Flexural

Members
Engineering Science 10
Strength of Materials: Why Things Bend and Break?

Department of Engineering Science

College of Engineering
University of the Philippines-Diliman

AH-1Pitch Control Rod

(Crash impact forces)

T-2 Wing Carry Through Beams

(Inflight failure)

TH-57 Rotor Mast

Note: Not a Helical (Torsional) failure, so
it is not separated due to rotational forces.

Beams

Beams
What is a beam?
A slender (usually) horizontal structural
member that is subjected to a load that tends
to bend it.

Beams
Examples:
Floor joists and rafters
Tree branches
Vertebral column and neck

Beams
Types:
Fixed beam (simply supported beam)

Beams
Types:
Cantilever beam

Beams
A cantilever beam can be thought of as half of
a fixed beam turned upside down.

Beams
See!

Beams
Types:
Beam with overhang

Beams
Types:
Continuous beam

Beams
All materials and structures deflect, to greatly
varying extents when they are loaded.

The science of elasticity is about the

interactions between forces and deflections.
The material of the bough is stretched near its
upper surface and compressed or contracted
near its lower surface by the weight of the
monkey.

Bending

Bending
Forces on a cantilever beam

Bending
If the material near the neutral axis is
removed, the beam collapses.

Bending
Material in the middle provides shear
resistance.

Geometry
of
deformation

Geometry of deformation
We will consider the deformation of an ideal,
isotropic prismatic beam.
All parts of the beam that were originally
aligned with the longitudinal axis bend into
circular arcs.

Geometry of deformation
The neutral plane/surface or axis:

Geometry of deformation
Where is the neutral plane/surface or axis?
It is the centroid of the cross-section.
In simple circular or rectangular shapes, it
is the middle.
For more complex shapes, it is the center of
gravity of a cutout of uniform thickness with
the objects cross-sectional shape.

Geometry of deformation
Bending stresses in a beam:

Stress

Stress
Lets consider a segment of a loaded beam. The
segment may be deformed as shown below.

Stress
Hence we can sketch of the stress normal to the
axis of the beam

Stress
The radius of curvature:

1
M
=

EI
Where M is the internal bending moment acting on a
section, E is the modulus of elasticity and I is the
moment of inertia of the section.
Positive means the positive y-axis is on the
concave side of the neutral axis.
EI is known as the flexural rigidity of the beam.

Stress
The fiber stress:

My
=
I
Where M is the internal bending moment acting on a
section, y is the distance of a point (fiber) from the
neutral axis and I is the moment of inertia of the
section.

Cross section

Cross section
Flexural rigidity:
EI gives the resistance to bending of a structure.
Several conditions must be met in order to simply
calculate it. The material must be:
Homogeneous
Isotropic
Linearly elastic
Deform equally under tension and compression
Not change shape appreciably under load

Cross section
What does the I, the moment of inertia mean?
Essentially, this says that the beam is stiffer if the
material in the beam is located further away from
the centroid (neutral axis).
So any small area is more effective at stiffening
the beam depending on the square of the distance.
Hence, if you want to make a strong beam with
little material, make sure that the material is as far
as possible from the centroid.

Cross section
What does the moment of inertia mean?
Hence, we have I beams.

Cross section
I beams are very stiff in bending but not that
resistant in torsion.

Cross section
Box girders (hollow square tube)

Very resistant
to torsion

But stresses tend

to concentrate at
the corners

Cross section
Hollow tubes

Best if the
direction of the
load cannot be
predicted

Resistant to
bending and
torsion

Cross section

Typical beam cross sections and the ratio of I to the

value for a solid square beam of equal crosssectional area.

Cross section

A T-cross section can be

used to decrease either the
maximum tensile or the
maximum compressive
stress to which the beam is
subjected.

Cross section
Some organisms take advantage of I to localize
bending.

Sea anemone,
Metridium

Daffodil

Beam technology

Beam technology
The I beam:

Beam technology
Steel section terminology:

Beam technology
While we are mostly assuming beams made of steel
or other metals, many are made of concrete
and concrete does not support a tensile stress.

For concrete beams, we assume that only the

material on the compressive side of the neutral axis
actually carries a load.

Beam technology
One solution is pre-stressed concrete.
Where metal bars set within the concrete are prestressed to provide an initial compression to the
concrete beam.
so it can withstand some tension, until the prestress is overcome

The yellow guidelines highlight the camber (upward curvature) of a prestressed double T. The pre-stressing strands can be seen protruding from the
bottom of the beam, with the larger strands at the bottom edge. The tension is
these strands produces the camber, the beam is straight when cast.`

Beam technology
Arches

Beam technology
How an arch works?

Torsional
Members
Engineering Science 10
Strength of Materials: Why Things Bend and Break?

Department of Engineering Science

College of Engineering
University of the Philippines-Diliman

F-18 Engine Shaft

Torsional Buckling

UH-1N Turbine: Helical shaft failure

Torsional
loads

Torsional loads
Torque twisting couple
1) Turbine exerts torque T
on the shaft.
2) Shaft transmits the
torque to the generator.
3) Generator creates an
equal and opposite torque
T.

Torsional loads
Net of the internal shearing stresses is an
internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,

Torsional loads
Torque applied to shaft produces shearing
stresses on the faces perpendicular to the
axis.

Torsional loads
Conditions of equilibrium require the existence
of equal stresses on the faces of the two
planes containing the axis of the shaft.
The existence of the axial shear
components is demonstrated
by considering a shaft made up
of axial slats.
The slats slide with respect to
each other when equal and
opposite torques are applied to
the ends of the shaft.

Shaft deformations

Shaft deformations
From observation, the angle of twist of the
shaft is proportional to the applied torque and
to the shaft length.

T
L

Shaft deformations
When subjected to torsion, every cross-section of a
circular shaft remains a plane and undistorted.

Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular shafts

remain plain and undistorted because a circular
shaft is axisymmetric.

Shaft deformations
Cross-sections of noncircular (non-axisymmetric)
shafts are distorted when subjected to torsion.

Shearing

Shearing
Consider an interior section of the
shaft. As a torsional load is applied, an
element on the interior cylinder
deforms into a rhombus.
Since the ends of the element remain
planar, the shear strain is equal to
angle of twist.
It follows that

L = or =
L

Shear strain is proportional to twist and

radius.

Shearing
The shearing stress varies linearly with the
radial position in the section.

The elastic torsion formula,

Tc
T
max =
and =
J
J

Torsional failure

Torsional failure
Ductile materials generally fail in shear. Brittle
materials are weaker in tension than shear.

Torsional failure
When subjected to torsion, a ductile specimen
breaks along a plane of maximum shear, i.e., a
plane perpendicular to the shaft axis.

Torsional failure
When subjected to torsion, a brittle specimen
breaks along planes perpendicular to the
direction in which tension is a maximum, i.e.,
along surfaces at 45o to the shaft axis.

Angle of twist

Angle of twist
Recall that the angle of twist and maximum shearing
strain are related,

c
max =
L
In the elastic range, the shearing strain and shear
are related by Hookes Law,

max Tc
max =
=
G
JG

Angle of twist
Equating the expressions for shearing strain and
solving for the angle of twist,

TL
=
JG

Angle of twist
If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section
changes along the length, the angle of rotation is
found as the sum of segment rotations

Ti Li
=
i J i Gi

Transmission

Transmission
Design of transmission shafts:
Principal transmission shaft performance
specifications are:
power
speed
Designer must select shaft material and crosssection to meet performance specifications without
exceeding allowable shearing stress.

Transmission
Determine torque applied to shaft at specified
power and speed,

P = T = 2 fT
P
P
T=
=

2 f
Where P is the power, T is the torque and is the
angular velocity.

Transmission
Find shaft cross-section which will not exceed the
maximum allowable shearing stress,

Tc
max =
J
J 3
T
= c =
c 2
max

( solid shafts )

T
4
4
=
c2 c1 =
c2 2c2
max

( hollow shafts )

Transmission

The derivation of the torsion

formula,

Tc
max =
J

assumed a circular shaft with

uniform cross-section loaded
through rigid end plates.

Transmission
The use of flange couplings, gears
and pulleys attached to shafts by
keys in keyways, and crosssection discontinuities can cause
stress concentrations.
Experimental or numerically
determined concentration factors
are applied as

Tc
max = K
J

Transmission
Shaft design:
Shaft must have adequate torsional strength to
transmit torque and not be overstressed.
Shafts are mounted in bearings and transmit
power through devices such as gears, pulleys, cams
and clutches.
Components such as gears are mounted on shafts
using keys.
Shaft must sustain a combination of bending and
torsional loads.

Slender
Columns
Engineering Science 10
Strength of Materials: Why Things Bend and Break?

Department of Engineering Science

College of Engineering
University of the Philippines-Diliman

Buckling

Columns

Columns
Columns Straight structural members
subjected to compressive axial loads.

Columns
Types of columns:

Short

Long

Columns
Failure of Modes of Columns:
Crushing

Columns
Failure of Modes of Columns:
Buckling

Columns

Crushing failure governs in short columns

while buckling failure governs in long columns.

Buckling

Buckling
When a structure (subjected usually to
compression) undergoes visibly large
displacements transverse to the load then it is
said tobuckle.
Buckling may be demonstrated by pressing
the opposite edges of a flat sheet of cardboard
towards one another.
For small loads the process is elastic since
buckling displacements disappear when the
load is removed.

Buckling

Buckling
Types:
Euler buckling
Column is smoothly bent from end to end.
Compressive forces on the concave side
and tension forces on the convex

Buckling
Types:
Euler buckling
The critical Euler load:

EI
P=
2
(KL)
Where E is the Youngs modulus, I is the
moment of inertia, K is the effective length
factor and L is the length of the column.

Buckling
Types of column and the Euler buckling:

Pinned ends:

Buckling
Types of column and the Euler buckling:

Fixed and free ends:

Buckling
Types of column and the Euler buckling:

Fixed ends:

Buckling
Types of column and the Euler buckling:

Pinned and Fixed ends:

Buckling

EI
P=
(KL)2
Types of column and the Euler buckling:

Buckling
Types:
Local buckling
The way empty cans fail.
Indicated by growth of bulges, waves or
ripples.

Buckling
Buckling proceeds in manner which may be
either :
Stable - in which displacements increase in a
controlled fashion as loads are increased, ie.
the structure's ability to sustain loads is
maintained, or
Unstable - in which deformations increase
instantaneously, the load carrying capacity
nose-dives and the structure collapses
catastrophically.

Buckling

Neutral equilibrium is also a theoretical

possibility during buckling this is
characterized by deformation increase
without change in load.

Compression structures

Compression structures
Advantage: so long as they are put together
correctly, gravity will do the work of keeping
everything in its proper place (no specific
fasteners needed). Traditionally, large
compression structures have been built of
brick/stone.
Disadvantage: susceptible to failure by
bending; stone has little resistance to tension.

Compression structures
How high can we build a column/wall?
Theoretical limit: the point at which the
vertical load becomes so great that the
material/s are crushed beneath the weight of
the material/s above them.
The crushing strength of stone and brick is
> 40 MN/m2
We should be able to build a column/wall
several miles high.

Compression structures
How high can we build a column/wall?
The wall will fail long before the theoretical
limit is reached. Why?
Important point: mortar between bricks does
not glue the bricks together (it carries no
tensile load). Mortar fills in the surface
irregularities in the bricks surfaces, so that
the compressive load is not carried by a few
high spots (which would increase local stress).

Compression structures
Analysis of column/wall stability?
Assumptions:
Compressive stresses are so low that the
material will not be broken by crushing.
Mortar is used, so the fit between the stones
is so good that the compressive force is
distributed over the whole area of the joint.
Friction in the joints is so high that failure
will not occur because of the stones sliding
over one another.
The joints (mortar) have no tensile strength.

Compression structures
Symmetrical vertical force,P

Compressive stresses
are spread evenly
over the entire width
of the joint

Compression structures
What if P is eccentric?
Compressive
stresses are no longer
uniform.
Stress will vary
linearly across the
width of the
column/wall if the
material is Hookean.
Whole joint is still in
compression.

Compression structures
P is now at the edge of the middle third of the
column/wall.
Stress at the outside
edge of the wall is
zero.
We still have
compressive forces
across the entire
width of the
column/wall.

Compression structures
P is outside of the middle third of the
column/wall.
The outside edge of
the wall is now in
tension.
But mortar cannot
carry tension
stresses!
What will happen?

Compression structures
The column/wall cracks.
We are still okay,
because the
remaining width of the
wall can still carry the
load.

Compression structures
Disaster!
If Ps line of action
moves outside of the
wall, the whole joint is
put into tension.
The wall tips up and
falls over.

Compression structures
What if the vertical force is applied to the wall
obliquely?
We need to know
the point at each
successive joint at
which we can
consider the weight to
be acting.
We can connect the
points and plot a
thrust line.

Compression structures
Thrust line

Compression structures
Thrust line and stability

If the thrust line comes in contact with the

edge of the wall at any point, the wall is liable
to fall over.
How can one insure that the thrust line stays
within the middle third of the wall?

Compression structures
One of the most effective strategies is to
simply add more weight to the top of the wall

Compression structures
That is the practical reason behind the
decorative statues adorning so many large
stone buildings

Compression structures

cornice or gargoyle

Next Meeting:

Project
Bridge building competition, 9/14.
Bring toothpicks