Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Physics-based models in PV-battery hybrid power systems: Thermal T

management and degradation analysis
⁎
Mayur P. Bonkile, Venkatasailanathan Ramadesigan
Department of Energy Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords:
PV- BES hybrid power system
Thermal management control strategy
Electrochemical thermal battery model
Li-ion battery thermal degradation
Capacity-fade analysis,
This paper presents a thermal management and control strategy to minimise thermal degradation in Li-ion
batteries in a standalone solar-PV – Battery Energy Storage (BES) hybrid power system. The main objectives of
this work are: (a) to analyse the effect of temperature on the performance and degradation of the BES system,
and (b) to develop a simple, cost-effective thermal management strategy to maintain the BES system temperature
(during charging) in a safe operating window. Typically, battery manufacturers estimate the battery life based on
standard test conditions, which may be different from the various real-world climatic conditions throughout the
year. The change in temperature has a significant effect on battery degradation processes. This paper employs a
physics-based electrochemical-thermal single particle model for simulating a Li-ion battery capable of capturing
these effects to analyse and address this issue. Simulations for an entire year are performed using real-world solar
insolation and household energy consumption data of a residential area in India. The use of physics-based model
helps in understanding the thermal aspects of degradation of the BES system. The BES system is better protected
against thermally driven capacity fade using the proposed thermal management and control strategy that does
not use any external cooling systems.

1. Introduction
Renewable energy resources have become the technology of choice
for electricity generation due to the hazardous effects of harmful
emissions caused by fossil fuel combustion. According to the
International Energy Agency (IEA), more than 70% of world’s elec-
tricity production growth would be met by renewable energy resources
by 2023 and solar photovoltaics (PV) will be the dominant technology
among them [1] due to the abundant availability of solar radiation on
the earth’s surface. A standalone solar PV power plant is an ideal source
of electricity for any remote location which is far from the main grid
[2]. However, the power generated by a standalone solar PV power
plant is not always reliable due to its dependence on climatic condi-
tions, solar radiation and temperature. One viable option to effectively
utilize the standalone solar PV power plant is to couple battery energy
storage (BES) systems with it [3–5]. The surplus power produced by the
solar PV panels during sunshine hours is stored in the BES systems,
which will provide an uninterrupted power supply during the night and
peak demand periods. Therefore, the PV-BES hybrid power systems are
feasible, dependable and ensure continuous power supply even during
the worst weather conditions. An annual techno-economic assessment
done to calculate the total costs and revenue of the PV household-
prosumer showed the financial viability of the BES systems for enhan-
cing PV self-consumption [6]. Lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries (LiBs)
are popular choices for energy storage in hybrid power systems. High
energy density, low maintenance, environment-friendly and a higher
number of cycle life are the main advantages of LiB technology when
compared with lead-acid batteries [7]. The BES cost accounts for 55%
of total cost of the system which may vary from 380 $/kWh to 895
$/kWh [8] depending on the type of the system deployed. An initial
investment cost of the hybrid power system with the BES system is
lower for the lead-acid battery technology than the LiBs. The per-unit
cost of energy of LiBs is 0.138 $/kWh, which is lower than lead-acid
batteries (0.142 $/kWh) as energy storage systems [9]. Over a 20 year
service period of the hybrid power system (based on PV panels’ service
life), lead-acid batteries cost up to 70% of the total cost as they require
replacement every 4–5 years. On the other hand, the cost of LiBs
technologies is decreasing at 8–16% annually and the financial effi-
ciency of LiB energy storage technology is expected to increase sig-
nificantly in the near future [9,10]. The LiBs’ cost is expected to de-
crease significantly due to better manufacturing processes, economies
of scale, experience curve benefits, global production, and improve-
ment in supply chain management. Lead-acid battery chemistry is
mature, well studied, and robust; however, the catastrophic health

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: venkatr@iitb.ac.in (V. Ramadesigan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101458
Received 19 December 2019; Received in revised form 4 March 2020; Accepted 13 April 2020
2352-152X/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458

List of symbols PPV PV output power from the DC/AC inverter, [W]
Pbattery battery output power from the DC/AC inverter, [W]
A cell surface area, [m2] Pdemand load, [W]
a diode ideality constant Qconv rate of heat exchanged due to convection, [W]
Cp specific heat capacity of cell, [Jkg −1K−1] Qrev reversible heat caused by the reaction entropy change,
Di solid phase diffusion coefficient of lithium ions in the in- [W]
tercalation particles of electrode i (n=negative and Qrxn irreversible heat generated from electrode polarization,
p=positive), [m2s−1] [W]
Di,ref solid phase diffusion coefficient of lithium ions in the in- R ideal gas constant, 8.3143 [Jmol−1K−1]
tercalation particles of electrode i at reference tempera- Rcell solution phase resistance, [Ω]
ture, [m2s−1] Rs series resistance, [Ω]
DPV duty ratio of DC/DC converter connected to PV Rp parallel resistance, [Ω]
Dbattery duty ratio of DC/DC converter connected to battery T cell temperature, [K]
Ead,i activation energy for reaction rate constant of electrode i, Tamb ambient temperature, [K]
[kJmol−1] Tref reference temperature, 298 [K]
Erd,i activation energy for solid phase diffusion coefficient of Us,ref open circuit potential for the solvent reduction reaction,
electrode i, [kJmol−1] [V]
F Faraday’s constant, 96,487 [Cmol−1] v volume of cell, [m3]
h heat transfer coefficient, [Wm−2K−1] V output voltage, [V]
I output current, [A] Vth thermal voltage, [V]
Iapp applied current, [A] Vdc DC bus voltage, [V]
Is local current for side reaction, [A] Vbattery battery voltage, [V]
IPV PV current, [A] xi state of charge of electrode i
Io saturation current, [A]
Ibattery battery current, [A] Greek
Idc,battery DC bus current, [A]
ki rate constant for the electrochemical reaction of electrode ρ density of cell, [kgm−3]
i, [m2.5mol−0.5s−1] ρp density of products formed as a result of side reaction,
ki,ref rate constant for the electrochemical reaction of electrode [kgm−3]
i at reference temperature, [m2.5mol−0.5s−1] ηi overpotential of electrode i, [V]
Mp molecular weight of products formed as a result of side κp conductivity, [Sm−1]
reaction, [molkg −1] δfilm film thickness, [m]
P PV arrays’ output power, [W] Δt time step, [s]

implications of lead exposure from lead-to-air emissions can not be
ignored [11]. Pyrometallurgical processing dominates industrial lead
recycling and 98% of the lead-acid battery can be recycled [12].
However, the drawbacks are atmospheric pollution from sulphur di-
oxide and tiny lead particulates, low lead recovery rate and high energy
consumption [13]. It was predicted that 0.33 to 4 million metric tons of
LiBs could be generated from 2015 to 2040, which would increase the
demand for lithium, cobalt, manganese, and nickel [14]. However, their
potential environmental impact is not well characterized because of the
uncertainties around the management of LiBs’ waste and technology to
recover valuable materials from them. On an average, producing 1 Wh
of LiBs’ storage capacity, considering all chemistries, require about
328 Wh of cumulative energy and result in the emission of 110 g of CO2
[15]. Hydrometallurgy is a less energy-intense process, generates less
toxic gases, and has the capability to recover all valuable metals in LiBs
scrap at high purity as compared to pyrometallurgy [16]. Recycling of
LiBs, which contain flammable and toxic chemicals inside, is a need of
the twenty-first century for future sustainability due to scarcity of raw
metals like Li, Co, and Ni.
Rechargeable LiBs are becoming a technology of choice for on-grid
and off-grid energy storage [17,18], however, these systems have their
own challenges in terms of cost, life and safety [19]. The excess heat
generated in the battery during its operation may lead to thermal
runaway, which is one of the major concerns for the battery manu-
facturers [20]. Ambient and battery internal temperatures are para-
meters that need to be closely monitored. Many empirical and
equivalent circuit models have been used in the literature [21–23],
however, they assume operation of batteries at constant temperature
during simulations though in real world conditions, the battery tem-
perature is not uniform over time. Physics-based battery models which
consider the physiochemical phenomena occurring inside batteries are
more accurate than the empirical or equivalent circuit models [24]. The
physical properties of LiBs like solid phase diffusion coefficients and
reaction rate constants are functions of battery temperature. Thus, ne-
glecting the battery temperature variation leads to significant errors in
predicting their performance [25,26]. In this work, we utilise the am-
bient and battery temperature variations as inputs to a physics-based
model of LiBs. This model provides information about internal variables
such as concentration and potential distributions and cell temperature
variations along with kinetic and transport parameters, which other-
wise cannot be directly measured.
In a PV-BES hybrid power system, the dynamic nature of PV power,
load demand, battery current and temperature can lead to critical
problems of reliability and safety [27]. The desired operating tem-
perature range for optimal performance of LiBs is 15 ∘C – 35 ∘C and it is
not advisable to operate LiBs out of this range for extended periods
[28]. Battery temperature can be controlled and kept in safe operating
temperature range by various methods including internal and external
cooling systems [29]. However, adding an external thermal manage-
ment system is expensive, and would add to the already expensive BES
system. Performance degradation, non-uniform temperature distribu-
tion and thermal runaway are some of the unwanted effects of poor
battery temperature management [30]. Heat generation rate and cell
temperature prediction are two important parameters to design the
thermal management system [31]. Physics-based battery models have
been used in the literature to analyse heat generation and thermal ef-
fects in LiBs [32,33], but are not extensively implemented to design
temperature control algorithms. It will be prudent to study the beha-
viour of LiBs at different temperatures to design a thermal-management
system as well as to define a temperature range over which the BES

2
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan
system should be made to operate by the control algorithm. In this
work, we propose a thermal management and control strategy as a
proof of concept, which is simple, cost-effective and straightforward
compared to the use of external cooling systems.
As described earlier, cell degradation is more prominent at elevated
battery temperatures, which will reduce its lifespan, and hence the ef-
fect of thermal variation on degradation mechanisms needs to be ana-
lysed clearly [34,35]. LiBs degrade after a significant number of charge-
discharge cycles which depend on battery chemistry, design, material,
charge/discharge rate, depth of discharge (DoD) and temperature
among other factors [36]. It was experimentally demonstrated that an
asymmetric cycle of charging-discharging degrades the LiB cell more
rapidly than a symmetric cycle [37]. The techno-economic analysis of
battery-aging mechanisms on the optimal sizing of a hybrid energy
storage system showed a potential improvement in self-consumption
and self-sufficiency ratio [38]. Even though various capacity fade me-
chanisms have been proposed in the literature, the generation and
growth of solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer introduced by Peled
[39,40], is one of the most commonly and widely studied battery de-
gradation mechanisms by researchers [41,42]. The impact of tem-
perature on the battery life needs to be analysed and understood to
improve the temperature control strategies in battery management
systems. Some efforts have been made in the past [43–45] using
equivalent circuit models containing resistive and capacitive (RC) ele-
ments in series/parallel combination, which are not enough to under-
stand complex issues related to the SEI. On the other hand, physics-
based battery models have made it possible to understand the formation
and growth of SEI layer on the electrode surfaces. In this work, we
consider the SEI layer formation and the effect of internal cell tem-
perature variation on the SEI growth while designing a control strategy
for a battery management system using a physics-based model. To
achieve this, a degradation mechanism modelled by Ramadass et al.
[46] and thermal model developed by Pals and Newman [47] are in-
tegrated into the single particle model (SPM) of a Li-ion battery
[48,49]. A schematic of the physics-based electrochemical-thermal
single particle model is shown in Fig. 1.
Researchers have worked on mathematical modelling and simula-
tion of PV-BES hybrid power systems as well as presented experimental
studies in the literature. A PV-BES hybrid power system framework was
developed consisting of equivalent circuit battery models to evaluate
the LiB performance and study its feasibility [50]. However, the BES
system is not modelled considering any degradation mechanisms. Often
times, the BES system is considered to be a blackbox and their internal
phenomena are not completely modelled, analysed or controlled, that
are reported in the literature. The research publications based on the
use of physics-based battery models for renewable hybrid power sys-
tems emerged only from 2016 [51]. It is generally seen that the over-
simplified battery models mainly designed and calibrated for auto-
motive applications are implemented in the simulation of grid-level
battery dynamics. The system-level storage challenges can be success-
fully addressed by adopting computationally efficient physics-based
battery models [52]. Forecast-based operational strategies [53] and
decentralized power management approaches [54] were proposed in
which the PV modules were always operated at maximum power point
(MPP), and the battery simulation results were shown only for a short
time period. We develop a control strategy which allows the PV panels
to operate away from MPP when excess power is produced over and
above the load and battery requirement and ensures zero dumped en-
ergy. The developed PV-BES hybrid power system framework is simu-
lated for a time frame of one year to study the robustness of developed
control strategy in all weather conditions. Lee et al. [55] had presented
physics-based electrochemical battery models along with DAE-based
MPPT algorithm for PV panels in a microgrid. The power control
strategy having two operating modes and assuring 0% excess output
power production using physics-based battery model was reported in
our earlier work [56]. However, the thermal behaviour and degradation
3
Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458
of battery was not incorporated into the power control strategy. To the
best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to use a physics-based
electrochemical-thermal battery model with chemical degradation and
illustrate a cost-effective thermal management and control strategy for
a PV-BES hybrid power system. This work is an attempt for better
thermal management and control of PV-BES hybrid power systems
using physics-based battery models. The developed control strategy can
easily be incorporated in an existing battery management system of a
hybrid power plant as no additional infrastructure for external cooling
is required. The core novelty offered in this work can thus be sum-
marised as follows:
• A framework for thermal management and control strategy is de-
signed and integrated with a physics-based battery model to study
effect of temperature and operating conditions on the BES system in
a standalone PV-BES hybrid system.
• A control strategy is developed to govern the state of charge (SOC)
of LiBs to prevent various unwanted side reactions due to over-
charging and a cost-effective way to minimise thermal degradation
(during charging).
• The framework is simulated to study the impact of temperature and
its control on the lifespan and performance of the BES system using
real-world data for a period of 1 year.
2. Model development and control strategy
A modelling framework for power management control strategy
using physics-based battery models to evaluate the performance of the
PV-BES hybrid power system is described in detail with all the gov-
erning equations in our earlier work [56]. In the current work a fra-
mework with power and thermal management control strategy is de-
veloped that consists of PV panels, Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) controller, DC/DC converter, and LiBs, as shown in the sche-
matic in Fig. 2. A single diode equivalent circuit model is used to model
the PV panels (Fig. 2) [57]. The major inputs for the PV model are the
solar irradiation, temperature and the information from the PV manu-
facturing data sheet. Kyocera KC200GT PV panel’s parameters are
considered during PV system simulation [58]. A DAE-based im-
plementation of the MPPT algorithm as given by Lee et al. [55] is im-
plemented in the framework to operate the PV panels at the MPP as
follows:
V (t ) + Rs I (t ) ⎞ V (t ) + Rs I (t )
I (t ) = IPV (t ) − Io ⎡exp ⎛ ⎜ − 1⎤ −⎟
⎢ ⎝ Vth a ⎠ ⎥ Rp (1)
⎣ ⎦
I (t )
=
( I (t )
Io 1 − Rs V (t ) exp ) ( V (t ) + R s I (t )
Vth a ) + 1−R I (t )
s V (t )
V (t ) Vth a Rp (2)
where I(t) is the output current, IPV(t) is the PV current, Io is the sa-
turation current, and Vth is the thermal voltage. V(t) is the output vol-
tage, Rs is the series resistance, Rp is the parallel resistance, and a is the
diode ideality constant.
SPM is a simplified version of the rigorous P2D electrochemical
model developed by Doyle et al. [59]. The model equations are
Fig. 1. Schematic of the physics-based electrochemical-thermal SPM
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan
Fig. 2. Power flow diagram of the proposed system.
discretised using a mixed-order finite difference (FD) method with
optimal node spacing [60] in space and an optimal four-stage, third
order strong stability-preserving time-stepping Runge-Kutta (SSP-
RK43) scheme is used for time stepping [61,62] as explained by Bonkile
et. al [56]. The capacity fade in LiBs is modelled by considering SEI
layer formation at the negative electrode/electrolyte interface. The
degradation due to the film growth at SEI is considered to occur only
during charging and not discharging. The increasing thickness increases
the film resistance leading to increased potential drop across it. There
are several possible reaction mechanisms between lithiated carbon and
the electrolyte solution. It would be a valid assumption not to consider
any side reaction or capacity fade during discharge. The rate of increase
in film thickness (δfilm) as given by Ramadass et al. [46] can be ex-
pressed as:
∂δfilm Is Mp
=−
∂t ρp F
where Is is the current for side reaction, Mp is the molecular weight of
products formed as a result of side reaction, ρp is the density of products
formed as a result of side reaction and F is the Faraday’s constant. The
parameters for the capacity fade model are given in Table 1.
Further, we can predict the battery’s internal temperature variation,
which can be utilised to design a temparture control strategy in the
thermal management system. A general energy balance equation as
given by Pals and Newman [47] can be written as:
∂T ∂Up ∂Un
ρvCp = Iapp T ⎡ (x p) − (x n ) ⎤ + Iapp (ηp − ηn + Iapp R cell )
∂t ⎢
⎣ ∂T

∂T ⎦ 
⎥
Qrxn
Qrev
− (
hAT− )
Tamb
Qconv
where T is the cell temperature, v is the volume of cell, ρ is the density
of cell, Cp is the specific heat capacity of cell, h is the heat transfer
coefficient, Iapp is applied current, Rcell is the electrolyte resistance and
A is the cell surface area. ∂Ui is the entropy coefficient, xi is the SOC, and
∂T
ηi is the overpotential of electrode i = n, p (n=negative and p=posi-
tive). The first term on the right hand side of the Eq. (4) is the reversible
heat caused by the reaction entropy change (Qrev). The second term, is
the irreversible heat generated from electrode polarization (Qrxn). The
rate of heat exchanged due to convection between battery surface and
the surrounding is represented by Qconv. In this work, a lumped tem-
perature model is considered neglecting the spatial temperature dis-
tribution within the cell. The cell temperature T is a function of time
Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458
only. This approximation is useful to simplify the implementation of a
physics-based battery model to study the effect of temperature on the
BES system in a standalone PV-BES hybrid power system. The LiB
parameter values used in the thermal model are given in Table 2. It is
assumed that the initial cell temperature is equal to the ambient tem-
perature Tamb. The solid phase diffusion coefficients (Di) and the reac-
tion rate constants (ki) depend on the temperature through Arrhenius’
relations as given by Rao and Newman [63] and are given as:
⎡ Ead, i ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
Di = Di, ref exp ⎢ ⎜ − ⎟ ;
R ⎝T Tref ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ Erd, i ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
ki = ki, ref exp ⎢ ⎜ − ⎟ i = n, p
R ⎝T Tref ⎠ ⎥ (5)
⎣ ⎦
where Tref is the reference temperature, Di,ref is the solid phase diffusion
coefficient of electrode i at the reference temperature, ki,ref is the re-
action rate constant of electrode i at the reference temperature, Ead,i is
the diffusion coefficient activation energy of electrode i, Erd,i is the
reaction rate activation energy of electrode i, and R is the ideal gas
constant. The battery parameters and other governing equations of the
SPM used in this simulation are available elsewhere [48]. Fig. 3 shows a
schematic of the PV-BES hybrid power system along with the power
electronics components and their governing equations used to model
the system.
2.1. Thermal management and control strategy
The framework in this work assumes that the PV panel is the only
source of power generation. The power generated during the day time is
used to meet the load demand, and the excess power is stored in the BES
system. The BES system meets the load demand during the night as well
as when the generated PV power is not enough to meet the load demand
during the day. Typically, when the BES system is fully charged (SOC =
100%) a dump load is used to channel the excess power to avoid
overcharging, while operating the PV panels at MPP. In the proposed
framework, this scenario is avoided by adjusting the power generation
in such a way that it only meets the required load demand. This
(3) guarantees zero spilled energy.
Most systems that use an empirical or circuit based model for si-
mulating the BES system do not take the ambient temperature varia-
tions into account during simulations. Due to very large variation in
ambient temperature throughout the year, the temperature effect needs
to be considered during simulation for better performance prediction
and life estimation of the BES system. Very high ambient temperatures
are detrimental to the battery performance. Also, the heat generation
within the battery and its impact on degradation is a significant con-
cern. The temperature rise inside the cell will cause the battery para-
meters to change, which affects the performance of the whole system.
To address these problems we propose an efficient control strategy to
(a) manage the power flow, (b) operate the battery within a safe tem-
perature range, and (c) reduce capacity fade due to temperature rise
and overcharging. A flowchart containing different aspects and opera-
(4) tions in the proposed control strategy is shown in Fig. 4.
The control strategy has two regulation modes; (1) power flow
control mode and (2) temperature control mode. Under any condition
Table 1
LiB parameters for the capacity fade model [46].
Symbol Value Unit
Us,ref 0.4 V
Mp 7.3 × 104 molkg −1
ρp 2.1 × 103 kgm−3
Is 1.5 × 10−6 Am−2
κp 1 Sm−1
4
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan
Table 2
LiB parameters for the thermal model [48].
Symbol i=p i=n Unit
Erd,i 58 20 kJmol−1
Ead,i 29 35 kJmol−1
ρ 1626 kgm−3
v 0.199 × 0.08499 × 0.002 m3
Cp 750 Jkg −1K−1
Tref 298 K
Tamb 298 K
hA 0.085
Js−1K−1
of the solar radiation, load, and temperature, the control strategy is
designed to select the appropriate regulation mode automatically.
Initially, the PV panels operate at MPP in power flow control mode. If
the power generated by the PV panels is more than the load demand,
then the surplus power is stored in the BES system until SOC becomes
100%. The battery charging process is stopped when the SOC = 100%
and avoid degradation due to over charging. The PV panels at this point
are operated only to satisfy the load demand. In this case, the PV panel
may be operated away from MPP as well, to avoid dumpnig of excess
power produced. During the charging process the battery temperature
increases which affects its life and creates safety issues. If the battery
temperature exceeds the cut-off temperature limit of the control algo-
rithm, the temperature control mode is switched on to reduce the
battery temperature, and prevent the battery from thermal degradation.
The temperature control mode merely prevents the battery from char-
ging any further even if its SOC is less than 100%. Hence, the tem-
perature rise can be controlled and temperature dependent degradation
is minimised. The system continues to operate in this mode as long as
battery temperature is above the cut-off temperature limit. The battery
is however, allowed to discharge if the generated PV power falls below
the load demand during such time. It could be argued that, the tem-
perature rise can be prevented by charging the battery at a lower C-rate.
However, based on our analysis, during the days with higher ambient
temperature, reducing the C-rate did not have significant effect on the
temperature as we rely only on cooling by natural convection. Hence
the control algorithm completely stops the charging process until the
temperature drops below the set limit. A pseudocode of the control
strategy is illustrated in Algorithm 1.
The proposed control methodology prevents battery overheating
and thermal control during the charging process. In a rare occurrence of
increase in the temperature during discharge due to excessive loading,
the failsafe controllers installed in the system would ensure the battery
temperature does not shoot up and it will be disconnected from the load
if the battery temperature exceeds the designed safety limit. In this
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of a standalone PV-BES hybrid power system.
5
Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458
case, the hybrid power system will not able to supply the power to the
consumers. Also, the storage sizing methodology used in this study will
ensure that excessive loading of the system does not take place at any
instance.
3. Results and discussion
The framework for a standalone PV-BES hybrid power system was
implemented in MATLAB® Simulink® environment. All simulations
were carried out on a PC with Intel® CoreTM i7-6700 processor @
3.40 GHz with 8 GB RAM. The MPPT and power electronics equations
are solved to calculate the maximum PV power generated. For every
time step, the solution phase resistance, growth in film thickness, and
temperature values are calculated. Based on these new values, the solid
phase diffusion coefficients and the reaction rate constants values are
updated for the LiB simulation. The physics-based SPM is used to si-
mulate the BES system and a mixed-order finite difference with strong
stability preserving Runge-Kutta (SSPRK-43) methods are used to solve
SPM equations. For every time step, the microgrid equations are solved
along with the electrochemical-thermal SPM for the LiB. Simulations
were run for an entire year, consisting of different weather conditions
(ambient temperature), to test the control strategy and to study the
effects of the applied current and temperature on the BES system per-
formance and life. Hourly solar radiation data in W/m2 [64] and hourly
ambient temperature profile in ∘C [65] of the year 2011 was taken for
Wardha circle of Nagpur region (20.7453 °N, 78.6022 °E), located in
India, as shown in Fig. 5(a) and (b) respectively. The maximum and
minimum solar radiation were recorded in April and July respectively.
India has different climatic conditions, which affect the performances of
PV-BES hybrid power systems. To study these effects, we divide the
year into four different climatic groups. During December to February
(90 days) the climatic conditions were considered to be ‘cold’ where the
minimum temperature recorded was as low as 8 ∘C. The ‘hot & dry’ days
are from March to mid-June (110 days) where the maximum tem-
perature was 46 ∘C. The monsoon season was from mid-June to Sep-
tember (85 days) which was considered as ‘warm & humid’ and from
September to November (80 days), the climatic conditions were neither
hot nor cold, and therefore termed as ‘moderate’.
The hourly feeder load information was collected from MAHAVIT-
ARAN, Maharashtra State Electricity Distribution Co. Ltd which is an
electricity distribution utility company in the state of Maharashtra,
India [66]. The load demand varies from 2 kW to 86 kW, as shown in
Fig. 5(c). India is an agricultural country and load demand is very much
related to farming activities. During the ‘moderate’ and ‘cold’ period,
the load demand is comparatively more due to the Rabi harvests
(winter crops). Low power demand can be seen during ‘warm & humid’
period because of the monsoon (rainy) season. The total Watt-hours per
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458

Fig. 4. Flow chart of proposed control algorithm.

day consumption for the selected location is 504 kWh/day. Depending
on the load demand and battery SOC, the control algorithm ensures that
the PV panels are operated to generate the required amount of power.
The PV power fluctuates due to solar radiation and temperature var-
iations, as shown in Fig. 6(a). The global irradiance on a fixed plane
during the ‘hot & dry’ period was as high as 941 Wm−2 at 1200 hours
(April) resulting in maximum PV power generation. The PV power
generation was minimum during the ‘warm & humid’ period as the
global irradiance on a fixed plane at 1200 hours was as low as 500
Wm−2 (July). The excess power generated by the PV arrays during the
daytime is stored in the BES system and utilised during the night, when
the PV arrays do not produce power, to meet the load demand. The BES
system is discharged during the day time as well when PV panels (op-
erating at MPP) are unable to completely meet the load demand. This
smooth power transition between the PV panels and the BES system is
assured by the power flow control mode of the developed control al-
gorithm. The installed BES capacity for two days of autonomy is cal-
culated to be 1521 kWh. Few ratings and sizing details are shown in
Fig. 6(b).
The framework is simulated from January to December (Days 1 to
365). The individual cells are assumed to be evenly balanced inside the
larger battery pack [67]. The peak load demand and power supply
during the night were satisfied by the BES system, as shown in Fig. 7(a).
The power flow mode of control algorithm assures that the power
generated by the PV panels plus power supplied by the BES system is
precisely equal to the load demand. Hence, 0% excess total output
power is produced (zero spillage), and no energy is transferred to the
dump load. Fig. 7(b) shows the predicted SOC and voltage calculated
using the physics-based SPM. The battery current is negative during
discharge and positive during charging of the BES system. The battery
current is equal to zero when the battery is fully charged and the PV
panels are satisfying the load demand. It is assumed that the BES system
is fully charged (i.e., SOC = 100%) as per manufacturer’s specifications
at the start of the simulation. SOC is calculated from the actual lithium
concentration in the electrode using the physics-based SPM. The de-
veloped power control algorithm stops the charging process once the

1: DAE-based implementation of MPPT

2: Input all physical and temperature dependent parameters
3: Initialise all variables
4: Initialise time t = t0
5: while t ≤ t f inal do
6: Operate the PV-BES system in Power Control mode
7: Solve DAE system with thermal-SPM using Mixed FD & SSPRK-43
8: Calculate input/output power, battery internal variables
9: if SOC = 100% then
10: Stop charging and operate PV panels to satisfy load demand
11: end if
12: Calculate battery internal temperature, SEI film growth and capacity fade
13: if T battery ≥ T cuto f f then
14: Switch to Temperature Control mode
15: Stop charging the battery until temperature drops below set point
16: end if
17: Move to the next time step t = t0 + Δt
18: end while
Algorithm 1. Thermal management and control strategy.

6
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan
Fig. 5. (a) Hourly average solar radiation, (b) Hourly ambient temperature, (c) Load profile,.
SOC value becomes 100% and prevents overcharging. During this
period, PV panels generate sufficient power to meet the load demand
only. In ‘warm & humid’ period, the SOC values are almost between
90% and 100%. This is because of the low load demand in this period. A
higher rate of battery discharge is observed during ‘moderate’ and ‘cold’
periods.
The ambient temperature has a significant effect on the electro-
chemical characteristics and temperature rise of the BES system.
Battery performance and temperature distribution at different climatic
conditions are investigated. During the operation of the BES system, the
generated heat is typically dissipated to the environment and any re-
maining heat inside the BES system is responsible for its temperature
7
Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458
rise. The initial system temperature is assumed to be equal to the am-
bient temperature (T|t = 0 = Tamb ). During the charging/discharging
process battery temperature changes, and the variation of the ambient
and battery temperature can be seen in Fig. 8(a). During ‘hot & dry’ and
‘warm & humid’ climatic conditions the difference between ambient
and battery temperature is significant. Specifically, on the 214th day of
the year, the battery temperature goes as high as 68 ∘C, which is quite
high as compared to the ambient temperature (36 ∘C) on the same day.
On this day, the difference in battery and ambient temperature is 32 ∘C.
This can be due to the high value of charging current, as well as low
imposed heat transfer coefficient (h = 5.0 Wm−2K−1), which reflects
convective air cooling. The cut-off temperature limit is 40 ∘C in the
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458

Fig. 6. (a) Power output of PV panels, (b)Ratings/ Sizing of PV-BES hybrid power system.

control algorithm. After implementing the thermal control strategy, the
maximum temperature that the battery reaches is reduced from 68 ∘C to
41 ∘C. This reduction in temperature is observed because, as soon as the
BES temperature is above 40 ∘C, control strategy shifts to the tem-
perature control mode which stops the charging process. In this sce-
nario, the temperature difference between the ambient and battery
temperature is only 5 ∘C. The comparison between the battery tem-
peratures with and without control strategy is shown in Fig. 8(b). In this
way whenever the temperature control mode is active, the charging
process is stopped and fall in battery temperature is observed. It is
observed that during the ‘moderate’ and ‘cold’ periods the battery
temperature with and without temperature control strategy is the same.
In this period the control algorithm is not switched to temperature
control mode as the battery temperature stays below 40 ∘C. The de-
veloped thermal management strategy stops the battery charging pro-
cess to minimize the battery temperature even if SOC < 100%. For

Fig. 7. (a) Power satisfied by the BES system, (b) SOC and Voltage .

8
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan
Fig. 8. (a) Ambient and battery temperature, (b) Battery temperature with and without control strategy.
example, in the above case, when the battery temperature rises to 68 ∘C
the charging process is stopped when the SOC is 99%. Hence during
‘hot & dry’ and ‘warm & humid’ periods, the decrease in the SOC and
the voltage values with the control strategy are observed due to tem-
perature control mode as shown in Fig. 9(a) and (b) respectively.
During days 1 to 63 and 252 to 365, power flow control mode is active
as the battery temperature is below the cut-off temperature. During this
period the SOC and voltage curves with and without the control
strategy overlap. The information given in Fig. 9(a) would be of great
interest to the utility companies as it shows the effect of cut-off tem-
peratures on battery SOC over a long period of time. Simulations were
run to study the effect of temperature on the growth of the SEI layer and
the subsequent capacity fading in the BES system. The simulation re-
sults show the effect of changing temperature and operating conditions
on the amount of capacity fade in the BES. Two different values of cut-
off temperatures (38 ∘C and 40 ∘C) were used in the control algorithm to
evaluate the capacity loss. Capacity loss during charging is found to
decrease with decreasing cut-off temperature as shown in Fig. 10. In
this work, we consider the degradation only due to the SEI layer for-
mation and growth during charging. Therefore, the capacity lost shown
in Fig. 10 is not total annual capacity fade of the battery.
The cut-off temperature in the control algorithm plays a significant
role in reducing the capacity fade. It is advisable to operate LiBs be-
tween 15 – 35 ∘C for better performance and longer life. However,
decreasing the cut-off temperature beyond a certain limit is not pos-
sible. It is observed that when the cut-off temperature is set at 38 ∘C
during the simulation, the SOC value falls below 40% (Fig. 9(a)). To
avoid such low SOC operating conditions, we concluded from the si-
mulation results that the cut-off temperature could not be set lower
9
Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458
than 40 ∘C. The inappropriate design of the battery management system
can cause overcharging, which can also lead to battery degradation.
Since a fraction of the current is getting consumed in the side reaction
during overcharging, the battery starts to degrade on cycling. This re-
sults in a decrease of recoverable capacity. It is observed that higher the
value of exchange current more is the degradation and a change in even
one order of magnitude affects the degradation to a great extent. The
proposed control strategy stops the charging current when battery SOC
= 100% and prevents overcharging. In this way, the developed control
strategy successfully prevents degradation due to overcharging. The
BES systems are arguably the most expensive component in a PV-BES
hybrid power system and therefore its life is a deciding factor in the
financial feasibility of their procurement and installation. Hence, even
1–2% reduction in capacity loss of the BES system is significant for
long-term cost benefits. The proposed control strategy can achieve this
without any extra investment for the external cooling system. Based on
these results it is evident that temperature has an effect on the de-
gradation of the battery and developed control algorithm helps to
prevent degradation to some extent without any additional investment
on external thermal management systems.
The reversible heat by the reaction entropy change, irreversible heat
from electrode polarization and the total heat generated in the BES
system is shown in Fig. 11. These various type of heat generated in the
battery can be understood by studying energy balance equation used in
the thermal modelling. Heat transfer (distribution of temperature) and
heat generated (heat source) are two different phenomena in the bat-
tery. As per Eq. (4), Qrev is the expression for the reversible heat which
can be either positive or negative depending on the direction and stage
of reaction. The irreversible heat is given by the expression Qrxn which
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458

Fig. 9. (a) SOC and (b) Voltage with and without temperature control strategy.

Fig. 10. Cell capacity loss during charging with and without temperature control.

has positive value for both charging and discharging. The reversible and
irreversible heat are of the same order in magnitude, and they have a
joint effect on the cell temperature change. Newton’s law of cooling,
(Qconv) represents the heat exchanged between the BES system and the
surroundings. The value of h is constant as no external cooling is pro-
vided other than natural convection. The BES system temperature de-
pends on the combined effect of the charging/discharging process and
the heat dissipated to the surroundings. In this case, to avoid the extra
cost and increase in battery pack volume, we are not considering any
external cooling mechanisms for thermal management. The amount of
heat exchanged between the system and the surroundings is affected by
the value of the convective heat transfer coefficient (for natural con-
vection, h = 5.0 Wm−2K−1). The developed thermal management
strategy controls the current density to minimize the temperature rise
within the BES system. The heat generated without and with tem-
perature control strategy is shown in Fig. 12. The maximum heat gen-
erated is on the 214th day, which is 15.17 kWm−3. After implementing
the control algorithm, the heat generated on the same day is reduced to
11.8 kWm−3 a reduction of 22.2%. Similarly, the reduction in heat
generation is observed on other days whenever the control strategy
shifts from the power control mode to the temperature control mode.
The temperature control strategy successfully reduces the heat

10
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan
Fig. 11. Heat generated without temperature control strategy.
Fig. 12. Heat generated without and with temperature control strategy.
generation inside the BES system. This reduction in heat generation is
reflected in reduced operating temperature and ultimately less thermal
degradation.
The Arrhenius relations as given by Eq. (5) influences the physio-
chemical variables of the battery, which in turn affect its performance.
Model parameters such as solid-phase diffusion coefficients (Di) and
rate constants for the electrochemical reaction (ki) for positive/negative
electrodes exhibit temperature dependence, which is incorporated into
the developed simulation framework. The variation of Dp and kp with
and without the control strategy is shown in Fig. 13(a) and (b) re-
spectively. During days 200–207, when the temperature control mode
is not active the values of Dp and kp with and without the control
strategy overlap. When the battery temperature exceeds 40 ∘C the
charging process stops as the temperature control mode is active. A
control decision taken at the system level can be seen to have a sig-
nificant effect on the values of Dp and kp at the cell level. The objective
here is to illustrate the fact that, with the use of physics-based model, an
operational decision taken at the system level (stopping battery char-
ging) is able to affect the physical parameters of the battery at the cell
level. Such a top-down approach can be administered using the simu-
lation of physics-based battery models alone and not with simple em-
pirical or equivalent circuit based models. It is observed from Fig. 13
that the solid state diffusion coefficient values and the rate constants for
11
Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458
the electrochemical reaction are reduced after implementing the pro-
posed thermal control strategy. One of the advantages of the physics-
based battery model is the ability to visualise the relationship between
the system-level control action and their effect on the physiochemical
variables of the battery. After the thermal control algorithm prevents
the battery charging, the values of Di and ki drop down, which is not
beneficial from the cell performance point of view. This decrease in Di
values indicates an obstruction in the lithium mass transport process
and therefore increases mass transport resistance when thermal control
is activated. This indicates that we have to compromise on the cell
performance as the battery thermal control strategy is essential for
improved system safety and long battery life.
This work is a first step towards demonstrating the implementation
of physics-based battery models including degradation phenomnea in
the thermal and power management control strategies for the standa-
lone PV-BES hybrid power system. These results merely serve as a proof
of concept and a justification to proceed with more complicated models
for robust control of these systems. Inclusion of calendar aging and shelf
life of the battery are not considered in this work. The developed fra-
mework is generic in nature and can be easily extended to include other
renewable energy sources and to incorporate other battery types and
degradation mechanisms. The proposed approach opens up a variety of
possibilities for improvement in performance and economic feasibility
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan
Fig. 13. (a) Solid phase diffusion coefficient with and without control strategy of positive electrode; (b) Rate constant for the electrochemical reaction with and
without control strategy of positive electrode.
of the PV-BES hybrid power system.
4. Conclusions
The BES systems, when integrated with renewable energy genera-
tion, provide operational flexibility, ensure overall reliability and sta-
bility, and overcome the intermittency behaviour of the hybrid power
systems. In this work, a physics-based single particle electrochemical-
thermal model of a LiB including chemical degradation was successfully
integrated with a standalone solar-PV-BES hybrid power system. Two
operating modes were proposed - a) power flow control mode and b)
temperature control mode. Under either of these two modes, the
charging will be disconnected if the battery is fully charged (SOC =
100%) and the PV panel is operated away from MPP in order to meet
only the load demand thereby guaranteeing 0% excess total output
power produced (zero spillage). Previous studies have focused more on
external cooling methods to control the battery temperature, which are
expensive. However, the present work contributes to the coupling of the
electrochemical-thermal battery model with a control strategy for
power flow and thermal management without adding any significant
cost. The proposed control strategy alters the battery charging current
when the temperature control mode is activated. Temperature control
12
Journal of Energy Storage 31 (2020) 101458
mode successfully reduces the heat generated in the BES system which
leads to a reduction in battery temperature. The degradation process of
the BES system is affected by both the battery and ambient tempera-
tures, and decreases with a decrease in cut-off temperature. Two dif-
ferent cut-off temperatures (38 ∘C and 40 ∘C) are considered for the
thermal control algorithm. The simulation results for this particular
case study, show that there is a drastic fall in the SOC (10%) if the cut-
off temperature is lower than 40 ∘C. This control strategy can reduce
battery degradation during charging ( ≈ 1 – 2% per year in this case).
The results have incorporated battery charge and discharge behaviour
as functions of both the applied current and cell temperature.
Numerical modelling and simulation of detailed physics-based battery
models, accounting for internal states, can save a significant amount of
energy and cost. The proposed system can be analysed for data from
different parts of world having different climatic zones, to study the
impact of temperature on the battery life. The challenges are many
more like stress-strain generation, shape-changes, volume expansion,
dendrite formation, and poor Coulombic efficiency to name a few,
which need to be addressed adequately. Multi-scale multi-physics
models with efficient numerical methods would have to be developed to
include these physicochemical phenomena for improved battery design
optimization. A more detailed investigation is required to study the
M.P. Bonkile and V. Ramadesigan
relationship between cut-off temperature, battery size and its impact on
battery’s life and cost savings. Simulation tools can be developed using
these physics-based models to study the operational performance and
evaluate real-time energy management strategies of BES systems in
renewable hybrid power systems. This manuscript discusses the vital
role of the physics-based battery models and it’s control strategy for
standalone hybrid power systems. This work will serve as a first step
towards demonstrating the implementation of robust and efficient in-
tegration of physics-based battery models in the control strategies for
the standalone renewable-storage hybrid power systems.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mayur P. Bonkile: Software, Validation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Visualization.
Venkatasailanathan Ramadesigan: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Resources, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Project adminis-
tration, Funding acquisition.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they do not have any financial or non-
financial conflict of interests
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful for the financial support provided by the
National Centre for Photovoltaic Research and Education (NCPRE-II)
(Grant No. 31/09/2015-16/PVSE-R&D) funded by the Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Govt. of India.
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