A.

Steps in Designing the ESP Syllabus

Graves (1996, in Xenodohidis, 2006) suggests a systematic syllabus design consisting of
six steps. Those steps are:
1. conducting needs assessment, followed with needs analysis (both of the process
sometimes just called needs analysis),
2. determining the goals and objectives of the course,
3. conceptualizing the content,
4. selecting and developing materials and activities,
5. organizing the content and activities,
6. evaluating.
Step 1: Conducting Needs Analysis
Needs analysis is the first and fundamental process in designing syllabus. Although there
is no definite definition of ESP, all ESP schoolar agree that in designing an ESP course, needs
analysis must be taken as the first priority.
..early instruments for establishing needs is by investigating the target situation
for which learners were being prepared: needs analysis should be concerned with
the establishment of communicative needs and their realizations, resulting from an
analysis of the communication in the target situation what will refer to as target
situation analysis (Chambers, 1980, in Stapa, 2003).
In simplest terms, a needs analysis includes all the activities used to collect information
about your students' learning needs, wants, wishes, desires, etc The process also sometimes
involves looking at the expectations and requirements of other interested parties such as the
teacher/teacher's aid/ tutor (you), administrators, financial supporters, and other people who may
be impacted by the program (such as students' family members or employers)

Needs analysis provides the information learners and targets needs. The information is
beneficial in drawing the goal and objectives of the teaching learning process. If needs are clear,
the learning aims can be expressed more easily and the language course can become motivating.
The selection of tasks and materials can also be based on the results of the analysis. The result of
the analysis of the learners needs may give clear information of the tasks and material that may
appeal them. The needs analysis is also helpful in organising the content and activities since it
identifies the sequence of real life activities that could be adopted in the teaching learning
process. Knowing the stakeholders needs can also be valuable in determining the standard of
achievement in the assessment and evaluation process. In other words, all activities in designing
syllabus are dependent on the needs analysis process and result.
Steps 2: Determination of Goals and Objectives of the Course
A goal is something that wanted to be achieved and in the case of language learning,
goals are general statements of the overall, long term purpose of the course (Graves, 1996, in
Xenodohidis, 2006). Goals are related to the acquisition of a job in the future or communication
of the target language community (Harmer, 1991, in Xenodohidis, 2006). They should not aim
only at the acquisition of certain knowledge and skills but also at the development of a positive
attitude towards language and culture. Goals should be realistic, otherwise the students would be
de-motivated (Xenodohidis, 2006). Objectives, on the other hand, are the specific ways in which
the goals will be achieved (Graves, 1996, in Xenodohidis, 2006). They may refer to activities,
skills, language type or a combination of them all (Harmer, 1991, in Xenodohidis, 2006).
Objectives should be congruent to the goals and relevant to how the teacher conceptualize the
content of the course (Nunan, 1988, in Xenodohidis, 2006).

The goals and the objectives can be drawn from the results of the needs analysis. Since
ESP was situated for the adult learners seeking for employment in the future, the goals and the
objectives should relate to those needs. The analysis of the problems faced by the learners can
also be considered in shaping the goals and objectives.
Steps 3: Content Conceptualization
The next process needed to be followed is conceptualizing the content; that is choosing
and analysing the necessary content related to the needs analysis and the goals and objectives.
Reilly (1988, in Xenodohidis, 2006) gives some practical guidelines to content choice and
design. According to Reilly, we need to:
1. define what the students should be able to do as exactly and realistically as possible, as
the result of the instruction;
2. rank the syllabi in order of importance according to the desired outcomes;
3. evaluate available resources and match them with the syllabi;
4. designate one or two syllabi as dominant;
5. review how combination and integration of syllabus types can be achieved and in what
proportion;
6. and translate decisions into actual teaching units.
In this stage, we need to identify language function and language expression related to
the jobs. Language functions are things the speakers do with their language in communication
(Savignon, 1983). Greeting, giving command, and giving information can be given as examples.
Language expressions are utterances that are expressed in an appropriate context for particular
function (Van Ek, 1977). Greeting a guest in the morning can use good morning as the
expression. Savignon (1983) states that understanding and mastering language functions and

language expressions are useful for communication. Language functions and language
expressions are not only focusing on the grammar accuracy, but also utterances of
communication in which this kind of teaching method is considered to be more meaningful
since it focus in based on the target. Cultural understanding needs also taken into consideration.
Step 4: Selection and Development of Materials and Activities
According to Graves (1996, in Xenodohidis, 2006), in order to select materials the
following issues should be taken into account:
Effectiveness in achieving the course purposes
Appropriateness of the materials, so that the students will feel comfortable. This means
that the material will be relevant to their interests and language level.
Feasibility, so that the material will be in accordance with the students capabilities and
the course will not prove too difficult for them.
Choosing materials may mean development of new material, collection of various
materials or adaptation of existing ones. The source of materials can be:
From published materials (textbooks, journals, magazines)
From real speech (lecturers, hotel communication, seminars)
Specially written
Simplified and adapted from public materials or instances of real speech.
There are some suggestions given by Xenodohidis that beneficial for this stage.
According to him, any task aimed at activities should enable the students to deal with situation
related to their future employment. The lack of materials can be prevailed over by giving certain
task related to the future task. Using semi authentic materials is suggested. Moreover,
communication situations need to be involved since they give a different dimension to language

learning. Simulation games and problem solving techniques seemed appropriate and of interest
the students. The four language skills need to be related to the real situation activities. Tasks aim
at activities, which would enable students to deal with situation related to their future
employment.

Step 5: Organization of Content and Activities

Course organization is important since it provides the teacher and the students with a
clear idea of what will be taught (Xenodohidis, 2006). In addition, Xenodohidis mentioned two
principles underlying the concept of sequencing material; building and recycling. Building can
follow the process of the simple to the more complex, from concrete to more open ended, while
recycling means that the students deal with taught materials in a new way.
Another way to consider course organization is as a cycle or as a matrix. In a cyclical
approach, the teacher introduces a cycle of activities following a consistent sequence. In a matrix
approach, the teacher works with some activities and as time passes, decides with which ones to
continue (Graves, 1996, in Xenodohidis, 2006).
The content and activities may also be sequenced based on the standard operational
procedure (SOP) of the related job. The tasks performed in each duty need to be identified.
Those identified tasks are then sequenced based on the operational procedure. The sequenced
tasks are again analysed to reveal the language functions and language expression needed for
those tasks. Certain information related to the culture understanding and standard performance
required for those tasks can also be assessed and analysed. This approach is known as TaskBased Approach (TBA).

Task based approach to language teaching is a recent view which is based on the findings
of linguist and psychologist. This approach is against traditional approaches such as PPP
(presentation, practice, production) model of teaching (Foster, 1999, in Songhori, 2006). Task
based syllabus which is the cornerstone of TBA is defined by Richards, et.al. (1991, in Songhori,
2006) as:
a syllabus which is organised around TASKs, rather than in terms of grammar or
vocabulary. For example, syllabus may suggest a variety of different kinds of task
which the learner are expected to carry out in the language, such as using the
telephone to obtain information; drawing maps based on oral instruction; giving
orders and instruction to others, etc.
TBA takes into account the need for authentic material (Willis, 1996, in Songhori, 2006).
The activities in TBA are designed to help the students achieve a particular language goal
Richards, et.al. (1991, in Songhori). Similarly, Rabinni (2002, in Songhori, 2006) mentions the
needs of relevant activities to the real world language needs of the students. It suggests that the
activities in which the language is used to complete meaningful tasks enhance learning. Foster
(1999, in Songhori, 2006) shares a comment idea that TBA should provide an environment
which best promotes the natural language learning process.
The approach is assumed effective since it may help the teacher to teach in a systematic
sequenced. The learners may also feel it useful since it is related to the real tasks necessitated in
the real future job. This assumption is supported by Bowen (in Songhori, 2006), stating that the
main advantages of TBA are that language is used for genuine purpose. Gvardjanvic (2001, in
Songhori, 2006) reveals that ESP teachers sometimes find it difficult to motivate their
professionally oriented students for language learning. Textbooks are considered boring. He
suggests the using of real-life tasks. A real-life tasks raises motivation (Gvardjanvic, 2001, in
Songhori, 2006).

Steps 6: Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment is related to determination of students proficiency whereas evaluation to the
process of collecting and interpreting information about an educational program (Nunan, 1990,
in Xenodohidis, 2006). In other words, assessment shows what the learner knows and can do in
English, whereas evaluation reflects students reason for failing or succeeding and ways of
improving their learning. An assessment can also provide feedback on the effectiveness of the
course and in general, it would be an on-going part of the entire process.
Evaluation of the course should be integrated in the teaching process. The teacher should
be able to know whether goals and objectives were met, whether teaching methods were
effective, or whether new things and procedures should be involved in the course design process.
Since the current study is focusing in analysing the needs of the students, the department,
as well as the stakeholder, the discussion will be narrowed to the theoretical and related study
reviews of needs analysis.