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Doordarshan Lucknow Summer Training Report: Year 2012
Doordarshan Lucknow Summer Training Report: Year 2012
Submitted by:
Sushant Shankar
Mr.R.Naithani
B.Tech.4thYear(ECE)
Declaration
I hereby declare that work entitled summer training report, submitted towards
completion of summer training after 3rd year of B.Tech(ECE) at Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya Avadh University
Faizabad, comprises of my original work pursued under the guidance of
Mr. R.Naithani.
The results embodied in this report have not been submitted to any other
Institute or University for any award.
Sushant Shankar
B.Tech. 4th year
Branch-E.C.E.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Sushant Shankar,a candidate of B.Tech. from Institute
of Engineering and Technology, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya Avadh
University,Faizabad completed 4 week vocational summer training program
at Doordarshan lucknow, under my guidance and direction.
Acknowledgement
It is not possible to prepare a summer training report without the assistance &
encouragement of other people. This one is certainly no exception.
On the very outset of this report, I would like to extend my sincere & heartfelt
obligation towards all the personages who have helped me in this endeavor.
Without their active guidance, help, cooperation & encouragement, I would not have
made headway in the project.
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my project guide,
Mr. R.Naithani
I was privileged to experience a sustained enthusiastic and involved interest from
his side. This fuelled my enthusiasm even further and encouraged me to boldly step
into what was a totally dark and unexplored expanse before me. He always fuelled
my thoughts to think broad and out of the box.
I would also like to thank Mr.P.K.Tripathi who, instead of his busy schedule, always
guided me in right direction.
I would like to thank Mr. V.B.Patel (head of vocational training) to given me a chance
to do this training and all the staff member for motivation guidance and support
throughout the training.
Thanking You
Sushant Shankar
Table of Contents
1) Preface
2) Introduction
of Doordarshan Lucknow
3) Fundamentals
4)
5) TV
camera
6) TV
Lightning
11
7) Microphone
15
8) Principle
16
9) Vision
10) 3
Mixing
27
D GRAPHICS
31
11) Television
Transmission
33
12) TV
35
13) OB
van
37
14) Earth
15)
station
DTH (Direct-To-Home)
38
43
Preface
Training is important phase of student life. During this period student gets both theoretical
as well as practical knowledge of the subject. Training also impresses a student overall
approaches to life and impress his personality and confidence.
Our training was in Doordarshan Kendra lucknow. This report contains a detailed
study of Doordarshan Kendra lucknow.
There are 3 division here : 1) Studio
2)Transmitter
3)Earth Station
2)
TransmitterHere the transmission of both audio and video has been made. The transmission section
does the function of modulation of signal. Power amplification of the signal & mixing of audio and
video signal is done here.
3) Earth Station
The main function of earth station is to make contact with satellite or communicate
with it. The signals from other transmitter are down linked here.
Also the signals here are uplinked to send it to larger distance.
Picture formation
A picture can be considered to contain a number of small elementary areas of light or shade
which are called PICTURE ELEMENTS. The elements thus contain the visual image of the
scene. In the case of a TV camera the scene is focused on the photosensitive surface of pick
up device and a optical image is formed. The photoelectric properties of the pick up device
convert the optical image to a electric charge image depending on the light and shade of the
scene (picture elements). Now it is necessary to pick up this information and transmit it.
For this purpose scanning is employed. Electron beam scans the charge image and
produces optical image. The electron beam scans the image line by line and field by field to
provide signal variations in a successive order. The scanning is both in horizontal and
vertical direction simultaneously. The horizontal scanning frequency is 15,625 Hertz. The
vertical scanning frequency is 50 Hz. The frame is divided in two fields. Odd lines are
scanned first and then the even lines. The odd and even lines are interlaced. Since the frame
is divided into 2 fields the flicker reduces. The field rate is 50 Hertz. The frame rate is 25 Hert.
bandwidth of video and hence larger R.F. channel width is required. If we go for larger RF channel
width the number of channels in the R.F. spectrum will be reduced. However, with more no. of TV
lines on the screen the clarity of the picture i.e. resolution improves. With lesser number of TV lines
per frame the clarity (quality) is poor.
3
Resolution -The capability of the system to resolve maximum number of picture elements
along scanning lines determines the horizontal resolution. It means how many alternate black and
white elements can be there in a line. The vertical resolution depends on the number of scanning
lines and the resolution factor (also known as Kell factor)
Grey Scale- In black and white (monochrome) TV system all the colours appear as gray on a
10-step gray scale chart. TV white corresponds to a reflectance of 60% and TV black 3 % giving rise
to a Contrast Ratio of 20:1 (Film can handle more than 30:1 and eyes capability is much more).
Brightness
screen. Brightness control in a TV set adjusts the voltage between grid and cathode of the picture
tube (Bias voltage).
Contrast
Contrast is the relative difference between black and white parts of the reproduced picture. In a TV
set the contrast control adjusts the level of video signal fed to the picture tube.
Viewing Distance
Optimum viewing distance from TV set is about 4 to 8 times the height of the TV screen. While
viewing TV screen one has to ensure that no direct light falls on the TV screen.
Colour Composite Video Signal is formed with Video, sync and blanking signals. The level is
standardized to 1.0 V peak to peak (0.7 volts of Video and 0.3 volts of sync pulse). The
Colour Composite Video Signal (CCVS) has been shown in figure.
TV Camera
INTRODUCTION:
A TV Camera consists of three sections.
a) A Camera lens & Optics: To form optical image on the face plate of a pick up device
b) A transducer or pick up device: To convert optical image into a electrical signal
c) Electronics: To process output of a transducer to get a CCVS signal
The Charge held under electrode can be moved to electrode by changing the potential on the
second electrodes. The electrons (negative charges) follow the most positive attraction. A repeat of
this process would move the charges to next electrode, hence charge-coupled device. A system of
transfer clock pulses is used to move the charges in CCDs to achieve scanning.
There are three types of CCD device:
frame transfer (FT).
interline transfer(IT).
frame interline transfer (FIT).
Size of the chip used for broadcast cameras varies from inch to 2/3inch
10
TV LIGHTING
GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
Lighting for television is very exciting and needs creative talent. There is always a
tremendous scope for doing experiments to achieve the required effect. Light is a kind of
electromagnetic radiation with a visible spectrum from red to violet i.e., wave length from 700
nm to 380 nm respectively. However to effectively use the hardware and software connected
with lighting it is important to know more about this energy.
Light Source: Any light source has a Luminance intensity (I) which is measured in
Candelas. One Candela is equivalent to an intensity released by standard one candle source of
light.
Luminance flux (F): It is a radiant energy weighted by the photonic curve and is
measured in
Lumens. One Lumen is the luminous flux emitted by a point source of 1 Candela.
Illumination (E): It is a Luminous Flux incident onto a surface. It is measured in
LUMENS/m2, which is also called as LUX. A point source of 1 candela at a uniform distance of 1
meter from a surface of 1 square meter gives illumination of 1 LUX.
Luminance (L): It is a measure of the reflected light from a surface. Measured in Apostilbs
. A surface which reflects a total flux of 1 lumen/m2 has a luminance of 1 Aposilbs .
Elementary theory of light also says that:
Colour temperature:
One may wonder, how the light is associated with colour . Consider a black body being heated;
you may observe the change in colour radiated by this body as the temperature is increased.
The colour radiated by this body changes from reddish to blue and then to white as the
temperature is further increased. This is how the concept of relating colour with temperature
became popular. Colour temperature is measured in degree Kelvin i.e., 0C +273) . The table
below gives idea about the kind of radiation from different kinds of lamps in terms of colour
temperature.
a) Standard candle 19300K
b) Fluorescent Lamps range 3000-6500oK
c) HMI lamp 5600+- 400oK
(H=Hg, M=Medium arc, I=Metal Iodide}
d) CSI (Compact Source Iodide) 4000+- 400oK
e) CID (Compact Iodide Daylight) 5500+- 400o
Colour TV Display,white 6500oK
f) Monochrome TV 9300oK
g) Blue sky 12000 18000oK
h) Tungsten Halogen 3200oK
i) Average summer sunlight (10am 3pm) 5500oK
It can be noted that as the temperature is increased, the following things happen:
1) Increase in maximum energy released
2) Shift in peak radiation to shorter wavelengths (Blue)
3) Colour of radiation is a function of temperature
11
Hence by measuring the energy content of the source over narrow bands at the red and blue
ends of the spectrum ,the approximate colour temperature can be determined. All the color
temperature meter are based on this principle.
- Kickkar light, Extra light on shadow side of the face at an angle behind and to the side of the
actor
- Limbo Lighting, Only subject is visible, no back ground light
- Sillhoutt lighting, No light on subject, BG is highly lit
LIGHTING CONSOLE
In a television production, each scene will require its own lighting plan to give the desired
effect. In order to assist in setting up a particular lighting plon, a console should provide :a) One man operation and a centralised control desk with ability to switch any circuit.
b) Facilities to obtain good balance with flexibility to have dimming on any circuit.
c) With all controls for power at low voltage and current.
Modern lighting consoles also provide file & memory to enable the console operator to store
and recall the appropriate luminaries used for a particular lighting plot. These console also
provide Mimic panels to show which channels are in use and which memories or files have
been recalled.
DIMMERS
Three basic methods for dimming are :1. Resistance
This is the simplest and cheapest form of dimmer. It consists of a wire wound resistor with a
wiper .It is used in series with the load.
2. Saturable Reactor (System SR)
The basic principle of the saturable reactor is to connect an iron cored choke in series with the
lamp.
LIGHTING THE SET FOR DRAMA:--Openings such as windows within a set should be
highlighted without overstating them. Where the walls having such feature should be lit to
reveal these features but care must be taken to ensure that there is only one shadow. The top of
the set should be darkened off by using the barndoors, this puts a "ceiling" on the set by giving
the feeling of a roof. If more than the top of the set is darkened, that gives enclosed feeling.
Indoor day time:
1. If there is a choice in the direction of the 'sun'(Key) take the shortest route inside the set to a
wall, and if possible throw the shadow of window bars onto a door - it usually is in shot.
2. A patch of light on the floor inside the set, backlight from outside using a soft source at steep
elevation adds realism.
3. When a set does not have a window, a window pattern can be projected onto a wall to
produce a suitable window effect.
4. Roof and Ceiling Pieces - if they make lighting impossible, check if they can be removed at the
planning state. Light any ceiling pieces from outside, use a soft source at ground level. If the
ceiling has plaster moulding or ornamentation, a hard source may be used.
Indoor night time:
- The outside of the window should be dark, except for a possible dim skyline if the room is well
above adjacent streets, or lit by an outside practical lamp i.e. street lighting.
- The wall with the window in it should be lit at night to be brighter than for the day condition.
Subjectively the walls appear brighter at night than at daytime. .
- Often a completely different 'feel' to the set can be obtained by reversing he direction of
lighting in the set compared to that used for day.
13
- General for night effects it is not a good plan to just simply dim the set lighting when changing
from day to night. This is because the excessive change in colour temperature of the light
source and the apparent increase in saturation of surfaces at low luminance.
14
MICROPHONES
Introduction
Microphone plays a very important role in the art of sound broadcasting. It is a device which
converts accoustical energy into electrical energy. In the professional broadcasting field
microphones have primarily to be capable of giving the highest fidality of reproduction over audio
bandwidth.
Microphone Classification
Depending on the relationship between the output voltage from a microphone and the sound
pressure on it, the microphones can be divided into two basic groups.
Types of Microphones
There are many types of microphones. But only the most common types used in broadcasting have
been described here.
This microphone delivers 80 dBv with a very good frequency response. The output impedance of
this microphone is high. The popular method of providing d.c. voltage to the condenser is known as
Phantom Powering. Variable directivity capacitor microphones are becoming popular these days.
Fig. 3 Condenser Microphone Output Phantom power Head Amplifier Output Transformer Very
high resistance Insulator Phantom power DC blocking capacitor Earthed back-plate Diaphragm
Electret Microphone
It is a modified form of condenser microphone in which the polarising voltage is avoided. In fact a
plastic polymer containing metallic dust keeps the metal particles permanently charged within
the plastic insulation and such a polymer within the diaphragm foil or fixed plate delivers the
electrical signal on the principle of the condenser mike. The hissing noise gets avoided since there is
no external polarising resistor as a load. The microphone has high impedance and is generally
having FET pre-amplifier. The microphone costs very little but developes excellent quality designs
in many forms.
17
Magnetic Principle
Magnetic field intensity H = NI / L
Magnetic flux density B = H
Magnetic Flux = BA
( is of the order of 100 to few 10,000 for ferromagnetic materials)
Property of the ferromagnetic materials to retain magnetism even after the current or the H is
removed is called retentivity and is used for recording electrical signals in magnetic form on
magnetic tapes. This relationship can also be represented by a curve called BH curve. Magnetic
tapes are made of ferromagnetic materials with broader BH curve than the material used for video
heads as the heads are not required to retain information.
18
Recording Process
the problem to be solved in the development of VTRs was how to provide higher speed to record
very high frequencies
The other limitation of recording medium is the range, during when the extracted signal is more
than noise. This range is only 10 octaves. Thus the system can no longer be used for
recording/reproduction after this dynamic range of 60 db, because of 6 dB/octave playback
response characteristics. Beyond this range the low frequencies becomes inaudible and the higher
frequencies become distorted.
During the initial stages it was tried to record video signal with stationary video heads and
longitudinal tracks using tape speed of the order of 9 m/s which was very difficult to control
besides very high tape consumption i.e, miles of tape for 3 to 4 minutes of recording and this was
coupled with breaking of video signal frequencies into 10 parts recorded by 10 different video
heads and then switched during playback to retrieve the signal. The quality of the reproduced
signal was also compromised up to the resolution of 1.7 MHz or so. Around 1956 the AMPEX
company of USA then came out with Quadruplex machines having two revolutionary ideas which
laid the foundation of present day VTRs/VCRs.
These ideas were:
1. Rotating Video Heads and
2. Frequency Modulation before recording
19
20
Playback Process
So in order to record the higher frequencies we must increase the writing speed for a minimum
value of wave length recorded on tape i.e. tape. This minimum value of tape is again restricted by
the minimum practically possible head gap.
Now the ratio of video and audio frequencies is approximately 300, so we must increase the writing
speed or reduce the gap by the same factor of 300 to get the desired results. Perhaps a speed of 60
mph will be required to cope with the higher video frequencies.
CLASSIFICATION OF FORMAT:
A) Analog Formats:
VTRs using composite Video for professional Broadcast use were , Quadruplex 2 , 1" format and C (
All reel/Spool Type) which were then replaced by U- matic cassette recorders followed by best
quality analog format with separate luminance & chrominance recording called component
Analog formats. These were Betacam SP from SONY & M-II from Panasonic.
a) Quadruplex Format (Segmented)
This was the first professional broadcast video tape recorder introduced by AMPEX in 1956 and has
since been replaced by 1" recorders of type B and type C formats.
21
This format uses spool of 2" wide tape, 4 heads on transversely mounted drum, with a very high
writing speed of about 41m/s. These machines had higher operational cost and required constant
engineering efforts to keep them running. These machines have since been phased out except for
transfer/archival purpose.
b) Type B Format (Segmented helical)
This format was developed by BOSCH/BTS using helical scan with 1" tape as BCN series of Video
Tape recorders. It uses a scanner with head wheel carrying two video heads around which tape is
wrapped in about 190o. Each television field is recorded on six tracks with each head scanning a 52
line segment. The scanner diameter is 50mm and rotates at 150 rev/sec. The tape moves at
24cms/sec. The 80 mm long tracks are recorded at an angle of 14.3o. There are four longitudinal
tracks out of which two are full quality audio tracks, third for the time code and the fourth for the
control track. Video writing speed is 24m/s. The flying erase head mounted on the same headwheel and the associated electronics allows for roll free electronic editing. The addition of digital
frame store unit provides freeze frame and slow motion. The portable version in the same format
has also been marketed by the manufacturers for studio use.
c) Type
This is the combined format of AMPEX and SONY using 1" tape with a full omega wrap
around a helical scanner running at 50 rps. Main head mounted on a 135 mm dia drum records one
field i.e.
B). DIGITAL FORMATS
Modern television post production demands multi-layer special effects with several manipulations
having first generation quality. This requires multi-generation playback & a transparent recordings
from Video cassette players./recorders. which can be met only by the digital formats without loss in
picture quality.
.
b) D2 format was the first economical DVTR based on CCIR - 601, 4 fsc sampling on composite
video. It offered easy interface to a composite world at a reasonable cost. It was soon overshadowed
by the then forthcoming D 3 format.
c) D3: D3 was developed by NHK and Panasonic using composite system, 1/2" metal particle VHS
sized cassette thus saving cost. It records 8 bit digital video at a sampling rate of 4 fsc (17.73MHz)
in 8 tracks per field. Data rate is similar to D2.
For 16:9, sampling rate is 18 MHz with 8-bit coding Based on CCIR 601. It is without any data
compression.
Digital Betacam:
It is based on CCIR 601, and allows 16:9 upgrades. To reduce data rate it uses Bit Rate reduction
(BRR).Bit rate reduction is in the ratio of 2:1. This has been made possible because of the
conversion of data from time domain to frequency domain and removing the redundancy from the
digital video data. Equivalent system without BRR would have required more tape speed, extra thin
tape, and extra narrow tracks and would have also needed double the number of heads on drum or
double the drum speed. It is compatible with Betacam SP and is having 4 PCM Digital Audio Track.
Scanner for this machine is larger then that of Betacam SP but the helix is such that when rotated at
frame rate ,track angle of analog Betacam is traced .This gives a time compressed replay is which is
then expanded in TBC. For digital Betacam, to handle large data the scanner speed is increased to 3
times. One field is recorded in one and half revolution in 6 tracks of 26 Micrometers each.
Head drum:
Head drum for BVW 75P carries as many as 10 video heads, two heads for
Luminance Ya, Yb, two heads for chrominance Ca, Cb, two heads for Dynamic tracking Luminance DTYa,
DTYb, two heads for Dynamic tracking chrominance DT Ca, DT Cb, and finally two heads for Eraser REa & REb
(Rotary erase). In some of the models where slow motion is not available DT heads and associated electronics
is not required. This makes those models cheaper to BVW 75P.
23
VIDEO SYSTEM
Video system is based on component analog system. Composite video is decoded into its
component, Luminance Y and colours as R-Y & B-Y. You may note that these colour signal are base
band signal and have nothing to do with 4.43MHz subcarrier frequency. Y is recorded directly after
FM on one of the video tracks by Ya & Yb head. Chrominance signals are first compressed as CTDM
signal (Compressed time division multiplexing) and then frequency modulated. This FM chroma is
then mixed with AFM audio channel 3 & 4 before it is recorded along with chrominance
information.
24
What is DV?
DV is a consumer video recording format, developed by a consortium of 10 companies and later on
by 60 companies including Sony, Panasonic, JVC, Phillips etc., was launched in 1996. in this format,
video is encoded into tape in digital format with intra frame DCT compression using 4:1:1 chroma
subsampling for NTSC (or 4:2:0 for PAL).
25
This makes it straightforward to transfer the video onto computer for editing due to its intra frame
compression technique. DV tapes come in two formats: MiniDV size (66mm x 48mm x 12.2mm) and
DV, the standard full size (125mm x 78mm x 14.6mm). They record digital compressed video by a
DCT method at 25 Megabit per second. In terms of video quality, it is a step up from consumer
analog formats, such as 8mm, VHS-C and Hi-8.
What is DVCPRO?
DVCPRO is a professional variant of the DV, developed by Panasonic. In DVCPRO, the baseband
video signal is converted to 4:1:1 sampled data sequence from the originally sampled 4:2:2 signal
by the method of subsampling and the resulted data are converted into blocks which are shuffled
before passing through compression circuitry and again reshuffled back to their original position
after compression. It is to mention here that still pictures containing little or no movement are
compressed using intra frame compression whereas the pictures with large amounts of movements
are coded and compressed in intra field form. Error correction code is added to the compressed and
reshuffled data sequence by using Reed Solomon product code before it is sent to recording
modulation method. The modulated data sequence generated by 24-25 coding method using
scrambled NRZI is recorded onto the tape via video head.
VISION MIXING
Introduction
Vision mixing is a process of creating composite pictures from various sources. Vision
mixing involves basically three types of switching or transitions between various sources.
These are mixing, wiping and keying. These transitions can also be accompanied by special
effects in some of the vision mixers.
Mixing
Two input sources are mixed in proportion in a summing amplifier as decided by the
position of control fader. Two extreme position of the fader gives either of the sources at
the output. Middle of the fader gives mixed output of the two sources; control to the
summing amplifier is derived from the fader.
Wipe
In this case the control for the two input sources is generated by the wipe pattern
generator (WPG), which can either be saw tooth or parabola at H, V or both H & V rate.
Unlike in MIX, during WIPE, one source is present in one side of the wipe and the second
source on other side of the wipe. A very simple to very complex wipe patterns can be
generated from the WPG.
Key
In the Key position between two sources i.e. foreground (FG) and background (BG) the
control derived from one of the source itself (overlay), or by the third source (external
key). This keying signal can be generated either by the luminance, Hue or chrominance of
the source input. The keyed portion can be filled with the same or with matte or external
source. Matte means internally generated BG with choice of colors from the vision mixer
itself.
27
ADVANTAGES OF NLE
NLE has various advantages over tape based (linear) editing.
Flexibility in all editing functions.
Easy to do changes, undo, copy, duplicate and multiple version
Easy operation for cut, dissolve, wipes and other transition effects.
Multi-layering of video is easy.
Powerful integration of video and graphics, tools for filtering, color correction, key framing and
special 2D/3D effects.
Equally powerful audio effects and mixing.
Possible to trim ; compress or expand the length of the clip.
Intelligent and powerful 3D video effect can be created and customized.
Efficient and intelligent storage .
BREAKOUT BOXVarious video sources like VTR, CD player, camera and other playback/recording devices
are connected to NLE machine through breakout box. The NLE machine takes input from
various video sources for editing and gives output for monitoring and recording through
break out box.
INPUTS
Video Inputs
There are three analog inputs (1) Component Video (2) S-Video (3) Composite video
Audio Inputs
To capture synchronized audio with your video, you must connect audio out from the VTR
or other play back device to the audio inputs. You can also connect audio only devices for
sound track production etc. the dps reality board (NLE hardware) has three analog audio
options ; balanced, unbalanced and Aux.
29
Time Code
Time code is simply a series of labels attached to a recording at timed intervals, generally
fractions of sounds. Each label contains a time of recording. Time code is used for editing;
in order to be able to return repeatedly to a selected time, and for synchronization among
audio and video recorders and players. The two versions of time code that are available
with dps
OUTPUTS
Video Output
Component (CAV) Video has three connectors, labeled Y, B-Y, R-Y. A cable connects each of these
three outputs to your video monitor or VTR.
Audio Output
Choose what type of video to output based on whether your VTR and other video and audio
equipment can receive balance or unbalance audio. Audio out is connected to speakers for playback
or to a VTR or other audio recording device during recording.
30
3 D GRAPHICS
THE FIVE MODULES OF SOFTIMAGE
Softimage 3 D Extreme has given different modules that correspond to different phases of the
workflow process you use to create animation. Each of the modules replaces some of the menu cells
on the left and right menu columns, while leaving other menu cells that are applicable in all
modules. The modules are listed along the top right corner of the screen: Model, Motion, Actor,
Matter, and Tools. You can enter these modules either by clicking the text labels in the top right
corner, or by pressing the supra keys that represent them: F1 for Model, F2 for Motion, F3 for Actor,
F4 for Matter, and F5 for Tools.
MODEL
You start your workflow in the Model module, where you construct all your scene elements.
Models tools enable you to create objects from primitive shapes, draw curves, and develop
surfaces from those curves.
MOTION
You then move to animate some parts of your scene, using the animation tools found in the Motion
module. The Motion module allows you to set animation keyframes for objects, assign objects to
paths, and to see and edit the resulting animation on screen. After you have refined your animation
using the F Curve tools, you move to the next module, Actor.
ACTOR
The Actor module contains the special Softimage tools for setting up virtual actors, assigning
inverse kinematic skeletons, assigning skin, adjusting skeletons deformations, and weighting the
skin to the IK skeletons. Actor also contains the controls for physical-based animation Dynamics,
Collisions, and Qstretch which is an automatic squash-and-stretch features.
MATTER
When your modeling, animation, and acting are complete, you move to the fourth module: Matter.
In the Matter module, you assign color and material values to the objects in your scene, determining
how they will look in the final render.
31
At any time in the first four modules, you can create lights and adjust their effect on the scene. The
Matter module is also where you perform the last step in the workflow process, rendering.
TOOLS
Tools contains a variety of utility programs for viewing, editing and exporting your work. You may
view individual images, sequences of images, and line tests. You may bring in images created in
other programmes as image maps or import objects created in other programs as geometry. You
can composite sequences of images together, reduce colours in sequences of images for reduced
colour games systems, and move your finished work to video disk recorders and film recorders.
32
TELEVISION TRANSMISSION
VESTIGIAL SIDE BAND TRANSMISSION - If normal amplitude modulation technique is used for
picture transmission, the minimum transmission channel bandwidth should be around 11 MHz
taking into account the space for sound carrier and a small guard band of around 0.25 MHz. Using
such large transmission BW will limit the number of channels in the spectrum allotted for TV
transmission. To accommodate large number of channels in the allotted spectrum, reduction in
transmission BW was considered necessary. The transmission BW could be reduced to around 5.75
MHz by using single side band (SSB) AM technique, because in principle one side band of the double
side band (DSB) AM could be suppressed, since the two side bands have the same signal content.
Design
All the TV transmitters have the same basic design. They consist of an exciter followed by power
amplifiers which boost the exciter power to the required level.
Exciter
The exciter stage determines the quality of a transmitter. It contains pre-corrector units both at
base band as well as at IF stage, so that after passing through all subsequent transmitter stages, an
acceptable signal is available. Since the number and type of amplifier stages, may differ according to
the required output power, the characteristics of the pre-correction circuits can be varied over a
wide range.
IF Modulation
It has following advantages
35
Antenna System is that part of the Broadcasting Network which accepts RF Energy from
transmitter and launches electromagnetic waves in space. The polarization of the radiation as
adopted by Doordarshan is linear horizontal. The system is installed on a supporting tower and
consists of antenna panels, power dividers, baluns, branch feeder cable, junction boxes and main
feeder cables. Dipole antenna elements, in one or the other form are common at VHF frequencies
where as slot antennae are mostly used at UHF frequencies. Omni directional radiation pattern is
obtained by arranging the dipoles in the form of turnstile and exciting the same in quadrature
phase. Desired gain is obtained by stacking the dipoles in vertical plane. As a result of stacking,
most of the RF energy is directed in the horizontal plane. Radiation in vertical plane is minimized.
The installed
antenna system should fulfil the following requirements :
a) It should have required gain and provide desired field strength at the point of reception.
b) It should have desired horizontal radiation pattern and directivity for serving the planned area of
interest. The radiation pattern should be omni directional if the location of the transmitting station
is at the center of the service area and directional one, if the location is otherwise.
c) It should offer proper impedance to the main feeder cable and thereby to the transmitter so that
optimum RF energy is transferred into space. Impedance mismatch results into reflection of power
and formation of standing waves. The standard RF impedance at VHF/UHF is 50 ohms.
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37
Earth Station
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Satellite Communication is the outcome of the desire of man to achieve the concept of global village.
Penetration of frequencies beyond 30 Mega Hertz through ionosphere force people to think that if
an object (Reflector) could be placed in the space above ionosphere then it could be possible to use
complete spectrum for communication purpose.
Intelsat-I (nick named as Early Bird) was launched on 2 April 1965. This was parked in
geosynchronous orbit in Atlantic ocean and provided telecommunication or television service
between USA and Europe. It had capacity for 240 one way telephone channels or one television
channel. Subsequently Intelsat-II generation satellites were launched and parked in Atlantic ocean
and Pacific Ocean. During Intelsat III generation, not only Atlantic and Pacific ocean got satellites
but also Indian Ocean got satellite for the first time. Now Arthur C.Clarkes vision of providing
global communication using three Satellites with about 120 degrees apart became a reality. So far
Intelsat has launched 7 generations of geosynchronous satellites in all the three regions namely
Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean.
For national as well as neighbouring countries coverage, some of the following satellites are used:
ANIK : Canadian satellite system I
NSAT : Indian Satellites
AUSSAT : Australian Satellites
BRAZILSAT : Brazilian Satellites
FRENCH TELECOM : French Satellites
ITALSAT : Italian Satellites
CHINASAT : Chinese Satellites
STATSIONAR, GORIZONT, Russian Satellites
Space Geometry
Types of Orbit
The orbit is the trajectory followed by the satellite in equilibrium between two opposing forces.
These are the force of attraction, due to the earths gravitation, directed towards the centre of the
earth and the centrifugal force associated with the curvature of the satellites trajectory. The
trajectory is within a plane and shaped as an ellipse with a maximum extension at the apogee and a
minimum at the perigee. The satellite moves more slowly in its trajectory as the distance from the
earth increases .
Circular orbits
with zero inclination (Equatorial orbits). The most popular is the geo stationary satellite orbits ; the
satellite orbits around the earth at an altitude of 35786 km, and in the same direction as the earth.
The period is equal to that of the rotation of the earth and in the same direction. The satellite thus
appears as a point fixed in the sky and ensures continuous operation as a radio relay in real time for
the area of visibility of the satellite (43% of the earths surface).
TVRO System
Presently Doordarshan is up linking its national, metro and regional services to INSAT-2A (74oC)
and INSAT-2B (93.5oE) and INSAT 2E (83o C). Down link frequency bands being used are C-Band
(3.7-4.2 GHz) and Ex-C Band (4.5-4.8 GHz).
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Satellite Transponder
As shown in fig, the uplinked signal (6 GHz) at satellite is received, amplified and down converted to
4 GHz band and sent back through filter and power amplifier (TWT). The local oscillator frequency
of down converter is 2225 MHz for C band and Ex-C band transponders.
Parallels of Latitudes
They are
1. The longitude of the satellite.
2. The latitude of the place.
3. The longitude of the place.
Calculation of Angle of Elevation
Where r = Radius of the earth (6367 kms) R = Radius of Synchronous orbit (42,165 kms). = Latitude of
the earth station D = difference in longitude of the earth station and the satellite. ( r - s) 2 1 Cos
Calculation of Azimuth
Indoor Units
The indoor unit contains two units.
They are :
1. System unit
2. Satellite Receiver Unit
System unit
The system unit contains a passive power divider and power supply for the LNBC. The power
divider divides the IF into two equal parts to be applied to the two receivers. The power supply is
fed through same cable to the LNBC. Satellite Receiver Unit The satellite receiver contains the
down converter, video/audio demodulators and processing circuits. Finally we get two video/audio
outputs. A synthesised receiver accepts signal in the range of 900 to 1700 MHz. The block diagram
of a typical EC receiver is shown in figure 9. The IF is applied to a four-stage low noise amplifier for
amplification. The overall gain of the amplifier is around 22 dB. This signal is then applied to FET
mixer where a LO frequency of 1500 to 2300 MHz is mixed so that an IF of 600 MHz is produced.
The local oscillator consists of two similar VCOs (voltage controlled oscillator) one operating in the
range of 1500 - 1749 MHz and the other in the range of 1750 to 2300 MHz. They are controlled by a
synthesiser IC. A sample of the LO frequency is taken and phase compared with a stable reference
crystal frequency of 4 MHz and error if any, is then applied to the VCO for frequency correction
through a low pass filter. Thus the VCO works in a phase locked loop mode.
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UPLINK CHAIN
DTH broadcasting is basically satellite broadcasting in Ku-Band (14/12 GHz). The main advantage
of Ku-Band satellite broadcasting is that it requires physically manageable smaller size of dish
antenna compared to that of C-Band satellite broadcasting. C-Band broadcasting requires about 3.6
m dia PDA (41dB gain at 4 GHz) while Ku-Band requires 0.6 m dia PDA (35dB gain at 12 GHz). The
shortfall of this 6 dB is compensated using Forward Error Correction (FEC), which can offer 8 to 9
dB coding gain in the digital broadcasting. Requirement of transmitter power (about 25 to 50
Watts) is less than that of analog C-band broadcasting. The major drawback of Ku-Band
transmission is that the RF signals typically suffer 8 to 9dB rain attenuation under heavy rainfall
while rain attenuation is very low at C-Band. Fading due to rain can hamper the connectivity of
satellite and therefore rain margin has to be kept for reliable connectivity. Rain margin is provided
by operating transmitter at higher powers and by using larger size of the dish antenna (7.2m PDA).
Fig.1 shows schematic of uplink chain proposed to broadcast bouquet of 30 video programs in
Doordarshan, Prasar Bharati, India. 30 video programs may either be down-linked from satellites
or taken from other sources like video tape recorders,
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video cameras etc. in digital format. These sources are fed to Router whose outputs are divided in
three groups A, B and C. Each group contains 10 video sources multiplexed in a Multiplexer. These
three multiplexed streams are digitally (QPSK modulation) modulated individually at 70 MHz
Intermediate Frequency (IF). Each group is further doubly up-converted, first conversion at L-Band
(950-1450 MHz) and second conversion at Ku-Band (12-14 GHz).
DOWN-LINK CHAIN
Down-Link or receiving chain of DTH signal is depicted in Fig.2. There are mainly three sizes of
receiving antenna, 0.6m, 0.9m, and 1.2m. Any of the sizes can easily be mounted on rooftop of a
building or house. RF waves (12.534GHz, 12.647GHz, 12.729 GHz) from satellite are picked up by a
feed converting it into electrical signal. The electrical signal is amplified and further down
converted to L-Band (950-1450) signal. Feed and LNBC are now combined in single unit called
LNBF. The L-Band signal goes to indoor unit, consisting a set-top box and television through coaxial
cable. The set-top box or Integrated Receiver Decoder (IRD) down converts the L-Band first IF
signal to 70 MHz second IF signal, perform digital demodulation, de-multiplexing, decoding and
finally gives audio/video output to TV for viewing.