC, better temperature unifor­
mity and average module temperature were demonstrated by BP-4
configuration. Hence, thermal performance between BP-0 and BP-4
configurations at various discharge rates is simulated and compared as
shown in Fig. 22. At all discharge rates, the temperature difference be­
tween the two configurations decreases as Reynolds number increases.
Even at 3C-rates, the BP-4 configuration shows significant improvement
in temperature uniformity compared to BP-0.
Fig. 23 illustrates the variation of pressure drop with Reynolds number
for different configurations at a 2C discharge rate. As Reynolds number
increases, there is a corresponding increase in pressure drop for all con­
figurations, following the classic pressure drop relationship with flow
velocity. The change in pressure drop among the different configurations
is attributed to the presence of fibers, which alter the flow resistance.
Except for BP-0 and BP-4 configurations, the pressure drop ranges are
similar across all configurations. BP-0 exhibits the lowest pressure drop,
while BP-4 has the highest pressure drop due to the minimum and
maximum number of fibers, respectively. It is recommended to give more
priority to the temperature requirement on safety point of view, to avoid
thermal runaway conditions than the increased pumping power. So, it is
important to consider a minimal pressure drop for effective thermal
management while maintaining temperature uniformity and adhering to
temperature limits across a wide range of Reynolds numbers.
6.3. Experimental results
6.3.1. Heat generation from cell
Experiments were conducted on a single cell and an eight-cell battery
module under a constant current of 1.55 A to measure the heat generation
rate during discharge. Fig. 24 depicts the voltage variation of both the
single cell and the system of eight cells throughout the discharge process.
Initially, a gradual decline in voltage is observed, continuing until around
3100 s. After this point, there is a rapid decrease in voltage. The experi­
ment continues until the cell reaches its cut-off voltage of 2.5 V.
14
Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889
Fig. 25 shows the temporal variation in heat generation rate from a
single cell, which aligns with cell voltage variation. The rate of heat
generation increases significantly at the beginning and end of the
experiment. Initially, the cell is in thermal equilibrium with the sur­
roundings, and heat generated internally is conducted to the cell surface
and then transferred through the heat flux sensor. Heat is further con­
vected from the sensor to the ambient. Fig. 25 illustrates that thermal
delay and contact resistance between the cell and sensor cause a delayed
heat generation rate at the start of the experiment. A larger thermal
gradient between the cell and surroundings enhances the heat transfer
rate to the surroundings. Towards the end of the experiment, the load
resistance is reduced to maintain a constant current, resulting in higher
rate of heat generation due to the same current being extracted at a
lower cell voltage. The heat generation within the cell is influenced by
changes in cell voltage. The average heat generation rate for a current of
1.55 A is 18,374 W/m3, which is approximately 3.3 times higher than
the value predicted by Bernardi equation.
The capacity of a cell was determined by discharging it at two
different current conditions of 1.55 A and 2 A and it is shown in
Table 12. The discharge time until reaching the cut-off voltage was
recorded to calculate the actual deliverable capacity. It was observed
that the commercially available cell has a capacity lower than its rated
value, and the capacity decreases as the C-rate increases. This decrease is
attributed to the increased energy loss in the form of heat at higher C-
rates. The reduction in cell capacity as well as the higher deviation in
actual heat generation rate compared to analytically predicted values
indicate suboptimal performance of the domestically procured cell. To
estimate the heat generation, it is recommended to use Bernardi equa­
tion for standard cells while an experimental approach using heat flux
sensor is apt for locally available cell in market.
6.3.2. Temperature variation within the battery module
Experiments were conducted on BP-0 and BP-4 configurations of
SACS and HCSDC, respectively. Fig. 26 shows the temperature
P.M. Sutheesh et al.
Fig. 19. Temperature contours of (a) BP-0, (b) BP-1, (c) BP-2, (d) BP-3a, (e) BP-3b, (f) BP-3c, and (g) BP-4 at 2C discharge and 1 m/s velocity.
variations of alternate cells in SACS under different discharge conditions
and at 1.06 m/s. During the initial stage of discharge, there is a sudden
increase in temperature due to the cell’s transient start-up condition.
However, after 747 s, the temperature variation becomes negligible,
indicating a nearly steady-state thermal condition during discharge at
1.55 A. The maximum temperature recorded by a cell during steady-
state operation is 303.5 K, with the seventh cell showing the highest
temperature in the battery module. The temperature non-uniformity is
1.56 K in steady-state conditions and maximum temperature non uni­
formity of the system is 3.8 K at 1.55 A discharge. Thus, the battery
module successfully kept with its maximum temperature below the
optimal level at 1.55 A discharge and 1.06 m/s velocity. The thermo­
couples placed on the leeward side consistently measured higher tem­
peratures compared to those near symmetry face for each cell.
Additionally, when the battery module reached its cut-off voltage, the
15
Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889
rate of heat generation increased, causing accelerated temperature rise
in each cell. During steady-state operation at a higher discharge rate of 2
A, the highest temperature of a cell remained below the optimum value.
Towards the end of the discharge period at 2 A discharge and 1.06 m/s
velocity, the system’s maximum temperature approached the threshold
value.
Four experiments are carried out on HCSDC with two different inlet
velocities and discharge conditions as shown in Table 13.
Fig. 27 shows the temperature variations of alternate cells in the BP-4
configuration during different discharge conditions. Rapid temperature
increases are observed at the beginning and end of the discharging
process due to voltage decrease in these phases. In the intermediate
stage, where the voltage remains steady, the cell temperature remains
relatively constant with time. Steady-state conditions are observed be­
tween 750 s and 3000 s for 1.55 A discharge, and between 750 s and
P.M. Sutheesh et al.
Fig. 20. Variation of (a) average temperature and (b) temperature difference of different configurations of battery with Reynolds number at 2C and 1 m/s condition.
Fig. 21. Variation of (a) centerline temperature and (b) volumetric average temperature of cells in different configurations at 2C discharge with 1 m/s velocity.
2500 s for 2 A discharge. Temperature non-uniformity is observed in the
system, with cell temperatures increasing in the flow direction at various
discharge conditions and velocities. The seventh cell consistently ex­
hibits the highest temperature among all the cells in the HCSDC exper­
iments. Initially, the cells are in thermal equilibrium with the ambient
conditions, and the temperature rise from the initial temperature de­
creases as airflow velocity increases. For a specific cell, the temperature
rise is higher in the 2 A constant current discharge condition compared
to 1.55 A.
Experiments were conducted on SACS and the BP-4 configuration of
HCSDC at 2 A discharge with 1.57 m/s velocity. The experimental heat
generation rate data during the steady state was used as input for steady
state simulations of the BP-0 and BP-4 configurations under the same
discharge conditions. Fig. 28 compares the steady-state temperatures
observed at two different locations of the cells in BP-0 and BP-4 con­
figurations with the corresponding simulation results. All measurement
16
Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889
uncertainties were considered, and the simulation predictions show
excellent agreement with a maximum difference of 0.31 % for BP-4 and
0.48 % for BP-0 configurations with the experimental results. Due to the
higher air velocity, the maximum rise in temperature from the ambient
condition is observed in seventh cell and it is measured as 2.23 K from
the experiment and the numerically predicted value is 1.39 K in HCSDC.
It is evident that the lower C rate discharge (1.55 A and 2 A) will result in
comparatively lower rate of heat generation and there by insignificant
temperature rise, which can be handled by air cooling strategy.
7. Conclusions
The present study focussed on the unexplored area of performance
evaluation of HSCDC at higher C rates. The study involves the devel­
opment of a numerical model capable of simulating six different battery
module configurations of HSCDC. Performance of these configurations
P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

Fig. 22. Variation of temperature difference in BP-0 and BP-4 configurations

with Reynolds number at different discharge conditions. Fig. 25. Variation of rate of heat generation of single cell with time.

Table 12
Capacity of lithium-ion cell.
No. of Discharge Cut-off Duration of Capacity of
cells current voltage Discharge Cell
Id (A) (V) td (s) Ca (mAh)

1 1.55 2.5 3910 1625

1 2 2.5 2840 1575

Fig. 23. Variation of pressure drop with Reynolds number for different con­
figurations of the battery at 2C discharge. Fig. 26. Variation of the temperature of cells in SACS with time at (a) 1.55 A
and (b) 2 A.

Fig. 24. Variation of voltage with time during the discharge process of (a) single cell and (b) battery with eight cells.

17
P.M. Sutheesh et al. Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889

Table 13 • The temperature non-uniformity of the SACS is above 5 K for Re <

Experimental conditions of HCSDC. 1528 at 1C discharge. At 2C and 3C discharge, the non-uniformity is
Sl. No Inlet velocity (m/s) Constant discharge current (A) above the required optimum for all Re values. Among the different
configurations, the HCSDC with six fibers (BP-4) performs the best,
1 1.06 1.55
2 1.57 1.55 satisfying temperature uniformity and average temperature at higher
3 1.06 2 Re values for all discharge conditions. When Re is 764, the temper­
4 1.57 2 ature uniformity of BP-4 is 27.54 % higher than BP-0, and when Re is
6112, it is 17.84 % higher.
• Except for BP-4 configurations, the location of the fibers has minimal
are compared with a SACS under elevated C rates and various dynamic
effect on temperature uniformity when Re is above 3056. Incorpo­
coolant conditions. The simulation results identified the battery module
rating fibers into the minimum flow area of BP-4 configuration en­
with 6 fibers exhibits the best thermal performance at elevated C rates,
hances thermal performance in terms of temperature uniformity and
which is fabricated along with SACS and subjected to experimental
average module temperature.
testing to validate the numerical findings. The following conclusions
• Experimental results show that the temperature on the leeward side
shed valuable light on the superiority of HSCDC compared to SACS,
is higher than at the minimal flow area for all the cells in BP-0 and
providing insights into the thermal management of the system across
BP-4 configurations.
diverse operational conditions.
• The 7th cell consistently exhibits the highest temperature across all
the configurations in both simulations and experiments.
• At 1C discharge, the SACS maintains an average temperature within
• Under experimental conditions of 1.06 m/s velocity, the temperature
the allowable range, but, at 3C discharge, it exceeds the allowable
non-uniformity and maximum temperature of the SACS meet the
range for all Re values considered. For 2C discharge, the system
allowable range at a discharge current of 1.55 A. In experiments with
meets the requirements only at higher Re values.

Fig. 27. Variation of temperature of cells in BP-4 configuration with time at (a) 1.55 A with 1.06 m/s, (b) 1.55 A with 1.57 m/s, (c) 2 A with 1.06 m/s, and (d) 2 A
with 1.57 m/s.

18
P.M. Sutheesh et al.
Fig. 28. Comparison of simulation predictions with experimental results of (a) simple air cooling and (b) BP-4 configuration of HCSDC.
the BP-4 configuration, at discharge currents of 1.55 A and 2 A, the
average temperature of the battery module increases by 0.78 K and
1.13 K above the ambient, respectively, at a velocity of 1.57 m/s. The
temperature difference within the battery is 1.29 K and 1.87 K,
respectively.
• Increasing the discharge current by 29 % at a velocity of 1.06 m/s
results in a 0.5 % average temperature increase and 7 % temperature
difference increase for BP-4 configuration.
• The steady-state numerical models used to simulate the SACS and
BP-4 of HSCDC are validated with experiments. The simulation
predictions are in excellent agreement with experimental results.
The maximum rise in temperature from the ambient condition is
observed in seventh cell, and it is found that the difference in tem­
perature rise between simulation and experiment is 0.83 K in BP-4 of
HCSDC.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
P.M. Sutheesh: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation,
Software, Investigation, Data curation. B. Rohinikumar: Writing – re­
view & editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration,
Investigation, Data curation.
Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the
writing process
During the preparation of this work, the authors used ChatGPT in
order to improve readability and language. After using this tool, the
authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and takes full re­
sponsibility for the content of the publication.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
19
Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024) 110889
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