Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ELE 301: Signals and Systems: Prof. Paul Cuff
ELE 301: Signals and Systems: Prof. Paul Cuff
Fall 2011-12
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
1 / 70
Fall 2011-12
2 / 70
Sinuoidal signals
Exponential signals
Complex exponential signals
Unit step and unit ramp
Impulse functions
Systems
I
I
I
I
I
I
Memory
Invertibility
Causality
Stability
Time invariance
Linearity
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Sinusoidal Signals
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
3 / 70
1
2
=
f
-2T
-T
Cuff (Lecture 2)
2T
cos(t )
-2T
-T
2T
Fall 2011-12
4 / 70
Complex Sinusoids
The Euler relation defines e j = cos + j sin .
A complex sinusoid is
Ae j(t+) = A cos(t + ) + jA sin(t + ).
e jt
-2T
-T
2T
Fall 2011-12
5 / 70
Exponential Signals
An exponential signal is given by
x(t) = e t
If < 0 this is exponential decay.
If > 0 this is exponential growth.
-2
-1
Cuff (Lecture 2)
et
et
1
2
-2
-1
Fall 2011-12
6 / 70
et cos(t)
<0
-2T
-T
Cuff (Lecture 2)
2T
>0
t
-2T
-T
2T
Fall 2011-12
7 / 70
-T
Cuff (Lecture 2)
2T
e(+ j)t
>0
t
-2T
-T
2T
Fall 2011-12
8 / 70
Complex Plane
Each complex frequency s = + j corresponds to a position in the
complex plane.
j
Left Half Plane
<0
>0
Decreasing
Signals
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Increasing
Signals
Fall 2011-12
9 / 70
Demonstration
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
10 / 70
Cuff (Lecture 2)
u(t)
2 t
Fall 2011-12
11 / 70
-2
-1
Cuff (Lecture 2)
et
-2
-1
u(t)et
Fall 2011-12
12 / 70
0, t 1
1, 0 t < 1
x(t) =
0, t < 0
can be written as
x(t) = u(t) u(t 1).
1
u(t)
u(t) u(t 1)
u(t 1)
2 t
Cuff (Lecture 2)
2 t
2 t
Fall 2011-12
13 / 70
Fall 2011-12
14 / 70
Unit Rectangle
Unit rectangle signal:
rect(t) =
if |t| 1/2
otherwise.
1
0
rect(t)
-1/2
Cuff (Lecture 2)
1/2
Unit Ramp
The unit ramp is defined as
t, t 0
0, t < 0
r (t) =
r(t)
1
2
Cuff (Lecture 2)
2 t
Fall 2011-12
15 / 70
Fall 2011-12
16 / 70
Unit Triangle
1 |t|
0
if |t| < 1
otherwise.
(t)
-1
Cuff (Lecture 2)
A
0
-2T
-T
2T
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
17 / 70
1/2
rect(t)
1/2
A rect(t/)
0
-T
2T
A
-2T
n=2
A rect((t nT )/)
-T
2T
Fall 2011-12
18 / 70
-2T
-T
2T
n=2
A
0
-2T
-T
Cuff (Lecture 2)
2T
Fall 2011-12
19 / 70
Impulsive signals
(Diracs) delta function or impulse is an idealization of a signal that
is very large near t = 0
is very small away from t = 0
has integral 1
for example:
1/
1/
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
20 / 70
(t)
1
t + 1 + (t)
1
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
21 / 70
Fall 2011-12
22 / 70
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Formal properties
provided f is continuous at t = 0
idea: acts over a time interval very small, over which f (t) f (0)
(t) is not really defined for any t, only its behavior in an integral.
Conceptually (t) = 0 for t 6= 0, infinite at t = 0, but this doesnt
make sense mathematically.
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
23 / 70
gn(t)
g2(t)
g1(t)
0
t
1
gn(t)
f (t)
f (0)
1
Cuff (Lecture 2)
t
1
Fall 2011-12
24 / 70
Scaled impulses
(t) is an impulse at time T , with magnitude or strength
We have
provided f is continuous at 0
On plots: write area next to the arrow, e.g., for 2(t),
PSfrag replacements
2
t
0
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
25 / 70
= f (0)(0)
Hence
(t)(t) = (0)(t)
is a scaled impulse, with strength (0).
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
26 / 70
Sifting property
f (t)(t T ) dt = f (T )
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
27 / 70
Limits of Integration
The integral of a is non-zero only if it is in the integration interval:
If a < 0 and b > 0 then
Z
(t) dt = 1
a
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
28 / 70
(t) dt = 0,
(t) dt = 1,
0+
0+
(t) dt = 0,
(t) dt = 1
1
example:
Z 3
f (t)(2 + (t + 1) 3(t 1) + 2(t + 3)) dt
2
= 2
f (t) dt +
2
f (t)(t + 1) dt 3
f (t)(t 1) dt
+2
f (t)(t + 3)) dt
2
= 2
2
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
29 / 70
Physical interpretation
Impulse functions are used to model physical signals
that act over short time intervals
whose effect depends on integral of signal
example: hammer blow, or bat hitting ball, at t = 2
force f acts on mass m between t = 1.999 sec and t = 2.001 sec
R 2.001
1.999 f (t) dt = I (mechanical impulse, N sec)
blow induces change in velocity of
v (2.001) v (1.999) =
1
m
2.001
f ( ) d = I /m
1.999
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
30 / 70
t =0
1V +
1F
v(t)
Fall 2011-12
31 / 70
IMAX
i(t) =
dv (t)
= Imax ,
dt
v(t)
1F
v(t)
v (0) = 0
IMAX
i(t)
Fall 2011-12
32 / 70
In conclusion,
large current i acts overZ very short time between t = 0 and
total charge transfer is
i(t) dt = 1
0
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
33 / 70
x(t)
y(t)
1
0
Cuff (Lecture 2)
2
-2
Fall 2011-12
34 / 70
y(t)
x(t)
1
0
Cuff (Lecture 2)
2
-2
Fall 2011-12
35 / 70
provided f 0 continuous at t = 0
0 is called doublet
0 , 00 , etc. are called higher-order impulses
Similar rules for higher-order impulses:
Z
(k) (t)f (t) dt = (1)k f (k) (0)
if f (k) continuous at t = 0
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
36 / 70
1/
t =
t =0
1/
Then
f (t)
(t) (t )
dt =
f (0) f ()
converges to f 0 (0) if 0
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
37 / 70
Caveat
(t) is not a signal or function in the ordinary sense, it only makes
mathematical sense when inside an integral sign
We manipulate impulsive functions as if they were real functions,
which they arent
It is safe to use impulsive functions in expressions like
Z
Z
f (t)(t T ) dt,
f (t) 0 (t T ) dt
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
38 / 70
Break
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
39 / 70
Systems
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
40 / 70
Block diagrams
Systems often denoted by block diagram:
x
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
41 / 70
Examples
(with input signal x and output signal y )
Scaling system: y (t) = ax(t)
Called an amplifier if |a| > 1.
Called an attenuator if |a| < 1.
Called inverting if a < 0.
a is called the gain or scale factor.
Sometimes denoted by triangle or circle in block diagram:
y
a
Cuff (Lecture 2)
y
a
Fall 2011-12
42 / 70
d
dt
x( ) d (a is often 0 or )
Integrator: y (t) =
a
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
43 / 70
Fall 2011-12
44 / 70
Cuff (Lecture 2)
convolution system:
Z
y (t) =
x(t )h( ) d,
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
45 / 70
x1
summing system: y (t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t)
x2
x1 +
Cuff (Lecture 2)
x2
x1
x2
Fall 2011-12
46 / 70
Interconnection of Systems
Cuff (Lecture 2)
feedback: y = F (x Gy )
+
-
Fall 2011-12
47 / 70
G
In general,
Block diagrams are a symbolic way to describe a connection of
systems.
We can just as well write out the equations relating the signals.
We can go back and forth between the system block diagram and the
system equations.
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
48 / 70
+
-
Input to integrator is x ay , so
Z t
(x( ) ay ( )) d = y (t)
Fall 2011-12
49 / 70
Fall 2011-12
50 / 70
Linearity
A system F is linear if the following two properties hold:
1
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Linearity means the following pairs of block diagrams are equivalent, i.e.,
have the same output for any input(s)
x1
x1
x2
F
+
x2
Fall 2011-12
51 / 70
cos(2 f t)
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
52 / 70
System Memory
Ideal amplifier
Ideal gear, transmission, or lever in a mechanical system
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
53 / 70
Time-Invariance
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
54 / 70
Implies that delay and the system F commute. These block diagrams
are equivalent:
Delay by
Delay by
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
55 / 70
System Stability
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
56 / 70
gas
speed
Car
The output y is
y = H(k(x y ))
Well see later that this system can become unstable if k is too large
(depending on H)
Positive error adds gas
Delay car velocity change, speed overshoots
Negative error cuts gas off
Delay in velocity change, speed undershoots
Repeat!
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
57 / 70
System Invertibility
A system is invertible if the input signal can be recovered from the
output signal.
If F is an invertible system, and
y = Fx
then there is an inverse system F INV such that
x = F INV y = F INV Fx
so F INV F = I , the identity operator.
Cuff (Lecture 2)
F INV
Fall 2011-12
58 / 70
Receiver
Direct Path
Reflected Path
x(t)
y(t)
x(t)
y(t)
Input
Output
Fall 2011-12
59 / 70
= F INV (Fx)
= (F INV F ) x
= x
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
60 / 70
m(t)
+
A
Propagation
[A + m(t)] cos(ct)
2 h(t) A + m(t)
||
cos(ct)
Receiver
Transmitter
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
61 / 70
...
, y 0 (0),
y (0)
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
62 / 70
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
63 / 70
Examples
Simple examples
scaling system (a0 = 1, b0 = a)
y = ax
integrator (a1 = 1, b0 = 1)
y0 = x
differentiator (a0 = 1, b1 = 1)
y = x0
integrator with feedback (a few slides back, a1 = 1, a0 = a, b0 = 1)
y 0 + ay = x
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
64 / 70
x(t) +
y(t)
Fall 2011-12
65 / 70
Mechanical System
Springs
Output
(car height)
Damper
(Shock Absorbers)
Input
(Road)
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
66 / 70
y
m
b
x
Fall 2011-12
67 / 70
Discrete-Time Systems
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
68 / 70
Delay by T
y[n]
Cuff (Lecture 2)
Fall 2011-12
69 / 70
Fall 2011-12
70 / 70
Questions
Cuff (Lecture 2)