SEMESTER- IX

PET/ ANIMAL BREEDING, MANAGEMENT, NUTRITION AND HEALTH CARE

VMD-513

Credit Hours 1+1=2

THEORY
Breeds of dogs- international pedigree breeds and those commonly seen in India. Pedigree sheet and
major breed traits. Detection of oestrus and Breeding of dogs. Selecting a breed to keep, selection of a
pup. Feeding of dogs- nutritional requirements of important breeds and different age groups.
Management of dogs-kennels, care of pups and pregnant bitch. Dog shows- preparation for the shows,
kennel clubs, important characters for judgment. Whelping. Utility of dogsguarding, defense, patrolling,
riot control, scouting, espionage, mine detection, tracking,
guiding, hunting, races, retrieving, rescue, and other uses. Principles of training of dogs. Common
diseases affecting dogs (bacterial, viral, parasitic, fungal, nutritional etc.) their clinical
manifestations, diagnosis, treatment and control. Vaccination/ deworming schedules. Common
surgical interventions in dogs- docking, ear cropping, nail cutting, sterilization.
Common anaesthetics and anaesthesia in dogs. Common breeds of cats, their habits, feeding, breeding
and management. Common diseases of cats-their diagnosis, treatment and control. Common surgical
interventions in cat. Common pet birds seen in India. Introduction to their caging, breeding, feeding,
management, disease control and prevention.
PRACTICAL
Recognising various breeds. Handling of dogs. Types and use of leads and collars. Brushing/grooming
and bathing of dogs. Restraining of dogs for examination/medication. Detection of oestrus, mating,
whelping (through demonstration). Care of pups, weaning, administration of medicine. Nail and tooth
care, clipping of hairs for show purposes. Hygiene of kennel/pens, feeding utensils. Visit to dog show.
Vaccination and surgical interventions (nail clipping, docking, sterilization). Common breeds of cats,
handling, restraint, examination, medication and surgical intervention in cats and kittens. Identification
of common pet birds. Handling of pet birds, their examination and administration of medicines.
(This course shall be offered jointly by the Departments of Veterinary Medicine, Livestock
Production Management, Animal Nutrition. Animal Genetics and Breeding. Veterinary
Pathology, and Veterinary Surgery and Radiology).

Bacterial diseases of dogs

SALMONELLOSIS
Salmonellosis is a bacterial disease that most commonly causes enteritis (inflammation of the
intestines), septicemia (systemic disease due to the presence of bacteria or their toxin in the
bloodstream) and abortions.
It is not uncommon for the infected individual to be a subclinical carrier, which is a carrier with
no symptoms.
Salmonellosis is caused by any one of more than 2000 serotypes (subtypes) of the Salmonellae
bacteria. It is seen in both dogs and cats.
In dogs, clinical disease is most commonly seen in immature puppies and pregnant bitches
Diagnosis
Complete blood count (CBC)
Biochemical profile
Urinalysis
Fecal flotation
Platelet count
Screening thoracic (chest) and abdominal radiographs (X-rays)
Fecal Culture
Blood Culture
Treatment
Depending on the severity of clinical signs, treatment options may include out patient care or
may necessitate hospitalization.
Affected individuals are contagious, and should be kept in isolation and handled carefully.
Food restriction may be recommended for those patients with severe gastrointestinal signs.
Supportive care, to include fluid and electrolyte therapy, and/or intestinal adsorbents and
protectants, may be indicated.
Antibiotic therapy may be indicated in certain cases, but contraindicated in others.
CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS
Campylobacteriosis is a common cause of enteritis (intestinal inflammation) in man and several
animal species, including dogs and cats.
The disorder is caused by a bacterium, Campylobacter jejuni.
The conditions associated with an increased risk of developing campylobacteriosis are:
o Animals with diarrhea
o Young animals
o Crowded housing conditions
o Poor sanitation
o Stressful conditions, such as pregnancy, <surgery<></surgery<>, or other illness
o Concurrent infection with other intestinal pathogens such as parvovirus, Salmonella,
Giardia or parasites
Campylobacteriosis is a leading cause of intestinal disease in people. Puppies and kittens can
serve as a source of infection for humans.
In many cases, dogs and cats are carriers of the organism, but show no clinical signs.
When clinical signs are present in dogs and cats, it is usually in animals younger than six months
of age.
Diagnosis
Microscopic examination of feces
Culture
Serology
Treatment
Antibiotics
Supportive care
BRUCELLOSIS
Brucellosis is a contagious disease of dogs caused by Brucella canis, a small bacterial organism.
Brucellosis affects primarily the reproductive system.
The disease causes late abortions and infertility in bitches, and infertility, testicular and scrotal
inflammation in males.
Brucellosis may also cause puppies to be stillborn or very weak at birth. Certain non
reproductive signs may also develop.
Brucellosis occurs mainly in dogs and has not been reported in cats.
There is no evidence that some dog breeds are more susceptible that others, but there is a high
prevalence in beagles.
Brucellosis is more common in sexually mature dogs, but can affect dogs of any age.

Both males and females are affected, but it is more common in females.
Dogs from breeding kennels, pack hounds and stray dogs are most commonly affected, because
of their increased risk of exposure.
Brucellosis is transmitted by contact with infected fluids (vaginal, preputial), especially during
breeding or birth. Brucellosis may be transmitted from dogs to people.
Diagnosis
Brucellosis can be difficult to diagnosis. Confirmation of the disease may require several tests be
performed, including the following:
o A complete blood count (CBC), biochemical profile and urinalysis are recommended in
all animals suspected of having brucellosis, but they may be normal or show only vague
changes.
o Serological blood tests that measure antibodies to the bacteria are the most frequent tests
used to diagnose brucellosis.
o There are screening tests for Brucellosis that may be performed in your veterinarian's
office or local laboratory.
o If the screening tests are positive, then further specialized testing is required to confirm
the diagnosis.
o Radio graphs (x-rays) of the spine may show changes in the vertebrae (spine) consistent
with brucellosis.
o The organism may occasionally be cultured and isolated from blood cultures, vaginal
fluid cultures, semen cultures or urine cultures.
o Negative cultures do not rule out the disease, however.
o Examination for semen quality may be helpful. Male dogs with brucellosis often have
abnormal semen.
o Lymph node biopsy may confirm diagnosis, but it often requires special staining
techniques to identify the organism.
Treatment
Because brucellosis can be transmitted from dogs to people, there is concern about whether all
infected dogs should be treated.
In some cases it may be preferable to euthanize the animal.
Treatment is not recommended for breeding animals, as it is unlikely that they will ever be fully
cured and will continue to pass on the disease or will remain sterile.
When treatment is attempted, the goal of treatment is to eradicate B. canis from the patient, but
this can be difficult to accomplish.
Any intact dogs are spayed or castrated. Medical treatment is often begun as an outpatient,
although some of the antibiotics used for the disease must be given as injections.
A combination of two antibiotics are often administered. Choices include tetracycline,
minocycline and doxycycline given with one of the aminoglycoside antibiotics, such as
gentamicin.
The antibiotics are usually administered for about four weeks and may need to be repeated at
various time intervals for several months.
LEPTOSPIROSIS
Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease that can pass from animals to humans.
It is a bacterial disease that damages the liver and kidneys of dogs, sometimes resulting in renal
failure and death.
It is caused by a spirochete (spiral shaped bacterium) called a leptospire.
Leptospires live in fluids from infected animals, including urine, saliva, blood and milk.
The disease is transmitted by direct contact with the fluids or with an infected animal.
It is also transmitted by indirect contact such as vegetation, food and water, soil and bedding
materials.
Leptospires enter the body through mucous membranes or through breaks in the skin.
The disease may be carried for years in animals without any apparent symptoms of the disease.
Any age, breed or sex of dog is susceptible to leptospirosis, although in general, young animals
are more severely affected than adults.
Large breed outdoor adult dogs are most commonly affected.
Leptospirosis can cause irreversible kidney damage, liver damage, uveitis (inflammation of the
inner part of the eye), and damage to other organs.
Diagnosis
Your veterinarian will want to do a complete review of history and physical exam findings to
develop a list of possible causes for your dog's illness.
In order to make a definitive diagnosis of Leptospirosis, however, various diagnostic tests may
be recommended.

Leptospirosis test: A microscopic agglutination test (MAT) is the most frequently used
serological test for Leptospirosis.
It evaluates the presence of serum antibodies to Leptospirosis antigens.
General blood and urine tests
Kidney biopsy
Treatment
If the disease is caught in time, it can usually be treated successfully with penicillin and
tetracycline drugs.
However, those with renal failure may or may not recover, or may recover only partial renal
function.
Animals with acute renal failure should be treated with appropriate fluid therapy.
TETANUS
Tetanus is a highly fatal disease that affects the nervous system of all animals.
It is caused by the neurotoxin Clostridium tetani, a bacteria found in the soil and in the intestinal
tracts of animals and people.
Wound contamination is the most common way that people and animals become afflicted with
tetanus.
Tetanus is very rare in dogs, and dogs have been shown to be quite resistant to the toxin.
Rare cases usually affect dogs with injuries around the mouth or pups that are teething.
Horses and people are much more sensitive to the tetanus toxin, so for these species,
vaccinations are recommended.
However, the potential risks inherent in the vaccine, such as allergic reaction, along with their
normal resistance to the toxin, make this vaccine rarely given in dogs and cats.
Clinical signs include limb stiffness and difficulty walking.
Spasms of the facial muscles cause abnormally erect ears and retraction of the lips that resembles
"risus sardonicus" seen in humans with tetanus.
Dogs can't eat or swallow, and as a result, often develop pneumonia.
Thorough cleaning of wounds and appropriate use of antibiotics is generally effective in allowing
a dog's wound to heal.
Viral diseases of dogs
RABIES
For most people, hearing the word rabies strikes great fear.
With Hollywood portrayals such as "Cujo," and often lethal result of a rabies infection, these
fears are somewhat justified.
But with understanding and knowledge, fears can be replaced with a healthy respect for the
virus.
The rabies virus can infect almost any mammal. It is shed in the saliva and transmitted typically
by bite wounds.
Without treatment, the virus eventually attacks the nervous system and results in death.
Throughout the world, 35,000 people die each year from rabies. In the United States, about 3
people succumb each year to rabies.
Rabies is most commonly found in skunks, raccoons, foxes, coyotes and bats.
Despite their bad rap, rabies in ferrets is quite uncommon. Since 1958, only 22 ferrets have been
diagnosed with rabies.
Recently cats have become the number one domestic animal diagnosed with rabies.
It is suspected this is due to more cats being kept as pets and allowed to roam their
neighborhoods.
Diagnosis
Diagnosing rabies can be difficult. In the early stages, the virus has not yet attacked the brain and
the animal acts normally.
There are no body changes and no test that can determine if an animal or person was exposed to
the virus.
Unfortunately, the only way to diagnose rabies is to examine brain tissue, and this can only be
done after the animal is dead.
This means that testing your pet for rabies is not a test he can survive.
Euthanasia is required.
Treatment
Rabies is a fatal virus and there is no treatment for those animals in the final stages of the
disease.
People exposed to rabies can receive injections to reduce the risk of rabies infection but these
injections have not been extensively tested in animals.
Due to the serious risk of transmission to humans, animals that have been bitten by another
animal with confirmed rabies should be euthanized.

CANINE DISTEMPER
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Canine distemper is a highly contagious disease caused by canine distemper virus (CDV).
It may affect the respiratory, gastrointestinal and neurologic systems in the body.
It is generally transmitted through contact with mucous and watery secretions discharged from
the eyes and noses of infected dogs.
However, it can also be transmitted by contact with urine and other bodily fluids of infected
dogs, so your dog may become infected without coming into contact with an infected dog.
Air currents and inanimate objects can also carry the virus.
Distemper was a common infection in dogs many years ago, but the incidence has been
significantly decreased through widespread vaccination of dogs.
Canine distemper is now most commonly seen in young, unvaccinated or immune-compromised
dogs. More than 50 percent of dogs that contract the disease die from it.
Even if a dog doesn't die, canine distemper can cause irreparable damage to the nervous system,
leaving the dog with partial or total paralysis or seizures.
Canine distemper can strike any dog of any breed or any sex, although it is most common in
young dogs.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is often difficult, since there is no one reliable test for the disease.
Diagnosis is usually suspected from the history and clinical signs.
Recommend the following tests:
o A complete blood count (CBC), biochemical profile, and urinalysis
o X-rays of the chest and abdomen
o Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) testing if neurologic signs are present
o Examination of buffy coat smears (the layer of white blood cells formed when blood is
spun down) and/or conjunctival scrapings from under the eyelid for distemper viral
particles)
o Measurement of distemper antibody titers in blood or the cerebrospinal fluid
Treatment
There is no treatment available that kills the virus once it infects the dog.
The disease is often progressive despite therapy.
Therapy is supportive and aims to strengthen and nourish the body, allowing the dog time to
fight off the infection themselves.
Dogs with distemper may need to be hospitalized and must be kept in isolation, so as not to
infect other dogs.
Therapy usually includes:
o Intravenous fluid and electrolyte therapy, and in some cases, parenteral (intravenous)
nutrition for patients who are severely ill.
o Antibiotic therapy for secondary bacterial infections
o Symptomatic therapy for respiratory, gastrointestinal, and/or neurologic signs
Differential Diagnosis
Several diseases and disorders can appear similar to canine distemper.
The respiratory form of canine distemper must be differentiated from the following:
o Kennel cough, or infectious tracheobronchitis, is a contagious respiratory disease of dogs
that is manifested by coughing.
o This is a transient disease, and most dogs recover without severe complications.
Pneumonia due to other infections (bacterial, fungal) can present similarly to dogs with
distemper.
The gastrointestinal (GI) form of canine distemper must be differentiated from the following:
o Other GI viral diseases including parvovirus and coronavirus
o Bacterial enteritis including Campylobacter, Salmonella and Clostridia
o Protozoal infections, specifically, Giardia
o Ingestion of foreign bodies and toxins
o Any non-infectious disorder that causes vomiting and diarrhea in dogs
The central nervous system (CNS) form of canine distemper must be differentiated from the
following:
o Granulomatous meningoencephalitis is a progressive, inflammatory disease of the central
nervous system of dogs.
o Many signs seen in this disorder may mimic the neurologic form of canine distemper.
o Protozoal encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain, caused by one of the protozoal
organisms (neosporosis, toxoplasmosis).
o Cryptococcosis is a systemic fungal infection that affects particularly the respiratory and
neurologic systems.

o Lead poisoning commonly produces clinical signs that involve both the gastrointestinal
tract and nervous system.
Veterinary Care
Diagnosis
Certain diagnostic tests must be performed for a definitive diagnosis of canine distemper and to
exclude other disease processes that may cause similar symptoms.
A complete history (vaccination status, travel pattern, environment, etc.), description of clinical
signs, and thorough physical examination are all important to obtaining a diagnosis.
There are certain characteristic changes that may be apparent on the physical examination that
lead to a presumptive diagnosis of canine distemper.
These include the following:
o Pitting and discoloration of the enamel (white surface coating) of the teeth
o Presence of rhythmic jerking of a single muscle or a group of associated muscles, called
tics or myoclonus
o Abnormally thickened and hard foot pads
o Inflammatory changes in the retinas of the eyes that are compatible with distemper
The following tests are recommended to confirm a diagnosis:
o A complete blood count (CBC) may reveal a mild lymphopenia (a decrease in the number
of lymphocyte white blood cells), particularly during the early stage of infection.
Occasionally, thrombocytopenia (decreased platelets) is seen also.
o A biochemical profile is usually within normal limits, although it may reveal changes in
kidney and/or liver enzymes, electrolytes, blood sugar, and protein levels, depending on
the stage of disease and degree of severity of disease present.
o A urinalysis is helpful in determining the level of hydration on the patient.
o Chest and abdominal X-rays are an important part of any baseline work-up. They may be
normal, they may show evidence of pneumonia, and they may help rule out other causes
of similar clinical signs.
Your veterinarian may recommend additional tests to exclude or diagnose concurrent conditions.
These tests are not always necessary in every case; however, they may be of benefit in certain
individuals and are selected on a case-by-case basis.
These include the following:
o The ultimate diagnosis is based on demonstration of viral antigens (proteins) in scrapings
and body fluids such as conjunctival smears, transtracheal washings, urine sediment,
buffy coat (layer of white blood cells formed after blood is spun down), and cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF). Their absence does not rule out infection, however.
o Analysis and testing CSF obtained from individuals exhibiting neurologic signs may be
useful in diagnosing distemper. Microscopic analysis of CSF may show increased
numbers of lymphocytes and protein.
o Detection of high antibody titers for distemper in the CSF can provide supportive
evidence of an active infection.
o Comparing the antibody titers found in the CSF to antibody titers found in the serum
(blood) may also help support the diagnosis of distemper.
o The measurement of antibodies to the distemper virus in blood may be helpful. Dogs that
are able to mount an antibody response to the virus usually have titers that increase over a
2- to 4-week time period.
o A single elevated antibody titer taken at the beginning of the illness may be difficult to
interpret, because it could represent antibodies produced by prior vaccination.
Therapy In-depth
Dogs with distemper may need to be hospitalized and must always be kept in isolation to prevent
infection of other dogs.
Therapy is mainly supportive and symptomatic, as there are no antiviral drugs that are effective
against distemper.
Because there are several clinical manifestations of distemper, there is no single treatment plan
that can be recommended for all dogs.
The pet owner whose dog has distemper should also understand that even with the best of care,
up to 50 percent of dogs infected with canine distemper succumb to the disease.
Intravenous fluid and electrolyte therapy may be recommended in the patient who has severe
gastrointestinal signs, is unable or unwilling to eat, and is dehydrated.
Parenteral (intravenous) nutrition may be indicated in the debilitated patient, especially when
protracted vomiting and diarrhea are present.
Administration of antiemetic drugs to stop vomiting may be of benefit.
Antibiotics are indicated to control secondary bacterial infections.
Many dogs with severe distemper infections are immunocompromised, which means their
immune system is functioning less than optimally, and they are susceptible to other infections.

In dogs that develop seizures, anticonvulsant therapy may be administered.

There is no effective treatment available for the myoclonus or tics that are produced in some
dogs by distemper.
Follow-up
Optimal treatment for your pet requires a combination of home and professional veterinary care.
Follow-up can be critical, especially if your pet does not rapidly improve.
Dogs should be closely monitored, as pneumonia and/or dehydration from vomiting and diarrhea
in the acute phase could debilitate an animal quickly.
Administer all prescribed medication as directed. Alert your veterinarian if you are experiencing
problems treating your pet.
Depending on the circumstances, distemper may range from a subclinical infection (having no
clinical signs) to a fatal infection.
Death may occur from two weeks to three months post-infection.
Euthanasia may be recommended for dogs with severe, unresponsive pneumonia, debilitating
myoclonus, paralysis or inability to walk, unrelenting vomiting or diarrhea, or seizures.
Recovered dogs are not carriers of infection, and usually have good immunity against the
disease.
ITB (Infectious Tracheobronchitis)
You might think your dog has something stuck in his throat.
The cough associated with acute infectious tracheobronchitis, (ITB) or kennel cough, is a highpitched, honk-like cough, sometimes followed by retching.
Kennel cough is a highly contagious inflammation of the trachea (windpipe) and bronchial tree
caused by a contagious virus (adenovirus, parainfluenza virus, canine distemper virus) or
bacterium (Bordetella bronchiseptica).
The disease is associated most often with dogs housed in a high-density population or boarding
kennel.
The infectious agents can be transmitted through the air or by contact with contaminated
surfaces.
Puppies and younger dogs are at greatest risk, but even old dogs can acquire kennel cough.
The incubation period from the time the dog first contracts the infection to the time that
symptoms develop is typically between 3 to 10 days, and the symptoms can last for days to
weeks.
A mild to moderate cough without other symptoms is usually self-limiting; however, occasional
cases become lingering and cause chronic bronchitis.
Diagnosis
Complete medical history will usually reveal recent exposure to a kennel or other dogs.
Windpipe sensitivity is present in most cases.
Diagnostic tests are needed to recognize kennel cough and exclude other diseases.
These tests may include:
o A chest X-ray may be recommended to determine if pneumonia is present.
o Routine laboratory blood tests-a complete blood count (CBC) or blood chemistry panel is
not necessary unless your pet is showing signs of generalized illness, fever or loss of
appetite.
o A fecal flotation should be done to exclude intestinal parasites.
o If signs of eye involvement are observed, the cornea of the eye should be examined
carefully.
Treatment
Therapy is controversial because the disease is usually self-limiting (like a human cold) and, if a
viral infection is suspected, antibiotics can't kill the virus.
This is especially true in mild, uncomplicated cases where treatment is supportive-not unlike that
given to a person with a bad cold.
Treatments for kennel cough may include one or more of the following:
o Cough suppressants are appropriate for some pets with kennel cough.
o Your veterinarian can discuss the pros and cons of this treatment. Injections or pills
(butorphanol) are often used, but occasionally, a stronger medicine is needed (codeinerelated) to break the cough cycle.
o Don't use over-the-counter human medicine without first speaking to your veterinarian.
Antibiotics are used in some patients, especially if Bordetella infection or secondary bacterial
infection is likely.
If the symptoms do not improve or should they become chronic, a careful re-evaluation including
blood tests and a chest X-ray is indicated.
Veterinary Care In-depth
Veterinary care should include diagnostic tests and subsequent treatment recommendations.

Diagnosis In-depth
Diagnostic tests are needed to recognize ITB, and exclude other diseases.
Often the diagnosis is made from the history of exposure and the typical clinical signs.
If, however, the condition does not improve within 3 to 7 days, additional tests will be needed.
If the patient shows "constitutional signs"-such as lethargy, fever, productive cough, cloudy nasal
discharge-it is often recommended to obtain basic diagnostic tests to ensure that pneumonia has
not developed. Tests may include:
o A complete medical history and physical history.
o A chest X-ray may be requested to screen for infections or anemia.
o Routine laboratory blood tests should be done. A blood chemistry panel is only important
if your pet is older, has previously identified diseases or is showing signs of generalized
illness, fever or loss of appetite.
o A fecal flotation should be done to exclude intestinal parasites in all puppies unless they
have been previously subjected to a regular deworming program.
Additional diagnostic tests may be recommended on an individual pet basis, including:
If signs of eye involvement are observed, the cornea of the eye should be examined carefully.
This should also include tests that can detect a corneal ulcer (especially if the eye seems painful).
Thoracic X-rays (or repeated films) may be needed to follow the progress of disease.
A tracheoscopy and bronchoscopy should be done if a foreign body is suspected from history and
review of radiographs (x-rays) or if there is a poor response to treatment.
A culture and cytology of bronchial fluid should be taken. This is especially important if there is
a suspicion of a resistant bacteria or a severe pneumonia is present.
The procedure is called a "tracheal wash" and can be done under a local anesthetic (placing a
needle through the windpipe and flushing in fluid) or by briefly anesthetizing the dog to obtain
fluid from the lung. This is then examined under a microscope and cultured for bacteria.
Fungal tests may be indicated based on results of radiographs in areas endemic for fungal
infections such as histoplasmosis and blastomycosis.
Therapy In-depth
Treatments for ITB may include one or more of the following:
o Because antibiotics can't kill the viruses that are usually responsible for kennel cough,
don't expect your veterinarian to automatically prescribe them. Antibiotics are more likely
to be used if Bordetella bacterial infection or secondary bacterial infection is suspected;
however, there is no "quick test" for this infection.
o The mild, uncomplicated patient may be given no medication or only a mild cough
suppressant.
o Cough suppressants are appropriate when the cough is frequent and debilitating and there
is no evidence of pneumonia.
o An initial injection of butorphanol may help break the cough cycle. Oral administered
pills are also available.
o Stronger medicine codeine-related such as hydrocodone sold as Hycodan or Tussinex)
may be needed to break the cough cycle in severe cases. Over-the-counter medicines such
as Robitussin should only be used after speaking to your veterinarian.
o In cases of lingering kennel cough, a tracheal washing should be done to culture any
offending bacteria.
o If Bordetella bronchiseptica is found, a powerful antibiotic may be needed (as many
routine drugs such as amoxicillin won't usually kill this bacterium).
o Some of these can only be given by injection. Some powerful and commonly used oral
antibiotics (enrofloxacin (Baytril) or other fluoroquinolone antibiotics) should not be
used in rapidly growing puppies.
o Occasionally, an antibiotic such as gentamicin may be nebulized ("vaporized") in the
veterinary hospital.
o Very rarely, a brief course of an anti-inflammatory medicine may be needed to quiet a
severe cough due to tracheobronchitis; however, these drugs can decrease resistance to
secondary bacteria thereby promoting pneumonia.
Follow-up
Optimal treatment for your pet requires a combination of home and professional veterinary care.
Follow-up can be critical, especially if your dog does not rapidly improve.
Administer prescribed veterinary medication as directed and be certain to alert your veterinarian
if you are experiencing problems treating your dog.
Follow up chest X-rays may be required.
Remember, vaccination can be performed routinely against canine parainfluenza virus, canine
adenovirus type 2 and canine distemper virus.
Such vaccinations help to prevent infectious tracheobronchitis. A vaccine against Bordetella
bronchiseptica may also be administered.

 This is especially helpful in pets frequently exposed to other dogs.

VIRAL GASTROENTERITIS
Parvovirus (Parvoviral Enteritis or "Parvo," for short) is a virus causing severe infection in
puppies and dogs.
It invades and destroys rapidly growing cells in the intestine, bone marrow and lymphoid tissue
resulting in nausea, vomiting and severe hemorrhagic (bloody) diarrhea.
The invasion of the bone marrow cells causes a decrease in the white blood cell count leading to
increased susceptibility to bacterial infections and sometimes to a shock-like condition called
endotoxemia. The disease can vary from mild to fatal if not properly treated.
Parvovirus is extremely contagious to other dogs. Infection is generally attributed to ingestion of
material contaminated by dog feces and can occur when a dog smells or licks the ground.
Direct contact with another dog is not necessary for infection. Parvovirus is shed in the feces of
infected dogs for approximately two weeks after initial ingestion and can live in the environment
for years. The virus is species specific and is not contagious to cat or humans.
Dogs at highest risk for infection are unvaccinated puppies or those who have not yet completed
their vaccine series.
It is most common in dogs less than 8 months old. Especially susceptible breeds include
Doberman pinschers, Rottweilers, German shepherd, Staffordshire terriers, black Labrador
retrievers, and dachshunds. Dogs of all ages can be infected, but puppies and younger dogs are
most susceptible. Intact male dogs may also be susceptible for unknown reasons.
Unsanitary and/or overcrowded kennels may increase chance of infection and concurrent
infection with parasites, other bacteria or viruses may also increase susceptibility to infection.
Proper vaccination of your pet can best prevent the disease.
Parvovirus is an acute and serious disease, not a chronic condition. Virtually all cases need
proper diagnosis and hospitalization.
If your pet is having active symptoms, it is important to see your veterinarian. Parvovirus can be
fatal if not properly treated.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is usually based on clinical signs.
Diagnostic tests are needed to recognize parvovirus, and exclude other diseases. Tests may
include:
Complete medical history and physical examination
Testing the feces for the presence of the virus
Blood tests and abdominal X-rays to determine the severity of the infection or exclude other
causes of the symptoms
Treatment
Recommend hospitalization.
Therapy is dependent upon the severity of the clinical symptoms and is aimed at treating the
dehydration, controlling vomiting and diarrhea and preventing secondary infection.
If bacterial infection and dehydration can be prevented, clinical signs will usually resolve in 2 to
5 days. Therapy may include:
o Intravenous (IV) fluid therapy, antibiotics and/or other drugs used to replace electrolyte
and fluid losses and control nausea and vomiting.
o In very severe cases, referral to a 24-hour critical care center may be recommended.
Preventative Care
Prevention is possible by vaccinating your pet regularly to help prevent infection. (NOTE:
Immunity to parvovirus develops after infection, but it is necessary to schedule booster
immunizations ("shots") with your veterinarian to protect from other viruses).
Keep your dog away from fecal waste of other dogs when walking along neighborhood streets or
parks.
If your dog leaves his own "deposit" be sure to remove it and dispose of it at home.
You should also minimize contact of unvaccinated puppies with other dogs that may be sick or
unvaccinated.
This should include avoiding areas where other sick pets may have been (parvo can live in the
environment for 2 years).
Your pet is most at risk until fully vaccinated (usually 20 to 24 weeks of age).
Veterinary care should include diagnostic tests and subsequent treatment recommendations.
Diagnosis In-depth
Diagnostic tests are needed to recognize parvovirus, and exclude other diseases, including:
Complete medical history and physical examination
The ELISA test (CITE-Parvo TEST) The collection and testing of a stool sample is the most
practical and thorough method for diagnosis. However, it is possible to get a [false] positive test
5 to 17 days after routine vaccination for parvovirus.

A complete blood count (CBC). This helps determine the effect of the virus on the bone marrow.
In some cases the ELISA test may be negative while the blood test may point to parvovirus
(usually a very low white blood count is found). In this case, your veterinarian will choose the
appropriate antibiotic therapy.
Serum biochemistry. These tests are not specific for detection of parvovirus, but they do help
your veterinarian determine your pet's hydration status, blood sugar level, kidney function and
electrolyte levels. These can help determine the choice of fluid therapy and other medications.
Fecal tests. These are performed to exclude the possibility of intestinal parasite infestation
(concurrent infection is common).
Additional diagnostic tests may be recommended on an individual pet basis, including:
Abdominal X-rays to exclude the possibility of other problems such as gastrointestinal ileus
(paralysis of the bowel), obstruction of the bowel, a foreign substance in the stomach or intestine
or an intussusception
A barium contrast study, in which the patient swallows or is administered barium
An ultrasound, which is an alternate and noninvasive method, may be used to examine your pet's
abdominal organs.
An ultrasound is not useful in cases where there is build up of abdominal gas.
Veterinary Care In-depth
Treatment In-depth
Treatments for parvovirus may include one or more of the following:
o Serious cases require hospitalization during which IV fluid therapy, antibiotics and antivomiting drugs may be administered. Severe cases may require referral to a 24-hour
hospital.
o Milder cases may require outpatient treatment consisting of subcutaneous fluid therapy,
antibiotics and anti-vomiting drugs.
o Daily physical examination by your veterinarian to assess your pet's progress is vital.
Fluid therapy is necessary if your pet is dehydrated, actively vomiting or has diarrhea.
Severe cases will most likely require IV fluid therapy consisting of an electrolyte solution
supplemented with potassium.
If necessary, a bicarbonate supplementation may be required, which is determined after lab
testing.
In more severe cases where pets have become hypoglycemic (low blood sugar), dextrose (sugar)
may be added to the fluid therapy.
Milder cases may be treated with subcutaneous fluid therapy, which is administered in the loose
skin over the back and more slowly absorbed.
Pets with severe cases will almost always require IV therapy for survival.
Nutrition. There are different thoughts on feeding dogs with parvovirus. Many veterinarians
recommend giving no food or water until vomiting or diarrhea has stopped completely for 12 to
24 hours.
Only then will water be offered in small amounts along with small frequent feedings of a bland
diet, including such foods as Hill's Prescription Diet i/d, Iams Recovery Diet, Purina EN
Diet or Waltham Low Fat Diet. Your pet may also be given a bland homemade meal of
carbohydrates (boiled rice or potatoes) and protein (lean hamburger, skinless chicken or low-fat
cottage cheese) in small amounts. The return to regular dog food must be gradual over a 3 to 4
day period.
Other veterinarians recommend feeding despite vomiting. High-protein and high calorie foods
such as Hills Science Diet A/D or Eukanuba Max Calorie may be offered as soon as possible.
Antibiotic therapy is often used to control secondary bacterial infection. Antibiotics (such as
gentamicin or amikacin) must only be given after dehydration is corrected with the proper fluid
therapy. Commonly used antibiotics are: cefazolin or ampicillin combined with enrofloxacin,
gentamicin or amikacin. Gentamicin and amikacin are administered to your pet especially when
there is indication of a very low white blood cell count (neutropenia).
Antiemetic drugs may be administered to your pet to control vomiting. Common drugs include:
metoclopramide given SQ or as continuous IV; chlorpromazine, prochlorperazine, or
ondansetron by injection.
Gastrointestinal protectants are sometimes prescribed. Common drugs include: famotidine,
cimetidine and sucralfate, prescribed only after vomiting is controlled.
Parenteral nutrition (such as PPN) may be suggested in very weak puppies with persistent
vomiting and diarrhea.
This is a special food that is placed in an IV type catheter; parenteral nutrition requires
hospitalization.
Anti-diarrheal drugs, which help reduce bowel movements, are only prescribed for unresponsive
diarrhea. These include: loperamide, oral opiods and diphenoxylate.
Pepto-Bismol (Bismuth subsalicylate) is sometimes administered when vomiting has stopped.

Pain medications may also be indicated. Commonly used pain medications include
Buprenorphine (Bupernex) and Butorphanol (Torbugesic).
Blood products (packed red blood cells or plasma) may be administered with severe blood loss,
protein loss, or anemia.
Isolating your dog from other dogs is very important throughout treatment of parvovirus.
Nursing and caring for your pet is vital throughout treatment. Your pet must be kept clean and
dry, and debilitated dogs must be turned frequently.
Rectal temperature must be monitored frequently.
Worm infestation is treated once your pet is able to eat and drink. The common drug
administered is fenbendazole, given orally for three consecutive days or Ivermectin by injection.
Prognosis
Approximately 80 to 90 percent of affected dogs will survive and lead normal lives if disease is
detected early and proper treatment and hospitalization is sought and administered.
Prognosis is worse for high-risk breeds.
Parasitic diseases of dog
ENTERIC PROTOZOAL DISEASES
Trichomoniasis
Amebiasis
Balantidiasis
Enteric Coccidiosis
Crytosporidiasis
Giardiasis
NONENTERIC COCCIDIAN PROTOZOAL DISEASES
Toxoplasmosis
Neosporiosis
Hepatozoonosis
INTESTINAL PARASITES IN DOGS
Overview
A parasite is a plant or animal that lives upon or within another living organism. There are a
variety of parasites that infect various organs or body systems.
Parasites can be either internal or external parasites living primarily on the skin (fleas), in the
respiratory tract (lung worms), or in the blood vessels and heart (heart worms).
Some gastrointestinal parasites are microscopic, and the only way to diagnose them is by
microscopic examination of your dog's feces for the eggs shed by the adult worms.
Others are large enough to be observed in your dog's bowel movements or after he vomits.
Moreover, some tapeworms produce proglottids, which are the segments making up their body.
These segments can be seen around the hair on the anus or in the stool, appearing as bits of
moving "white rice."
Among the important gastrointestinal parasites of dogs are roundworms (Toxocara species),
hookworms (Ancylostoma caninum, Ancylostoma braziliense and Uncinaria stenocephala),
whipworms (Trichuris vulpis, T. campanula, T. serrata), stomach worms (Physaloptera spp.),
tapeworms (Diplylidium caninum, Taenia pisiformis), and microscopic parasites Coccidia,
Giardia and Strongyloides species.
How Parasites Are Acquired
Ingestion of eggs. Most infections are acquired by ingestion of microscopic eggs. This occurs
when a dog licks areas where other dogs have defecated, like yards, parks or grass.
At birth. Many puppies are born with intestinal parasites (usually roundworms) that have been
passed from the mother, where the parasite was in an encysted, quiet state.
From intermediate host. Tapeworms are transmitted by an intermediate host when a dog
swallows a flea or eats a rabbit.
It should be emphasized that some parasites especially roundworms and hookworms can also
affect people, especially children.
For that reason, it is essential to prevent intestinal parasites in our pets and to treat any resultant
infection.
Parasitic diseases range from trivial to fatal disease. Parasites can cause severe disease in
immature puppies, sick or debilitated pets, or in pets with a suppressed immune system.
Younger pets often get acute disease (vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, and anemia) whereas
older pets get chronic disease such as intermittent diarrhea.
Symptoms
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhe
Anemia

 Skin lesions
Diagnosis
Because parasitism is easily confused with other debilitating conditions, diagnosis depends on
the following:
o Medical history and physical examination, including observations of worms in the stool
or vomitus.
o Fecal examination for microscopic eggs or larvae. This is the most common approach to
diagnosis as most pets do not appear ill.
o CBC Complete blood count if anemia is suspected (as with a hookworm infection) or if
the pet is showing symptoms of illness.
o Other blood tests may reveal concurrent problems.
Treatment
Treatments for intestinal parasites may include one or more of the following:
o Routine deworming in puppies This is the ideal approach. All immature pets should
treated at the first veterinary examination and regularly dewormed during the first year.
o In general, every dog less than one year of age should be given an anthelmintic (antiparasite drug) for ascarids regardless of fecal results.
o This is in part to protect the environment from contamination with microscopic eggs that
might infect children.
o A yearly fecal check and treatment is recommended for adult pets, especially if they are
not taking heartworm preventatives that would prevent development of intestinal worms.
o Other treatments may include fluid therapy for debilitated pets or blood transfusion and
iron supplementation (if necessary for severe blood loss as with hookworm infections).
Prevention
At home administer any prescribed medications and follow-up with your veterinarian for
examinations and repeated fecal (stool) tests as needed.
Some microscopic eggs can live in the environment (such as the yard) for weeks to months and
cause re-infection.
Clean up yard weekly and minimize roaming of pets in places like parks where exposure and
infection are possible.
Many health care specialists recommend a fecal sample from all adult animals at least yearly, a
sample at each puppy vaccination visit, and a follow up sample at the appropriate interval after
the last deworming medication has been given.
With primarily outdoor dogs, it may be advisable to evaluate stool samples every three to six
months if risk of infection is high.
One may also consider heartworm preventatives that also prevent intestinal parasites.
Information In-depth
Intestinal parasites are a common cause of vomiting and diarrhea in dogs; however, other
medical problems can lead to similar symptoms.
One must exclude disorders such as viral infection, ingestion of spoiled or toxic food, ingestion
of irritating or toxic substances, or bacterial infections, before establishing a definite diagnosis of
disease from parasite infection.
Remember too that many pets have more than one problem.
For example, in a young dog, a viral infection of the intestine (such as parvovirus or coronavirus
infections) is very likely to be complicated by a pre-existing intestinal parasite problem.
Veterinary Care In-depth
Diagnosis In-depth
Diagnostic tests are needed to recognize intestinal parasites. When a pet is ill with
gastrointestinal symptoms, other tests may be needed to exclude other diseases, even if worms
are obvious.
These tests can include:
o A complete medical history and physical examination. This should involve questions
about any vomiting, bowel movements, weight loss, health of littermates, previous
deworming program, history of previous parasites and housing. Complete examination
with abdominal palpation (feeling the abdomen) should be done.
o Fecal analysis tests. The fecal sample is mixed with a solution that encourages
microscopic ova (eggs) to float to the top and stick to a microscope slide for examination.
o A single fecal sample may not demonstrate the eggs in infected dogs in some
circumstances. Some parasites-whipworms are a good example-shed ova intermittently.
o Some parasitic infections such as Giardia require a different approach to diagnosis (fresh
sample of feces with examination of a saline smear under a microscope).
o A complete blood count (CBC). In sick pets or those appearing anemic, a CBC can reveal
anemia (as some worms cause intestinal blood loss) or elevated eosinophil count

(common in parasitic infections). It is also helpful to screen for other infectious intestinal
diseases (such as parvovirus).
o Additional diagnostic tests may be recommend on an individual pet basis to exclude or
diagnose other conditions or to better understand this disease's impact on your pet:
o A test for parvovirus should be considered in puppies with acute or severe diarrhea or
vomiting, especially when there is fever or blood in the stool.
o This infection is a very common cause of diarrhea in dogs. Worms are often shed with
this condition (from pre-existing intestinal parasite infection).
o Abdominal X-rays may be needed in some cases of severe vomiting or if the abdomen is
abnormal to palpation.
Treatment In-depth
The best course for managing intestinal parasites is prevention.
Treatment of intestinal parasites must be individualized based on the severity of the condition
and other factors that must be analyzed by your veterinarian.
Treatment may include:
o Deworming. Puppies are dewormed routinely for roundworms and hookworms at the
time of "puppy shots, " but worms can also affect mature dogs.
o Regular stool examinations can detect intestinal worms in most cases. Some of the newer
heartworm preventatives also prevent intestinal parasites (and some prevent fleas as
well!).
o Fecal exam. A yearly fecal sample is recommended for adult dogs. Adult dogs typically
acquire worms when they lick up microscopic eggs present in contaminated soil or grass.
o Mature dogs develop resistance to most intestinal parasites, but the whipworm can still
cause problems leading to signs of colitis.
o It is to detect this worm with a stool sample, but it responds to appropriate deworming
medicine.
o Drug therapy. Several drugs available concurrently prevent heartworm disease and
prevent or treat intestinal parasites. See your veterinarian for details. These products
include Interceptor (Milbemycin), Heartguard Plus (Ivermectin + pyrantel tartrate)
and Revolution (selamectin).
o Treatment for parasites is often based the fecal analysis. Common treatments may
include:
o Roundworms (Toxocara infections)-pyrantel pamoate (Nemex) or fenbendazole
(Panacur) is commonly used to treat roundworms and hookworms.
o Hookworms (Ancylostoma caninum, Ancylostoma braziliense and Uncinaria
Stenocephala)-pyrantel pamoate is commonly used to treat roundworms and hookworms.
o Whipworms (Trichuris vulpis, T. Campanula, T. Serrata)-Dogs are treated once daily for
three consecutive days and repeated in 3 weeks with fenbendazole (Panacur). Some
veterinarians recommend a third treatment in 3 months. This drug also treats
roundworms, hookworms and tapeworms (Taenia spp.).
o Physaloptera (stomach worm)-this can be treated with pyrantel pamoate.
o Strongyloides-often treated with fenbendazole (Panacur) or pyrantel pamoate (Strongid
T, Nemex) for 5 days.
o Tapeworms (Diplylidium caninum, taenia pisiformis)-praziquantel (Droncit),
epsiprantel (Cestex) or febantel + praziquantel (Versom); fenbendazole is effective for
taeniid infection.
o Dipylidium infections also require prevention with flea control (fleas are the intermediate
host). Prevent dogs from unsupervised hunting (rabbits are the intermediate host of
Taenia pisiformis).
o Coccidia-can be treated with sulfadimethoxine for 10 days or trimethoprim-sulfa for 7
days.
o Giardia-can be treated with various drugs including metronidazole (Flagyl) for 5 to 10
days.
FLEAS, TICKS AND OTHER EXTERNAL PARASITES
Ticks and fleas are probably the most common external parasites seen on pets.However, that is
not to say that they are the only ones you need to think about controlling.
Various mites, lice and flies may also deserve attention.
The threat of external parasites to your pet will vary according to your geographical location and
the type of pet you own. Some of them (eg some species of ticks) can act as carriers (vectors) of
disease agents and pass that disease onto your pet, while others may not act as a vector but may
themselves cause a problem (e.g.fleas, certain mites).
In cats and dogs, fleas are perhaps the most common external parasite problem encountered by
pet owners.
Fleas have been around for a very long time and know a thing or two about species survival so
getting rid of a flea problem is never easy.

Fleas
In cats and dogs, fleas are perhaps the most common external parasite problem encountered by
pet owners.
They have been around for a very long time and know a thing or two about species survival so
getting rid of a flea problem is never easy.
Keep the following in mind when tackling fleas on your cat or dog.
They are an environmental problem, not a pet problem. Yes, you will see the fleas on your pet,
but those you see are a very small proportion of the total flea population in your pets
environment(approx 1% visible to you vs 99% hidden in the environment!).
The implication of this is that you cannot hope to beat a flea problem by only treating the pet you have to include the environment in your plans.
Fleas need blood meals to survive and breed. They are also photophobic (don't like bright
sunlight). So that patch of sand in the middle of your garden 20m from the dogs kennel is
unlikely to be the source of your flea problem.Fleas like warm, humid areas out of direct
sunlight.
Dogs and cats are the preferred host for the normal pet flea (C.felis). If you have pets but find
fleas jumping onto you for a blood meal then you have a huge infestation on your hands.
The exception to this observation is if you move into somewhere that has not been occupied for a
while then newly hatched fleas will jump on anything to get a blood meal.
Ticks
While fleas can give rise to a bunch of skin problems in cats and dogs and can act as the
intermediate host for a tapeworm, ticks are vectors for some nasty diseases like canine
ehrlichiosos and canine and feline babesiosis.
These diseases don't occur everywhere and so it is a good idea to find out from your vet what
tick-borne diseases are present in the area where you live and what symptoms they can give rise
to if your pet becomes infected.
Apart from these diseases,a tick bite can cause skin irritations in some sensitive animals and can
exacerbate an existing skin sensitivity problem.
In areas where ticks occur, they are usually more of a dog problem than a cat problem simply
because of the cats grooming habits.
It is a good idea to check your dog for ticks after they have been out on walks, especially if they
have been into the bush and walked through long grass.
You might find 2 apparently different types of ticks. One will be small(the size of a match head)
and flat and the other will be greyish in colour and often quite large (pea-sized).
The first is the male tick and the second is the female after having had a blood meal.
Treatment of a tick infestation is usually less complicated than treating for fleas. If the ticks are
unattached, you can simply remove them from your pet with a pair of tweezers.
If the head is buried in the skin of your pet, use an ear bud and dab some tick spray or dip on the
tick and remove it with tweezers when it disengages.
If you live in an area where ticks are prevalent, then regular dipping and spraying for ticks might
be required.
Again, be aware that cats can be very sensitive to the various anti - tick products and therefore it
is essential that you consult a veterinarian to ensure the product is safe for your pet before using
it.
Mites
Demodex
o These mites are considered to be normal inhabitants of dog skin. Pups acquire the mites
from the dam while suckling.
o Most pups will not show any clinical symptoms of infestation. However, if they do, most
cases resolve before one year of age.
o Demodectic mange beyond that age indicates an immune deficiency.
o Two forms of demodectic mange can be seen. The first is a localised form. Here one gets
a small patch (or patches) of hair loss and the skin can become slightly crusty. This form
can heal without treatment. The second form is a generalised form where large areas of
the dog's skin is affected.This is obviously a more severe form but again, in dogs under
one year, recovery can be complete.
o Diagnosis is made by skin scraping and treatment can be prolonged, especially in the case
of generalised demodectic mange.
o Demodectic mange is rare in cats but the same general principles and descriptions apply
to cats.
Sarcops
o Again, these are far more common in dogs than in cats. They cause intense itching and
are highly contagious.

o They are transmitted by direct contact with an infected animal or infected e.g. grooming
tools.
o They can also be transmitted to humans and cause an intense itch and rash that is self
limiting unless there is constant re-infection by contact with an infected pet.
o Intensive scratching, hair loss and inflammed skin, especially on the ears, leg joints and
throat, are characteristic clinical signs. Diagnosis is by deep skin scraping.
Lice

Flies

Not very common in either dogs or cats and usually associated with animals in poor condition.
They can cause sever irritation leading to scratching and hair loss.
They lay eggs that look like little white grains of sand attached to the shaft of a hair. Lice are
easily killed by most insecticides.

Various flies can transmit some diseases. In most pets and households though they usually
represent a nuisance rather than a disease threat.
Biting flies in particular can make any animals existence miserable and for this reason alone they
are worth controlling.
Control measures should start with keeping the environment as clean as possible and can include
a host of natural and synthetic products that you apply to the animal and/or environment.
Other Pets
Fleas, Ticks, Lice and various mites can be found on most types of pets.
Their occurence will be influenced by the type of pet (e.g. fish are unlikely to have a flea
infestation!), housing, state of health and environmental considerations (temperature, humidity
etc).Consult your veterinarian with regards to which specific external parasites may pose a
problem for your particular pet.
HOW TO CONTROL PARASITES IN DOG
Fighting Parasites
Fleas, ticks, heartworms and intestinal worms for their small size, these parasites pack a lot of
misery for you and your pet.
Besides driving your faithful companion crazy, they pose a hazard to pets and people.
Fortunately, you're not without the means to fight back. What follows are guidelines and
recommendations to keep your household safe and happy.
Intestinal Parasites.
Dogs are victims of several internal parasites including roundworms, coccidia, giardia,
hookworms and whipworms and can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and anemia.
The most common are roundworms (ascarids) that infest nearly every puppy at some time in his
life.
Usually they are born with them; they are passed from mother to young.
Tapeworms can be a big problem when flea infestation is high.
Adult dogs typically acquire worms when they lick up microscopic eggs that are ever-present in
contaminated soil or grass, or they swallow a flea. Mature dogs usually develop a resistance to
most intestinal parasites, but the whipworm (Trichuris vulpis) can still cause problems, leading to
colitis (inflammation of the colon) and weight loss.
Evidence of roundworms and tapeworms can be seen without the aid of a microscope, but other
worms are not so easily diagnosed.
Early diagnosis is important because all worms do not respond to the same treatment.
Fleas
Watching a flea-bitten pet scratch herself desperately is a heart-rending sight. Fleas are a
common problem for dogs, cats and people, who can also be bitten. As if the bite wasn't bad
enough, many dogs are allergic to fleas.
When a flea bites your dog, it injects a small amount of saliva into the skin to prevent blood
coagulation. Some animals may have fleas without showing discomfort, but an unfortunate
number of dogs become sensitized to this saliva.
In highly allergic animals, the bite of a single flea can cause severe itching and scratching.
Fleas cause the most common skin disease of dogs Flea Allergy Dermatitis.
Ticks.
These creatures present another set of problems. When ticks are in need of a blood meal, they
seek out prey by heat sensors.
When a warm object passes by them, they attach themselves by clinging to clothing or fur or
falling from trees onto the object and insert pincher-like mouthparts into the skin and begin
feeding.
These mouthparts are locked in place and will only dislodge when the tick has completed the
meal.
Once the meal is complete, the adult female falls from the prey and seeks shelter. Eggs are born
and the adult female dies.

Dogs are a common target for ticks. If you live in an area populated with ticks you should keep a
sharp eye on these parasites.
They can transmit serious diseases (such as rickettsial diseases like Rocky Mountain spotted
fever and ehrlichiosis) to dogs and even to humans.
Heartworms.
Heartworms have the potential to cause serious illness. All it takes is one bite from a mosquito
carrying a heartworm larva.
In time, the larva develops into a full-fledged adult worm, finding a home in the arteries of the
lungs. Without treatment, dogs with heartworm disease will become lethargic, lose their appetite
and begin to have difficulty breathing. Heart failure can also occur.
The Battle Plan
Preventing Intestinal Parasites.
Puppies are regularly dewormed for roundworms and hookworms at the time of their "puppy
shots." If your puppy hasn't been dewormed, talk to your veterinarian about getting this
important step taken care of.
A stool sample should be collected prior to each puppy vaccination visit, and a follow up sample
examined at the appropriate interval after the last deworming medication has been given.
Worms can affect mature dogs as well. A yearly fecal exam is recommended for most adult dogs
unless the dog is taking a heartworm preventative that also controls intestinal parasites.
With primarily outdoor dogs, it may be beneficial to evaluate stool samples two or three times a
year if the risk of infection is high. Or you may decide to administer a heartworm preventative
that also controls intestinal parasites.
Some of the newer heartworm combinations fight all three threats: heartworms, intestinal
parasites and fleas.
Fighting Fleas and Ticks
Even minor flea bites can cause severe reactions in some pets. Though the itching component to
flea-allergy can be treated with antihistamines or even corticosteriods (prescribed by your
veterinarian), the best approach is to kill the flea and prevent its return.
There are many products available to treat flea infestations. Some of the over-the-counter
powders, sprays and collars (such as those from Hartz or Sergeants) contain permethrin,
which is moderately effective.
However, the best flea products are prescription see your veterinarian for these.
Products such as Program (lufenuron) and Sentinel (which also prevents heartworm disease)
prevent development of fleas that attack your dog.
If your dog already has fleas, then you need to kill them first with a product like Capstar brand
of nitenpyram, Frontline brand of fipronil or Advantage brand of imidacloprid.
Some of these have residual effects that can also control ticks. A new product, Revolution, is a
topical treatment to prevent external parasites, heartworm and intestinal parasites.
In addition to these prescription products, a collar tag called Preventic is also effective in
controlling ticks on some dogs.
In tough cases, you may have to wage all-out war to conquer fleas. This means a comprehensive
flea control program, requiring treatment of the pet, the pet's bed, the yard and the house.
A variety of sprays, dips, powders, foams and oral products may be recommended.
Ticks are very difficult to control, but a program of tick prevention and meticulously combing
and grooming your dog can keep them at bay.
Preventing Heartworm Disease
Preventing heartworm disease is easier and much preferred to treating an active heartworm
infection.
Treatment is easy - just one tablet once a month.
Not all parasitic diseases can be prevented but many can be treated. Mites are parasites that can
cause serious illness in your dog.
PROTOZOAL INFECTION IN DOGS
Protozoal infections are disorders caused by a variety of different organisms affecting multiple
systems, causing a variety of many different signs and diseases.
General Causes
Giardiasis caused by Giardia species
Trichomoniasis caused by Pentatrichomonas hominis
Amebiasis caused by Entamoeba histolytica
Balantidiasis caused by Balantidium coli
Coccidiosis caused by Cystoisospora (most commonly)
Cryptosporidiosis caused by Cryptosporidium parvum
Toxoplasmosis caused by Toxoplasma gondii
Acanthamebiasis caused by Acanthamoeba species

 Babesiosis caused by Babesia species

Cytauxzoonosis caused by Cytauxzoon felis
Leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania species
Trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma cruzi
Hepatozoonosis caused by Hepatozoon canis
Encephalitozoonosis caused by Encephalitozoon cuniculi
Pneumocystosis caused by Pneumocystis carinii
Neosporosis caused by Neospora caninum
Clinical Signs
Due to the many different organisms with a variety of effects on the individual, multiple signs
are seen, depending on the particular organism.
o Vomiting
o Diarrhea
o Fever
o Anorexia
o Weight loss
o Cough
o Difficulty breathing
o Depression
o Yellow color
o Enlarged lymph nodes
o Seizures
o Muscle spasm
o Paralysis
o Blindness
Diagnosis
Baseline tests include a complete blood count (CBC), biochemical profile and urinalysis.
Changes are variable, depending on the organ system(s) involved. Additional tests include:
o Fecal evaluations
o Chest and abdominal X-rays
o Serologic testing
Direct organism identification, if possible, either via aspirate (removing and evaluating cells) or
biopsy (evaluation of tissue)
Treatment
Depending on the specific protozoan organism, therapeutic recommendations will vary.
Intensive supportive care may be indicated in some cases, such as fluids and blood transfusions.
Depending on the protozoa, specific antibiotics and specific deworming agents may be
necessary.
Prevention
Administer all medication as directed by your veterinarian.
Contact your veterinarian at once if your pet is not responding to therapy and/or getting worse.
Return for follow up examination and testing as recommended by your veterinarian.
Prohibiting exposure to infected individuals can help prevent infection.
Sanitation is important and avoiding contact with the intermediate host is important in
prevention.
Fungal diseases of dog
BLASTOMYCOSIS IN DOGS
Overview
Blastomycosis is a systemic disease caused by a fungus.
The organism is present in the soil and infection occurs by inhalation of the fungus.
Once infection is established in the lung, the fungus changes its characteristics by converting
from the mycelial form into the yeast form and spreads to other organs causing a disseminated
infection.
This fungus exists in two different forms:
o Mycelial form. This form is present in the environment and is contagious.
o Yeast. This form is found in the tissues and is not contagious.
Hunting dogs that spend a lot of time outdoors and live in endemic areas are at risk for inhaling
this organism and developing the disease.
Some animals may be infected but not show clinical signs for a long time.
These animals are not a risk for contagion of other animals and people because the stage of the
organism present in the animal's tissues is not that of an infectious stage.
If left untreated, these dogs can become seriously ill.

 Dogs may develop infection in the kidneys, eyes, brain and bones.
According to the organ that is affected, the clinical signs may vary.
They may have ocular problems or neurological signs like seizures and head tilt.
In some dogs lameness may be the primary complaint due to infection in the bones.
Symptoms
Coughing
Difficulty breathing
Fever
Loss of appetite
Weight loss
Overview
Diagnosis
Suspicion of blastomycosis comes from the history of living in an area at risk for this infection,
especially in animals that hunt or spend a lot of time outside.
Clinical signs may not be very specific.
There are some tests that can be run to see if the animal has been exposed to the organism and
has produced antibodies against it.
This type of test (serology) requires a blood sample and is not 100 percent reliable. It could be
falsely negative in the early stage of the disease.
The definitive diagnosis comes from the identification of the fungus in the tissues.
This is possible when skin lesions are present in the form of nodules that drain purulent material.
In those cases a biopsy is taken and sent to the laboratory for microscopic examination and for
culture.
Treatment
Affected animals require many months of antifungal therapy.
Some drugs are given intravenously (amphotericin B) while others are given orally (e.g.
ketoconazole).
Depending on the severity of the disease a combination of drugs may be selected.
These drugs have the potential to cause kidney and liver damage, thus it is very important that
your pet is closely monitored and that blood work is repeated frequently to check for signs of
toxicity.
The prognosis (outcome) depends on the severity of the lung disease, and how extensive is the
infection in the body. It is important to take chest radiographs and evaluate the extent of the lung
involvement.
Prevention
It is important that you administer the medications as instructed by your veterinarian and that
you monitor the appetite and bowel movements of your pet.
Some drugs may induce nausea and vomiting. If your pet stops eating, your veterinarian needs to
be notified immediately.
There is no vaccine or effective way of disinfecting the contaminated soil.
Veterinary Care In-depth
Diagnosis In-depth
Certain diagnostic tests must be performed to confirm the diagnosis of blastomycosis and
exclude other diseases that may cause similar symptoms.
Tests may include:
o A complete medical history and physical examination, including auscultation (listening
with a stethoscope) of the lungs, careful examination of the eyes and nervous system, and
evaluation of the skin for draining nodules
o A complete blood count (CBC or hemogram) to evaluate the severity and chronicity of
inflammation, detect the presence of non-regenerative anemia, and check platelet count.
o The clinical presentation of animals with some diseases associated with low platelet
count (Ehrlichiosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever) can resemble blastomycosis.
o Serum biochemistry tests to determine the effect of blastomycosis on other organ
systems, and to evaluate the health of other organ systems, especially the liver and
kidneys, before treatment with anti-fungal drugs that can be toxic for the liver and
kidneys.
o Rarely, high blood calcium concentration (hypercalcemia) is found in animals with
systemic fungal infection and hypercalcemia can occur in diseases that can be confused
with systemic fungal infection like lymphosarcoma. Certain blood proteins may be
increased in the blood of animals with systemic fungal infection and in those with other
chronic infectious diseases.
o Urinalysis to identify urogential involvement, evaluate kidney function and check for
bacterial urinary tract infection.

o X-rays of the chest to evaluate the severity of lung involvement and to check for enlarged
lymph nodes in the chest.
o Bone involvement also may be identified on X-rays of the chest.
o X-rays of the abdomen to evaluate vital organs, especially the liver and kidneys. Bone
involvement also may be identified on X-rays of the abdomen.
o Serologic tests for heartworm disease, brucellosis, and rickettsial infection as well as the
agar gel immunodiffusion test to identify blastomycosis.
o The agar gel test is very reliable but may be negative early in the course of infection.
o Finding the blastomyces organism during microscopic examination of material collected
from draining skin nodules results in a definitive diagnosis.
o Microscopic examination of a biopsy specimen from affected tissue by a veterinary
pathologist can also lead to a definitive diagnosis, but this method is more invasive, and
results take longer to return from the laboratory.
Treatment In-depth
Treatment of blastomycosis must be individualized based on the severity of the condition and
other factors that must be evaluated by your veterinarian.
Therapy is aimed at relief of specific symptoms (e.g. difficulty breathing, coughing, eye
problems) and elimination of the fungus from the body.
Treatment may include one or more of the following:
o Antifungal drugs. Those effective against blastomyces include amphotericin B and the
imidazole derivatives (e.g. ketoconazole, itraconazole, fluconazole).
o Amphotericin B is often administered intravenously followed by oral administration of
ketoconazole, one of the imidazole derivatives.
o Then it is administered three times per week until a sufficient cumulative dose has been
achieved.
o Amphotericin must be given in relatively small amounts over time because it is very toxic
to the kidneys. Kidney function tests must be monitored during the course of
amphotericin B therapy.
o Amphotericin B is given diluted in a 5 percent dextrose solution, and the intravenous
administration of the fluid also serves to protect the kidneys from toxicity.
o Ketoconazole is an imidazole drug that can be administered orally (often after a course of
amphotericin B).
o Ketoconazole is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and has reasonable activity
against blastomyces.
o Treated animals should be watched for loss of appetite, vomiting, or diarrhea because
these symptoms may indicate drug toxicity.
o Ketoconazole is potentially toxic to the liver, and liver function tests should be monitored
in treated animals.
o Ketoconazole has the potential to produce adverse reactions when used in combination
with some other drugs, and other medications being administered to the animal should be
reviewed before beginning therapy with ketoconazole.
o Unfortunately, treatment with ketoconazole usually does not completely eliminate the
fungus from the animal's body.
o Itraconazole is another imidazole effective against blastomyces that has less potential for
liver toxicity than does ketoconazole.
o It usually produces a more rapid response than does ketoconazole.
o Itraconazole must be administered for two to three months, and approximately 20 percent
of treated dogs ultimately experience a recurrence of disease. Adverse effects include loss
of appetite, vomiting, and diarrhea.
o Fluconazole is an imidazole derivative active against blastomyces that has good
penetration into the nervous system, eyes, and urinary tract.
o It is especially useful in animals with urogential infections because ketoconazole and
itraconazole are not excreted into the urine in any appreciable amount.
o The dosage of fluconazole should be adjusted in animals with poor kidney function.
o In general, however, fluconazole is less toxic than ketoconazole. Also, it is not associated
with the adverse drug interactions occasionally observed with ketoconazole use.
o Like the other imidazole derivatives, it must be administered for a minimum of 60 days
and recurrence may occur in up to 20 percent of treated animals.
HISTOPLASMOSIS IN DOGS
Overview
Histoplasmosis is a non-contagious fungal infection of dogs, cats, other domestic and nondomestic animals, and humans.
It is caused by inhalation of a fungus called Histoplasma capsulatum carried on dust with a
primary infection in the lung.

In dogs, evidence suggests that prolonged exposure to high levels of Histoplasma organisms
increase the risk of contracting the disease.
Young age is a risk factor, as well as breed and sex: a large study found an increased risk in
pointers, weimaraners, and Brittanys.
It is also seen more frequently in males, with the risk being 1.2 times that seen in females.
The impact of the disease on a particular dog is significant; treatment is expensive and
prolonged, and the prognosis is poor.
Symptoms
Acute weight loss/emaciation
Depression
Fever
Poor appetite
Anemia
Labored breathing
Enlarged liver
Enlarged spleen
Enlarged lymph nodes
Lameness
Skin disease
Diarrhea (the most common sign in dogs)
Eye disease
Diagnosis
A definitive diagnosis of histoplasmosis requires detecting Histoplasma organisms in the tissues
of cats and dogs showing clinical signs compatible with the disease.
Several other tests are also recommended to gather information that supports a diagnosis of
histoplasmosis.
o Complete blood count
o Chemistry panel and urinalysis
o Radiographs
o Complete ophthalmic exam
o Rectal scrapings (dogs)
o Bone marrow examination
o Cytology of fine-needle aspirates
o Biopsy
o Serologic tests
o Culture
Treatment
Antifungal drugs
Supportive care
Prevention
Provide good nutrition and administer all medications as prescribed.
No specific preventive measures exist regarding histoplasmosis.
Information In-depth
Histoplasmosis is a non-contagious infection caused by the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum.
The organism responsible for the disorder is a soil fungus that is widely distributed in the
Midwestern and southern United States, especially in river valleys and plains.
Within these endemic areas, some locales are more heavily contaminated with Histoplasma
organisms than others.
In many instances, these variations have been correlated with proximity to bird habitats, which
are often heavily contaminated because bird droppings serve as a good medium for the organism.
Birds are not infected by the Histoplasma organism, although they can carry the organism on
their feathers and spread the disease in this manner.
Bat habitats can also be heavily contaminated with the organism, as bat guano is an excellent
medium for Histoplasma growth. Unlike birds, bats can become infected with the organism.
Infection occurs when spores in the air are inhaled. The spores go to the lungs and cause
infection of cells deep in the lungs. Most dogs show a clinically unapparent pulmonary infection;
the organism has infected the lungs, yet the dog shows no signs of being ill.
Occasionally, dogs with pulmonary histoplasmosis shows signs of lung infection, such as fever,
labored breathing, and coughing.
The lung infection usually turns out to be benign and self limiting. If the unapparent respiratory
infection extends and persists beyond the lungs and becomes systemic, a clinically apparent,

often devastating form of the disease may develop. This has been referred to as "disseminated
histoplasmosis," and it carries a guarded or even grave prognosis.
It is uncommon for a clinically unapparent Histoplasma infection to disseminate from the lungs.
When this happens, a large number of organs and body systems may be affected.
In dogs, the organs most often involved are the lungs, intestine, lymph nodes, liver, spleen and
bone marrow.
Systemic signs of illness such as depression, fever, and anorexia are common.
The disseminated infection in dogs most often results in chronic diarrhea, intestinal blood loss,
anemia, and weight loss. In a few dogs, infection of the bones, eyes, skin, and central nervous
system may occur.
The factors that predispose particular dogs to histoplasmosis are not fully understood.
In people, exposure to a large amount of the organism, a suppressed immune system, as in
chemotherapy or HIV infection, or exposure at a young age or old age are believed to predispose
individuals to disseminated infection.
There is evidence suggesting that prolonged exposure to high levels of the organism may
increase the risk of disease.
Administration of immunosuppressive drugs has been correlated with a worsening of disease in
dogs.
Exposure to the organism at a young age is a predisposing factor; most affected dogs are less
than three years old.
Breed and sex are considered as possible predisposing factors in dogs, with pointers,
Weimaraners, and Brittanys reported to be more susceptible, and male dogs being 1.2 times as
likely to become infected as females.
Veterinary Care In-depth
Diagnosis
Complete blood count. There may be several findings on a complete blood count that support a
diagnosis of histoplasmosis.
Anemia is a common finding in dogs with histoplasmosis. The anemia is mostly due to
suppression of red blood cell production by the infected bone marrow.
In dogs, blood loss in the stool, due to severe Histoplasma infiltration of the intestinal tract,
contributes to the anemia.
Thrombocytopenia (a low platelet count) is commonly seen. There is no consistent pattern to the
white blood cell count in affected dogs; the white count may be high, low, or normal.
Chemistry panel and urinalysis. Serum biochemical profiles often reveal a low albumin in dogs
with the disease.
Much of the low albumin is attributed to loss of albumin in the stool. Urinalysis shows no
specific abnormalities.
Radiographs. X-rays of the chest often reveal a nodular pattern that is characteristic for fungal
infections.
Pulmonary lymph nodes are often visibly enlarged.
Abdominal films may show an enlarged liver and spleen. X-rays of the bones in animals
presenting with lameness may show various degrees of bone destruction and new bone
formation.
Complete ophthalmic exam. An examination of the eye, especially the retina, may show
abnormalities characteristic of fungal disease, lending further support to a diagnosis of
histoplasmosis.
Rectal scrapings. A rectal scraping, obtained using a small metal spatula and stained and
examined under a microscope often reveals Histoplasma organisms inside many of the cells. This
allows a definitive diagnosis of the disease.
Bone marrow examination. Examination of stained bone marrow specimens often reveals cells
containing the Histoplasma organism, allowing for a definitive diagnosis.
Cytology of fine-needle aspirates. Obtaining a tissue sample by aspirating it through a fine
needle and spreading it onto a slide, staining, and examining under a microscope may reveal
fungal organism and allow a definitive diagnosis.
The liver, lung, spleen, and lymph nodes are good tissues to sample, and may be better than
rectal scrapings in dogs that do not have signs of gastrointestinal involvement.
Biopsy. If examination of aspirated tissue cells is not diagnostic, examination of a biopsy
specimen may be required.
A specific type of inflammation is often seen in fungal infections and may be highly suggestive
of the disorder, but finding actual fungal organisms may be difficult.
Special fungal stains are often used to increase the chances of identifying the organism.
Serologic tests. Blood tests that look for antibodies against the organism may be performed.
A positive test means that the animal was exposed to the organism.

It does not necessarily mean that the animal is infected. Results of serologic tests are inconsistent
and are not very useful in making a diagnosis.
Culture. Because of the large numbers of organism present in affected tissues, the Histoplasma
organism can often be cultured from fine needle aspirates; however, the organism grows slowly
and it may take 7 to 10 days before results are available.
The organism, when grown in culture, also poses a significant hazard to human health, and
laboratories involved need to be notified before submitting samples.
Therapy
Treatment of disseminated histoplasmosis is difficult.
It requires the use of antifungal agents and supportive therapy like adequate nutrition, hydration,
and control of secondary bacterial infections.
Antifungal drugs. A number of antifungal drugs such as ketaconazole, itraconazole, amphotericin
B have shown some efficacy against Histoplasma infection, either alone or in combination.
These drugs have to be given for prolonged periods of time, and are often fairly expensive.
Supportive care. Intravenous fluids, good nutrition, and possible antibiotic therapy to control or
prevent secondary bacterial infections may be necessary as part of the overall therapy for
histoplasmosis.
CRYPTOCOCCOSIS IN DOGS
Overview
Cryptococcosis is an infectious disease caused by the fungus Cryptococcosis neoformans.
The disease affects human beings and animals and is contracted by inhaling infectious spores.
The excrement of birds, especially pigeons, is the main environmental reservoir for the spores,
although birds rarely become infected with this organism due to the higher body temperature,
which does not allow the growth of the organism.
After the spores are inhaled, the organism spreads to other organs.
Cryptococcus has a tendency to invade the nervous system.
Immunosuppressed humans and animals are at increased risk for developing cryptococcosis.
Cryptococcosis has a worldwide distribution.
In affected dogs, non-specific symptoms of systemic illness are most common, such as weight
loss and lethargy.
Central nervous system problems may also occur such as head tilt, back-and-forth eye
movements called nystagmus, paralysis of the facial nerve leading to inability to blink,
incoordination, circling and seizures.
Eye problems, such as hemorrhage in the retina and inflammatory disorders of the eye called
chorioretinitis and anterior uveitis, also are common.
Contact with infected animals is not a concern because the yeast form of the organism grows in
infected tissues and does not become aerosolized.
Diagnosis
Diagnostic tests are needed to recognize cryptococcosis and confirm the diagnosis. Tests may
include:
o A complete medical history and physical examination.
o The diagnosis of cryptococcosis is based on history, clinical symptoms, microscopic
examination of exudates, serologic tests and biopsy if necessary.
o Serology. Blood samples or samples of cerebrospinal fluid in animals with nervous
system symptoms may be tested for antibodies.
o The most commonly used serology test is the latex agglutination test, designed to detect
antigens from the capsule of the fungus.
o The test is very specific and sensitive.
o False negative results may occur in localized infections and false positive results may
result from contamination of the specimen by talc from latex gloves worn during fluid
collection.
o Microscopic examination of exudate from cutaneous nodules or the nose.
o The organism also can be identified by microscopic examination of tissue biopsy
specimens (histopathology). Special stains may be needed.
Overview
Treatment
Treatment for cryptococcosis may include
o Surgery to de-bulk lesions in the nasal cavity.
o The prognosis for recovery is poor when infected dogs have widespread nervous system
involvement.
o Anti-fungal drugs such as amphotericin B, flucytosine, ketoconazole, itraconazole, and
fluconazole.
Home Care and Prevention

Administer as directed any medications prescribed by your veterinarian and follow

recommendations for dietary modification.
Long term treatment up to 6 months or more may be required. Observe your pet's general
condition:
o Watch for worsening of symptoms and bring any changes to the attention of your
veterinarian.
Some anti-fungal medications (e.g. ketoconazole, itraconazole) have the potential to cause liver
damage.
The animal should have periodic blood tests performed to evaluate for the presence of liver
damage.
These medications should be administered with food and they may cause vomiting or diarrhea.
Amphotericin B has the potential to cause kidney damage and must be given by intravenous
infusion after being diluted in a 5 percent dextrose solution.
The animal should have periodic blood tests performed to evaluate for the presence of kidney
damage.
The possible sources of infection for affected animals should be evaluated because these areas
represent potential sources of exposure and infection for human beings as well, especially
children, immunosuppressed patients, and the elderly.
Restrict animals from areas that contain large amounts of pigeon droppings, especially shady,
damp buildings.
Areas where pigeons reside should be cleaned with hydrated lime diluted in water and sodium
hydroxide solution.
Information In-depth
Cryptococcosis is a systemic fungal disease caused by Cryptococcus neoformans.
Cryptococcus is a yeast-like fungus found most often in association with pigeon droppings.
Cryptococcus does not cause disease in pigeons due to the high body temperature of these birds
(107.6 degrees Fahrenheit or 42 degrees Celsius), which inhibits growth of the organism.
Optimal growth occurs at 98.6 degrees F (37 C), which is the average temperature of mammals.
Cryptococcus neoformans has a worldwide distribution and is the most common systemic fungal
infection of cats, although it also affects dogs.
Doberman pinschers and Great Danes appear to be at increased risk in Australia, whereas cocker
spaniels seem to be at higher risk in North America.
However, dogs of any breed, as well as mixed breed dogs, can develop cryptococcosis. Young
dogs less than four years of age seem to be predisposed.
No gender predilection has been recognized.
Cryptococcus has a thick capsule surrounding it, which contributes to its virulence and resistance
to treatment.
Infection occurs after inhalation of the organism, when cryptococcus produces a thick capsule
that interferes with the ability of the immune system to eliminate it.
Immunosuppressed animals, such as animals suffering from malnutrition or receiving treatment
with cortisone-like drugs are most susceptible.
Clinical Symptoms
Non-specific symptoms of systemic disease such as fever, lethargy, loss of appetite, and weight
loss
Skin nodules in 40 percent of affected animals, in which the organism may be detected by
microscopic examination of the exudate
Neurologic symptoms in 15 percent of affected animals, which include incoordination, seizures,
lethargy, circling, head-pressing, head tilt, back-and-forth eye movements called nystagmus,
paralysis of the facial nerve and blindness.
Eye abnormalities in 15 percent of affected animals, which include dilated, unresponsive pupils.
Inflammation of both the front (anterior uveitis) and back (granulomatous chorioretinitis) of the
eyes may be detected.
Small hemorrhages may be detected in the back of the eye (retinal hemorrhages).
Other diseases of the nasal cavity and nervous system may produce similar signs and must be
eliminated as diagnostic possibilities:
o Nasal cavity tumors
o Foreign bodies in the nasal cavity
o Other fungal infections (aspergillosis)
o Tooth root abscess
o Chronic bacterial sinusitis
o Nervous system diseases
o Other infectious diseases such as distemper and toxoplasmosis
o Cancer of the nervous system like lymphosarcoma

o Granulomatous meningoencephalitis
o Epilepsy
o Certain metabolic diseases like hepatic encephalopathy
o Drug or chemical toxicity
Veterinary Care In-depth
Veterinary care should include diagnostic tests and subsequent treatment recommendations.
Diagnostic tests are needed to identify cryptococcosis and exclude other diseases that may cause
similar symptoms. Tests may include:
o A complete medical history and physical examination including neurologic and
ophthalmologic (eye) examinations
o A complete blood count (CBC or hemogram)
o A serum biochemical profile
o Bile acid determinations to evaluate liver function
o Urinalysis
o Fecal examination
The need for additional diagnostic tests will be determined based on the results of the medical
history, physical examination and initial laboratory tests:
o Blood lead determination if lead poisoning is suspected
o Cerebrospinal fluid analysis
o Computerized tomography (CT), which is a radiographic imaging test to evaluate the
nervous system tissues
o Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is a sophisticated computer process that
produces highly detailed images of cross-sections of the body without radiation exposure
Your veterinarian may recommend additional diagnostic tests based on the results of initial
examinations.
These tests may help diagnose other concurrent medical problems or allow your veterinarian to
understand the impact of the underlying disease on your pet.
Such tests insure optimal medical care and are selected on a case-by-case basis.
Latex agglutination test may be performed either on serum or cerebrospinal fluid to detect the
capsule antigen of Cryptococcus neoformans.
False negative results may occur due to localized infection and false positive results may occur
due to contamination of the specimen with talc from latex gloves used during cerebrospinal fluid
collection. The latex agglutination test is correlated with disease severity.
Animals with disseminated skin or lymph node involvement have higher titers than those that do
not.
Generally, the titer decreases by two- to four-fold per month during successful therapy.
Antibodies against Cryptococcus neoformans also can be measured. Most affected animals (over
80 percent) have high antibody titers at the time of diagnosis.
Antibody titers in these patients remain high or decrease slowly after treatment.
Microscopic examination of exudates from the nasal cavity or skin nodules often allows
identification of the organism.
Microscopic examination of a biopsy specimen by a veterinary pathologist also allows
identification of the organism and the characteristic "pyogranulomatous" inflammation.
Organisms usually are present in large numbers.
The organism can be isolated and identified in culture using exudate or tissue samples. The
cultures are not hazardous because the cultured organisms do not aerosolize.
Veterinary Care In-depth
Treatment In-depth
Various anti-fungal drugs can be used for the treatment of cryptococcosis but most affected pets
require prolonged therapy, often six months or more depending on the severity and extent of the
disease. Treatments include:
o Ketoconazole. The response with ketoconazole is not as good as with some of the other
anti-fungal drugs.
o Ketoconazole also may result in liver damage which may be identified by monitoring
blood tests of liver function.
o Itraconazole. The solution form of this drug appears to result in better absorption and
availability to the tissues than does the capsule form.
o The adverse effects of itraconazole are similar to those of ketoconazole and include
vomiting, diarrhea and liver damage.
o Fluconazole has the advantage of providing excellent penetration into the brain and eyes
(common sites of cryptococcal infection).
o Also, fluconazole has better availability to the tissues than does itraconazole. Also,
fluconazole produces fewer adverse effects than does either ketoconazole or itraconazole.

o Fluconazole is not metabolized in the liver, and thus is safe in when there is concern
about liver function.
o It is eliminated primarily by the kidneys, and its dosage should be adjusted if kidney
failure is present.
o Amphotericin B usually is by intravenous infusion after dilution in 5 percent dextrose in
water.
o It must be given 3 times weekly until an effective cumulative dose has been reached.
o An alternative protocol involving subcutaneous administration of amphotericin B also has
been developed.
o Amphotericin B is very toxic to the kidneys and kidney function must be monitored
closely during treatment with amphotericin B.
o Flucytosine is an anti-fungal drug that may be administered alone or in combination with
amphotericin B.
o When used alone, the organism usually develops resistance to the drug.
ASPERGILLOSIS
Overview
Aspergillosis is a fungal infection caused by a species of fungus belonging to the genus
Aspergillus.
The nasal cavity and respiratory system are most commonly affected, although in some dogs the
infection may spread throughout the body with grave consequence.
Nasal aspergillosis is a localized form involving the nose, ears and paranasal sinuses and is
usually caused by the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus.
Disseminated aspergillosis is characterized by signs of generalized infection and is caused by the
fungus Aspergillus tereus.
Dogs with medium or long noses are more likely to get nasal aspergillosis. Short nosed breeds
such as pugs, bulldogs and Pekingese are less likely.
Pre-existing nasal disease and/or prolonged antibiotic therapy predisposes to nasal infection.
German shepherds are at higher risk for disseminated aspergillosis compared to other breeds.
Diseases or conditions that suppress the immune system such as diabetes and chemotherapy also
predispose to developing disseminated disease.
Dogs of any age are susceptible to nasal aspergillosis, but 40 percent of cases are seen in dogs
younger than 3, and 80 percent in dogs younger than 7 years of age.
The impact of aspergillosis varies depending on whether it is confined to the nasal cavity only, or
disseminated throughout the body.
Many nasal infections are treated successfully, while most disseminated infections eventually
prove fatal.
What to Watch For
Nasal aspergillosis
Ulceration (open sores) around the nostrils
Pain or discomfort in the facial region
Profuse bloody and/or pus-filled nasal discharge that may alternate with periods of nasal
bleeding
Disseminated aspergillosis
Anorexia
Weight loss
Muscle wasting
Fever
Weakness
Lethargy
Vomiting
Uveitis/endophthalmitis (inflammation of the structures of the eye)
Back pain
Paralysis
Diagnosis
Nasal aspergillosis
Cytology
Biopsy
Serology
Radiology
Rhinoscopy
Disseminated aspergillosis
Complete blood count and chemistry panel
Urinalysis

 Cytology
Culture
Serology
Biopsy
Radiology
Treatment
Nasal aspergillosis
Systemic antifungal drugs
Topical antifungal drugs
Disseminated aspergillosis
Systemic antifungal drugs
Home Care and Prevention
No specific home care recommendations are necessary for dogs with nasal aspergillosis.
Dogs with disseminated aspergillosis that are being treated for paralysis must be conscientiously
managed.
Physical therapy and cleanliness to prevent soiling and urine scalding are very important
There are no specific preventative measures against aspergillosis. There is no vaccine.
Information In-depth
Aspergillus is a fungus that is ubiquitous in the environment. It generally causes either nasal or
respiratory infections and disseminated infections.
Nasal infections are not suspected to disseminate.
The nasal infections tend to be caused by a different species of the fungus, namely Aspergillus
fumigatus, compared to disseminated infections, which tend to be caused by Aspergillus tereus.
The immune status is an important determinant as to whether a dog will contract aspergillosis.
Pre-existing nasal disease and/or previous prolonged antibiotic therapy may be important in the
development of nasal infections.
Conditions that suppress the immune system, such as diabetes, Cushing's disease, chemotherapy,
glucocorticoid therapy and hereditary immunosuppressive conditions may predispose dogs to
developing disseminated aspergillosis.
Nasal aspergillosis is a relatively common disease in dogs.
The disease usually remains confined to the nasal cavity or the sinuses, but marked destruction of
the turbinates (delicate nasal bony structures) is always seen.
Occasionally, a very invasive infection may affect the orbit (where the eyeball is located) and
may even erode through the skull.
Most cases of nasal aspergillosis are in dogs with normal immune systems that are in otherwise
excellent health.
Nasal aspergillosis is usually seen in dolichocephalic (long-nosed) and mesocephalic (mediumnosed) breeds, but rarely in brachycephalic (short-nosed) breeds.
Dogs of any age may be affected, but approximately 40 percent are 3 years old or younger, and
80 percent are 7 years of age or younger.
The main features of the disease are a profuse nasal discharge consisting of blood mixed with
pus, nasal pain, ulceration surrounding the nostrils, and nosebleed.
Cancer of the nasal cavity can have very similar signs, and careful diagnostics are important so
that the proper diagnosis can be made.
Most cases of nasal aspergillosis can be successfully treated. Relapses are possible, but are
uncommon.
Most cases of disseminated aspergillosis have occurred in German shepherd dogs aged 2 to 8
years.
Aspergillus tereus is the most common species of organism responsible, although other species
of Aspergillus have been isolated occasionally
It is thought that the fungus enters through the respiratory tract and goes to the lungs, then
travels through the bloodstream where it spreads throughout the body.
Infection often takes hold in the intervertebral discs of the spine, the eyes or the kidneys. Other
organs, muscles or bones may be affected.
Disease tends to develop over several months, but most dogs are terminally ill when veterinary
care is finally sought.
The most consistent features of the disease are back pain progressing to partial or complete
paralysis, or lameness of a limb with pronounced swelling and a discharging tract.
A sudden onset of paralysis may result if an infected intervertebral disc ruptures and injures the
spinal cord, or if the spine becomes unstable and dislocates.
Other nonspecific findings include anorexia, weight loss, muscle wasting, fever, weakness,
lethargy, vomiting, inflammation of the eye and lymph node enlargement.

Severely ill dogs have a poor prognosis. Most dogs die from the disease although a few have
been treated successfully.
Veterinary Care In-depth
Diagnosis In-depth
Nasal Aspergillosis
Cytology and culture. Microscopic examination and culture of the nasal discharge is sometimes
performed, but is often unrewarding.
Fungal organisms may be missed, causing an erroneous diagnosis of a simple bacterial nasal
infection.
A positive fungal culture result must also be interpreted cautiously, as many normal dogs or dogs
with nasal cancer will have positive cultures for Aspergillus.
Biopsy. Examination of tissues obtained by biopsy through the nostrils is useful if fungal
organisms are identified, but may lead to a misdiagnosis of nonspecific rhinitis if fungal colonies
are missed.
Serology. Several techniques have been developed to identify antibodies in the serum directed
against the organism that causes nasal aspergillosis.
The tests are fairly reliable, although false positives have been reported.
Radiology. X-rays of dogs with nasal aspergillosis often show destruction of the delicate
turbinate bones as well as infection involving the frontal sinuses.
Rhinoscopy. Visualization of fungal colonies using a rhinoscope (a probe with a light and an
attached camera) is an excellent diagnostic method.
Biopsy of fungal plaques under direct visualization with the rhinoscope is the best method of
obtaining samples for culture and definite diagnosis.
Disseminated Aspergillosis
Complete blood count and chemistry panel. These tests do not diagnose the disorder, but are
performed to assess the general condition of the dog.
Many dogs have an elevated white blood count. Chemistry panel abnormalities often reflect the
organ system(s) affected, such as the kidneys or liver.
Urinalysis. Identification of fungal organisms in a sterile-collected urine sample.
Cytology. Identification of Aspergillus organisms when examining blood smears, joint fluid,
lymph node aspirates, or material from an infected intervertebral disk confirms the diagnosis.
Culture. Growing and identifying Aspergillus colonies from tissue samples is another way to
confirm a diagnosis; however, it takes 5 to 7 days to grow the organism.
Serology. Several methods are available to detect antibodies in the bloodstream directed against
the Aspergillus organism.
Not all dogs with disseminated aspergillosis will have detectable antibodies.
False negatives may also occur if the test identifies the organism that causes nasal aspergillus (A.
fumigatus) instead of the organism causing disseminated aspergillosis (A. tereus).
Biopsy. Identification of the organism on a biopsy specimen confirms the diagnosis.
Radiology. X-rays of the long bones often reveals areas of bone destruction.
Therapy In-depth
Nasal aspergillosis is initially treated with antifungal drugs. They can be given orally, and they
can be infused into the nasal cavity.
Most cases are treated successfully, as evidenced by rapid resolution of nasal pain and nasal
discharge, and healing of the ulcerated nostrils.
Relapse is not a common problem, although bacterial infections of the nasal cavity can develop
in up to 25 percent of dogs after the fungal infection is cleared.
These bacterial infections usually respond well to antibiotics.
Disseminated aspergillosis has a poor prognosis, especially in dogs that are severely ill on
presentation.
Only two drugs have been shown to be effective in treating the disseminated disease.
Nasal Aspergillosis
Oral antifungal drugs. Of the oral antifungal drugs, the newer drugs fluconazole and itraconazole
have shown the best efficacy, but success rates do not exceed 60 percent or 70 percent.
The drugs are expensive and must be administered for a minimum of ten weeks.
Five percent of dogs given itraconazole show side effects (liver damage) and have to be treated
with the other drug.
The results obtained with oral therapy are not as good as that seen with topical therapy.
Topical antifungal drugs (clotrimazole, enilconazole).
Flushing enilconazole into the nasal cavity through tubes surgically implanted into the nasal
cavity and frontal sinuses results in elimination of the fungus in 90 percent of affected dogs,
although this is done less commonly because it is labor intensive, messy, not well tolerated by
many dogs, and can be complicated if the dog removes one of the tubes.

More recently, the treatment of choice is infusion of clotrimazole into the nasal cavity under
anesthesia.
One study reported a 94 percent cure rate for dogs treated in this fashion.
Disseminated Aspergillosis
Systemic antifungal drugs. Only two drugs have been shown to be effective: amphotericin B and
intraconazole.
Amphotericin B seems to be more effective, but requires hospitalization; the drug is given
intravenously.
Newer lipid-formulations of this drug may hold more promise in the future.
Amphotericin B can cause kidney damage and should not be used in dogs with pre-existing
kidney problems.
Oral itraconazole has shown some efficacy in a few dogs, but the dogs need to receive this drug
for months or years.
Some dogs that have responded to the drug relapsed and died when the medication was
discontinued.
RINGWORM (DERMATOPHYTOSIS) IN DOGS
Overview
Ringworm is a contagious fungal infection of the skin, caused by Microsporum canis. It is not
caused by a worm.
It is spread from person to person, from animal to person, or indirectly from contaminated
objects or the soil.
The associated spores can live for years in some conditions. Ringworm infects three sites: scalp,
body and nails.
Ringworm is considered a "Zoonotic" disease meaning that it can be transmitted from animal to
person.
There are several organisms that can cause ringworm including Microsporum canis,
Microsporum gypseum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes.
Ringworm is typically seen in young dogs.
Dogs with pre-existing skin disease or trauma are more likely to become infected.
Diseases or medications that suppress the immune system generally render that dog more
susceptible to ringworm.
Predisposing factors may include high stress situations (such as shelters), stress, poor nutrition,
cancer, immunosuppressive drug therapies and other diseases or medications that suppress the
immune system.
Young animals appear to be predisposed. Some pets may be resistant to infection and other may
remain as carriers with no clinical signs.
Typical lesions are circular areas of hair loss (alopecia) on the hair coat; however, any change in
the hair coat and/or skin may be consistent with ringworm.
The affected skin often appears scaly and inflamed. Some dogs suffer from severe skin disease
while others have minor lesions or even none at all.
What to Watch For
Circular areas of hair loss (alopecia)
Scaly and inflamed skin
Itching in some cases
Diagnosis
Ringworm often looks similar to other skin diseases, so it is difficult to diagnose based on skin
appearance alone.
Your veterinarian will run diagnostic tests to confirm the presence of the fungus. Some of these
test may include:
Laboratory tests to include a complete blood count, biochemical profile, and urinalysis if
immune suppression is a suspected underlying cause of the ringworm.
A fungal culture to provide positive identification .
Woods lamp examination. If the area fluoresces under the light, ringworm is suspected.
However, culture is still strongly recommended. A negative fluorescence does not rule out
ringworm, as several species of the ringworm do not fluoresce.
Microscopic examination of hairs.
Treatment
The treatment for ringworm can be both frustrating and expensive, especially in a multi-pet
household.
Treating both the dog and the environment are of equal importance.
Many dogs will resolve an infection spontaneously over several months, but treatment generally
expedites cure and helps reduce environmental contamination.
Nevertheless, some infections can persist.

Vaccines for ringworm are available, but are only used in addition to treatment.
Systemic treatment. There are several different oral medications available.
Griseofulvin is the most commonly prescribed, and it needs to be given with food.
Your dog will also have to have her blood count monitored by your veterinarian to watch for
possible bone marrow suppression (low white blood cell, red blood cell, and platelet counts) as a
side effect.
If there is a possibility of pregnancy, alert your doctor at once, as certain medications may be
contraindicated.
Other drugs used to treat ringworm include Itraconazole, Ketoconazole, and Lufenuron.
Lufenuron should not be used as a sole therapy.
Test results suggesting its effectiveness are controversial and it has not been proven as an
effective sole therapy.
Topical treatment. Anti-fungal creams and shampoos are important in reducing environmental
contamination.
This usually includes clipping the hair of affected dogs and dipping in lime sulfur or antiseptics.
Twice weekly topical therapy with chlorhexidine 2% shampoo followed by 0.2% enilconazole
rinse has been effective in some pets.
Home Cleaning. It is recommended that the pet's environment be thorough cleaned. Spores can
live for years in some situations.
Unnecessary items should be destroyed or disposed of.
The environment can be cleaned with a 05% sodium hypochlorite solution (Bleach diluted to
1:20 solution), which can be used to clean washable items.
Home Care and Prevention
At home, give your dog the prescribed medication as directed by your veterinarian.
Return for follow-up appointments as directed. If side effects develop, early detection can
reverse these effects.
Culturing your dog for ringworm is the only true means of monitoring response to therapy.
Due to the contagious nature of ringworm to humans, care should be taken to wash hands
thoroughly after handling the dog.
Immunocompromised individuals should exercise extreme caution and may want to consider not
handling the dog until fully recovered.
Extreme care can help prevent ringworm disease. When bringing a new dog into a household,
use a quarantine period and do a fungal culture to test for the presence of the fungus.
You can also employ preventative treatment of exposed animals
NUTRITIONAL RELATED DISEASES OF DOG
RICKETS
Calcium deficiency in dogs is characterized by a disease called rickets in normal dogs, and a
syndrome known as milk fever in pregnant or lactating dogs.
Calcium intake is tied directly to the calcium:phosphorus ratio in the body.
An overabundance of either can cause calcium-associated problems. Feeding a well-balanced
dog food and closely monitoring pregnant animals are the best ways to minimize calcium
deficiency.
Causes
Calcium deficiency is generally seen in animals which eat a meat diet, which is high in
phosphorus and low in calcium.
Animals eating such an imbalanced diet develop rickets, which is a calcium deficiency producing
soft, brittle bones. Likewise, feeding a diet high in calcium and low in phosphorus may lead to
problems metabolizing the calcium. It will cause bone deformities and hip dysplasia.
Calcium: Phosphorus Ratio
The ideal ratio of calcium to phosphorus is 1.5:1. The normal serum calcium level in the
bloodstream is 9 to 11 mg/dl.
Problems arise when the serum calcium levels fall or the ratio of calcium to phosphorus changes.
A veterinarian visit and a blood test are required to determine calcium deficiency
Prevention
The easiest way to prevent calcium deficiency in dogs is to feed them a well balanced diet.
Feeding too much meat is the most common cause of calcium deficiency.
Commercial dog food is formulated to give the dog everything it needs. You should only give
calcium supplements on the advice of your vet, as an overabundance of calcium causes problems
as well.
Closely monitor pregnant and lactating dogs for symptoms of milk fever, and visit the vet if
symptoms occur
POSTPARTUM ECLAMPSIA IN DOGS

Eclampsia is a deficiency of blood calcium (hypocalcemia) that develops in the weeks after
giving birth, although it may develop prior to birth or during lactation. Also called "milk fever"
or puerperal tetany, eclampsia is usually due to an underactive parathyroid gland, the gland that
is responsible for regulating the parathyroid hormone, which in turn regulates the amount of
calcium that is stored in the bones, to be removed as needed for use in the blood. As the
parathyroid gland has not being signaled to stimulate the parathyroid hormone to release calcium
from the bones into the body, when the bitch's milk comes in and the demand for calcium
suddenly increases, the parathyroid gland is unable to respond quickly enough for her needs to be
met.
The lack of calcium results in tonoclonic contractions of the skeletal muscles, where the muscles
in the body contract convulsively, limiting movement.
This disease most often occurs with first litters and in toy breeds. Chihuahuas, miniature
pinschers, shih-tzus, miniature poodles, Mexican hairless dogs and pomeranians are at increased
risk for eclampsia, as as toy breeds and bitches with their first litters. However, puppies are often
not affected by eclampsia because their nutritional needs, including calcium, are being taken care
of by their mother.
In addition, the symptoms typically become apparent in the first 40 days after giving birth, and
rarely occurs during pregnancy.
Symptoms and Types
Poor maternal behavior
Restlessness, nervousness
Disorientation
Panting, whining
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Clumsy walking, stiff gait
Facial itchiness
Muscle tremors, tetany (entire body goes stiff), convulsions
Dog lies down with paws rigidly extended (usually seen 812 hours after the first onset of
symptoms)
High body temperature, fever
Rapid, heavy breathing
Dilated pupils which are slow to contract when exposed to light
Causes
Calcium supplementation during pregnancy
Inappropriate calcium to phosphorous ratio in the diet while pregnant
Low body weight to litter size ratio
Poor nutrition during pregnancy
First litter
Diagnosis
Standard tests will include a chemical blood profile, complete blood count and an electrolyte
panel. As soon as the electrolyte panel is ready, the total serum calcium will be verified by a
blood test. If the concentration is less than 7 mg/dL, your dog will be diagnosed with eclampsia
and will be given calcium supplementation immediately.
Low blood sugar and low blood magnesium levels may also be present. These can also be
supplemented.
Serum potassium is high in 56 percent of cases. An electrocardiogram (ECG) showing the heart's
electrical rhythm will often be abnormal.
Treatment
This is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition, but it can be treated quickly and the
dog's health stabilized if she is treated as soon as symptoms become apparent. If your dog has a
high fever, your veterinarian will try to cool her down with a cool water soak and fan to bring the
body temperature down to a normal range. Your veterinarian will treat your dog with intravenous
calcium until her levels have increased to a safe level, and until her body alone is able to
maintain calcium levels.
ANEMIA
Anemia is a disease in the oxygen-carrying capacity ofblood. When an dog suffocates, the pink
color of the tissue turns blue. A lack of oxygen in the tissues can be produced by many causes
otherthan lack of air.
The blood may simply be unable to carry it about thebody. This, in turn, may result from a
diminished supply of red cells inthe blood. There may be too few, or the chemical composition of
theircomponents may be inadequate.

Hookworms are the most common cause of an inadequate supply ofred cells. Their blood
consumption strains the blood-building equip-ment, which cannot keep up with the loss. A
hookworm-infested ani-mal lacks animation and gets out of breath easily.
It shows all thesymptoms of anemia, as though blood had been drawn from its arteriesor veins.
Little puppies arc frequently found to be anemic because ofhookworm infestation. There is so
little iron in milk that they cannotregain their losses despite dcworming, and they frequently die
becauseof their owner's ignorance of this fact.
Heavy infestations of sucking lice may also cause anemia. Some dogsharbor so many lice that
the parasites touch one another in places.
The dog's gums reveal a sickly pallor; it can't stand cold and loses itsappetite. The basic
condition is probably aggravated by toxins from thelice. Animals are often seriously weakened
by these parasites. Dogshave actually been known to die from lice infestation.
Blood diseases, rare in dog, produce an altered blood picture.Some ordinary diseases alter the
proportion of red and white cells, notby reducing the number of red cells but by increasing the
number ofwhite cells. This is not anemia. Diseases that produce toxins or attackthe bloodbuilding apparatus of the body produce anemia by reducingthe number of red cells.
A lack of iron or copper or both causes anemia. Insufficient iron isresponsible for a shortage of
hemoglobin, and though there may be a full quota of red cells, they can't pick up and transport
oxygen.
Copperdeficiency also causes anemia. Copper is not part of hemoglobin but isconcerned with its
formation.
Niacin deficiency, which causes black tongue; a shortage of vitaminB complex factors; and
pyridoxin deficiency all cause anemia.
MINERAL DEFICIENCIES
The only two minerals of great consequenceto dogs are calcium and iron, but nevertheless the
absence of others causes dire consequences. Iodine isessential.
Its lack causes goiter in dog, and when pregnant femalesare iodine-starved they may produce
abnormal young called cretins.
Common salt is also essential. Since 99 percent of the calcium in thebody is found in the
skeleton, obviously a calcium deficiency results inpoor skeletal development, as in the case of
rickets. But calciumdoes more than develop bone.
It is necessary to proper nerve functionand acts almost like some vitamins as a catalyst or
"marrying agent"between other minerals. Bad teeth may be traced to a fluorine defi-ciency.
Cobalt and boron, though needed in minute quantities, pro-duce sickness through their absence.
Potassium deficiency causes paralysis, and so forth.
URINARY TRACT DISEASE
Plugs, crystals, and stones are more common in cats eating dry diets, due to the chronic dehydration
and highly concentrated urine they cause.
Struvite stones used to be the most common type in cats, but another more dangerous type,
calcium oxalate, has increased and is now tied with struvite.
Manipulation of manufactured cat food formulas to increase the acidity of urine has caused the
switch. Dogs can also form stones as a result of their diet.
KIDNEY DISEASE
Chronic dehydration associated with dry diets may also be a contributing factor in the development
of kidney disease and chronic renal failure in older cats.
Cats have a low thirst drive; in the wild they would get most of their water from their prey.
Cats eating dry food do not drink enough water to make up for the lack of moisture in the food.
Cats on dry food diets drink more water, but the total water intake of a cat eating canned food is
twice as great.
DENTAL DISEASE
Contrary to the myth propagated by pet food companies, dry food is not good for teeth. Given that
the vast majority of pets eat dry food, yet the most common health problem in pets is dental disease, this
should be obvious.
Humans do not floss with crackers, and dry food does not clean the teeth.
OBESITY
Feeding recommendations or instructions on the packaging are sometimes inflated so that the
consumer will end up feeding and purchasing more food.
One of the most common health problems in pets, obesity, may also be related to high-carb, highcalorie dry foods. Both dogs and cats respond to low-carb wet food diets.
Overweight pets are more prone to arthritis, heart disease, and diabetes.
Dry cat food is now considered the cause of feline diabetes; prevention and treatment include
switching to a high protein, high moisture, low-carb diet.
COMMON DISEASES OF CAT
UPPER RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS (URIs)

URIs are similar to the common cold in humans. Symptoms include sneezing, running nose and
eyes, reddened eyes, fever, and decreased appetite.
If left untreated URIs can be fatal. These airborne viruses are highly contagious; they can be
transmitted to cats through human handling and through contact with other cats and with
inanimate objects such as litter boxes, food bowls, and grooming tools.
Separate any new cat from your other cats for at least three weeks until you are sure that the
newcomer doesn't have any symptoms of a URI.
Prevention is the best approach to URIs. Get your cat vaccinated. But if your cat exhibits URI
symptoms contact your veterinarian immediately.
The veterinarian will probably prescribe a dosage of antibiotics to prevent secondary infections
and give you precise care instructions.
Follow them carefully and make sure your cat eats and drinks sufficiently.
RABIES
Rabies is a fatal and one of the more common cat diseases.
It is a viral illness that is transmitted through bite wounds from infected animals and attacks the
nervous system.
Prevent rabies through vaccination and by keeping your cat indoors.
FELINE PANLEUKOPENIA
Also known as feline distemper, this is a highly contagious viral disease that can be transmitted
through contact with humans, infected cats, clothing, hair, paws, food bowls, and even cat
carriers. The disease comes on suddenly with vomiting, loss of appetite, and diarrhea.
Prevent this disease by getting your cat vaccinated against this virus.
Feline panleucopenia - this was the first feline disease to be shown it was caused by a virus.
It is a highly contagious disease that can affect any kind of cat including lions, tigers and
leopards as well as other animals such as mink, ferrets and raccoons. This virus can exist in the
environment for months and is resistant to many disinfectants and also heat.
Usually it is a disease of young kittens, but a cat of any age may be infected.
Usually a cat becomes infected through direct contact with a cat that is infected or through
exposure from contaminated objects or environments.
Infected cats usually pass the virus through their feces, but can also pass it through their saliva,
urine, vomit, and blood.
A pregnant female can also pass it to her kittens. The incubation period is normally two to ten
days and the first symptoms are fever, reduced appetite, vomiting, and lethargy.
If a cat survives this stage he may get a watery diarrhea within two to three days.
Unborn kittens may develop brain damage such as a lack of coordination that shows up at a few
weeks old.
There is no extensive treatment and infected cats must be isolated from any other cats and
receive intensive nursing care.
Some cats survive infection, but their recovery usually takes several weeks and they are
susceptible to other infections because their immune defenses are compromised.
The prevention for this disease is to vaccinate against it.
FELINE LEUKEMIA VIRUS (FeLV)
FeLV is a fatal infectious virus that affects the immune system and can cause several forms of
cancer and other associated diseases.
It is transmitted through the saliva, urine, and faeces of infected cats.
Blood tests can diagnose this disease. The cat should be tested before being vaccinated.
Prevention is the only cure for this disease. Get your cat vaccinated and keep it indoors.
Feline leukemia virus - Seven out of ten cats are likely to come into contact with this disease at
sometime in their life.
It is responsible for more deaths in cats than any other single cause.
This is a highly infectious viral disease which is present in the saliva, urine, blood, milk, mucus
and feces of permanently infected cats.
Saliva is the most common route of infection and can be passed on in regular close contact or
bite wounds.
Kittens can pick up FeLV infections from their mothers either before they are born or from her
milk.
There are three outcomes for an infected cat depending on his age, response of his immune
system and on the dose of virus that he has received.
o A cat may successfully fight off the disease and become immune to re-infection.
o The cat may be overcome by the disease and because his immune system cannot fight it
off a permanent infection with FeLV is the result.
o The cat becomes a factory for the virus. This happens to three out of ten cats exposed to
the virus.

o The majority of these infected cats die within three and a half years.
o The most common causes of death from the virus is reduced immunity to other diseases,
cancer and anemia.
o The cats immune system may attack the virus, but cannot completely beat it.
o Some virus may remain within his body and he may manage to eliminate eventually, if
not he will develop FeLV related tumors.
o There are no specific symptoms for this disease. Generally one of the effects of this
disease is immunosuppression and the symptoms that occur are from other diseases and
infections that FeLV has made the cat prone to.
o The most common symptoms that are associated with permanent FeLV infection is
weight loss , fever, conjunctivitis, mouth ulcers and gingivitis, vomiting, diarrhea and
anemia.
o There are no specific drugs available to treat FeLV, but permanently infected cats can be
treated symptomatically to make them feel more comfortable. Vaccines are available for
this disease, but only if the cat hasnt been permanently infected first.
FELINE IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (FLV)
FIV is similar to human acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) but the disease causing virus
is different.
This fatal virus attacks the immune system, causing a variety of symptoms.
General symptoms include chronic, non-responding infections; respiratory problems; appetite loss;
persistent diarrhoea; and severe oral infections.
FIV is passed from cat to cat primarily through bites.
There is currently no vaccination or cure for FIV.
Keep your cat inside to prevent it from contacting FIV.
FELINE INFECTIOUS PERITONITIS (FIP)
FIP is deadly virus that is fatal to cats. This virus can take two forms, commonly referred to as
wet (which involves fluid in the abdomen) and dry (which does not).
Both forms of FIP may cause fever, lethargy, vomiting, diarrhoea, and loss of appetite.
There is no effective treatment for FIP.
The best way to prevent this disease is to keep your cat indoors away from strange animals and
remain up-to-date on vaccines.
Feline infectious peritonitis is caused by a coronavirus.
The disease is spread through the feces or saliva of an infected cat before it shows symptoms of
the disease.
The outcome of the infection depends upon the cats age, the precise strain and dose of the virus
and the cats immune system.
The strength of the cats immune system response may determine whether he suffers from "wet"
or "dry" FIP.
A reduced appetite and lethargy are included in both as initial symptoms.
"Wet" FIP symptoms will include abdominal swelling, fever, depression, weight loss and
anemia .
The chest may also fill with fluid making breathing difficult. These symptoms develop quickly
over a few weeks.
"Dry" FIP symptoms take longer to develop and cause inflammatory growths in the liver,
kidneys, brain and eyes.
They also include weight loss, depression and fever.
Currently there is no specific treatment or vaccine. Most cats usually die as a result of infection.
FELINE CHLAMYDIOSIS
This disease is caused by the bacteria Chlamydia psittaci.
This infection is common in kittens between five weeks and 9 months old.
Commonly a healthy cat will get the disease through direct contact with a discharge from the eyes or
nose of the infected cat. Incubation period is 14 days.
The treatment for this disease is oral antibiotics and frequent use of antibiotic eye ointments.
Vaccination against this disease is available.
TOXOPLASMOSIS
Caused by toxoplasma gondii a coccidian parasite.
Pulmonary disease and coughing occur during the initial infection.
Clinical signs include anorexia, depression, enlarged lymph nodes, central nervous system
involvement and anemia.
This disease is important because it can affect pregnant women.
The symptoms are a slight fever, swollen lymph glands-like the flu.
The female passes it on during 5-6 months of pregnancy and it causes severe birth defects.
COMMON DISEASES OF PET BIRDS

DISEASES OF THE AVIAN INTEGUMENT

The avian integuments is a series of highly specialized structures that show extreme variation
between species of birds, depending on the interaction of evolutionary processes with the birds
habitat and life styles.
The most important function of the feathers related to thermoregulation, and to the possibility of
flight.
Disease of the avian integument are therefore likely to endanger survival of the individual.
TRAUMA ASSOCIATED DISORDERS
Laceration
Serious abrasion and lacerations, with or without mortality, result when birds run into enclosure
fences when panicked by stray animals, especially barking dogs.
Small skin lacerations can be cleaned and treated as open wound with antibiotic powered such as
Tricin or Terramycin in preference to ointments, which often mat the feathers.
Healing os very rapid and contraction good.
Large laceration can be debrided and sutured.
Avian skin is loose and easily mobilized and hence quite large defects can be adequately covered.
Feather hemorrhage
A blood feather is a newly emerging, immature, actively growing feather.
Trauma, either accidental or iatrogenic (as in win trimming), to the keratin sheath surrounding
these blood vessels can produce severe hemorrhage.
Hemorrhage inside the follicle often result sin death of the feather.
Treatment is best accomplished by grasping the blood feather with pliers or artery forceps and
removing it form the follicle in the direction in which it was growing.
Breast blisters
Brest blisters in birds are false bursae; one or more can occur along the sternum, varying in
length from 1 to 8 cm, they occur most commonly in male birds of heavy breeds during the
growing period.
The cause is mechanical, due to pressure on, or injury to the sternum.
Pressure may be caused by the weight of the bird forcing the sternum against wire, slatted floors
or perches. Incising the infected blisters and expressing the content reduced their size.
Bumble foot
Bumble foot or psudodermatitis refers to localized and generalized inflammation of the feet.
Bumble foot occurs in species of birds forced to perch or walk on unnatural surfaces )e.g.
concrete floor for anseriforms), especially those surfaces heavily contaminated with feces.
In Budgerigars bumble foot is a very common cause of bilateral lameness.
It develops because of the abrasive action of sandpaper perches or perches that are too smooth or
cylindrical.
Bumble foot in Budgerigars may also be predisposed by insufficient vitamin A in the diet.
Bumble foot is associated with swelling of the ball or soft pad of the foot, which may not be
obvious until the bird is handled.
Prevention and treatment of bumble foot should include replacement of soiled, abrasive or
cylindrical perches with clean, nontoxic tree branches of several diameters.
Use of antibiotics like trimetoprim, tylosin and topical application of dexamethasone can be used
for treatment.
Surgical treatment involves curettage or dissecting out of infected caseous material, closing the
wood with 5-0 silk or placing a drain tube to be flushed with antibiotics allowing the lesion to
granulate.
FEATHER PROBLEMS
Self-mutilation of feathers
This is a common problem in some cage and aviary birds. Especially psittacines.
Skin irritate and disturbance tat may cause self-mutilation and plucking of feathers include
boredom, dietary deficiency, psychosis, bacteria, viruses fungi, parasites, lack of sleep due to
household lights being left on, and contract with strangers, dogs, cats.
The etiology of disease my be revealed by a full discussion of the birds history, environment,
and cage size, its social interaction wit the family, evidence of displaced behaviour or activity
and any change in life of the bird coinciding wit the onset of feather problem.
Chewing and self-mutilation of feathers must be distinguished from normal grooming and
feather sheath removal from growing feathers.
Chewed feathers show the ramus of the feather split longitudinally in an irregular ragged fashion.
Mutilated feathers are confined to areas where a bird can chew (flight and contour feathers).
Birds with psychologically caused self-mutilation of feathers exhibit the absence of any
deformed, discolored or mutilated feathers on the head and the absence of beak deformity, mites,
or lice.

 When keeping immature canaries of about 1 month of age sometimes peck on another.
Therapy includes separation of offending birds, wound treatment, blood removal and debeaking.
Gang-gang syndrome:
Gang-gang cockatoos are often feather pluckers in captivity when not provided wit a constant
fresh supply of foliage such as large Casuarinas branches laden with nuts, together with fruit and
vegetables, as well as the normal seed mixture.
Feather picking in unpaired birds during the breeding season or when a mate is taken away or
dies are example of frustration-induced disease.
Stress dermatitis [web link....]
This condition, an ulcerative dermatitis caused by self-mutilation, occurs chiefly in lovebirds.
The shoulder region and the patagial membrane are usually affected in birds of any age or sex.
Less commonly the inguinal region, the chest or back is affected.
The lovebird is a colony bird, often very spiteful and bullying and therefore probably more prone
to psychological insult.
The pet cockatoo and Budgerigar can also frequently be exposed to stressful living conditions.
Secondary bacterial infection with Staphylococcus spp are often isolated.
Treatment includes a mixture of 1.5 ml Lincomycin 100 mg/ml injection with 0.45 ml
dexamethasone 2mg/ml injection and 0.05 ml DMSO used alone or in equal combination with
vitamin A and Vitamin E creams as a topical application.
Superficial mycoses
There are over 20 species of fungi belonging to the dermatophytes capable of causing ringworm
in birds by invading the keratinized layer of the skin and feathers.
Clinical signs
Lesions are usually limited to the fleshy or thin skinned areas of the head and appear as scabs,
crusts or alopecic area.
If the lesions are limited to the skin, there may be marked hypertrophy of the epidermis,
producing crust like excretions around the feather follicle similar to those caused by Canidid
albicans. Favus is also known as the honeycomb fungus because of the rough, porous appearance
of the scales it produced on affected skin.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis mainly based on clinical signs.
Direct examination of skin scraping mounted by using 10-20% potassium hydroxide solution.
The presence of septate hyphal fragments confirms the diagnosis.
Treatment and control
The disease is transmissible from bird to bird and in some cases bird to man.
Affected bird should be isolated to minimize disease spread.
Treatment of birds may prove ineffective.
The oral administration of griseofulvin at 125 mg/kg body weight for 3-5 days is suggested, and
simultaneously the older remedies may be tried such as iodine, carbolic acid, mercuric chloride,
formalin and phenyl mercuric nitrate in form of ointment and lotion.
Fungal infection on the feet can be treated twice a day with mycostatin or tinactin cream.
Old litter and nests are a god source of fungal infection in birds. Infected aviaries should be
scrubbed with hot soda, detergent solution.
BACTERIAL INFECTION OF AVIAN INTEGUMENT
A cutaneous ulcer is an open infected area on the skin that exposes the underlying tissues.
Bacteria, especially anaerobes or other organisms flourish in the tissues are not necessarily the
primary cause.
Injuries, burns, foreign bodies, pox viruses, or Mycobacterium spp may start the disease process
and malnutrition and other stresses may predispose the skin to ulcer formation.
Skin infections : purulent infection occurring the or just under the skin can cause epidermal
sloughing.
The head is usually affected, but he condition may also be seen in the axillary area of some
sulphur-crested cockatoos.
Skin lesions can be associated with may systemic diseases, including those due to Salmonella
spp., Escherichia coli, Pasteurella spp., yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Streptococcus spp.,
Staphylococcus spp., Mycobacterium spp., Spirochaeta spp., Mycoplasma spp., and
Erysipelothrix spp.
Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. Only occasionally produce purulent lesions in birds;
usually dry scabby dermatosis is seen.
Pasteurella spp. Can cause matting of feathers around the vent, eye and beak in combination
with systemic infection.

Mycobacterium spp. can be associated with the development of wart like or dry flaking swelling
or caseogranulomatous skin lesions, subcutaneous nodules or raised ulcers of the skin mainly on
head.
VIRAL INFECTION OF THE AVIAN INTEGUMENT
Many viral condition affect the avian integument, namely the various pox viruses, papillomas
Psittacine beak and feather dystrophy: may occur as an acute overwhelming disease, wit
bilaterally symmetrical loss of all actively growing feathers over a days, followed by death or
partial or complete recovery or it may occur as a chronic progressive disease.
The chronic disease is characterized by repeated replacement.
The clinical abnormalities of the avian integument are due to a combination of dystrophy and
hyperplasia in the in The epidermis of the feathers, beaks and claws during the growing phase.
Treatment
No reliable cure for affected birds.
Although the following treatments have been tired
o prolonged systemic courses of antibiotics (tetracyclines, amoxicillin, tylosin, lincomycin)
o topical antifungal application)
o hormonal therapy with carticosteriods
o topical application of insecticides
o nutritional supplementation
o elimination of oily seed from the diet
ECTOPARASITES
Arthropods are invertebrates with hard shells and pair of articulated legs.
Fleas, lice and flies have three pair of legs and mites have four pairs.
Air sac mite
Sternostoma tracheacolum, is a air sac mite, which spent its complete life cycle on the mucous
membrane of the respiratory tract canary and finches are most susceptible to this disease.
The clinical signs include difficult in breathing through an open beak, coughing, sneezing,
clicking sounds, nasal discharge, loss of voice.
Examination of tracheal washings and exudates under low-power microscope will reveal the
mites.
Affected birds are placed in a cardboard box or covered cage and 4% Malathion powder is
dusted into the enclosure for at least 5 minutes.
The treatment is repeated once weekly for 4-6 week.
Cnemodocoptes spp.
Cnemodocoptes spp cause dermatitis of beak, usually starts from that angle of the beak and
spreads to other area of the had or body (horn of the beak, ear, eyelids, then the legs and cloaca).
Later, in the course of the disease, it may spread to the feathered parts of the body.
Microscopic examination of crest may reveal the parasite.
Dichlorvos pest strips placed around a cage are highly effective in mild cases.
Liquid paraffin, petroleum jelly, crotamiton and mesulphan provide good penetration and
dissolution of hyperkeratic tissue when extensive lesions are present.
Dietary improvement (green rich in vitamin A) and mineral supplementation aid in treating the
disease.
When beak deformities occur, they must be trimmed frequently to all the birds to eat.
Topical treatment alone is usually not recommended because it is messy and the bird may ingest
the medicant while peering its feathers.
Aerosol treatment can be carried out using a nebulizing apparatus and the following mixture: 20
ml Domoso, 20 cc sterile water 1 cc Tylan and 4 cc Malathion (95% solution).
Red or roost mite
Red or roost mite: is a temporal, eight legged common parasite that feeds only at night and hides
during the day in cracks ad cage corners and under droppings.
Clinical signs are anemia, debility usually in young birds.
Most frequently affected are canaries, finches and other small passerines; Budgerigars and other
parrots are rather resistant.
Treatment is Dichlorvas pest strips, cleaning the cage with 5% hot washing soda, application of
malathion, lindane.
Ticks, lice
Ticks: The larval and nymph stages of soft ticks hide during the day; therefore birds should be
sprayed with suitable acaricides during the night at 2 weeks intervals.
This treatment must be followed by thorough sanitation of the surrounding, especially of moist
dark areas.
Adult ticks attached onto birds can be removed by forceps.

To prevent breaking off the Head of the tick, cover the tick with a piece of cotton soaked in ether
or chloroform.
Louse infestation cause poor plumage, pruritus and frequent vigorous feather chewing.
Pyrethrum (0.5-2%) is a suitable drug because of its less side effect. 0.5% Carbaryl powder can
be used by placing the bird in a plastic bag, leaving only the head exposed, once every 7-10 days
until infestation is cleared.
Mouth infestation may be treated by hanging a dichlorvos pest strip around the cage.
METABOLIC DISEASES
Rickets and Osteomalacia
Rickets is a disease characterized by a failure of mineralization of osteoid matrix in young
rowing birds. This disease is frequently seen in long legged birds.
Etiology: deficiency of dietary calcium, deficiency of vitamin D and a severely unbalanced
calcium and phosphorus ratio.
Clinical signs: softening of the vertebrae, claws, and sternum which may develop as S shape.
Ribs can curve inward and spinal column deformities can also be seen.
Affected birds reluctant to perch, walk or move their wings.
Birds frequently rest on their hocks and appear to be waiting for death.
Osteomalacia
Osteomalacia is a disease of adult birds where as rickets is a disease of young, growing birds.
The causes of Osteomalacia are the same as those of rickets.
The disease is frequently associated with prolonged egg laying with an insufficient calcium
supply in the diet. Another cause is the lack of grit in the food.
Clinical signs: the bones become thin, soft, painful and fragile and can break spontaneously
when a bird is handled.
Affected bird may appear drowsy, feather picked and reluctant to perch, mover or fly. The female
lay brittle eggs or egg production may cease.
Treatment: treatment is possible if the bird is not severely affected.
Treatment includes calcium and vitamin D supplements.
For vitamin D cod-liver oil can be placed on seed, addition of vitamin D added daily to
drinking water or subcutaneous injection of 500 IU vitamin D / 30 g body weight.
For calcium, calcium gluconate or lactate can be give orally.
Treatment must be completed by improvement of the diet by adding oyster shell grit, fish and
cooked vegetables.
Goiter
Goiter: a deficiency of iodine in the diet can result in result in decreased secretion of hormone
thyroxin.
The affected birds are lethargic, inactive and exhibit poor condition like dry skin, regged
plumage.
They are unable to maintain body temperature when exposed to environmental change, their
body cholesterol increases and body weight tends to increased due to the deposition of excess fat.
Another major clinical signs are labored respiration with squeaking noise.
Goiter can be treated successfully using either iodine or levothyroxine. Iodine can be given by
injection to obtain rapid improvement or orally for mild cases.
GASTRO-INTESTINAL DISEASES
The main symptom of gastrointestinal tract diseases are oral discharge/salivation,
vomiting/regurgitation, loose faeces/dysentery, undigested seed in the faeces, white coloured
feces, and in case of obstruction no faeces.
These ma be accompanied by nonspecific signs such as anorexia, depression, ruffled feathers,
closed eyes and head in wing.
Crop impaction
Crop impaction: fibrous materials may be ingested by galliforms which are deprive of greens,
Pigeons may ingest soft nesting material, threads from cage cover may cause obstruction in the
Budgerigar.
The main sign of crop impaction is regurgitation movement, often unproductive. Impaction can
be diagnosed by palpation.
Treatment: generally surgical intervention is required if administration of vegetable oil or
mineral oil fails to shift the obstruction.
Crop rupture
Crop rupture: crop rupture generally occur due to attack by some predator like falcons,
goshawks, dog etc.
Trichomonas infection can predispose abscess and rupture of crop wall in pigeons.
Rupture can be noted with matted feathers.
Treatment: surgical intervention is required.

Liver diseases
Liver of birds do the duty similar to that of mammals.
The gallbladder is absent in may birds and most psittacines except cockatoos and its involvement
is less known.
In most of the liver disease the urate colour changed to mustered yellow or green from white of
cream.
Vomition and diarrhea also noticed in some cases.
Enlargement of liver beyond xiphisternum can be noticed.
Etiology may be due to infectious diseases (enteric bacteria, yersiniae, chlamydiae, herpes and
papovaviruses and trichomonads and histomonads), toxic metal contamination, metabolic
diseases.
Treatment is with antibiotics, supportive therapy with fluids, feeding sugar rich solution
containing essential amino acids and vitamins.
REPRODUCTIVE DISEASES
Diseases of reproductive tract may be originate form reproductive tract it self or secondary to
disease of some other organ.
The diagnosis of the reproductive tract disease by history, clinical sign, palpation, radiography.
Abdominal enlargement: may be due to large gonadal tumour, oviduct impaction
Cessation of egg laying may be due to regression of ovary due to onset of broodiness, failure of
infundibulum to engulf oocyte, obstruction of oviduct
Discharge from the oviduct may be due to salpingitis or vent gleet
Loss of libido can be due to or associated wit degenerative changes or diseases of testes
Prolapse of the cloaca or oviduct may be due to straining to pass a retained egg
Sex change may occur due to steroid producing tumour
Vent gleet (cloacitis) is a chronic foul smelling sticky discharge from the vent that soil the ventral
feather.
FEMALE REPRODUCTION
Oophoritis: infection with salmonella spp and may be secondary to systemic diseases
Ovarian Hemorrhage: may be due to defective blood clotting mechanism.
Other complication may be Follicular atresia, ovarian tumour, cystic ovary
Abdominal eggs
Abdominal eggs affected birds are known as internal layers, may be due to reverse peristalsis or
rupture of the oviduct.
Affected birds may be found dead with out showing any signs.
Other birds may show abdominal enlargement.
Surgical removal of egg via abdomen is advisable if egg peritonitis is not formed.
Egg peritonitis
Affected birds may show sudden death, depression, weight loss, respiratory distress.
In advanced cases peritoneal adhesions may also noticed.
Egg binding
It is due to obstruction or impaction of the vagina with fully formed egg.
The factors associated with this condition are obesity, over sized eggs, low blood calcium, poor
muscle tone, nervousness, variation in temperature and lack of suitable nesting place and poor
body condition.
Clinical signs are intermittent bouts of straining, adopt abnormal postures
Treatment: recent egg binding can be treated by keeping the bird in warmed cage preferably with
infrared irradiation, lubrication of cloacal opening, placing the bird in steaming kettle.
If the egg is in the vagina the content can be removed by hypodermic syringe and needle.
Injection of calcium gluconate to Budgerigars showed some success.
Oviduct prolapse
Usually restricted to laying birds. Sub optimal diet, and birds kept in small cages that have not
laid an egg for a considerable period of time.
Affected birds are often bright and alert and condition not noticed.
Recent prolapse can be treated surgically, if egg is retained can be removed and the prolapsed
materials can be surgically retained and sutured.
But it cannot prevent subsequent egg formation, which may complicate the surgical intervention.
MALE REPRODUCTION
Orchitis
Granuloms due to infection with a variety of bacterial like E. coli, Salmonella spp., P.multocida
may occur.
Affected bird may show signs of generalized infection.
Lack of libido, the causative organisms may be identified and treated with appropriate
antibiotics.

Testicular atrophy
Testicular atrophy degeneration and hypoplasia may occur as a annual event in seasonal
breeders.
Other condition like malnutrition, toxicity or bacterial infection can cause testicular
degeneration.
Testicular tumors
Unilateral testicular enlargement may be due to a tumour.
The testes of sparrows can increase up to a thousand fold during the breeding season.
MYCOTIC DISEASES
Aspergillosis
Aspergillosis is commonly caused by Aspergillus fumigatus.
The disease is mainly contracted by inhalation of spores or hyphal fragments.
Ingestion of large number of spores may also led to the disease.
Debilitied, weak and overcrowded birds are most prone to infection.
Affected birds exhibit gasping, labored and rapid breathing, anorexia, and emaciation.
Difficult in mucus movement in the trachea results in gurgling sounds.
In later stage diarrhea, ataxia and other nervous symptoms may develop.
Yellow, green or bluish plaques can be seen by naked eye in the lungs, air sac and other organs.
Treatment: injection of fungicides, a mixture of amphotericin B at 1 mg/kg body weight to treat
the primary infection. 100000 IU Nystatin can be given daily subcutaneously to combat
secondary fungal infection.
When an outbreak occurs, all litter from the contaminated cage should be removed and fungicide
spray should be given.
Old feed should be discarded and potassium iodine should placed in drinking water.
Candidiasis
Candidiasis is caused by the yeast Candida albicans.
Some factors like prolonged antibiotic therapy, feeding high level of carbohydrate, vitamin
deficiency can predispose infection.
Clinical signs are initially unthriftiness and listlessness. Young birds are most susceptible to the
disease.
The disease is characterized by the formation of necrotic pseudomembranous patches over the
mucosa of tongue, pharynx and crop.
Candidiasis may result in beak deformity in parrots and soft bills. These lesions cause difficulty
in swallowing food.
Treatment: 10000 IU/kg body weight Nystatin twice a day in feed or drinking water.
This should be followed by diet supplementation with an adequate quantity of vitamin A and B,
reducing the carbohydrate level in the feed, Amphotericin B lotion may be used for feather
infection. Amphotericin B at 1 mg/day orally, griseofulvin at 125 mg/kg body weight orally once
a day and 5-fluorocystosine at 100 mg/kg body weight orally twice a day.
Prophylactic: unsanitary housing, over crowding, dirty utensil and litter are all factors that
contribute to an outbreak.
All foot wear should be disinfected before visiting an infected flock to prevent spread of the
disease.
The spraying of 2-5% formic acid at the rate of 20ml/100g food minimizes mortality.
Gizzard malfunction syndrome
Gizzard malfunction syndrome fungal mycelia of several species have been found penetrating
the koilin layer, the epithelium and even the muscle in small number of Australian parrots and
finches.
The gizzard fungal condition may best be attempted by a systemic fungicide such amphotericin
at 0.075mg/100 g body weight intravenously once a day for 4 days.
Nystatin and amphotericin are poorly absorbed from the seed eaters gut; therefore adequate
penetration in the deeper layer of the gut or gizzard is difficult.
Aflatoxicosis
Aflatoxicosis is caused by Fusarium tricinctum commonly found in moldy feed.
Toxicity cause abnormal wing positioning, hysteroid seizures and impaired righting reflex in
young chickens.
Treatment: low dose steroids such as dexamethasone at 0.1 mg/100 g body weight once a day for
3 days, supportive therapy with vitamin B complex, reduction of sunflower seeds.
HERPES VIRUS INFECTION
Herpes viruses are known to be pathogens for domestic poultry and account for diseases such as
infectious laryngotracheitis, duck virus enteritis and Mareks disease, few herpes virus infections
of exotic and caged birds have been described.
Herpes virus infections have been described in raptors, parrots, pigeons, cranes.

In psittacines three distinct Herpes virus infections have been reported.

Pachecos disease is best known, but there are descriptions of an infectious laryngotracheitis like
herpes virus that affect Amazon parrots and of a herpes virus of Budgerigars that is harbored
predominantly in the feathers and may cause decrease hatchability of eggs.
Transmission is mainly by latent infection.
Clinical signs
Clinical signs in affected pigeons are listlessness, loss of appetite, dyspnea, ocular and nasal
discharge.
The disease cause mortality up to 50% and is most severe in birds less than 6 months of age.
Pigeon herpes encephalomyelitis virus showed nervous signs before death.
Depression, inappetence and inability to fly were followed by paresis and paralysis of
extremities.
Head tremor, circling movement, torticollis and greenish diarrhea were also observed.
With Pachecos disease the signs of illness vary to some degree with the species of psittacines
affected.
Smaller psittacines (lovebirds, parakeets, pionus spp.), amazons and cockatoos often die acutely
after showing minimal signs of illness.
They continue to eat and drink and may be obviously weak and listless for only a matter of hours
prior to death.
Some larger psittacines, especially macaws, may become visibly ill, exhibiting lethargy,
regurgitation and diarrhea with a distinctive orange coloration.
These birds may also show increase thirst, and some may recover.
Treatment and control
No vaccines are available for the known herpes virus infection of caged and aviary birds.
Since the different herpes viruses are serologically distinct, vaccination with the products
designed for poultry would be of little value for aviary birds.
With out the benefit of vaccines, the aviculturist may rely on strict sanitation and good
husbandry procedures to prevent or control herpes viral infections.
Stressful condition such as overcrowding must be avoided.
Food and water containers should be covered to minimal fecal contamination.
Daily washing and disinfection of dishes should be done, with care taken to return them to the
cages from which they come.
Since healthy carrier birds may introduce disease, new birds should be acquired from trusted
sources only and quarantined 2-4 weeks before introduction to an established aviary.
NEWCASTLE DISEASE
Newcastle disease is a highly contagious virus disease of birds.
Four major strains of the virus affect poultry and non domestic birds. Transmission is primarily
by aerosols.
Infection is also spread to other facilities either by moving people form one place to another.
Most of the families of the order Psittaciformes has reported occurrence of ND.
Passerines seem to be more resistant, but Mynah, Java sparrow and canaries have experienced
mortality when exposed to VVND virus.
Some of the pets like Amazon parrots, Indian hill Mynah, Budgerigar and some conures act as
carrier and shed virus for long period following infection.
Clinical signs are in young birds, especially the only sing may be a per acute disease
unresponsive to antibiotic therapy and with high mortality.
In more susceptible birds yellowish or hemorrhagic diarrhea, coughing, sneezing and dyspnea
are noticed.
The central nervous system is commonly affected, resulting in a bird that is ataxic, uncoordinated
or hyper excitable.
Other CNS signs include torticollis, opisthotonus, tremors, nodding, jerking of head and bilateral
paralysis of the limbs.
Control of the disease is by minimizing the exposure to affected/carrier birds.
VVND virus are sensitive to a number of disinfectants. Orthophenyl phenol is a good
disinfectant.
Infected and exposed birds should be killed.
The vaccination programs so important in commercial poultry operations are not an option for
control of VVND in cage birds.
CHLAMYDIOSIS
Chlamydiosis is formerly termed psittacosis in psittacines birds and humans and ornithosis
in nonpsittacine birds, is the term commonly used to describe generalized infection in mammals
and birds caused by Chlamydia pittaci.

The most commonly affected cage and aviary birds are the psittacines (parrots, parakeets,
budgerigars, macaws, cockatoos, cockatiels, lories, lorikeets, lovebirds) as well as all types of
pigeons and doves.
Occasional clinical disease occurs in pheasants, partridges, ducks, hummingbirds, magpies,
thrushes, finches, canaries and cardinals.
Transmission: occurs by inhalation or ingestion of chlamydiae contained in the feces, nasal
secretions or lacrimal secretions of infected birds.
Most transmission probably occurs in the nest, by direct transfer of infected crop milk to the
young nestling.
Chlamydiae can remain infective for several months in dried feces, and contamination of
eggshells by feces in nestling birds is a source of nestling infection.
In Addison vertical transmission in known to occur in psittacines, sucks, and chickens.
Mechanical transfer by nest mites and lice has been reported in poultry.
In the absence of stress infection remain either latent or associated with only mild transient signs.
Predisposing factors: stress caused by low plan of nutrition, change of diet, temperature
fluctuation, overcrowding, prolonged transportation, excessive handling, nesting. Young birds
are more susceptible.
Clinical Signs
Clinical diseases may be per acute, acute, sub acute or chronic in nature.
The incubation period varies from 5 to 98 days in psittacines.
In pigeons it is between 7-14 days.
In per acute form sudden death or death within a short time without market premonitory signs.
In the acute form common signs are ruffled feathers, depression, decreased appetite, greenish or
grayish diarrhea and a soiled vent.
o Weight loss and emaciation often occur. Blepharitis, conjunctivitis and a serous or
seropurulent oculonasal discharge are frequently seen.
o Due to weakness and listlessness, flight is inhibited. Breathing may become laboured and
even ratting in nature.
o Birds often tend to shiver or huddle together and show drooping wings.
o Progress of the disease may be over 1-2 weeks, followed by prostration, convulsions and
death.
o Alternatively there may be sudden death or a slow recovery with retarded growth.
In sub acute form has a protracted course with a variety of clinical signs that may disappear and
then reappear after a few days.
Growth is retarded, and some birds may become cachectic.
The chronic form is characterized by severe pectoral muscle wasting, leg and wing weakness,
fluffing of the feathers, and lack of feathering around the eyes from previous bouts of
conjunctivitis and blepharitis
Common Necropsy Lesions
Fibrinous or fibrinopurulent airsacculitis and peritonitis, and often similar pericarditis and
perihepatitis.
Splenomegaly in psittacines and not regularly in pigeons.
Hepatomegaly, pulmonary congestion and catarrhal enteritis.
Control Measures
Infected birds should be removed and treated or destroyed and all carcass either disinfected using
a Phenolic (5% Lysol) or Iodophor compound.
Clinical handling sick bird should be taken adequate precautions (masks and gloves)
Formaldehyde gas fumigaction of the infected premises is advised.
Typical Hemogram Of Chlamydiosis
Leukoctosis: Persist 5 - 14 days, depending on species, even with correct therapy.
Leukocytosis of bacterial septicemia usually falls rapidly with correct antibiotic therapy.
Low PCV, Stabilizes with therapy (e.g. doxycycline) or continues to fall until death ensues
without therapy.
Moderate to marked polychromasia
Moderate to marked anisocytosis
TREATMENT
For sick parrots, especially those that refuse to eat, suggested treatment is intramuscular injection
of oxytetracycline (100mg/ml) at 1 mg/10-30 g body weight daily for 5 days.
For small psittacines, intramuscular injections of oxytetracycline at 1 mg/20-30 g body weight ,
but injected volume must be small (e.g. 0.05ml)
For treatment and prophylactic measure for parrots and other large psittacines, chlortetracycline
at 0.44% in cooked mash, at 0.5% in pellets or 0.5% to any hulled seeds they like is used
successfully.

For small psittacines, chlortetracycline at 0.05% in impregnated hulled millet is successful in

treatment and prophylaxis.
For nectar feeding psittacines (lories, lorikeets) chlortetracycline at 0.05% should be used in
liquid diet (1/6 honey, 4/water)
For pigeon, chlortetracycline at 0.5% in pellet or 50-80 mg/bird/day in drinking water or 0.89%
in corn or wheat or 0.4-1% in palatable grain. The oral medication should be continued for 30
days.
Or canaries and finches, chlortetracycline at 0.05% in palatable medicated seed for 30 days.
PROTOZOAN DISEASES OF PET BIRDS
Haemoproteus
It is the largest and most commonly encountered blood parasite group, containing nearly 200
species and varieties. Manly transmitted by hippoboscid flies.
Haemoproteus rarely been incriminated as the causal agent of mortality in avian population.
Plasmodium
The canary appears to be highly vulnerable to most malarias under experimental condition. P.
gallinaceus, P. lophurae and P. relictum are more virulent.
The clinical signs include listless and anorexia, bird will stop preening and other normal
behavioural activities.
Anemia, edema of the eyelids, emaciation, and sudden death are frequently seen.
Necropsies frequently reveal serous hemorrhage and hepato and splenomegaly.
Control is best achieved by elimination of mosquito vectors.
Avian malarias such as P. gallinaceum tend to respond to treatments with antimalarial drugs like
chloroquine 5mg/kg body weight and proguanil at 7.5mg/kg body weight.
However the same drug with other avian malaria species have little or no effect.
Trypanosoma
Avian trypanosomes are not incriminated as causing harm to their avian hosts. No symptom are
reported.
TRICHOMONIASIS
Trichomoniasis
Trichomoniasis is a common disease affecting pigeons and occasionally canaries, finches and
other small passerines.
Large psittaciforms appear resistant to the infection. Budgerigars, however, may contract the
diseases in epidemic proportions.
Trichomonas gallinae is the most common organisms causing the disease.
Adult bird previously infected may be carriers of the disease.
Direct contact via crop milk is a common mode of transmission among pigeon.
The protozoa do not survive long outside of the host and therefore strict sanitation reduces
disease incidence.
Clinical signs
The disease usually affects young birds, causing high mortality.
Two types of lesions may be found, diphtheritic (wet canker) and necrotic (dry caseous necrosis).
In adult birds, the disease is usually chronic, causing few mortalities. Weight loss and weakness
may be seen in these birds.
With wet canker ulcerations in the mouth, esophagus, larynx and pharynx.
Bacterial invasion of the lesion acerbates the disease and may produce lesions in the skin
muscles or central nervous system.
Young birds are most often affected. Clinical symptoms of disease usually do not appear until
after 4 weeks of age.
Less often, similar lesions are seen around the vent and ventral aspects of the squabs, with gross
fecal contamination of the plumage.
When esophageal lesions are severe, laboured breathing and respiratory rales may be present.
In the necrotic form of the disease, yellow caseous nodules are seen in the respiratory and
digestive tract.
Treatment
Dimetridazole at the rate of 2g/liter in drinking water for 7 days can be given.
When the digestive tract is blocked by cankerous lesions, the birds must be treated by using 5 mg
metronidazole/100 body weight suspended in a glucose solution and tube fed for 7 days.
HEMATOLOGIAL AND BLOOD CHEMISTRY NORMAL VLUES OF COMMON PET BIRDS

WBC
(x103/mm3)

Africa
n gray
parrot

Amazo
n parrot

Budgerigar
s

Canarie
s

Cockatiel
s

Cockatoo
s

Finche
s

Lovebird
s

Macaw
s

Indian
hill
Mynah

5-11

6-11

3-8

4-9

5-10

5-11

3-8

3-8

6-13.5

6-11

Differentia
Heterophils

45-75

30-75

45-70

20-50

40-70

45-75

20-65

40-75

45-70

25-65

Lymphocyte
s

20-50

20-65

20-45

40-75

25-55

20-50

20-65

20-55

20-50

20-60

Monocytes

0-3

0-3

0-5

0-1

0-2

0-4

0-1

0-2

0-3

0-3

Eosinophils

0-2

0-1

0-1

0-1

0-2

0-2

0-1

0-1

0-2

0-3

Basophils

0-5

0-5

0-5

0-5

0-6

0-5

0-5

0-6

0-5

0-7

PCV(%)

43-55

45-55

45-57

45-60

45-57

40-55

45-62

44-57

45-55

44-55

RBC
(x106/mm3)

2.4-4.5 2.5-4.5

2.5-4.5

2.5-4.5

2.5-4.7

2.2-4.5

2.5-4.6

3.0-5.1

2.5-4.5

2.4-4.0

Total protein 3.0-5.0 3.0-5.0

(g/dl)

2.5-4.5

3.0-5.0

2.2-5.0

2.5-5.0

3.0-5.0

2.2-5.1

3.0-5.0

2.3-4.5

200450

200-400

200350

190350

9.0-15.0

9.013.0

9.013.0

100-350

100280

130350

Glucose
(mg/dl)

190350

220-350 200-400

200-450 200-450

190-350

Calcium
(mg/dl)

8.013.0

8.0-13.0 150-350

8.5-13.0

8.0-13.0

SGOT
(IU/L)

100350

130-350 150-450

150-350 100-350

150-350

LDH (IU/L)

150450

160-420 0.1-0.4

125-450

225-650

100-350

72-425

6001000

Creatinine
(mg/dl)

0.1-0.4 0.1-0.4

0.1-0.4

0.1-0.4

0.1-0.4

0.1-0.5

0.1-0.6

Uric acid
(mg/dl)

4.010.0

4-12

3.5-11.0

3.5-11.0

3.0-11.0

2.5-11.5 4.010.0

Potassium
(mEq/L)

2.6-4.2 3.0-4.5

2.4-4.5

2.5-4.5

2.5-3.5

2.5-4.5

3.0-5.1

Sodium
(mEq/L)

135152

136-152 -

132-150

131-157

137-150

136155

136152

4.0-14.0

2.0-10.0 -

150350

4.012.0

COMMON ANTIBIOTIC AND DOSAGE FOR PET BIRDS

Sl. No

Antibiotic

Route

Dosage

Amikacin

IM

10 mg/kg

Amoxicillin

IM

50-100 mg/kg

ORAL

100-150 mg/kg

SC

30-70mg/kg

ORAL

1mg/kg

IV

0.75 mg/kg

IM

50-100 mg/kg

IM

50-100 mg/kg

IM

50-100 mg/kg

Amphotericin/neomycin/thiostrepton/
AmphotericinB

Ampicillion

Benzathine penicillin
Benzylpenicillin

IM

100-200 mg/kg

Cefotaxin

IM

100 mg/kg

Cephalexin

ORAL

40mg/kg

Chlortetracycline

IM

50-250 mg/kg

ORAL

20-40 mg/kg

IM

100-250 mg/kg

ORAL

250 mg/kg

Cloxacillion

Co-trimazine, sulfadiazine/trimethoprim

ORAL

1ml/4 lb body weight

10

Doxycycline

ORAL

20 mg/kg

11

Erythromycin

ORAL

250 mg/kg

SC

25 mg/kg

IM

2 mg/kg

SC

10-20 mg/kg

12

Gentamicin

13

Griseofulvin

ORAL

125 mg/kg

14

Kanamycin

IM

50-10 mg/kg

ORAL

100-150 mg/kg

15

Lincomycin

ORAL

250 mg/kg

16

Nystatin (3000 units /mg)

ORAL

10-100 mg/kg

17

Oxytetracycline, streptomycin,

IM

50 mg/kg

18

Sulfonamides

ORAL

500 mg/kg

19

Tetracycline hydrochloride

IM

8-10 mg/kg

ORAL

250 mg/kg

ORAL

200 mg/kg

IM

10-25 mg/kg

20

Tylosin