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Methodes of Obtaining Hydrogen 11
Methodes of Obtaining Hydrogen 11
CHAPTER
NO.
TITLE
PAGE
a.
ABSTRACT
b.
LIST OF TABLE
d.
LIST OF FIGURES
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.
3.
Properties of Fuels
10
11
3.1.
Steam reforming
11
3.2.
11
3.3.
Electrolysis of water
12
3.4.
Biomass
12
3.5.
13
3.6.
13
3.7.
Biomass to hydrogen
14
4.
15
4.1.
Water electrolysis
15
4.2.
Alkaline electrolysis
15
4.3.
16
4.4.
High-temperature electrolysis
17
4.5.
Photo-electrolysis (photolysis)
18
4.6.
19
4.7.
5.
5.1.
Hazards Elimination
b.
Barriers
c.
Safety Systems
d.
Safe Interface
5.2.
6.
Controls
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22
22
23
a.
Warning Systems
b.
Flow Controls
24
6.2.
25
7.
24
27
7.1.
28
7.2.
Compensating Devices
30
7.2.1.
Air-Bleed Jet
30
7.2.2.
Emulsion Tube
30
7.2.3.
Compensating Jet
31
7.2.4.
31
7.2.5.
Auxiliary Valve
32
7.2.6.
Auxiliary Port
32
8.
33
8.1.
35
8.2.
Hydrogen
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8.3.
Natural gas
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8.4.
38
8.5.
9.
39
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PROCEDURE
9.1.
Experimental setup
40
9.2.
40
9.3.
HHO Cell
41
9.4.
43
9.5.
SI engine
43
9.6.
Engine Specification
44
9.7.
44
10.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
45
10.1.
45
10.2.
46
11.
47
12.
CONCLUSION
51
13.
REFERENCES
52
ABSTRACT
Brown's gas (HHO) has recently been introduced to the auto industry as
a new source of energy. The present work proposes the design of a new device
attached to the engine to integrate an HHO production system with the gasoline
engine. The proposed HHO generating device is compact and can be installed in
the engine compartment. This auxiliary device was integrated and tested on a
gasoline engine. Four stroke single cylinder engine was procured for the project.
Experiment setup were designed and fabricated. HHO gas kit was installed with
engine. Emission analysis has been done by using Petrol and Petrol-HHO
separately on engine. It has been found that around 20% reduction in fuel
consumption is achieved by using petrol-HHO and appreciable amount of
reduction in emission of pollutants such as CO, unburned hydro carbons and
CO2 particularly during the idle condition.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Properties of Fuels
Table 2 :Performance of engine with and without HHO
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1:Process diagram of alkaline electrolysis Electricity
Fig 2: Photo-electrolysis
Fig 3: Principle of photo-biological hydrogen production
Fig 4 : 4 Stroke operating cycle
Fig 5: Simple Carburetor
Fig 6 :Schematic diagram showing the fuel cell installed on the engine
Fig 7 : HHO Cell
Fig 8 : working of hho generater
Fig 9 : Schematic sketch of the engine chemical reactions
Fig 10 : The Relation of Engine Speed (RPM) & CO(%)
Fig 11 : The Relation of Engine Speed (RPM) & HC (ppm)
Fig 12 : Engine Speed (PPM) & CO2(%)
Fig 13 : The Relation of Engine Speed (RPM) & O2 (%)
1. INTRODUCTION
Global warming is considered one of the major problems the scientific
community has to face. Many theories refer to the increase of exhaust gases
concentration in the atmosphere as one of the major causes of the global
warming. Industrial plants and automobiles are the major source of the
exhaust gases. Since they utilize the power associated with oil combustion as
energy source. Emissions are simply the exhaust or leftovers of combustion
coming out of an engine. An emissions test is normally done with a probe
placed into the exhaust stream. The emission sampler, which is known as gas
analyzers, measures five types of gases. These gases are HC, NOX, O2, CO,
and CO2. HC which refers to hydrocarbons, are simply another term for
unburned fuel that makes it way through the engine and out the exhaust.
Smog intensity is proportional to the amount of HC's in the exhaust. HC's is
also considered hazardous when inhaled. NOx refers to oxides of Nitrogen.
High NO emission is usually noticed with highly heated and compressed air
that has nitrogen in it.NOX is another bad emission to breath at high levels.
O2 which is unburned oxygen in the exhaust is also measured. Although O2
is obviously not bad, it is tested to better understand the combustion
characteristics.
Many things can produce high HC's such as advanced timing, and bad
catalytic converter. NOx is generally worse on higher compression engines.
All engines produce NOx but the use of Exhaust Gas Recirculation Valve
(EGR) valves will cool and slow down the combustion rate of the engine.
This considerably lowers NOX values.
CO has to do with the efficiency of the combustion in the engine and also
is highly affected by the fuel to air ratio of the engine. CO 2 is also an
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indicator of the engines set up. The HC's and NOx are by far the largest
problem areas. Catalytic converters clean the majority of the emissions and
need to be replaced when they break internally causing a loss in power and no
longer effective.
A shift in scientist's interests, recently observed, toward lower fuel
consumption and emission engines take place. This encourages researchers to
seek for alternative solutions to be used in engines without the need for a
dramatic change in the vehicle design. Among those using H 2 as an
alternative fuel which enhances the engine efficiency and runs with almost
zero pollution effect. However, this is not a viable solution from a
commercial point view. Building a system that generates H 2 and integrated it
with the engine system makes the manufacturing cost too expensive, which
reflects on the vehicle market price. Other researchers use a blend show that
mixing H2 with natural gas enhances the combustion efficiency and reduces
the emissions level. They refer this to the shorter flame development and
propagation periods associated with the case where H 2 was used. Studied the
effect of HHO gas addition on spark ignition engines. His results showed
significant enhancements in the emission performance due to the presence of
HHO .
The main objective of the present study is to introduce some of the
hydrogen advantages and maintain the original specifications of the engine.
This may be attained by introducing HHO cell to the fuel supplying system.
So, the fuel becomes a mixture of gasoline and HHO gas. A compact unit for
generating HHO gas has been designed to fit the engine requirement and to
be installed in the engine room.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Most early engine experiments have been designed for burning a variety
of gases, including natural gas and propane. When hydrogen is used in these
engines it may backfire. Since hydrogen burns faster than other fuels, the fuelair mixture is ignited in the intake manifold before the intake valve closes.
Injected water controls the backfiring. Hydrogen gives less power than gasoline
with or without the water.
10
Property
Chemical Formula
Molecular Weight
No. 2
Diesel
Fuel
C3 to C25
=200
Compresse
d Natural
Gas (CNG)
CH4
16.04
Hydrogen
H2
2.02(x)
8487
3316
0
6.77.4(d)
75
25
1.07(r)
0
100
0
0.37
0.44(3,p)
-45(b)
495(b)
2.64.1
165(d)
=600
-300
1,004
-1,050
1,080(u)
1.4(b)
7.6(b)
1
6
5.3
15
4.1(u)
74(u)
Gasoline
C4 to C12
100
105(a)
85-88(b)
1215(b)
0
6.06.5(b)
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Density, lb/gal @ 60 F
Viscosity
Centipoise @ 60 F
Flash point, closed cup, F
Autoignition temperature,
F
Flammability limits,
volume %
Lower
Higher
11
12
3.4. Biomass
Biomass can be used as a source for hydrogen by two different
procedures.
Gasification of biomass: biomass is put under to a process of incomplete
combustion between 700 and 1200C. The resulting product is a fuel gas
composed fundamentally by hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide.
13
15
The following reactions take place inside the alkaline electrolysis cell:
Electrolyte: 4H2O 4H+ + 4OHCathode: 4 H+ + 4e- 2H2
Anode: 4OH- O2 + 2H2O + 4eSum: 2H2O O2 + 2H2 (3.1) (3.2) (3.3) (3.4)
Commercial electrolysers usually consist of a number of electrolytic cells
arranged in a cell stack. Alkaline electrolysers typically contain the main
components shown in Figure 4. The major R&D challenge for the future is to
design and manufacture electrolyser equipment at lower costs with higher
energy efficiency and larger turn-down ratios.
Water
17
hundred bar, and are suited for both stationary and mobile applications. The
main drawback of this technology is the limited lifetime of the membranes. The
major advantages of PEM over alkaline electrolysers are the higher turndown
ratio1, the increased safety due to the absence of KOH electrolytes, a more
compact design due to higher densities, and higher operating pressures.
anode: H2O /2O2 + 2 H++ 2e- (3.6) cathode: 2H+ + 2e- H2
With relatively high cost, low capacity, poor efficiency and short lifetimes, the
PEM electrolysers currently available are not as mature as alkaline
electrolysers. It is expected that the performance of PEM electrolysers can be
improved significantly by additional work in materials development and cell
stack design.
4.4. High-temperature electrolysis
High-temperature electrolysis is based on technology from hightemperature fuel cells. The electrical energy needed to split water at 1000 C is
considerably less than electrolysis at 100 C. This means that a hightemperature electrolyser can operate at significantly higher overall process
efficiencies than regular low-temperature electrolysers.
A typical technology is the solid oxide electrolyser cell (SOEC). This
electrolyser is based on the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), which normally
operates at 700 to 1000 C. At these temperatures, the electrode reactions are
more reversible, and the fuel cell reaction can more easily be reversed to an
electrolysis reaction.
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Similar to the main challenges for SOFCs, the main R&D needs for
SOECs relate to materials development and thermo-mechanical stress within the
functional ceramic materials.
4.5. Photo-electrolysis (photolysis)
Photovoltaic (PV) systems coupled to electrolysers are commercially
available. The systems offer some flexibility, as the output can be electricity
from photovoltaic cells or hydrogen from the electrolyser. Direct photoelectrolysis represents an advanced alternative to a PV-electrolysis system by
combining both processes in a single apparatus. This principle is illustrated in
Figure 5. Photo-electrolysis of water is the process whereby light is used to split
water directly into hydrogen and oxygen. Such systems offer great potential for
cost reduction of electrolytic hydrogen, compared with conventional two-step
technologies.
Sensitized glass
Hydrogen
Water
Fig 2 : Photo-electrolysis
19
doping
for
band-gap
shifting
and
surface
chemistry
20
Algae recycle
Fig3:Principle of photo-biological hydrogen production
Thermo-chemical cycles.
Hybrid systems coupling thermal decomposition and electrolytic
decomposition.
Direct catalytic decomposition of water with separation via a ceramic
membrane ("thermo-physic cycle").
Plasma-chemical decomposition of water in a double-stage CO2 cycle.
For these processes, efficiencies above 50 % can be expected and could
possibly lead to a major decrease of hydrogen production costs. The main
technical issues for these high-temperature processes relate to materials
development for corrosion resistance at high temperatures, hightemperature membrane and separation processes, heat exchangers, and
heat storage media. Design aspects and safety are also important for hightemperature processes.
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b. Barriers
Barriers or safeguards should be provided to minimize risks and control
failures.
c. Safety Systems
Safety systems should be installed to detect and counteract or control the
possible effects of such hazards as vessel failures, leaks and spills,
embrittlement, collisions during transportation, vaporization system failures,
ignitions, fires and explosions, cloud dispersions, and the exposure of personnel
to cryogenic or flame temperatures.
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d. Safe Interface
A safe interface must be maintained under normal and emergency
conditions so at least two failures occur before hazardous events could lead to
personal injury, loss of life, or major equipment or property damage.
5.2. CONTROLS
a. Warning Systems
Warning systems should be installed to detect abnormal conditions,
measure malfunctions, and indicate incipient failures. Warning system data
transmissions with visible and audible signals should have sufficient
redundancy to prevent any single-point failure from disabling the system.
b. Flow Controls
Safety valving and flow regulation should be installed to adequately
respond for protection of personnel and equipment during hydrogen storage,
handling, and use.
24
25
26
Inlet Exhaust
(a) Intake
Inlet Exhaust
(6) Compression
Inlet Exhaust
(C) Expansion
27
Inlet Exhaust
(d) Exhaust
7. PRINCIPLE OF CARBURETION
Both air and gasoline are drawn into the cylinder due to suction pressure
created by the downward movement of the piston. In the carburetor, the air
passing into the combustion chamber picks up the fuel discharged by a fine
orifice in a tube called the carburetor jet. The rate of discharge of the fuel
depends on the pressure difference between the float chamber and the throat of
the venturi of the carburetor and the area of the outlet of the tube. In order that
the fuel is strongly atomized the suction effect must be strong and the nozzle
outlet must be comparatively small. To produce a strong suction, a restriction is
generally provided in the pipe in the carburetor carrying air to the engine. This
restriction is called throat. In this throat due to increase in the velocity of the air
the pressure is decreased and suction is created.
The venturi tube has a narrower path at the center so that the path through
air is going to travel is reduced. As same amount of air must travel must travel
through the path of the tube so the velocity of the air at the venturi is increased
and suction is created.
Usually the fuel discharge jet is located at the point where the suction is
maximum. So this is positioned just below the throat of the venturi. The spray
of the fuel from the fuel discharge jet and the air are mixed at this point of the
throat and a combustible mixture is formed. Maximum amount of fuel gets
atomized and some part gets vaporized. Due to increase in the velocity of the air
at the throat the vaporization of the fuel becomes easier.
28
29
30
and the air-fuel ratio increases i.e. the richness of the mixture decreases when all
the holes get uncovered. The air is drawn through these holes and the fuel gets
emulsified and the differential of pressure across the column of fuel is not as
high as that of the simple carburetor.
7.2.3. Compensating Jet
The main purpose of the compensating jet, which is connected to a
compensating well, is to make the mixture leaner as the throttle valve opens
gradually. The compensating well is vented to the atmosphere and is also
connected to the main fuel chamber through a restricting orifice. With the
increase in air flow rate, the fuel level in the compensating well decreases so the
fuel supply rate through the compensating jet also decreases.
7.2.4. Back Suction Control Mechanism
In this device, the top of the fuel float chamber is connected to the entry
part of the body of the carburetor by means of a long vent line fitted with a
control valve. Another vent is connected from the top of the chamber to the
venturi of the throat. When the control valve is completely open then pressure at
the float chamber is same as that of the air inlet. So there lies a pressure
difference between the float chamber and the venturi and fuel from the float
chamber flows into the venturi. But when the control valve is closed the
pressure at the venturi and the float chamber are same and there is no fuel flow.
Thus by proper control of the control valve a proper differential between the
float chamber and the throat can be maintained and hence the quality of the
mixture.
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4. Reformulated gasoline
5. Water-gasoline mixture
Out of the above listed liquid fuels alcohol is the most popular and most
widely used alternative liquid fuel.
In the category of gaseous alternative fuels it is to note that gaseous fuels
are best suited for IC engines because they have almost zero physical delay.
There are very few gaseous fuels which are used as alternative fuels they are
1. Hydrogen
2. Natural gas
3. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
4. Compressed natural gas(CNG)
35
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8.2. Hydrogen
A number of automobile companies have built engines or prototypes
which run with hydrogen. There are certain advantages and disadvantages of
using hydrogen in the engine.
Advantages:
1. As there is no carbon in the fuel so generally the exhaust contains H2O, N2
and NO2. There is complete absence of CO or HC.
2. There are so many ways of making hydrogen. One of the most important
ways is electrolysis of water.
3. The leakage of fuel into the environment is pollution free.
4. When hydrogen is stored as liquid, it has high energy content per volume.
Disadvantages
1. It requires very heavy and bulky storage units both in vehicles and service
stations.
2. It is very difficult to refuel the hydrogen tanks.
3. It has very low volumetric efficiency.
4. Its cost is very high at present day technology and availability.
5. Because of high flame temperature it gives high NOx emissions.
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38
39
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9. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
AND PROCEDURE
9.1. Experimental setup
Petrol-HHO engine set up consists of four stroke Hero Honda 100-CC,
single cylinder engine. A 12 volt DC battery is fixed and the power from the
battery is used to self start and to power HHO gas kit. The output of HHO gas is
connected to hose pipe after the air filter and before the carburetor.
Fig 6 :Schematic diagram showing the fuel cell installed on the engine
9.2. HHO Gas Kit
HHO gas kit is a device especially designed for the producing HHO gas
by supplying 12 volts DC current. 12 volts DC current is supplied from the
battery which has been already integrated with the vehicle this gas kit contains
HHO cell
Pulse with modulator electronic circuit
41
42
9.5. SI engine
A single cylinder, air cooled spark ignition engine is used for testing
purpose. The motor specification is shown in below. A emission test on variable
speed (1000-3000 rpm) has been performed on this motor. A gas analyzer has
been used to estimate the concentrations of HC, CO, CO2, and O2 in the
exhaust stream. Tachometer was used to measure the engine speed.
97
1
44
Max Power
Maximum Torque
Bore (mm)
Stroke (mm)
compression rasio
Valves Per Cylinder
Carburetor
Petrol
C.D.I
Cooling System
Air Cooled
Gearbox Type
No Of Gears
Manual
4
Transmission Type
Chain Drive
45
into the vehicle's air intake system. It works by utilizing a 100 year old proven
technology called electrolysis.
Fig 9 : Schematic sketch of the engine showing the chemical reactions between
air, gasoline, and HHO that take place inside the engine.
47
by
using
Hydrogen
Booster
49
50
51
12. CONCLUSION
Experimental tests to investigate the effect of HHO gas on the emission
parameters of a Hero Honda engine have been carried out. HHO gas has been
generated by an electrolysis process in a fuel cell. The generated gas is mixed
with a fresh air just before entering the carburettor. The exhaust is sampled by a
gas analyser and the exhaust constituents have been identified and their
concentrations have been evaluated. The following conclusions can be drawn.
1. HHO cell may be integrated easily with existing engine systems.
2. The combustion efficiency has been enhanced when HHO gas has been
introduced to the air/fuel mixture, consequently reducing emission.
3. The concentration of CO2 has been incresed to almost 10% on average
when HHO is introduced to the system.
4. When HHO is introduced to the system, the average concentration of
carbon monoxide has been reduced to almost 20% .
5. The concentration of O2% has been increase to almost 20% on average
when HHO is introduced to the system.
6. HC concentration is highly affected by the engine speed and the
presence of HHO gas.
52
13. REFERENCES
1. Matthias Altmann Patrick Schmidt Reinhold Wurster Martin Zerta Dr. Werner
Zittel, (2004) "Potential for Hydrogen as a Fuel for Transport in the Long Term
(2020-2030) technical report series, EUR 21090 EN.
2. David, J. Bents, Bei-Jiann Chang, Donald W. Johnson and Christopher
P.Garcia,(2008)."Closed Cycle Hydrogen Oxygen Regenerative "NASA/TM
2008-215055.
3. Ulf Bossel, 2003 " Efficiency of Hydrogen Fuel
Cell, Diesel-SOFC-Hybrid and Battery Electric
Vehicles \ European Fuel Cell Forum Morgenacherstrasse
Oberrohrdorf
October 20, 2003.
2F
CH-5452
4. Brent, J. and E. Aimee, 2004. "A Hydrogen economy and fuel cells: an
overview", CRS Report for Congress.
5. Christy, C., 2009. "Hydrogen Fuel Cells", the
WSTIAC Quarterly, 9: 1.
6. Paolo Chiesa Giovanni Lozza, 2005. Luigi Mazzocchi" Using Hydrogen as
Gas Turbine Fuel" @DOI: 10.1115/1.1787513#, J. Engineering for Gas
Turbines and Power. 127: 73.
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