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Calculations For LV and HV Networks PDF
Calculations For LV and HV Networks PDF
B. de METZ-NOBLAT
Foreword
The author disclaims all responsibility subsequent to incorrect use of
information or diagrams reproduced in this document, and cannot be held
responsible for any errors or oversights, or for the consequences of using
information and diagrams contained in this document.
Reproduction of all or part of a "Cahier Technique" is authorised with the
compulsory mention:
"Extracted from Schneider Electric "Cahier Technique" no. ....." (please
specify).
no. 213
Calculations for
LV and HV networks
Benot de METZ-NOBLAT
ESE engineer, worked for Saint-Gobain, then started at Merlin Gerin
in 1986.
He is a member of the Electrical Network competence group that
studies electrical phenomena concerning the operation of networks
and their interaction with devices and equipment.
Calculations for
LV and HV networks
This Cahier Technique publication is intended to provide a general
overview of the main electrotechnical calculations carried out in
engineering studies on electrical systems at all voltage levels.
It is complementary to other Cahier Technique publications that deal more
with the operation of devices and installations in electrical systems. This
document will help owners, designers and operators understand the
importance of these calculations in ensuring correct use of the electrical
network and their impact on the total cost of ownership.
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Life of an electrical network
3 Study prerequisites
4 Electrical-network calculations
p. 4
2.1 Life cycle of an electrical network
p. 5
p. 6
p. 6
p. 6
p. 7
3.1 Method
p. 8
p. 10
4.1 Dependability
p. 11
p. 13
4.3 Short-circuit
4.4 Protection
p. 15
p. 17
4.5 Stability
4.6 Harmonics
p. 19
p. 21
4.7 Overvoltages
4.8 Electromagnetic compatibility
p. 23
p. 26
p. 28
p. 31
6 Conclusion
p. 33
Appendix 1. History
p. 34
Appendix 2. Software
p. 35
p. 36
Bibliography
p. 37
1 Introduction
New design
An
tic
i
pa
t
n
io
Forecas
ts -
Upgrades
End
of life
Design
Construction
Network
Process
Operation
Maintenance
c Network diagram
v voltage levels;
v structure (radial, loop, double/single supplies,
double/single busbars);
v configuration (normal/back-up, redundant);
v system earthing arrangements (SEA);
v line lengths;
v power-factor correction;
v types of switching devices;
v maintenance requirements.
c Standards, regulations and local work habits
Analysis of the above parameters determines
the types of studies capable of providing
quantitative solutions for the problems at hand.
c short-circuits;
c protection;
c stability;
c harmonics;
c overvoltages;
c electromagnetic compatibility (EMC);
c measurements for evaluations and audits.
Time
Frequency
10 s
0.1 Hz
1s
1 Hz
0.1 s
10 Hz
10 ms
100 Hz
v electrical events;
v network types and operation;
v types of calculation.
1 ms
1 kHz
0.1 ms
10 kHz
0.01 ms
100 kHz
1 s
1 MHz
Class of phenomenon
Discontinuous
Slow
Fast
Stable
Conducted electromagnetic
Radiated electromagnetic
Electrical events
Interruptions and breaks in supply
Voltage sags and
variations
Transient currents
Electromechanical oscillations
Harmonics, flicker
Short-circuits
Overvoltages caused by switching,
arcs and recovery transients
Overvoltages caused
by lightning
Coupling between power and control currents
Type of calculation
Dependability
Dynamic stability
Load flow
Harmonics
Short-circuit, protection, SEA
Switching transients
Atmospheric transients
EMC
Time
Frequency
10 s
0.1 Hz
1s
1 Hz
0.1 s
10 Hz
10 ms
100 Hz
1 ms
1 kHz
0.1 ms
10 kHz
0.01 ms
100 kHz
1 s
1 MHz
3 Study prerequisites
Steps
c Quantitative analysis
Use of the digital quantification tool comprises:
v Modelling
Modelling an electrical network means
representing each element and all the
interconnections between elements by equations
expressing the electrical, magnetic and
mechanical behaviour. The equations must be
adapted to the phenomena studied.
v Simulation
Simulation of an electrical network means
simultaneously solving all the equations in the
3.1 Method
Real system
Need
Quantitative prediction
Qualitative
analysis
Phenomena
and events
to be studied
Experience
(measurements)
Calculation loop
Validation loop
Quantitative analysis
= Modelling + simulation
Comparison
Fig 4: UMI screen for data entry and the display of the results (source - Schneider Electric).
4 Electrical-network calculations
4.1 Dependability
Over the course of the years, dependability is a
need that has spread to all processes that are
vulnerable to energy outages.
The notion of dependability is defined by the
values for:
c energy availability;
c the annual rate of outages;
c maintainability.
Goals
The purpose of an operating-dependability study
on network behaviour is to:
5.5 kV
5.5 kV/380 V
transformers
substations
supplied
by open
loop
Backup
transformer
2500 A LV
circuit breakers
Backup switches
Fault-tree analysis
Parameter
Workshops' feeders
Non-availability of electrical
energy in hours per year
6.9
0.7
Fig. 5: Recommended modifications (in green) carried out on the electrical network of an automobile factory, diagram and results
(source Schneider Electric).
90 %
G2
TRA
GE
C1
C2
Q1
Q2
RA
MLVS
Q5
Q4
Offices
C5
Q3
Workshop
C4
CAP
C3
L5
R3
x2
B5
Example
This case is drawn from a study on the design of
a commercial site, using the dedicated ECODIAL
software program developed by Schneider
Electric, in compliance with the UTE 15-500
guide.
c Purpose of the calculations
Only the first step in this study is presented here.
It deals with the power sum of the installation,
required to size the supply sources.
Note that for a low-voltage installation, the
apparent-power values, after weighting by
application of the load and diversity factors, are
summed algebraically, conductor losses are
neglected and the nodes are at the rated
voltage.
c Results of the calculations
Figure 6 shows the analysed single-line diagram
with the screen for the data and the results (the
T1
RB
B1
Q6
T Workshop
Q7
Q8
Machine
Lighting
C8.1
C6
C7
L6
D7
V8
E7
C8.2
Q9
Var Speed Mot
K9
Lighting
Motor
x4
C9
Var Speed Mot
M9
M
x2
x4
M8
M
x5
Fig. 6: Design of a commercial site using the dedicated ECODIAL software, showing the single-line diagram and the power-sum screen
(source Merlin Gerin - Schneider Electric).
4.3 Short-circuit
Peak current
Breaking current
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
0
40
20
80
60
120
100
160
140
200
180
240
220
280
260
320
300
360
340
400
380
440
420
480
460
500
Total current
DC component
Fig. 7: Study on the substation of a power station, simulation of the asymmetrical three-phase short-circuit current
produced by a fault near the generator.
4.4 Protection
Goals
The purpose of calculating the protection system
is to:
c identify abnormal operating situations that may
result in accidents for humans, destruction of
devices or the loss of supply for consumers,
c determine the necessary measures to ensure
the protection of life and property, and the
availability of electrical energy. These measures
result in the following necessary operations:
v definition of the protection system,
v selection, installation and combination of the
breaking and protection devices,
v determining the settings of protection devices.
Phenomena and origins
The electrical phenomena that must be studied
are those present:
c during operation at power frequency, when
operating malfunctions occur affecting the rated
values, e.g. power (overload), current, voltage,
frequency, etc.,
c during faults, short-circuits and overvoltages.
Protection devices must be suited to:
c normal system operation which may drift
toward abnormal conditions (overloads, voltage
sags, etc.),
c foreseeable accidental disturbances, including
short-circuits, human errors,
c network architecture (radial, open or closed
loop).
Effects and solutions
A faulty protection system is manifested,
electrically speaking, by voltage drops
throughout the network, overvoltages, overloads,
short-circuit currents, where the main effects are:
c accidents for persons,
c destruction of devices and equipment,
6 kV
A1 49
A2 50/51
B 50/51
400 V
C 50/51
Relay
ANSI
code
Type
Setting
Delay
A1
49
Thermal
120%
105 min
A2
50/51
Overcurrent
Definite time
1400 A
0.5 s
A2
50/51
Overcurrent
Definite time
3300 A
0.1 s
50/51
Overcurrent
Definite time
12000 A
0.25 s
50/51
Overcurrent
Definite time
3200 A
0.04 s
Fig. 8: Discrimination study for a petrochemical site, diagram and types of protection relays selected for a HV/LV
transformer.
t (s)
1000
0
1
100
10
1
3
2
0.1
4
I (A)
0.01
1000
10000
1e+005
1e+006
Fig. 9: Discrimination diagram for protection devices placed upstream and downstream of the transformer.
4.5 Stability
Stability concerns essentially high-power
networks, with high voltages and generally a
wide-area and complex topological structure,
possibly with one or more energy-production
sites.
Correct operation of an AC electrical network is
the result of continuous adjustments in the
balance (hence stability) between energy
production and consumption over time and
space.
The notion of network stability is characterised
by:
c steady-state stability (minor changes) where
the system returns to its initial status following a
normal, low-amplitude disturbance,
c transient stability/instability, where the system
shifts from one stable state to another, or
diverges, following a sudden disturbance (loss of
load or source, start of a high-power motor),
c dynamic stability, where system operation is
controlled by limiting the negative effects of
disturbances (e.g. protection of vital loads) using
appropriate solutions (e.g. load shedding).
Goals
The purpose of studying the dynamic behaviour
of a network is to identify risk situations that may
result in transient instability and to determine the
necessary counter-measures in view of
maintaining dynamic stability. These measures
deal with:
c clearing electrical faults within acceptable time
limits, by the protection system,
c optimising operating modes,
c suitable sizing of the installation.
Phenomena and origins
Instability phenomena occur throughout the
network in the form of:
c electromechanical oscillations of machines
around their position of synchronous balance,
resulting in variations in speed and the rated
power frequency (50 or 60 Hz),
c oscillations in current flows in the lines
between sources and/or loads, producing
exchanges of active and reactive power and
resulting in voltage drops.
Instability has three possible origins.
c Accidental disturbances
This category includes short-circuits, voltage
sags, outages and failure of sources, nuisance
tripping, device failure, human errors, etc.
c Normal network operation
This category includes the consequences of
operation and the requirements of processes
Utility
G1
G2
B1
non-priority
priority
Tripping in 350 ms
V
fault
fault
3000
2000
2000
1000
1000
sec
1
2
3
4
0
The voltage returns to normal.
The process is correctly resupplied.
fault
sec
1
2
3
4
0
The voltage does not return to normal.
The process is not correctly resupplied.
fault
1
0.95
0.95
0.90
0.90
0.85
0.85
sec
0.80
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
The pump reaccelerates. The process continues.
sec
0.80
0
1
2
3
4
5
The pump stalls. The process shuts down.
Fig. 10: Stability study on a heavy-industry production site. Diagram and significant curves following tripping.
4.6 Harmonics
Harmonics concern essentially electrical
networks supplying non-linear loads
representing a high power level with respect to
the source and capacitors.
All AC networks encounter some distortion of the
current and voltage sinusoidal waveforms due to
the types of loads and/or the sources.
225 kV network
Pscn = 6000 MVA
Psc min = 4800 MVA
225 kV/63 kV
s = 170 MVA
Usc = 12.5 %
63 kV busbars
63 kV cable
L = 1000 m
S = 1000 mm2
Harmonic filters
140 MVA
arc furnace
150
Without filter
Dampened filter
30
100
20
50
10
10
Harmonic
order
Harmonic
order
Impedance spectrum as seen from the 63 kV busbars.
Fig. 11: Study on harmonics for a steel mill (diagram and spectra).
4.7 Overvoltages
Goals
Overvoltage
class
Low frequency
Permanent
Transient
Temporary
Slow front
Fast front
Shape
Tt
Tt
Tp
T2
T1
T2
Shape range
(frequency, rising
front, term)
f = 50 or 60 Hz
Tt u 3.600 s
Standardised shape
f = 50 or 60 Hz
Tt (*)
48 i f i 62 Hz
Tt = 60 s
Standardised
withstand test
(*)
Short duration
Switching
power frequency impulse test
test
Tp = 250 s
T2 = 2.500 s
Tf
Tt
T1 = 1.2 s
T2 = 50 s
(*)
Lightning
impulse test
(*)
Struck line
P1 lightning arrestor
Cable
P2 lightning arrestor
GIS substation
Example
P3 lightning arrestor
Transformer
Risk for:
Installed
lighning
arrestors
Cable
GIS
Transformer
substation
(LIWL* 650 kV) (LIWL 650 kV) (LIWL 650 kV)
P1
1454 years
425 years
299 years
P1+ P3
2053 years
812 years
592 years
10E 9 years
VSD
AC
Distribution (TN-C)
Test facility
Motor
DC
i 50 Hz + harmonics
i 50 Hz + harmonics
PEN
PEN
MLVS
TN-C
TN-S
N
Inverter
AC
DC
PEN
PE
Ph
N
Acquisition
system
i 50 Hz + harmonics
Fig. 14: EMC study for measurement-acquisition and video systems installed near a test facility, diagram showing
the path of leakage currents and harmonics.
Chapter
Item
Measurements Diagnostic
Action required
Priority
level
Network diagram
Network architecture
No
Not urgent
Major fault
No
Not urgent
Earthing
No
Must be
studied
130 kV protection
No
In certain configurations,
Revise the protection plan
Urgent
overcurrent protection can result in implementing differential and
the total failure of the HV network. directional functions.
Check the discrimination offered
by the protection devices between
the utility and the factory.
15 kV protection
No
Dielectric
Lightning impulse
characteristics of on HV side
HV/LV transformers
No
No action required.
Lightning impulse
on LV side
No
Switching impulse
when HV CB opens
No
Internal resonance
at HF
Yes
No HF overvoltages measured.
HV harmonics
Yes
Negligible THD.
No action required.
LV harmonics
Yes
Negligible THD.
No action required.
Switching impulse
when capacitor bank
opens
Yes
Yes
No overloads.
Negligible harmonic values.
No action required.
Continuous
overvoltage (HV)
Yes
Negligible values.
No action required.
HV harmonics
Yes
Negligible values.
No action required.
DC current (LV)
No
Protection plan
Thermal
Overload and
characteristics of harmonic currents
HV/LV transformers
Not urgent
No action required.
Not urgent
Must be
checked
Dependability
See section 4.1
Destruction of property.
Production shutdown.
Short-circuit
See section 4.3
Protection
See section 4.4
Stability
See section 4.5
Production shutdown.
Additional costs, e.g. (repairs, production shutdown,
etc.).
Harmonics
See section 4.6
Overvoltages
See section 4.7
Additional costs:
c reduced installation efficiency due to additional
energy losses (Joule, iron, skin and proximity effects),
c additional investment to oversize equipment
(derating) or to install filters.
EMC
See section 4.8
Studies and calculations often require measurements carried out on site, either continuously (e.g. via a
permanently installed remote-monitoring system) or by temporarily installed measurement devices.
6 Conclusion
Appendix 1. History
Appendix 2. Software
Functional analysis
FMECA
Fault tree
Markoff graph
Ptri network
Load-flow
Load-flow optimisation
Cable sizing
Short-circuit
Discrimination
Steady-state stability
c
c
c
c
c
c
Dynamic stability
Motor starting
Harmonics
c
c
Current/voltage
transients
Lightning protection
EMC disturbances
Data acquisition
(measurements)
c
c
c
c
Active loads
v rated voltage and power
v power factor
v motor characteristics (speed, inertia, slip, Tstart/Tn, Tmax/Tn,
Istart/In, etc.)
v characteristics of devices incorporating power electronics (type of
assembly, etc.)
v load and diversity factors
Non-linear loads
v U, I (lightning arrestor) characteristics
v current and voltage harmonic spectra
Breaking devices
v fuse type and rating
v circuit-breaker characteristics (making and breaking capacity,
transient recovery voltage, etc.)
Protection
v characteristics of current and voltage sensors
v protection functions and setting ranges
c
c
c
Overvoltages
Harmonics
Stability
c
c
c
Protection
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
Measurements
Transformers
v voltages (primary, secondary, tertiary)
v power, type of connection, taps
v short-circuit voltages and losses
Passive loads, capacitors, inductors
v rated voltage and power
v power factor
v type of load (constant impedance, current or power)
v load and diversity factors
c
c
c
EMC
Gensets
v voltage, power and power factor
v impedances and time constants
v mechanical characteristics (inertia, number of poles)
v transfer functions, turbine regulation, excitation
Lines, cables, busbars, GIS substations
v resistance, inductance, capacitance of lines
v length, parallel elements, installation methods
v geometric data on pylons and structures
v characteristics of insulators, spark gap units, etc.
Short-circuits
General data
v network single-line diagram
v operating configurations
v SEAs
For all components
v rated voltage and power
v impedances (positive, negative and zero sequence)
v short-circuit withstand
v transient-voltage withstand (switching and lightning)
v types of protection
Sources
v voltage and frequency (rated/min./max.)
v short-circuit power (rated/min./max.)
v existing harmonic voltages
v protection settings
Steady-state
conditions
Necessary data
Dependability
Type of
calculation
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
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c
c
c
c
c
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c
Bibliography
Schneider Electric
E-mail : fr-tech-com@mail.schneider.fr
12-04