International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 71 (2016) 35–43

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International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ichmt

Experimental temperature distributions in a prismatic lithium-ion

battery at varying conditions☆
S. Panchal a,⁎, I. Dincer a, M. Agelin-Chaab a, R. Fraser b, M. Fowler c
a
Department of Automotive, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, 2000 Simcoe Street North,
Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4, Canada
b
Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering Department, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
c
Chemical Engineering Department, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Available online 17 December 2015 In this paper, temperature contours are presented for a prismatic lithium-ion battery at 1C, 2C, 3C, and 4C dis-
charge rates and different boundary conditions (cooling/operating/bath temperature) of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and
Keywords: 35 °C. The active (water cooling) cooling system is designed and developed based on a prismatic lithium-ion bat-
Lithium-ion battery tery using dual cold plates. The battery discharges at constant current rates of 20 Amp, 40 Amp, 60 Amp, and
Electric vehicle 80 Amp, and the experimental temperature contours are then plotted between the beginning and end of dis-
Heat generation
charge cycle. The results show that a higher temperature distribution is observed over the entire surface of the
Temperature contour
Thermal management system
battery for 4C at 35 °C and a lower temperature distribution is noted for 1C at 5 °C. Furthermore, it is observed
that increased discharge rates between 1C and 4C and increased boundary conditions (BCs) between 5 °C and
35 °C result in increased temperature contour of the battery.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction main or secondary power source [9–11]. The precautions during

Electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are gaining more importance due to in-
creasing gas prices and pollution levels [1,2]. In Canada and in the
United States, one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases (GHG) is
road transportation. These contributes significantly to urban air quality
problems [3], and therefore, the need to lower the vehicle emissions
along with the decreasing oil resources is forcing the automotive indus-
try to find pure EVs in order to solve these demands globally [4]. EVs,
HEVs, and PHEVs depend on energy storage [5] and improving their
lifetime will reduce the runtime and the costs for the vehicle. These
technologies have primarily shifted towards lithium-ion batteries for
energy storage because the lithium-ion battery is the most advanced
battery [6].
Lithium-ion battery is widely used rechargeable energy storage
systems for EVs, HEVs, and PHEVs today due to the following: (1)
high specific energy and power densities [7,–8] and (2) high nominal
voltage and low self-discharge rate for EVs, HEVs, and PHEVs [6].
Apart from automobile, laptops, cell phone or mobiles, toys, and
many other consumer products use lithium-ion batteries as the
☆ Communicated by W.J. Minkowycz
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Satyam.panchal@uoit.ca, satyam.panchal@uwaterloo.ca (S. Panchal).
charging and discharging must be taken for these batteries. Exceed-
ing voltage, current, or power limits may result in the battery cell
damage. The possibility of thermal runaways also occurs if the care
is not taken [12,13]. In addition, lithium-ion polymer batteries
must be carefully monitored and managed (electrically and thermally)
to avoid safety (inflammability) and performance issues [14–16].
A lithium‐ion battery cell consists of two electrodes, anode and
cathode, with a separator in between, and current collectors on
each side of the electrodes. The cathode is made of a composite ma-
terial and defines the name of the lithium-ion battery cell [17]. The
anode is usually made out of graphite or a metal oxide. The electro-
lyte can be liquid, polymer, or solid. Several common configurations
are available for lithium-ion battery construction. The two promi-
nent types are cylindrical and prismatic. Generally, cylindrical cells
designs are limited to below 4 Ah, and prismatic designs are used
for higher capacity ratings [18]. Stacked prismatic batteries consist
of many individual cells with electrical connections to a common
positive and negative current tab [19]. Alternating sheets of positive
and negative electrode current collector sheets are stacked between
sheets of separator in such a way that the current tab of each positive
sheet and each negative sheet are aligned on opposite sides. Both
sides of the electrode sheets form electrochemical cells with adja-
cent electrodes across the separator layers. The current tabs present
at the top of each current collector sheets are joined together and at-
tached to a larger output tab that extends to the exterior of the pouch
[19].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2015.12.004
0735-1933/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
36 S. Panchal et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 71 (2016) 35–43

Given the problems of (1) battery performance, (2) aging or

Nomenclature degradation of batteries, and (3) fire issues due to high battery operat-
ing temperature, there is strong need to study the thermal behavior of
A area [m2] vehicle batteries and assess the performance of EV, HEV, and PHEV bat-
l lenght [mm] teries undergoing realistic vehicle charge and discharge cycles. To date,
P individual component of the surface temperature a lot of work has been done on battery modeling but limited published
average experimental studies with varying boundary conditions exists. This has
T Temperature [°C or K] been the main motivation behind this experimental investigation which
t Time [s] aims to study the temperature variations in a prismatic lithium-ion bat-
w width [mm] tery at varying conditions and evaluate the thermal behavior for each
case under different discharge rates of 1C, 2C, 3C, and 4C and various
Subscripts boundary conditions of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C.
avg average
i layer index 2. Experimental apparatus and procedure
tot total
x,y,z Cartesian coordinates The experimental setup used for thermal characterization of the bat-
tery is shown in Fig. 1(a). The components shown on the left side of the
Acronyms and abbreviations picture make up the battery cycling equipment, whereas the compo-
Act actual nents displayed on the right side of the picture comprise the thermal
BC boundary conditions data collection and battery cooling system. The compression apparatus
BTMS battery thermal management system is used to contain and insulate the battery while testing is underway
C discharge rate with cold plates. The major components are described in detail in the
CAD computer-aided design following sections.
EV electric vehicle The test stand computer-1 manages a Lab view program (for
EOD end of discharge measurement of charge current, discharge current, number of cycles,
GM general motor maximum voltage at end of charge, and minimum voltage at end of
HEV hybrid electric vehicle discharge), which records values at one second intervals, and the
LFP lithium phosphate test stand computer-2 manages the Keithley data acquisition
MOD middle of discharge system (for thermal data collection like battery surface temperature
PHEV plug-in hybrid electric vehicle and water inlet and outlet temperature for top and bottom
SOD start of discharge cold plates). The low voltage supply and the load were Lambda
SLE special limits of error ZUP20-40-800 and TDI Dynaload RBL323-50-150. The MotoTron
3-D three dimensional controller interfaces via RS232 communication to the test stand
computer-1. The battery and cold plate setup is shown in
Fig. 1(b) and in Fig. 1(c).
For the active cooling setup, two cooling plates were used: one cold
plate was placed at the top of the lithium-ion battery and the other cold
plate is placed at the bottom. This type of a cold plate is characterized as
having multiple flow channels with nine inlets and nine outlets. The cool-
Temperature, one of the most important parameter for a battery, ant flow paths are symmetrical down the center of the plate such that the
can affect both the lifetime and energy of the battery. The battery flow channels were mirrored about the centerline. The lithium-ion bat-
temperature should be within a temperature range that is consid- tery was insulated from three sides to prevent heat loss from the battery
ered optimum for the better performance and long life, for both use to the surrounding. The CAD of different views (3-D view, front view, and
and storage [20,21]. This temperature range differs between technol- side view) is shown in Fig. 2. The battery cooling system consisted of a
ogies and manufacturers. Therefore, thermal management of batte- closed loop of tubing connecting two cooling plates to a water bath. Sen-
ries is required. However, it is a challenging task in achieving the sors were placed along the flow path to record properties of the fluid. The
desired performance in a both the low-temperature and the high- mass flow rate of water to the upper and a lower cold plate was main-
temperature environment. The heat generated inside a battery tained constant during the experimental work.
must be dissipated to improve reliability and prevent failure [22]. A prismatic lithium-ion battery used in GM Chevy Volt (Chevrolet
At higher temperature ranges, lithium-ion batteries degrade rapidly, Volt) was selected for this work. It was chosen because it is suitable as
while the power and energy output are reduced at cold temperature a basic block for a large battery pack foreseen for commercial automo-
ranges, thereby limiting the driving range and/or performance capa- tive vehicle applications. The prismatic battery has following specifica-
bilities [23,24]. tions according to the manufacturer's data sheet: (i) a nominal
There are two basic types of cooling a system: (1) air cooling and (2) capacity of 20 Ah, (ii) LiFePO4 as cathode material (known as LFP),
liquid cooling. The main advantage of air cooling systems is their (iii) graphite as anode material, (iv) a nominal voltage of 3.3 V, (v) a
simplicity over liquid coolant systems. Also, there is no direct contact mass of 496 g, (vi) an internal resistance of 0.5 mΩ, (vii) dimensions of
of water with battery and this is considered as the advantage. However, 7.25 mm × 160 mm × 227 mm (as thickness × width × height), and
air cooling systems have a lower heat transfer coefficient, making them (viii) operating temperature range of − 30 °C to 55 °C. For the ex-
more difficult to achieve a uniform temperature on the pack. On the perimental work, the flow rate was 150 mL/min for both top and bottom
other hand, liquid cooling systems are more effective and occupy less cold plates.
volume but have higher complexities, cost, and weight. A battery ther-
mal management system (BTMS) is important for effective performance 2.1. Temperature measurements
of battery packs in high-temperature and high-discharge applications in
order to keep the average battery system temperature in the range of For the measurement of battery surface temperature, ten thermocou-
20 °C to 45 °C [25]. The lithium-ion polymer battery operates in a ples were placed on the principal surface of the battery. The locations of
range of -30 °C to 60 °C [26]. these thermocouples are shown in Fig. 3(a). These thermocouples are
 S. Panchal et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 71 (2016) 35–43 37

a) A picture of the set-up change this fig

(b) Battery and cold plate (c) Cold plate

Fig. 1. Experimental setup.

T-type, special limits of error (SLE) thermocouple wire with uncertainty to A5, 1 on the principle surface of the battery. Also, the battery temper-
of 1 °C (according to manufacturer's specifications). The thermocouples ature change rate was determined by
were fixed to the surface of the lithium-ion battery using adhesive tape.  
In order to calculate the average battery surface temperature, Eq. (1) dT T t 2 −T t 1
¼ ð2Þ
was used. The average battery surface temperature was calculated by a dt t 2 −t 1
summation of the product of the temperature area and by dividing it by
the total surface area:
2.2. Experimental uncertainty

X  In this section, the uncertainty analysis of the experimental measure-

T i j Ai j
T avg ¼
Atot
The ten thermocouples (from location 1,1 to location 5,1) measuring
the surface temperatures shown in Fig. 3(a) were each assigned the
areas that correspond to their locations as shown in Fig. 3(b) from A1,1
ments and derived correlations is presented. The accuracy of measure-
ð1Þ
ment equipment is determined and used to establish the uncertainty of
calculated relationships and properties. The overall uncertainty of the ex-
perimental results and theoretical predictions will be calculated using the
method described by Moffat [27]. Evaluating the uncertainty of surface
temperature measurements and the area measurements were required
38 S. Panchal et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 71 (2016) 35–43

Fig. 2. CAD of different views of battery and cold plate setup.

to determine the overall uncertainty of the average surface temperature Keithley 2700 data acquisition system. The uncertainty due to the
measurement. The uncertainties are provided as follows: thermocouple readout is 1 °C, according to manufacturer's specifica-
tions [28]. The uncertainty is defined as
a. Surface temperature, Tij
The surface temperature measurements were made with T-type δT 1℃
¼  ð3Þ
SLE (special limits of error) thermocouples and recorded with a T T ½℃ 

(a) Thermocouple locations (b) Distribution of areas

Fig. 3. Thermocouple locations and areas calculated.

 S. Panchal et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 71 (2016) 35–43 39

Table 1 b. Area, Aij

Average uncertainty in surface temperature for five operating temperatures. An electronic digital caliper with a resolution of 0.005 was used to
Operating ± Relative ± Absolute measure the positions of the thermocouples as installed on the
temperature [°C] uncertainty (%) uncertainty [°C] battery surface. As Aij = lw, the following equation is used to deter-
5 20.3 1.5 mine the uncertainty in each area:
15 2.6 0.5 (   2 )1=2
2
25 1.2 0.4 δA δl δw
35 0.7 0.3
¼  þ ð4Þ
A l w

SOD_1C_5Deg_0s MOD_1C_5Deg_1560s EOD_1C_5Deg_3102s

SOD_1C_15Deg_0s MOD_1C_15Deg_1621s EOD_1C_15Deg_3321s

SOD_1C_25Deg_0s MOD_1C_25Deg_1740s EOD_1C_25Deg_3450s

SOD_1C_35Deg_0s MOD_1C_35Deg_1740s EOD_1C_35Deg_3490s

Fig. 4. Temperature contour at 1C and boundary conditions of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C.
40 S. Panchal et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 71 (2016) 35–43

For the purpose of evaluating uncertainty in the average surface A relative uncertainty for the average surface temperature was
temperature, let Pi,j represent the individual TijAij/Atot components of established via Eq. (6). The highest surface temperature absolute error oc-
the surface temperature average, where i and j subscripts describe the curs when the surface temperature is smallest. The range of relative un-
particular thermocouple. The following equation is used to determine certainty is large and thus was calculated for each operating temperature:
the error in each Pi,j product: (      )1=2
δT avg δP 1;1 2 δP 1;2 2 δP 5;1 2
(      )1=2 ¼ þ þ⋯þ ð6Þ
δP i; j δT i j 2 δAi j 2 δAtot 2 T avg P 1;1 P 1;2 P 5;1
¼ þ þ ð5Þ
P i; j Tij Ai j Atot
These values are summarized in Table 1.

SOD_2C_5Deg_0s MOD_2C_5Deg_720s EOD_2C_5Deg_1447s

SOD_2C_15Deg_0s MOD_2C_15Deg_841s EOD_2C_15Deg_1607s

SOD_2C_25Deg_0s MOD_2C_25Deg_841s EOD_2C_25Deg_1691s

SOD_2C_35Deg_0s MOD_2C_35Deg_841s EOD_2C_35Deg_1731s

Fig. 5. Temperature contour at 2C and boundary conditions of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C.
 S. Panchal et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 71 (2016) 35–43 41

3. Results and discussion 3.1. Temperature contours at 1C and BCs of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C

In this section, the experimental results are presented for a par- Fig. 4 shows the temperature contours at 1C discharge rate and dif-
ticular prismatic lithium-ion battery at different discharge rates of ferent BCs of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C. The results were obtained
1C, 2C, 3C, and 4C and various boundary conditions of 5 °C, 15 °C, every second from the start of the discharge (SOD) to the end of the dis-
25 °C, and 35 °C. charge. In this paper, the reported results are at the start of the discharge

SOD_3C_5Deg_0s MOD_3C_5Deg_481s EOD_3C_5Deg_917s

SOD_3C_15Deg_0s MOD_3C_15Deg_541s EOD_3C_15Deg_1046s

SOD_3C_25Deg_0s MOD_3C_25Deg_541s EOD_3C_25Deg_1098s

SOD_3C_35Deg_0s MOD_3C_35Deg_541s EOD_3C_35Deg_1145s

Fig. 6. Temperature contour at 3C and boundary conditions of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C.
42 S. Panchal et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 71 (2016) 35–43

(SOD), middle of the discharge (MOD), and at the end of the discharge
(EOD). It is noted that at the SOD, the thermal profiles are same for all
the cases. However, as the discharge progresses, the higher heat is gen-
erated by the battery cell, and due to this, the temperature increase on
the surface of the battery is observed. The highest temperature distribu-
tions are noted at the end of discharge, and the lowest temperature dis-
tributions are noted at the start of discharge as expected.
In addition to this, the influence of the cold plate is closely observed on
the temperature contours. In this regard, the temperature distributions
are higher at the bottom of the battery as compared to the top of the bat-
tery for this particular case. Cooling plates are aggressive enough that they
drive the temperature difference. The highest temperature value is 38.5 °C
noted at the end of discharge for the 1C-35 °C, and the lowest tempera-
ture value is 5.6 °C noted at the start of discharge for the 1C-5 °C.

SOD_4C_5Deg_0s MOD_4C_5Deg_360s EOD_4C_5Deg_709s

SOD_4C_15Deg_0s MOD_4C_15Deg_420s EOD_4C_15Deg_780s

SOD_4C_25Deg_0s MOD_4C_25Deg_421s EOD_4C_25Deg_824s

SOD_4C_35Deg_0s MOD_4C_35Deg_421s EOD_4C_35Deg_857s

Fig. 7. Temperature contour at 4C and boundary conditions of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C.
 S. Panchal et al. / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 71 (2016) 35–43
It is also observed that the responses of the thermocouples at loca-
tions (1, 1), (1, 2), and (1, 3) have the faster rates of increase over the
entire period of discharge. Note that these thermocouples are placed
near the anode and the cathode of the battery. They show that the loca-
tion of highest heat accumulation is near the anode and the cathode.
3.2. Temperature contours at 2C and BCs of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C
Fig. 5 shows the temperature contours at 2C discharge rate and
different BCs of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C. Here, the same trend is
observed as in the previous case of 1C discharge rate, but as the dis-
charge current increases, the heat generation also increases, which re-
sults in the increased temperature distributions. The temperature
values are higher near the negative electrode and the positive electrode
in the middle of the discharge in all BCs. The highest temperature
value is 38.4 °C noted at the end of discharge for the 2C-35 °C, and
the lowest temperature value is 5.7 °C noted at the start of discharge
for the 2C-5 °C.
3.3. Temperature contours at 3C and BCs of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C
Fig. 6 shows the temperature contours for the 3C discharge rate and
different BCs of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C. Here the higher temperature
distributions are recorded near the electrodes. It is also noted that when
the BC increases from 5 °C to 35 °C, the surface temperature distri-
butions also increase at the end of discharge. The highest temperature
value is 41 °C noted at the end of discharge for the 3C-35 °C, and the
lowest temperature value is 5.6 °C noted at the start of discharge for
the 3C-5 °C.
3.4. Temperature contours at 4C and BCs of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C
Fig. 7 shows the temperature contours at 4C discharge rate and
different BCs of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C. In this particular case, the
discharge current is the highest (80A), and due to this, higher heat is
generated by a particular battery cell, and as the discharge progresses
from start of discharge to end of discharge, the temperature distribution
also increases. The effect of cooling plate is seen since the surface tem-
perature does not proceed beyond 44 °C due to circulating water in
the top as well as bottom cold plates. This circulating water takes heat
generated by the battery. This is of particular concern for the development
of EV, HEV, and PHEV because the vehicle range is directly affected by the
battery temperature. The highest temperature value is 44 °C noted at the
end of discharge for the 4C-35 °C, and the lowest temperature value is
5.2 °C noted at the start of discharge for the 4C-5 °C.
Overall, by comparing all images, it is noted that the highest temper-
ature value is 44 °C noted at the end of discharge for the 4C-35 °C as
compared to 38.5 °C noted at the end of discharge for the 1C-35 °C.
The trend observed is that increased discharge rates (between 1C, 2C,
3C, and 4C) and increased operating temperature (between 5 °C,
15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C) result in increased temperature contours at all
the locations measured.
4. Conclusions
The temperature contours were studied for a prismatic lithium-ion
battery at 1C, 2C, 3C, and 4C discharge rates and different boundary con-
ditions of 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C using dual cold plate approach
with indirect liquid cooling method. The influences of the cold plates
on the battery surface temperature were also studied. The following
concluding remarks can be stated. (1) The highest temperature distribu-
tions were recorded at the end of discharge for 4C-35 °C, and (2) the
lowest temperature distributions were recorded at the end of discharge
43
for 1C-5 °C. (3) The battery cell temperature contours can be influenced
by the cold plates. (4) The temperature distributions increased as the
discharge rates increased from 1C to 4C. (5) As the BCs increased from
5 °C to 35 °C in all cases, the battery surface temperature also increased.
(6) The temperature distributions were higher near electrodes in all
cases.
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