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Abstract
An automated tool has been developed for generation of permeability predictions for multi-layered unit cells utilising
textile modelling techniques. This tool has been used to predict the permeability tensor of a woven textile. Single-layer
predictions were carried out and the predicted permeabilities obtained were in close agreement to the permeability
behaviour captured experimentally. The tool was used to capture the effects of textile variability on its permeability,
isolating the influence of individual parameters. A complete textile sample was also analysed, predicting its permeability map. The concept of estimating the permeability of a textile with variability using an average single unit cell was
explored. The prediction tool was also used to study the effect of preform structure on its permeability, including
consideration of the number of layers, ply shift and applied compaction.
Keywords
Permeability, textile modelling, liquid composite moulding
Introduction
Fibre-reinforced polymer composite (FRPC) materials
are used in a large number of industrial applications.
FRPCs consist of two or more distinct materials
(generally bre reinforcement and polymer matrix),
forming a material with more desirable properties
compared to the constituent materials. For applications
where parts are mass produced and high levels of
dimensional accuracy and repeatability are required,
liquid composite moulding (LCM) processes are the
preferred manufacturing method.1 In LCM processes,
resin is injected into a mould containing the dry brous
reinforcement and is left to cure before the nal part
can be removed from the mould.
The use of LCM simulation as process design tools is
increasing in industry. Such simulations aim to accurately predict ll time, ow front advancement and dry
spot formation, ultimately enabling the production of
complex high quality parts using the most ecient conditions.2,3 In these simulations, the resin ow during the
LCM manufacturing process is commonly modelled
using Darcys law.4 The relation is given in equation
(1), where q is the volume averaged Darcy velocity; ,
the uid viscosity; P, the uid pressure and K, the permeability tensor. These simulations therefore require
knowledge of the reinforcing materials permeability
characteristics.
q
1
KrP
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Centre for Advanced
Composite Materials, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
2
Department of Engineering Science, University of Auckland, Auckland,
New Zealand
Corresponding author:
Elinor E Swery, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Centre for
Advanced Composite Materials, University of Auckland, Private Bag
92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.
Email: elinor.swery@auckland.ac.nz
Swery et al.
1803
Textile
Image
Matlab
TexGen
TexGen
TexGen
Abaqus
Matlab
HyperMesh
ANSYS CFX
Image
Analysis
Textile
Model
Preform
Model
Dry Fibre
Mesh
Compaction
Simulation
Create Voxel
Mesh
Prepare
Mesh
Flow
Simulations
.csv
.tg3
.tg3
.inp
.vrml
.inp
.cas
.wbpj
Permeability
1804
Figure 2. Textile models. (a) single-layer plain woven, (b) four-layers stacked directly on top of each other, (c) four-layers with
maximum ply shift and (d) four-layers with random ply shift.
Figure 3. Four-layer textile model with maximum ply shift (Figure 2(c)), compacted to a range of thicknesses. Resulting Vf of (a) 25%,
(b) 34% and (c) 47%.
Swery et al.
1805
was used to compute the unit cell meso-scale permeability through the application of Darcys law5 as shown in
equation (2).
K
_
mL
AP
LEFT:
Translational Periodic
Fluid-fluid
RIGHT:
Translational Periodic
Fluid-fluid
TOP, BOTTOM, TOWS:
Non-slip walls
Figure 5. Velocity contour plots of flow simulations carried out on the voxel mesh generated from the compacted fibre mesh shown
in Figure 3(b). Flow simulations in the (a) x, (b) y and (c) z directions.
1806
2.77
38.8
132
67.2
Geometric variations
13.3
28.3
Textile Model
Dry Fibre Mesh
Compaction Simulation
Create Voxel Mesh
Prepare Mesh
Flow Simulations
Figure 6. Simulation times (s) for compacted, single-layer unit
cell.
(b)
Simulations
Experiments
10 9
10 10
10 8
(c)
Simulations
Experiments
10 9
10 10
3.5
3
Anisotropy Ratio
10 8
Permeability [m2]
Permeability [m2]
(a)
Simulations
Experiments
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
10 11
25
34
47
Target Fibre Volume Fraction [%]
10 11
25
34
47
Target Fibre Volume Fraction [%]
25
34
47
Target Fibre Volume Fraction [%]
Figure 7. Single-layer permeability results. Average unit cell results compared with experimental results. (a) Kxx, (b) Kyy and (c)
anisotropy ratio.
Swery et al.
1807
These unit cells were examined at each of the dierent bre volume fractions. The achieved Vf does not
remain constant for all unit cells with geometric variations. Instead, the unit cells were compacted to a constant target cavity thickness, matching those employed
experimentally to achieve the target Vf of interest.
Tow width. The inuence that the tow widths have on the
predicted permeability is illustrated in Figures 9 and 10.
Both the warp (x) and weft (y) tow widths were varied
and the resulting permeabilities in the x and y directions
are shown for the dierent tested values of Vf. The
average experimental results are also shown (dashed
line) for comparison purposes. It is clear that changing
the tow widths has minimal eect on the resulting permeability in both directions. This is as expected, as
altering the tow widths does not change the unit cells
main ow channels, hence the permeability is
unaected.
Gap width. The unit cell gap width has a signicant
inuence on the resulting permeability. This is as
expected, as the gap between the tows determines the
size of the ow channel, directly aecting the permeability. This inuence is illustrated in Figures 11 and 12.
As shown in these gures, increasing the gap width
between the warp tows, signicantly increases the permeability in the x direction while only slightly increasing the permeability in the y direction. The former
occurs as the equivalent diameter of the ow channels
increase. In the latter case, the overall Vf of the unit cell
decreases, which contributes to the slight increase in
permeability. Similarly, an increase in the weft gap
width signicantly increases the permeability in the y
direction while only slightly increasing the permeability
in the x direction.
Permeability [m2]
(a)
(b)
Permeability [m2]
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
V = 25%
Vf = 25%
Vf = 34%
V = 34%
11
10
Vf = 47%
4
4.5
5.5
Vf = 47%
11
10
4.5
5.5
Figure 9. (a) Kxx and (b) Kyy of unit cells with varying warp (x) tow widths. Simulation results along with average experimental results
(dashed line). As noted in the text, these variations induce small variations to the unit-cell volume fractions (which are nominally
constant).
Permeability [m2]
(a)
10
10
10
(b)
Permeability [m2]
1808
10
10
10
10
10
Vf = 25%
Vf = 25%
V = 34%
V = 34%
f
10
V = 47%
Vf = 47%
11
4.5
5.5
10
6.5
11
4.5
5.5
6.5
Figure 10. (a) Kxx and (b) Kyy of unit cells with varying weft (y) tow widths. Simulation results along with average experimental
results (dashed line). As noted in the text, these variations induce small variations to the unit-cell volume fractions (which are
nominally constant).
10
10
10
(b)
Permeability [m2]
Permeability [m2]
(a)
10
10
10
10
10
V = 25%
V = 25%
Vf = 34%
Vf = 34%
10
Vf = 47%
11
0.5
1.5
2.5
Vf = 47%
11
10
0.5
1.5
2.5
Figure 11. (a) Kxx and (b) Kyy of unit cells with varying warp (x) tow gap widths. Simulation results along with average experimental
results (dashed line). As noted in the text, these variations induce small variations to the unit-cell volume fractions (which are
nominally constant).
Swery et al.
1809
10
(b) 108
Permeability [m2]
Permeability [m2]
(a) 108
10
10
10
10
10
V = 25%
Vf = 25%
Vf = 34%
Vf = 34%
11
10
V = 47%
Vf = 47%
0
0.5
1.5
10
11
0.5
1.5
Figure 12. (a) Kxx and (b) Kyy of unit cells with varying weft (y) tow gap widths. Simulation results along with average experimental
results (dashed line). As noted in the text, these variations induce small variations to the unit-cell volume fractions (which are
nominally constant).
x 10
5
10
2500
2
1000
yy
3
1500
y Location [px]
4
2000
500
500
2500
VU VM
VU
1810
(a)
x 10
5
10
(b)
x 10
5
2500
2500
2
1000
500
3
1500
2
1000
500
2000
500
500
2500
(c)
2500
(d)
2500
yy
3
1500
y Location [px]
2000
4
y Location [px]
10
0.52
2500
1500
2
1000
2000
0.48
1500
0.46
Unit Cell Vf
y Location [px]
y Location [px]
2000
0.5
4
1000
0.44
1
500
500
500
500
2500
0.42
2500
Figure 14. Textile permeability maps for textile compacted to a target Vf of 47%. (a) Kxx, (b) Kyy, (c) unit cell angle and (d) achieved Vf.
10
Simulations Kxx
Simulations K
yy
xx
2
Permeability [m ]
Multi-layer permeability
yy
Average of all K
xx
Average of all K
yy
10
10
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
Figure 15. Comparison of all Kxx and Kyy values with experimental values (dashed lines) for a single large textile sample.
In-plane
Kxx is displayed in Figure 16. The predicted permeability decreases for each of the preforms examined with
Swery et al.
10
10
10
Directly on top
Random ply shift
Maximum ply shift
Experiments
11
(c)
10
Permeability [m2]
10
(b)
10
Permeability [m ]
Permeability [m ]
(a)
1811
10
10
10
Number of Layers
Directly on top
Random ply shift
Maximum ply shift
Experiments
10
10
10
Directly on top
Random ply shift
Maximum ply shift
Experiments
11
10
10
10
11
10
10
Number of Layers
10
Number of Layers
Figure 16. Kxx, varying number of layers and stacking methods. Compared with experiments. Compacted to a target volume
fraction of (a) 25%, (b) 34% and (c) 47%.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
11
Directly on top
Random ply shift
Maximum ply shift
Experiments
12
13
10
10
10
Number of Layers
10
(c)
10
Directly on top
Random ply shift
Maximum ply shift
Experiments
10
2
2
Permeability [m ]
10
(b)
Permeability [m ]
10
Permeability [m2]
(a)
10
10
11
Directly on top
Random ply shift
Maximum ply shift
Experiments
12
13
10
10
11
10
12
10
13
10
Number of Layers
10
10
Number of Layers
Figure 17. Kzz, varying number of layers and stacking methods. Compared with experiments. Compacted to a target volume fraction
of (a) 25%, (b) 34% and (c) 47%.
increasing Vf. It can be seen that, in general, the predicted permeabilities appear to asymptote with increasing number of layers. This is as expected, as the
contribution of the boundary eects at the compression
platens on the preform lessens.
The eect of layer shift is also evident by comparing
the predicted permeability results of the preforms made
using the three dierent shifting methods, i.e. perfectly
aligned tows, fully nested and an intermediate ply-shift.
Figure 16 shows that the permeability at the lower Vf is
heavily inuenced by the stacking method. The
preforms that were created with maximum ply shift
generally exhibit the lowest permeability as the alternating placements of the tows obstruct the ow channels (as shown in Figure 3). In contrast to this, the
preforms that were created by stacking the layers directly on top of each other generally exhibit the highest
permeabilities, as larger ow channels are created.
As expected, the random ply shift permeability results
generally lay between the limits created from the other
two preform structures.
The experimental results are also shown on
these plots. These expose the inherent variability in
Through-thickness
To compute the through-thickness permeability, the
pressure gradient is applied along the z direction and
two sets of translational periodic pairs are dened in
both of the in-plane directions (see Figure 4). The predicted through-thickness permeability results, Kzz, are
provided in Figure 17. As can be seen, the permeability
of the preforms created by stacking layers directly on
1812
top of each other does not decrease signicantly with
increasing Vf. In the case of these preforms, large,
prominent ow channels are present as the gaps
between the tows align in the thickness direction. As
compaction is applied to the stack, the size of these
gaps reduces slightly due to the tows Poissons ratio
eect, but not signicantly, hence the permeability is
only slightly aected.
In contrast to this, the permeability of the preform
created with maximum ply shift does decrease noticeability with increasing Vf (in particular for the highest
Vf tested). This preform has the most signicant interply nesting present. With increasing compaction
applied to the sample the gaps between the tows are
obstructed by the alternating tows, reducing the ability
of the uid to travel along the original ow path.
Interestingly, the permeability of the randomly
stacked samples for the highest Vf is lower than the
other two predicted permeabilities. Further analysis
showed that the maximum ply shift models had more
consistent paths for the uid ow; the distance which
the uid had to ow in the in-plane direction before it
reached a gap (in order to ow in the through-thickness
direction) was constant, whereas this varied in the case
of preforms with random ply shifts.
The experimental results are also shown on these
plots. These results generally lie within the range
predicted, which provides further condence in the permeability prediction tool. In the cases where the experimental values lie outside the predicted range, they are
still reasonably close despite the expected variability of
such results, previously discussed in Vernet et al.8
Funding
Conclusions
A comprehensive permeability prediction tool has been
developed using textile modelling techniques. This tool
has been used to predict the permeability of a woven
reinforcing textile, capturing the inuence of geometric
variations on its permeability. The presented study
focussed on lower to medium bre volume fractions
in order to develop the principal methodologies.
Future work will focus on the predictions of models
which incorporate permeable tows and dual-scale
ows, which are expected to be more accurate at
higher volume fractions.
The inuence of geometric variations on the textiles
permeability was studied in depth. It was found that, as
expected, the parameter that has the biggest inuence
on the permeability is the unit cell tow gap width.
Complete textile permeability maps were created by
separating the textile into many individual unit cells,
predicting the in-plane permeability tensor at every
location. By superimposing the textile structure onto
the permeability maps it was shown that the locations
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