The 4th International Cable Supported Bridge Operators' Conference

The 4th International
Cable Supported Bridge

Operators Conference
June 16-19, 2004
The Society of Danish Engineers Conference Centre
The 4th International Cable supported

Bridge Operators Conference
The Society of Danish Engineers Conference Centre

Copenhagen Denmark
June 16-19, 2004
The Great Belt Link

Oeresundsbron
New York State Bridge Authority (NYSBA)
Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority (HSBA)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Session 1:
Benchmarking strategy
Outsourcing or own manpower
Benchmarking for operation and maintenance of cable supported bridges ................................. 1
L. J. Vincentsen, F. Bormlund, Denmark
Inspection and Maintenance Strategy, Outsourcing or own manpower ...................................... 9

J. M. Clune, UK
Session 2:
Inspection and Maintenance
Health Monitoring, Bridge Management Systems and Inspection Methods
Health Monitoring Combined with Visual Inspections - Obtaining a Comprehensive
Assessment of Cables ................................................................................................................... 19
M. S. Higgins, USA
Danbro+, An Internet-based management system for cable-supported bridges and

other major structures ................................................................................................................... 27
J. Bjerrum, A. Knudsen, Denmark
Norwegian Suspension Bridges.

How the inspections are carried out and feed back from the maintenance .................................. 37
K. A. Grefstad, Norway
Session 3:
Inspection and maintenance
Replacement of main deck and roadway surfacing
Painting robots
Rejuvenating the Tamar Bridge ................................................................................................... 45
D. I. List, UK
Little Belt Suspension Bridge. Durable Long Life Roadway Surfacing....................................... 53

V. Wegan, M. L. Bloomstine, Denmark
Development of a painting robot for bridges ............................................................................... 63

M. Sakamoto, S. Hirota, K. Sugimoto, Japan
Session 4:
Structural safety
Remaining service life of wire cables
Method of Predicting the Remaining Service Life of
Parallel - Wire Main Cables of Suspension Bridges..................................................................... 71
R. Mayrbaurl, A. J. Powell, T. Paskova, USA
Reliability of Damaged Parallel Wire Cables ............................................................................... 79

S. Camo, USA
Session 5:
Structural monitoring
Cable supported bridges
The Great Belt Bridge, Construction monitoring ......................................................................... 89
E. Laursen, Denmark
resund Bridge - Cable system Vibration incidents

Mechanisms and Alleviating Measures ........................................................................................ 99
B. Svensson, L. Emaulsson, E. Svensson, Sweden
Strain Gauge Monitoring of Suspender Cables to Isolate Stresses in the Steel

Orthotropic Box Girder of the Carquinez Bridge ........................................................................ 109
D. A. Khazem, USA
Session 6:
Corrosion protection of cable systems
Zinck Pasta as a Corrosion Inhibitor for the Main Cables and its Affects on
the construction of the Carquinez Bridge .................................................................................... 117
D. A. Khazem, USA
Little Belt Suspension Bridge, Corrosion protection of the Main Cables

and Maintenance of Major Components ...................................................................................... 123
J. V. Thomsen, M. L. Bloomstine, Denmark
Session 7:
Structural monitoring
Inspection technology, cable systems
Fracture Analysis of the Mid-Hudson Bridge Main Cable Wire ................................................. 131
K. Mahmoud, W. J. Moreau, USA
Embrittlement and Cracking of Cold-Drawn High-Strength Bridge Cable Wire ........................ 139
T. Service, T. McKrell, R. Mayrbaurl, R. Latanision, T. Paskova, USA
Establishment of the Non-destructive Inspection Technique for

Suspender Ropes of Suspension Bridges ..................................................................................... 147
A. Moriyama, S. Suzuki, H. Hoaahi, Y. Yoshida, Japan
Session 8:
Cable replacement study
Access equipment for long span bridges
Bear Mountain Bridge Cable Replacement ................................................................................. 155
W. A. Moreau, P. Sluszka, USA
The Waldo Hancock Bridge - Inspection, Monitoring and Strengthening of the Main Cables ... 161
D. Anderson, J. Barbas, USA
Access for Long Span Bridge Maintenance and Inspection ........................................................ 169
J. Gibson, A. Charge, Hong Kong
BENCHMARKING FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

OF CABLE SUPPORTED BRIDGES
Leif Vincentsen1), Finn Bormlund2)
1
Technical Director, Sund & Baelt Holding A/S

and Oeresundsbro Konsortiet
Vester Soegade 10, DK-1601 Copenhagen V
e-mail: ljv@sbf.dk, web page: http://www.sundogbaelt.dk and http://www.oeresundsbron.com
2
Project Manager, Sund & Baelt Holding A/S

Storebaeltsvej 70, DK-4220 Korsor
e-mail: fbt@sbf.dk, web page: http://www.sundogbaelt.dk
Abstract
Sund & Belt Holding A/S is in charge of the operation and maintenance of the Great Belt Fixed Link
between West and East Denmark and the Oresundsbro Konsortiet is in charge of operation and
maintenance of the road and rail link across Oeresund between Denmark and Sweden.
Both infrastructure projects comprise major bridges and tunnels as well as toll stations. The links were
opened to traffic in 1997/1998 and 2000, respectively.
This paper will highlight some of the experience gained from starting a benchmarking project with
other owners/operators of major infrastructure projects to exchange experience on technical and
operational issues. As part of the project a set of international benchmarks for the operation and
maintenance of such infrastructure projects were defined. In order to improve the benchmarking
process it is proposed to start a new cooperation between bridge owners/operators for the benefit of the
bridges.
Keywords
Benchmarking, Maintenance costs, Operation costs, Traffic volume and safety
1.
Introduction
The Great Belt Link:

The fixed link between East and West Denmark, the Great Belt Link is comprised of one tunnel and
two road bridges of which the East Bridge is still the second longest suspension bridge in the world
with a main span of 1624m. The link was opened to rail traffic on 1 July 1997 and to road traffic on
14th June 1998.
The average traffic flow with ferries before the inauguration was 8,500 vehicles per day. Just after the
opening this number increased to 18,500 per day. In year 2003 the average daily traffic has increased
to 22,630 vehicles. The highest traffic volume on a single day has been monitored to approx. 36,000.
The fixed link is the first large infrastructure in Denmark financed by loans obtained by the owner
company and not financed by government funds. A toll fee on road traffic and a fixed fee from the rail
link secure the repayment of loans. In 1998, the repayment period was estimated to be 38 years, now 6
years after the period has been reduced to approx. 28 years because of the increase in the traffic
volume, the low interest rates on loans and limited costs on operation and maintenance.
The Oeresund Link:
The fixed link between Denmark (Copenhagen) and Sweden (Malmo), the Oeresund Link, which
opened to traffic on 1 July 2000, is also financed by loans obtained by the owner company and not
financed by the government funds. Toll on road traffic and a fixed fee for use of the rail link secure the
repayment of loans.
The 16 km Oresund Link comprises one cable-stayed bridge with a main span of 490m and an
immersed tunnel, both containing a four lane motorway and a dual-track railway.
In year 2003 the average daily traffic was 10,360 vehicles.

2.
Benchmarking - a tool for improvements
Benchmarking was originally developed by companies operating in an industrial environment. It has

therefore been applied most widely at the level of the business enterprise. In recent years organisations
such as government agencies, hospitals and universities have also discovered the value of
benchmarking and are applying it to improve their processes and systems.
Benchmarking is a practical tool for improving performance by learning from best practices and the
processes by which they are achieved.
Benchmarking involves looking outward (outside your own company, organisation, or country) to
examine how others achieve their performance levels and to understand the processes they use. In this
way benchmarking helps to explain the processes behind excellent performance. When the lessons
learnt from a benchmarking exercise are applied appropriately, they facilitate improved performance
in critical functions within an organisation or in key areas of the business environment.
Comparing key figures are only one of the steps in the benchmarking process, but are a god help
getting focus on specific areas. Excellent key figures are only an indicator for doing the right thing in
one way. Going behind the key figures and making analyses of the working process is the key element
in a benchmarking process.
Used correctly, benchmarking is sharing good performance, which is a condition for process changes
will result in lasting improvements.
Application of benchmarking involves some basic steps:
Firstly, understand in detail your own processes:
Before starting the project you have to make a priority list of areas where you want improvements by
using benchmarking. Next step is to understand your own processes before starting a dialogue with a
benchmarking partner.
Working with this element will often identify great improvements before starting benchmarking with
other companies.
Next analyse the processes of others:
This diagnostic phase is normally a short duration analysis. It is often based on a questionnaire, which
asks the partner to rate the company against a set of criteria. This is used to identify key areas for
improvement within the business. After this analysis it will be possible to choose your benchmarking
partner.
Then compare your own performance with that of others analysed:
Benchmarking involves looking outward (outside your own company, organisation, or country) to
examine how others achieve their performance levels and to understand the processes they use.
This phase normally involves a visit to the benchmarking partner to exchange knowledge.
Finally, implement the steps necessary to close the performance gap:
In this step all the collected materials will be analysed in order to close a possible performance gap.
Based on the conclusions new working methods should be developed.
Finally inform your benchmarking partner about the result achieved.
3.
The benchmarking project in Sund & Belt and Oeresundsbro Konsortiet
In order to meet the many requirements from customers, employees, society and the shareholder, Sund
& Belt Holding and Oeresundsbro Konsortiet have decided to base management of the company on
the European model for Business Excellence.
Employee
management
LeaderShip
Policy
and strategy
Employee
satisfaction
Costomer
satisfaction
Processes
Business
results
Impact
on society
Resources
Results
Enablers
Fig. 1 Business Excellence Model
The EFQM Excellence Model is a freely practicable structure model based upon 9 criteria. The model
can be used in the assessment of an organisation on the journey towards excellence.
The overall objective meaning of the criteria Processes is to identify improvements of processes in
general. Benchmarking is an excellent tool for doing this job.
In year 2002 Sund & Belt introduced a new Quality Management System VIPS (VIsual Process
management System). Oeresundsbro Konsortiet introduced a quite similar system OPUS in 2003. The
systems architecture is developed upon the kernel of the Business Excellence model EFQM.
Departments and staff members can from the system get all the information relating to the EFQM
model.
Visual Process operation in VIPS and OPUS is based on diagrams with a limited use of text resulting
in an excellent overview of responsibilities for specific activities. VIPS/OPUS is an information and
communication tool for all documentation in relation to quality. For example, goals and results are
closely related to the process workflows, and there is good connection between process owner,
specifications and the organisation diagrams.
VIPS/OPUS can also be used for process comparisons which is one of the basic steps in
benchmarking. Fig 2 below shows two processes. It is obvious that the process to the right has a
smaller number of activities and loops resulting in less handing overs. The possibility for making
errors is therefore less in the right process.
Fig 2. Process comparisons
Sund & Baelt has decided among other indicators to follow the benchmark definitions given by the
European Federation of National Maintenance Societies EFNMS [2]. EFNMS has adopted a list of 13
indicators as fundamental maintenance performance measures. The indicators are:
I:01
I:02
I:03
I:04
I:05
I:06
I:07
I:08
I:09
I:10
I:11
I:12
I:13
Maintenance costs as a % of Plant replacement value

Stores investment as a % of Plant replacement value
Contractor costs as a % of Maintenance costs
Preventive maintenance costs as a % of Maintenance costs
Preventive maintenance man hours as a % of Maintenance man hours
Maintenance costs as a % of Turnover
Training man hours as a % of Maintenance man hours
Immediate corrective maintenance man hours as a % of Maintenance man hours
Planned and scheduled man hours as a % of Maintenance man hours
Required operating time as a % of Total available time
Actual operating time as a % of Required operating time
Actual operating time / Number of immediate corrective maintenance events
Immediate corrective maintenance time / Number of immediate corrective maintenance events
The indicator selection is relatively easy to understand, but defining the terms is a fairly big job.
Because of the limited space in this paper the terms of 4 pages are not presented, but can be
downloaded from the web [1].
Many other indicators than the above-mentioned can be used in a benchmarking process. But such
indicators have to be carefully defined between the partners when starting the process or must be
developed when sufficient experience with the method has been obtained.
In year 2001 Sund & Baelt decided to start a benchmarking group consisting of owners/operators of
major infrastructure projects world wide in order to exchange experience on technical and operational
issues. A total of 20 major infrastructure operators were invited to participate in the project - eight
operators responded that they were interested.
The following key figures were analysed in the first step:
Economic figures in relation to maintenance

Economic figures in relation to operation
Traffic accessibility
Traffic volume
Traffic safety
The analyses of the received key figures can be graphically explained as shown on the following
example.
Preventive and corrective maintenance costs as % of maintenance costs

Year 2000
Partner 7
partner 6
7,5
92,5
Partner 5
Partner 4
37,3
52,3
Partner 3
36,7
38,8
Partner 2
Partner 1
26,9
56,5
Oresund Fixed Link

(2000)
The Great Belt Link
(1998)
13
87
10
20
30
Preventive maintenance costs as % of maintenance costs
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Corrective maintenance costs as % of maintenance costs
Fig. 3 Preventive and corrective maintenance costs as % of maintenance costs

Looking at the example fig. 3 above, it is obvious that the Great Belt Link and partner no. 6 are
focusing more on preventive maintenance than the other partners. The reason why is of interest to
discuss in more detail between the partners.
The example also shows that there is a need for a closer dialog between the partners on the definition
of indicators as for example not all have responded that the preventive and corrective maintenance
costs together make up the total maintenance costs.
The age of the infrastructure, among other reasons, influence the distribution between preventive and
corrective maintenance which can explain differences, but above all it is important for most operators
to have a dialog on how to define the optimum level.
Other key figures analysed in the benchmark project are shown on the last page.
4.
Conclusion and proposal for restart of a benchmarking process
Although benchmarking is a relatively simple process to improve good performance, it is difficult to

create an effective forum for benchmarking.
Before starting the project the management must give its consent to start the process and to have an
open dialog with other operators. You have to give information to others if you want to receive
information. This is a prerequisite for success.
The benchmarking indicators must be well defined and not too complex to cope with. Keep it simple is
also in this respect a good doctrine.
Another important issue is to create a confidential interaction between partners of similar
infrastructures based on a relationship of trust. The relationship is best created by personal contact and
face to face dialog. It is not enough to exchange information on paper or using e-mails. You have to
meet and have a direct dialog on the subject.
In order to restart a benchmarking process between large infrastructure operators world wide we
propose that a yearly one or two-day workshop be held between such operators in order to create a
forum for confidential exchange of experience on operation and maintenance of large bridges (and
tunnels).
In order to get an indication of interest for such a workshop we will place a questionnaire at the
conference and if sufficient interest is registered we will take the initiative for the first workshop to
take place late 2004 or early 2005.
Partner 7
01-01-1964
38,4
3.007
12
No
12,9
2,512
3,007
2.779
4
No
2,779
10
12
0,22
11
11
0,39
21
21
0,05
2,46
0,62
0,3
0,15
2,19
87
7,5
1,9
56,5
53,2
8,51
38,8
10,61
52,3
4,65
92,5
36,7
37,3
7,5
26,9
partner 6
Partner 3
01-01-1964
38,4
2.512
2
Yes
13
Partner 5
Partner 2
31-05-1997
4,9
12.900
2
Yes
22
01-07-2000
1,8
7.845
2
Yes
4.055
2
Yes
3940
2
No
15,84
14-06-1998
3,9
13.401
2
Yes
8.600
2
Yes
Partner 4
Partner 1
Oresund Fixed Link
The Great Belt Link
In operation since
Years in operation per 1. maj 2002
Bridge length (m)
- Lanes per carriageway
- Emergency lane (Y/N)
Road length (m)
Tunnel length (m)
Length of toll road (km)
Toll colection station
- Nos. of toll lanes direction 1
- Nos. of toll lanes direction 2
Maintenance costs as %
of project replacement value
Maintenance costs as % of turn over
Preventive maintenance costs as % of
maintenance costs
Corrective maintenance costs as % of
maintenance costs
Contractors costs as % of maintenance
costs
Maintenance costs per passage (USD)
Maintenance costs per Nos. of staff
(USD)
Operation costs as % of turn over
Operators costs as % of operation costs
Operation costs per passage (USD)
Operation costs per Nos. of staff (USD)
Link closed due to bad weather ie. strong
wind (hours)
Link closed in one direction due to traffic
accidents (hours)
Link closed in both directions due to
traffic accidents
Link closed in one direction due to
maintenance work
Link closed in both directions due to
maintenance work
Procentage of traffic volumen affected by
one or more closed lanes due to
maintenance work
Hours with waiting time in toll station
(more than 10 min)
Manual lanes
(vehicles per hour per lane)
Card lanes
Subscriber lanes (ETC)
Total in one direction (Vehicles per day)
Total in both directions (Vehicles per
day)
Total in one direction
(Vehicles per hour)
Total in both directions
(Vehicles per hour)
Actual year 2000
Estimated year 2001
Estimated year 2002
Truck %
Estimated Truck % 2001
Estimated Truck % 2002
Nos. of fatalities
per 100 million driving km
Nos of accidients with injuries
Nos. of fatalities
Nos of accidients with injuries
01-01-1950
52,4
01-12-2000
1,4
4.420
6/4
No
40.200
6/8
No
635
6
No
45,255
01-04-1998
4,1
3.911
3
No
34.689
3
No
5.800
3
No
44,4
01-01-1997
5,3
4.197
3
No
17.812
2/4
Yes
1.600
3
No
24
12
12
72
20
10,6
6,8
9,97
7,26
49,8
0,7
345.000
0,41
5.600
0,32
133.367
0,25
332.242
0,34
174.511
1,35
135.635
0,9
26,4
0,3
800.000
10
17,55
4,3
94,9
0,54
21.633
0
11,36
47,63
0,33
245.640
0
16,53
67,32
0,54
120.064
0
8,48
67,7
2,4
324.593
0
6,3
1,25
1,26
2800
3,2
0,4
27,2
260
138
149
305
317
53
376
356
0,1
44.003
0
510
22
363
300
282
245
270
739
821
6.050
40.251
80.502
725
291
21.741
34.687
101.985
19.195
2.512
562
4.019
972
7.500.000
7.800.000
8.300.000
12,0
12,0
12,0
0,6
1.700.000
3.000.000
3.300.000
8,0
9,0
10,0
0
700.789
690.000
685.000
18,7
19,0
19,0
0
0,43
0,2
0,76
0,95
0,2
0,0083
0,1258
0,3
0,1
0,83
0,7928
660
8.612
22.168.506
22.501.033
6,1
6,1
0
74.357
54.000
67.873
4.593
1.127
3.342
1.951
5.218
2.253
6.668
3.927
9.224.361
8.196.048
9.234.500
17,7
17,0
18,0
0,0093
27.500.000
27.000.000
27.500.000
40,0
38,0
40,0
0
74.843.583
77.088.891
77.088.891
5,1
5,0
5,0
0,25
21.700.438
21.700.438
21.700.438
3,3
3,3
3,3
0
5,4
5,1
Fig. 4 Key figures from the first benchmarking process in 2001

References
[1] http://www.efnms.org/benchmarking.html
[2] (http://www.efnms.org)
46459
8.293.548
0,2
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE STRATEGY

OUTSOURCING OR OWN MANPOWER
Mr James M Clune, General Manager
Severn River Crossing Plc
Bridge Access Road, Aust
South Gloucestershire, BS35 4BD
United Kingdom
Telephone: 00441454-635006
E-mail: jim.clune@severnbridge.co.uk
The views expressed in this paper are the personal views of the author and not necessarily those of
KEY WORDS
Statutory Inspection and Maintenance Regime Frequencies, Adjustment of Frequencies based on
historic data, Use Of Remote Diagnostics Finite Element Analysis Ultrasonics, Wireless Data
Capture Devices, Software Systems for Recording and Administering Inspections/Maintenance,
Use of Bridge Mounted Access Equipment for Inspection/Maintenance, In-house Experience
Continuity Consistency, Outsourcing Cost Effectiveness Predictability/Certainty of Cost,
Specialised Inspections Outsourcing, Abseiling, Carriageway Mounted Access to e.g. Bridge
Underdecks, Numbers of Bridges in a Region or Area - Pooling of Inspection/Maintenance Resources,
Bridge Operators Organisations Bulk Purchasing Power Re Outsourcing
Severn Crossings
INTRODUCTION
Severn River Crossing Plc (SRC) is the Operator of the two Estuarial Crossings over the River Severn
near Bristol, UK see Map as Appendix 1 to this Paper.
In 1992, SRC was awarded the Concession to finance, design, and construct the Second Severn
Crossing (carrying the M4 Motorway) and to operate and maintain both Crossings (the original Severn
Bridge carries the M48 Motorway) for a maximum period of 30 years. SRC is reimbursed via the
collection of the tolling revenues. The Concession Period is also capped in financial terms when
tolling revenues reach a predetermined sum the Concession will end.
M48 Severn Crossing
The awarding Authority is the Department for Transport of the UK Government (DfT) and the liaison
Authority is the Highways Agency of the DfT (HA).
(Throughout this Paper, the Department for Transport will be abbreviated to DfT and the Highways
Agency to HA. Severn River Crossing will be abbreviated to SRC.)
Some Bridge Operators carry extensive In-House resources whilst others use almost completely
Outsourced expertise. The Outsourced option generally involves the implementation of a concerted
exercise at the statutory principal inspection intervals. There may be a view that extensive In-House
resources effectively create additional Inspection/Maintenance Works. There is also however a
considerable comfort factor with the In-House approach. Outsourcing may give greater certainty of
cost and specialisation is arguably more productive than multi-skilling. Many disciplines of
Inspection/Maintenance are common to the majority of significant structures.
The ease and nature of access to structures has a significant bearing on the strategy to be adopted.
Numbers and complexity of Cable/Pylon and Underdeck Access Equipment are also critical to the
arguments.
The capacity to influence statutory Inspection and Maintenance regimes through the quality of
reporting and recording affects the workload to be undertaken. The development of IT
Systems/Remote Diagnostics/Data Capture Devices will also prove influential in terms of
productivity.
The pooling of resources between Operators in an Area or Region may be an alternative or halfway
house in the arguments concerning In-House or Outsourcing.
10
The various Operator Organisations that exist should also be in a position to influence pricing of
Outsourcing options due to bulk purchasing possibilities.
Survey of Operators
Severn River Crossing Plc has been undertaking research in the area of Inspection and Maintenance of
Bridge Structures to attempt to establish currently adopted strategies. A survey has been conducted
amongst Operators of significant structures throughout the UK and certain other countries see
Appendix 2. Taking into consideration the wide variety and size of structures, it is difficult to draw
definitive conclusions. However, it is possible to draw certain broad conclusions and these are
discussed later in this Paper. Contributions from the various Operators are gratefully acknowledged
and a list of contributors is contained in Appendix 3.
Statutory Inspection Regimes Frequencies
Throughout the United Kingdom, the Inspection frequencies for significant bridge structures have
historically been determined by the DfT/HA. In general, these requirements have revolved around:
Principal Inspection every 6 years (all parts close visual)
General Inspection every 2 years (sampling basis)
Inspections for access equipment have been governed by a range of Standards, Crane Regulations,
Lifting Beams, etc. In 1991, the Institution of Structural Engineers produced a guide for The
operation and maintenance of Bridge Access Gantries and Runways that is now accepted as the
benchmark within the UK. This sets out comprehensive structural, mechanical and electrical
inspection, maintenance and testing requirements. It includes a detailed 6-yearly inspection
requirement that can be compared to that for a DfT principal inspection but which in many respects is
more demanding since it involves the dismantling of components.
In 1999, the HA published draft Bridge Inspection Manuals that potentially alter the existing
requirements to:
Benchmark Inspections at intervals from 6 to 24 years depending on condition
Particular Inspections at intervals from 6 months to 12 years depending on condition
Special Inspections when needed
DfT/HA Inspection Standards are not mandatory on the owners of private bridge structures. However,
if such structures carry a public highway, it can be argued that DfT/HA requirements are strongly
implied. In addition, Insurers of such structures will almost certainly incorporate the requirement for
DfT/HA Inspection regimes as a condition of cover.
Adjustment of Frequencies based on Historical Data
Many major bridge Operators (in particular for the older structures) have built up a significant pool of
data concerning the history of repairs and the general behaviour of the bridge parts. SRC has historical
data available for 20+ years in respect of the M48 Severn Bridge and for 8 years in respect of the M4
Second Severn Crossing.
This data is being sensibly used to adapt the Inspection Frequency for certain bridge parts, e.g. the
Benchmark Inspection 6 to 24 years depending on condition.
11
It is strongly suggested that such historical data is the most accurate method of establishing the
appropriate frequency for both the Benchmark and Particular Inspections.
Additional aids can include:
Remote Diagnostics e.g. sound monitoring of bridge cables
Finite Element Analysis of key parts/loadpath
Additional data needs to be considered in the area of traffic volumes, vehicle weights, axle loadings,
displacement of heavy goods traffic to carriageway lanes, etc. The M48 Severn Bridge carried 18
million vehicles per annum at the time of the construction of the M4 Second Crossing. Since the
opening of the Second Crossing, that volume has fallen to 6 million vehicles per annum. This has
significantly influenced the incidence of repairs to steelwork.
SRC has developed a bespoke software system (SCRIMS) that utilises wireless data capture devices
and a comprehensive database to monitor, control and record the condition of the structures. An audit
trail can be traced from initial inspection through to close out of repairs.
M4 Second Severn Crossing
Use of Bridge Mounted Access Equipment for Inspection and Maintenance

Many bridge structures utilise specially designed access equipment for inspection and
maintenance activities. Examples include:
Underdeck gantries
Cable climbing gantries
Tower/Pylon access cradles
Monorails
It is suggested that Bridge Designers may not fully consider (at design stage) the life cycle costs of
incorporating permanent bespoke bridge mounted access equipment. Other factors may merit more
comprehensive consideration at design stage including:
The availability of mobile carriageway mounted access equipment
The frequency of usage and operational limits of permanent access equipment
The costs of inspecting and maintaining the permanent access equipment
The costs of training and retraining specialised drivers
The costs of insuring the permanent access equipment
12
The cost of a number of simple low maintenance gantries compared with a single
complex universal gantry.
At the M48 Severn Bridge and the M4 Second Severn Crossing, there are currently 14 permanent
underdeck access gantries, 2 tower/pylon access cradles, 2 cable climbing gantries and a monorail.
The access equipment is heavily used at the Severn Crossings.
This is also the most comprehensive range of permanent equipment in use amongst the Bridge
Operators that were surveyed by SRC for the purpose of this Paper although clearly the length and
complexity of structures is highly significant. The structures/combination of structures surveyed vary
in length/combined lengths from 3 to 14 kilometres.
Vehicle access to the structures from carriageways/tracks ranges from 60% to 100% amongst the
Operators surveyed.
Inspection and Maintenance In-House or Outsourced
Of the 7 Operators surveyed by SRC for this Paper, 4 use significant outsourcing facilities.
SRC uses in-house facilities almost exclusively for Inspection and Maintenance.
The SRC strategy is based on a constant rolling Inspection and Maintenance Programme. Other
Operators maintain a smaller permanent resource and conduct a concentrated Inspection regime (by
external resource) at the required intervals, e.g. over a period of months every 6 years, in the case of a
Principal Inspection.
The factors that need to be considered in assessing the most appropriate option are:
Outsourcing:
The flexibility and versatility of the outsourced option
The possible lack of consistency/continuity of the outourced option
The costs of managing the outsourced option (assessed as 2% by one expert)
The need to establish the correct market sufficient qualified vendors
The need to maintain a degree of in-house expertise and the capacity to respond to
emergencies
The need for a back-up plan in the event of failure of outsourcing
The secondary costs of the loss of an existing skill/knowledge base
In-House:
The overall comfort factor of building up and retaining in-house skills/knowledge
base
The costs associated with changing from in-house to outsourcing labour
displacement
Detailed knowledge of the structures built up in-house
The highly specialised nature of certain inspection work
Insurance Issues
Continuity and consistency of inspection and reporting
A rolling programme of inspections provides information that can be used to minimise
unplanned traffic disruption
This Paper makes a distinction between Routine Inspection and Maintenance and Specialised
Inspection/Maintenance.
13
The Routine works would consist of basic core skills involved in inspecting and maintaining concrete
and steel structures. Surfacing works would also come under this heading.
Specialised works would include complex permanent access equipment and proprietary systems, e.g.
cable systems, post tensioning systems.
This Paper submits that there is a strong case for outsourcing the Specialised Inspection and
Maintenance Works for the following reasons:
The work can be seasonalised and is not a constant requirement
The skills required are difficult to recruit and to retain in-house
It should be possible to establish a benchmark condition survey of the relevant
equipment/systems
The outsourced resource will bring skills and experience developed on a wide range
of bridges/equipment
With proper condition surveys, a high degree of cost certainty could be achieved
Specialist equipment can be expensive to purchase and maintain
The basic core skills that are required for the Routine works can be maintained in-house and would
also be available to respond to emergency work. These skills are less difficult to retain/replace. In
general, the core activities are carried out throughout the year and are less susceptible to
seasonalisation.
The Survey that has been conducted by SRC into Inspection and Maintenance has proved interesting
but inconclusive. 7 Operators provided contributions, 6 from UK, 1 from USA and 1 from Denmark.
The range, length and complexity of the structures make direct comparisons difficult, but general
strategy can be identified.
Some random results are presented:
Total lengths of structures maintained per Operator range from 3 kilometres to 14
kilometres (rounded)
Direct employees range from 4 to 71
Outsourcing costs range from sterling 50k (75k) to stg 936k (1,400k)
Estimated costs per metre of Inspection/Maintenance of structures range from
stg 100 (150) to stg 500 (750)
(this must be the best indicator of the wide variety of structure types)
The structures that formed the subject of the survey included:
6 suspension bridges
3 cable stay bridges
8 viaducts
5 steel bridges (non-suspension/cable stayed)
14
CONCLUSION
Ultimately, there may be a delicate balance to be struck between an In-House or Outsourcing strategy
and the purpose of this Paper is to attempt to establish that balance. However, it is recognised that
circumstances vary considerably between different Bridge Operators and the strategy that suits one
structure may be inappropriate for others. This Conference should promote a wider understanding
between Operators.
This Paper suggests that there is scope for sharing of Inspection and Maintenance resources between
the many Bridge Operators in Europe and further afield. The (unofficial) Bridge Operators Group in
the UK includes, inter alia:
The Severn Crossings
The Humber Bridge
The Forth Road Bridge
The Tay Bridge
The Tamar Bridge
The Dartford Crossing
All Bridge Operators utilise the same core skills and, in many cases, the same specialised skills. These
skills can be shared between Operators. Benefits would accrue in terms of sharing different technical
solutions to the same problems. In time, rationalisation could produce resource cost benefits. The cost
benefits of combined bulk purchasing power would also be attractive to Operators.
Events such as the International Cable Supported Bridge Operators Conference could also be
instrumental in promoting this strategy for the benefit of all Operators.
15
APPENDIX 1 MAP
16
APPENDIX 2
SURVEY
Summary of the Bridge Operators Maintenance Survey
Name
Severn
Structures
Suspension
Cable Stay
Concrete
Steel
Tunnels
Viaducts
Other
1
2
1
1
1
4
2
3
8000
3290
2717
2224
12
50
2
15
1
10
1
50 e
59
50
31
200
19
600
503
413
451
10
50
40
5
90
100
100
15% 2no
20% 12no
10% 10no
1%
6no
10%
1%
10% 4no
1%
1%
Total Length
No of Sites
965
13700
12000
1 Multiple
100
1
1
2
356
1
225
15
1
80
2
580
65
326
118
98
104
20
30
90
90
25
Inspection Resources
Directly Employed
Outsourced ( 1,000s )
Maintenance Rosources
Directly Employed
Outsourced ( 1,000s
( ),
p y
Cost per metre

Access
From Carriageway
From Access Tracks
Walking
75
Working Platforms
Complex
Permanent Travelling
Temporary
Abseiling
75% 2no
10%
5%
4 no
4 no
Ad Hoc
25% 2no
40% 8no
BS
BS
BS
In House
In House
In House
20% 3no
5%
Standards Utilisied
Civils
Mech
Elec
Access Equip
Inspection Reporting Method
BS
BS
IEE
ISE
BS
IEE
ISE
BS
In House
In House
ISE
PDAs
Paper - PC
Paper - PC
17
BS
BS
Paper - PC
Paper - PC
US National
In House
US National
Manual
APPENDIX 3
REFERENCES
Bibliography
Bridge Inspection Guide (DoT et al, 1984)
British Standard BD 63, Inspection of Highway Structures (DMRB 3.1.4)
UK Advice Note BA 63, Inspection of Highway Structures (DMRB 33.1.5)
UK Institution of Structural Engineers, Code of Practice
UK Institution of Electrical Engineers, Various Codes
Highways Agency, Bridge Inspection Manual, General Procedures, Draft June 1999
Contributors
Forth Estuary Transport Authority
The Humber Bridge Board
The Tay Bridge Board
The Tamar Bridge
Le Crossing Dartford Crossing
A/S Storebaelt
The New York State Bridge Authority
A F Hudson, Chief Engineer, SRC
M J Gudgeon, Finance and Administration Department, SRC
18
HEALTH MONITORING COMBINED WITH VISUAL INSPECTIONSOBTAINING A COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT OF CABLES

Michael S. Higgins, P.E.
Regional Manager
Pure Technologies
10015 Old Columbia Road, Suite B215
Columbia, MD 21046
mike.higgins@soundprint.com
ABSTRACT
The high strength steel wire used in cable supported bridges is known to be vulnerable to corrosion
and fatigue problems in numerous bridges and other types of structures. As a result, obtaining a
realistic assessment of the cables employed on suspension bridges and cable stay bridges has received
much attention over the past several decades. The load carrying wires of stay cables and suspension
bridge main cables are hidden from sight and do not necessarily produce visual evidence of corrosion
or fatigue problems on the surface of the cable or structure. This paper discusses the challenges
associated with detailed visual inspection techniques and provides a description of how to supplement
these inspections with an innovative health monitoring technology for cables to obtain a
comprehensive assessment.
CORROSION IN BRIDGE CABLES
It is well known that as the ultimate strength of steel increases, so does its vulnerability to corrosion.
John A. Roebling, designer of the first high strength steel suspension bridge main cables, recognized
this and implemented a sophisticated corrosion protection system, which is still the basis for corrosion
protection on many of todays suspension bridges. However, as time progresses, even the best
protection systems can become compromised and create internal environmental conditions conducive
to corrosion.
In the United States, where the inventory of suspension bridges is generally older than other nations,
significant corrosion (Stage IV corrosion) in main cables has been observed numerous bridges. Cable
stay bridges in the United States have not yet been known to have corrosion problems, but there are
problems with fatigue in some stay cables and as this population of bridges age, corrosion can be
expected to be a concern at some point.
As a result, it is important for bridge owners to obtain a comprehensive, realistic assessment of main
cables and stay cables. However obtaining an accurate assessment is challenging:
Load carrying wires are hidden. On conventional structural members (e.g. steel girders,
reinforced concrete beams) conventional visual inspections can readily identify deterioration.
However, the corrosion protection system employed on most bridge cables covers the load
carrying wires from sight so these types of visual inspections are not meaningful.
Corrosion or fatigue may be localized. If an entire cable corroded at the same rate, inspection
ports can be opened in the cable to provide an understanding of the cable. However, the
corrosion problems may be localized where a significant area of corrosion may occur in the
cable, but a relatively small distance away, the cable may be in satisfactory condition.
Corrosion or fatigue may not produce visual evidence on the exterior of the cable. Even
severe corrosion/fatigue problems in cables will not necessarily produce rusting on the surface
19
of the cable or bulges in the cable. Further, other forms of visual evidence (e.g. deformations,
cracking) may only form after a safety issue has developed.
Corrosion can occur anywhere along the length of a cable. Engineers often conclude that if
corrosion is present it will be observed at the low point of a cable. The reason being that
when moisture and other contaminants enter the cable they will run to the low point.
However, practice has shown that this is not necessarily the case. It may be the case that
corrosion will occur where the corrosion protection system breaks down.
Given the above challenges associated with assessing a structural cable, it is difficult to obtain a
comprehensive assessment. However, by implementing detailed visual inspections combined with the
best technologies now available, an owner can obtain a true assessment of their cables. This paper
discusses such an inspection protocol through the combined use of acoustic monitoring and detailed
visual inspections.
DETAILED VISUAL INSPECTIONS OF STRUCTURAL CABLES

Until recently, bridge owners and engineers had to primarily rely on detailed visual inspections to
provide an assessment of a cable. For the main cables of suspension bridges and stay cables, the
inspection procedures vary quite significantly, but the overall inspection concept is similar in both
types of bridges: expose the load carrying wires and visually inspect the wire.
Common Procedures Used for Visual Inspections
Detailed visual inspections on suspension bridges typically involve unwrapping several sections of
main cable between cable bands and inspecting the load carrying wires or strands. Wedges are driven
into the cable to expose some of the interior wires for inspection. Figure 1 presents an unwrapped
parallel wire main cable undergoing a detailed visual inspection. With the cable inspected in such a
fashion qualified engineers can visually assess and employ a ranking system to describe the amount of
corrosion damage to a cable at the location of the inspection.
Figure 1: Detailed visual inspection of a suspension bridge main cable. Wedges are driven into the
cable to facilitate the inspection of some of the interior wires.
20
Detailed visual inspections of stay cables are less common than inspections of main cables. For
inspections of stay cables, a window can be cut through the protective covering (usually a
polyethylene or steel duct) and, if present, the grout is removed to expose the strands within the stay
cables.
Limitations of Visual Inspections
These types of visual inspections provide owners and engineers with invaluable information on the
condition of the most important structural member of cable supported bridges. All cable supported
bridge owners should consider a program to assess and monitor their cables to ensure the safe,
proactive management of these vital structural members. No matter how advanced technology
becomes, visual assessments should remain an active part of this process. However, there are
important limitations with these inspection procedures that must be recognized and accounted for:
1. During most detailed inspections, only a small percentage of the cable is exposed.
2. The rate of corrosion in the cable remains unknown.
3. Problem areas can grow between visual inspections.
The most significant limitation with visual inspections is that unless a major and costly inspection
effort is implemented, only a relatively small percentage of the cable is inspected. For instance, when
looking at the main cables of a suspension bridge, the number of cable panels uncovered during a
detailed inspection is usually fewer than ten. Considering that almost all suspension bridges have
more than 100 panels, the total percentage of cable inspected is less than 10%. More realistically this
figure is often near 5%. Furthermore, if one looks at the percentage of wire inspected, the percent
inspected is far less. During a National Cooperative Highway Research Program workshop it was
noted that uncovering a 40 foot (3 m) length of cable and wedging down 5 inches (125 mm) at eight
points around the circumference, exposes only 0.028% of the total length of wire on a typical bridge
(assumes 4000 foot long main cable with 15,000 wires).
After performing inspections of this nature, recommendations are typically made for the entire cable,
essentially extrapolating the results of the inspection. This can be a risky practice when such a small
percentage of the cable is inspected. Similar statistics can also be developed for cable stay bridges.
In addition to this limitation, the rate of corrosion in the cable is not determined during these one time
inspections. Detailed inspections look into the cable at one moment in time, thus the rate of corrosion
is unknown unless follow-up inspections are performed over a period of years. Also, since detailed
inspections are often separated by several years, even decades, significant corrosion problems can
develop and grow between inspections.
Despite these limitations, detailed visual inspections provide invaluable information regarding the
condition of a cable and should be a part of any cable assessment program. However, technology has
demonstrated promise to address the limitations associated with detailed visual inspections. With a
combined approach of health monitoring and visual inspections, a comprehensive assessment of
cables can now be obtained within a reasonable budget.
HEALTH MONITORING SYSTEMS FOR BRIDGE CABLES
Structural health monitoring is an industry that has developed fairly recently in the history of civil
engineering. Structural monitoring systems utilizing a wide range of sensor types and software have
been deployed around the world.
For health monitoring of cables, acoustic monitoring has proven to provide invaluable information to
the owners and engineers of cable supported bridges. Acoustic monitoring relies on continuously
21
monitoring the sounds (or acoustic events) in a cable to identify the specific acoustic event associated
with a wire failure in a cable. When corrosion or fatigue problems are present in a cable, it results in
wire failures in a wire-by-wire failure process. While wire failures are not typically a structurally
significant event, they do generate a significant release of strain energy, which generates the acoustic
event. Sound travels well in steel and concrete, so a relatively few number of sensors can be deployed
to monitor the entire length of a cable. An acoustic monitoring system is capable of identifying the
occurrence of a wire break and calculating the location of where the event took place.
Acoustic monitoring utilizes an array of piezoelectric sensors on the structure. The non-powered
sensors are adhered to the surface of the cable and generate a voltage from acoustic activity. This
signal is transmitted to a data acquisition system through either a hard wired or wireless connection.
Figure 2 shows a hardwired and wireless sensor.
Figure 2- (left) Hardwired acoustic sensor mounted on a stay cable of the Quincy Bayview Bridge in
Illinois (USA). (right) Wireless sensor on the main cable of the Waldo Hancock Bridge in Maine
(USA). The sensor can be seen on the cable band just under the cable. The solar power panel
charges a battery in the grey box which powers a wireless transmitter.
The data acquisition system associated with an acoustic monitoring system must be located on or near
the structure being monitored. The purpose of the data acquisition system is to acquire data from all
the sensors on a structure and to determine if an acoustic event meets basic criteria for a wire break.
To perform this task requires continuous, ongoing filtering of the ambient noise associated with a
structure. Once an event meets the basic criteria for a wire break, the acquisition system retains data
sampled at high sampling rates and transmits this data to a processing center. Here trained personnel
review and classify the acoustic event. If a wire break is classified for a structure the location is
calculated and the relevant information is reported to the owner and engineer.
Acoustic monitoring of this fashion has been used since 1993 for wire break detection in a variety of
types of civil structures. Efficacy has been verified on a number of structures including suspension
bridges, cable stay bridges, post-tensioned bridges, post-tensioned buildings, and prestressed
pipelines. Numerous technical papers exist documenting these verifications. Some questions
regarding this type of structural monitoring still exist, but verifications have shown that the system
detects and accurately locates wire breaks as they occur in a variety of civil infrastructure, including
cable supported bridges.
22
Limitations of acoustic monitoring include:

1. Acoustic monitoring systems detect wire breaks as they occur, but will not detect existing
broken wires in a cable. Acoustic monitoring should be employed to ensure that active areas
of corrosion or fatigue are identified or to verify that they do not exist.
2. Data must be interpreted by trained experts in signal processing. By viewing the properties of
various acoustic events, these experts can reliably determine if an acoustic event was
generated by a wire break. Efforts have been made to automate the process, but at this point,
automation is not reliable.
3. Various forms of construction can mask wire breaks so that they are not detected.
Acoustic monitoring shows great promise and may prove to be one of the most valuable tools for
cable supported bridge owners. However, it is still a relatively new technology and engineers are still
determining where it will fit into the management role of these structures. With the limitations
described above, it would not be prudent to rely solely on an acoustic monitoring system to assess a
cable. Instead, it should be used in conjunction with detailed visual inspections and other tools to
provide owners and engineers with a comprehensive assessment of cables.
COMBINING VISUAL INSPECTIONS AND ACOUSTIC MONITORING
To provide an assessment of structural cables that an owner can rely on, the assessment should
address two major issues:
1. Understanding the existing condition of the cable- The assessment program must quantify the
condition of a cable.
2. Assessing the entire cable- Within practical limits, an assessment should assess the entire
length of a cable. Similar to a chain, a cable is only as strong as its weakest link. To assess
a cable by looking at discrete points and extrapolating the results can be a risky practice.
By combining acoustic monitoring with detailed visual inspections, owners and engineers can meet
both these requirements. To appropriately combine these technologies, acoustic monitoring would
ideally be used prior to visual inspections for a significant period of time. If there are areas of fatigue
or corrosion, acoustic monitoring will detect breaking wires in these areas. Subsequently, the detailed
visual inspections can be directed to these areas to quantify the level of damage. This approach to
assessing cables will enable engineers to identify problematic locations or the weakest link. With
this approach an assessment can be made of the entire length of cable.
Duration and Sequence of Acoustic Monitoring
Ideally, for the combined approach of acoustic monitoring and detailed inspections, the monitoring
would be performed for a significant period of time prior to the inspections. However, there are many
variables that enter into scheduling and the sequencing of work on major bridges. Two questions
should be analyzed when employing acoustic monitoring with this approach:
Question #1: How long should the structure be monitored?
Question #2: When should the monitoring be performed?
The simple answer to Question #1 is that the longer the duration of monitoring the better. However,
in practical terms, the structure should be monitored for at least six months. A period of less than six
months would not provide an accurate picture. This duration of monitoring will help to ensure that
any significant problems will be detected. The longer the structure is monitored, the smaller the scale
of problems that will be detected. Longer monitoring periods increase the likelihood of capturing
wire breaks that are not evenly distributed in time. It is likely that some structures develop most of the
23
wire breaks seasonally with temperature or other factors. For instance, on the Waldo Hancock
Bridge, discussed below, several areas of severe corrosion were discovered. In this case, there would
have been ongoing wire failure activity at each of these areas that could have been detected with an
acoustic monitoring system relatively quickly, most likely within six months. Although the rate of
wire failure for the bridge is unknown, the acoustic monitoring system would have identified multiple
wire breaks at the problematic locations. Then cable inspections would have been directed to the
problematic locations and a true assessment would have been obtained. In cables with a problematic
area exhibiting slower rates of corrosion, it will take longer to identify the area.
The easy answer to Question #2, is that at least one year of monitoring would be performed prior to
detailed inspections. However, it must be recognized that in some cases, logistics will dictate that
inspections can not be delayed. In this case, acoustic monitoring can be implemented in parallel with
the inspections. At least one area of detailed inspections should be reserved until a sufficient duration
of acoustic monitoring is performed. Then, the remaining detailed inspections can be directed to areas
indicated by the acoustic monitoring system.
Number of Visual Inspections
The number of detailed visual inspections that should be performed on a cable is presently the topic of
much research and debate. There are a handful of consulting engineering firms with qualified
expertise at determining the quantity of visual inspections that should be performed. An owner
should rely on these experienced firms. This paper does not enter into this ongoing dialogue, except
to state that the quantity of detailed visual inspections performed should not be significantly reduced
based on the results of acoustic monitoring. In a suspension bridge, to eliminate visual inspection of
one panel section may offset the cost associated with an acoustic monitoring program. This may be
prudent, if a significant number of panels are still unwrapped and inspected.
Subsequent to the Assessment Program
To install an acoustic monitoring system, an owner will incur costs associated with the data
acquisition system, sensors, and installation. Subsequent to the inspection program, the acoustic
monitoring system can be left in place on the structure to provide a long term monitoring system to
promote proper asset management of critical structures. In this case, problems between inspections
would be detected and reported. Furthermore, the system can be tied into other structural monitoring
systems or other types of sensors can be connected to the acoustic monitoring data acquisition system.
Continuous monitoring would require a cost to interpret the data from the acoustic system and to
ensure the system continues to function as designed.
CASE STUDY- WALDO HANCOCK SUSPENSION BRIDGE
The Waldo Hancock Bridge near Bangor, Maine in the United States was opened in 1931. During
1992, portions of the main cables were unwrapped and inspected. In 1998, inspections of the exterior
of the cable were performed and in 2000 four panels near midspan were unwrapped and inspected.
During these inspections, corrosion related damage was discovered, but was it was not extensive. As
a result it was decided to implement a significant rehabilitation program to extend the life of the
structure. The rehabilitation involved replacing the corrosion protection system on the main cables,
replacing the suspender ropes, and eventually replacing the concrete deck.
While replacing the cable protection system, further visual inspections were performed on the cable
since they were exposed along their full length. During this process, it was discovered that the
corrosion was far more extensive than discovered during previous inspections. There were several
areas of significant corrosion that exhibited numerous wire breaks and heavy corrosion, including one
area that had a strand that was completely severed and nine other strands that were not carrying their
load. See Figure 3. Emergency strengthening was implemented to ensure the safety of the structure.
24
See the Waldo Hancock Bridge; Inspection, Monitoring, and Strengthening of the Main Cables
paper also included in these proceedings.
Figure 3: (left) Location of significant corrosion. Photograph shows broken wires and a void in the
cable where a broken strand was removed. (right) Location with only minor corrosion damage.
This project demonstrates the difficulty of accurately assessing the condition of main cables of
suspension bridges by relying on visual inspection of discrete points. At the time of these
inspections, acoustic monitoring was not available and the Maine DOT and their consulting engineers
performed the inspections using the best technology and techniques offered at the time. As a result of
the Maine DOTs proactive approach to maintenance and inspection of this structure, they identified
these problems prior to a major safety issue developing. However, it is evident that inspection of
selected panel points and making recommendations for the entire cable was misleading. It is worthy
to note, that despite the level of corrosion present in these cables, there was no visual evidence on the
exterior of the cable. Further, the corrosion was localized. A panel point several panels away from a
severely corroded location did not exhibit nearly the same level of distress. Therefore, the
problematic locations could not have been identified by the selective inspection program.
Had acoustic monitoring been available and deployed prior to the original cable inspection, the true
condition of the cables would likely have been established sooner and the consequent benefits in
rehabilitation and replacement planning and execution would have been realized. Acoustic
monitoring would have detected multiple wire breaks in the problematic areas and could have
directed the visual inspections to these locations. The detailed inspections would have provided the
owner with the true condition at these locations, providing a realistic, comprehensive assessment of
the cables.
Experience on structures like the Waldo Hancock Bridge demonstrate the challenges in accurately
assessing the condition of bridge cables and exemplifies the value offered by combining acoustic
monitoring with visual assessments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author of this paper wishes to thank Peter Sluszka of Ammann and Whitney and Jamey Barbas of
Arup for their assistance in providing information and data for this paper.
25
REFERENCES
1. NCHRP 20/07 Task 100, Safety Appraisal of Suspension Bridge Main Cables, Report from
a Workshop in Newark, NJ, November, 1998
2. Cable Corrosion in Bridge and Other Structures, ASCE Press, 1996 Frank Stahl and
Christopher Gagnon, Ammann & Whitney
3. Waldo-Hancock Bridge Main Cable Strength Evaluation, The 3rd International Suspension
Bridge Operators Conference, May 16-17, 2002, Harukazu Ohashi, Frank J. Mondello, Joe
Viola
4. ASCE Winter Seminar, New York, January 2004, Extending the Life of Our Aging
Suspension Bridges, Peter Sluszka, P.E., Ammann & Whitney
5. Effectiveness of ACM for Monitoring Post-Tensioned Buildings- An Evaluation Report,
National Research Council of Canada, 1997
6. Continuous Acoustic Monitoring of Grouted Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridges, Transport
Research Laboratory, 1999
7. Bronx-Whitestone Bridge Acoustic Monitoring Test Report, Weidlinger Associates, Inc.,
1998
8. Final HITEC Evaluation Plan for a Continuous Acoustic Monitoring System- SoundPrint,
January 5, 2000, Robert Nickerson
26
DANBRO+ - an Internet-based management system for cable-supported

bridges and other major structures.
John Bjerrum 1) and Asger Knudsen 2)
1
Senior Bridge Engineer (e-mail: job@vd.dk, web page: http://www.vd.dk/)

Danish Road Directorate
Niels Juels Gade 13
1022 Copenhagen, Denmark
Project Director (e-mail: akn@ramboll.dk web page: http://www.ramboll.dk/)

Rambll
Bredevej 2
2830 Virum, Denmark
Abstract
The Danish Road Directorate (DRD) has 30 years' experience with systematic maintenance and
management of 1400 bridges on the Danish national road network, including 40 major bridges and
traffic tunnels. This experience has been used in the development of DANBRO+, a holistic
information and management system for the maintenance management of large bridges and other
complex structures. The purpose is to support the handling of administrative data, structural and
mechanical components, management tools, traffic management, inspections, repair/rehabilitation
and special structure- relevant equipments/materials.
The system has been specially designed to support all management levels of the bridge owners
organization as well as consultants, contractors/suppliers and others participating in the operation
and maintenance of the structures.
The cable-supported bridges as well as the other major structures are divided into a hierarchical
system of structural and mechanical/electrical installation components. To each component may be
allocated various types of relevant data such as technical data, condition data, maintenance and
repair needs, traffic restrictions for carrying out of work etc.
DANBRO+ is a tailor-made Internet-based client-server system, designed to give fast and easy
access to data and documents including ranking information, budget overviews and chronological
and statistical overviews.
Keywords
Bridge management system, cable-supported bridges, major bridges, tunnels, maintenance,
management, Internet-based, tailor-made.
1. Introduction
The systematic maintenance and management of cable-supported bridges and other types of major
bridges and traffic tunnels involves an extensive list of technical, traffic and administrative
activities. Therefore, an IT management system must be able to include a number of different
disciplines such as maintenance, organization management, surveillance, inspections, rehabilitation,
traffic control, priority-ranking and budget and quality control.
27
Figure 1; Basic elements of DANBRO+ bridge management system.

The purpose of the management system is to optimize and support the daily administration of the
major bridges and tunnels including systematization and quality assurance of the management of the
structures carried out by many engineers and technicians from DRD and consultants/contractors . To
support the handling and coordination of these activities DRD has developed the information and
management system DANBRO+.
DANBRO+ is an Internet-based client-server system, tailor-made for handling all activities such as
routine, principal and special inspections together with all maintenance, rehabilitation and repair
activities. Furthermore, the system includes a complete document-handling system with advanced
search and navigation facilities.
The decision to develop a tailor-made management system and not to adapt an existing standard
system - was based on an evaluation of several standard administration and management systems.
The conclusion of this survey was that no standard system covers more than approximately 60% of
DRDs needs and requirements.
Figure 2; Map of Denmark with large bridges and tunnels to be administered using
DANBRO+.
28
2. Description of the management concept behind DANBRO+.

30 years' experience with systematic maintenance and management forms the background for the
system. Over the years DRD developed and recently updated a paper-based maintenance manual for
all the 40 structures. In practice this system was expensive to maintain and in many periods not fully
updated. Therefore it was decided to describe the management in terms that could form the basis for
the development of an Internet-based system to support the daily management of the structures.
To ensure acceptance from all users of the system a number of key parameters have been identified:
- It must be user-friendly for all users.
- Data and documents must be presented in a clear and effective way.
- Updating of data and documents must be easy to carry out.
- The system must replace all existing data and documents and other database systems relating to
the maintenance management of the structures in question.
- The user interface must be customizable for each user.
In general the success of the system depends on its ability to facilitate the daily work and how userfriendly it is.
To implement the management concept, the system has been designed with a number of tailor-made
facilities, such as:
- Tools to support the yearly job and administration flow in DRD. Definition of maintenance
needs, prioritization, and follow-up on budgets are carried out each year.
- Advanced job control using sub-task, recurrent task, technical and economical follow-up
facilities, chronological overview etc.
- Tools for prioritization and long-term budgeting.
- Tools for minimizing traffic interference.
- Establishment of an organization for each bridge and tunnel for carrying out specific
maintenance and repair works.
- Access to digitalized archive material with multi-upload document facilities to make upload of
the existing paper-material easy.
- An inventory data structure individually designed for cable-supported bridges, bascule bridges,
tunnels and other major structures.
- Tools for administration of materials and equipment.
Furthermore, the system includes procedures for managing the traffic under normal conditions,
repairs/maintenance and exceptional conditions (accidents/catastrophes, snow/ice conditions and
special transports).
29
Figure 3; Examples of a bridge to be administered using DANBRO+.
3. DANBRO+, a tailor- made Internet based system.

The system is divided into main and secondary modules that meet the daily requirements and
support the needs for overview and easy access to information (data and documents). The modules
in the system are:
Modules
1. Introduction
1.1 General bridge and tunnel data
1.2 Management goals and strategies
1.3 Definition of management
nomenclature
1.4 System description and application
1.5 System administration
2. Administration
2.1 Maintenance organization
2.2 Personnel qualifications
2.3 Address-, phone and e-mail lists
2.4 Relations to other authorities
2.5 Maintenance agreements and orders
3. Inventory
3.1 Bridge- and tunnel inventory
component hierarchy
3.2 History / chronology
Purpose
Easy access to basic technical, geographical, administrative information
and goals/strategies for carrying out of maintenance:
- Overall bridge and tunnel data (main characteristics of the
structures).
- On-line help to the system.
- Administration of general DRD documents.
- Administration of user access.
Easy access to information regarding organization, management
responsibilities, and relations to other authorities including:
- For each bridge and tunnel: Definition of a detailed organization
hierarchy where each position is linked to the address list.
- Paradigms and actual documents for maintenance agreements etc.
Easy access to technical information for each bridge/tunnel and
components and its history including:
- Definitions of each bridge and tunnel in detail. All inventory data
and documents including drawings and photos.
- Archive on all events (inspection-, maintenance- and rehabilitation
jobs, changes in inventory component hierarchy, results from
principal inspections etc.).
30
Modules
4. Management tools
4.1 Job management
4.2 Ranking and long-term budgets
4.3 Price book
4.4 Statistics
4.5 Environment and safety procedures
5. Traffic management
5.1 Traffic management systems and
operation
5.2 Traffic monitoring systems
5.3 Traffic management
5.4 Traffic - deicing
5.5 Traffic restriction hierarchy
6. Maintenance and repair/

rehabilitation
6.1 Logbook/day-and-night report
6.2 Operation of special components
6.3 Inspection, different types
6.4 Maintenance and repair/rehabilitation
6.5 Measurements and monitoring
7. Equipment and Materials
Purpose
Management of all activities related to the maintenance management of
the structures:
- Management of job status.
- Management of cyclic jobs and sub-jobs.
- Management of specific checklists and maintenance lists.
- Ranking of jobs to be carried out in a given budget year.
- Short- and long-term budgets for each bridge and tunnel, for selected
standard components and for DRD in total.
Easy access to data and procedures and instructions regarding traffic
management under normal conditions and special conditions including:
- For each bridge and tunnel: Procedures, sketches and administrative
instructions for signposting etc. and restrictions under all special
traffic conditions.
- For each bridge and tunnel: Administration of abnormal/special
transports (heavy, wide, high etc.).
- For each bridge and tunnel: Definition of a hierarchy for traffic
restrictions that may be applied to all types of jobs on the structure.
The system is used in the planning process for grouping of works
requiring the same traffic restriction.
Registering of incidents and conditions of components and needs for
maintenance, repair and rehabilitation. The module also includes:
- For each bridge and tunnel: Procedures and instructions related to
carrying out of inspections, maintenance and repair/rehabilitation
works.
- For each bridge and tunnel: Definition and reporting of inspections,
maintenance and repair/rehabilitation jobs.
- For each bridge and tunnel: Registration of monitoring data in
general.
- Monitoring data: Tools for statistical analysis and administration of
limit values.
Administration of special equipment (e.g. for inspection and access to
remote areas) and special materials (e.g. materials with a long delivery
time)
Table 1; Description of the modules in the system

Bridge and tunnel component hierarchy:
All information and navigation is based on the bridge and tunnel component hierarchy. To ensure a
homogeneous and stringent definition of each structure DRD has set up guidelines to be followed:
- Level 1: The Road Directorate, general information (joint level). Includes general (collective)
DRD goals, management strategies, and paradigms for management agreements for contractors,
consultants and suppliers etc.
- Level 2: Name of each individual structure, bridge or tunnel. Includes general data and
documents for the specific structure.
- Level 3: Main categories and structure parts. Includes a possibility to divide the structure into
e.g. approach bridges and a main structure and into structures, electrical and mechanical
installations.
- Level 4: Main component based on a standard list (e.g. edge beam, expansion joints, guardrail
etc.) The use of standard components allows for statistical analysis and easy multi updates.
- Level 5-?: Individually detailed bridge- and tunnel components with individual number of
levels.
The structure can be detailed into as many levels as required but it is recommended not to register
in more detail than necessary for the operation and maintenance in order to keep the overview of
the structure as simple as possible and make updates easy.
31
The individual component hierarchy combined with other tailor-made facilities makes the system
capable of handling maintenance and management activities for cable- stayed and suspension
bridges:
- At level 4 all relevant types of standard components for cable- stayed and suspension bridges
are predefined. The inventory data fields for each component are designed to meet
requirements for cable- stayed and suspension bridges.
- The graphical navigation can navigate on pylons, suspension cables etc.
- The job management is able to handle jobs with specially designed activity lists for cablestayed and suspension bridges.
The user interface has been built to support the daily activities and information needed, always
restricted by individual user rights (administrators, consultants, contractors etc.). Each users access
will hereby be limited to relevant information in a systematic way, which contributes to overview
and minimizing of errors. All procedures, instructions etc. can be updated directly through
DANBRO+.
The use of the Internet, combined with the client-server principle, ensures that all data, procedures,
jobs and documents - and the DANBRO+ application itself - are always updated.
Management organization:
To support the need for easy updates and adjustments in each bridge and tunnel organization, the
system operates with individual hierarchies. Each hierarchy is organized to fit the individual bridge
and tunnel, and operates with different definitions for each position in the management organization
and with links to the address book with individually companies and persons. In this way a company
or person can take several positions in the management organization, and the system has search
tools to give an overview for e.g. which jobs a given company must carry out in a given period.
Figure 4; Module 2.1. Organization with graphical navigation.
Navigation possibilities:
The system is designed to provide alternative navigation options to ensure easy and fast access to
information via:
- Index-based access via the module structure.
- The bridge and tunnel component hierarchy.
- User-defined search facilities. Within the search facilities the user has a large variety of
combination possibilities.
- User-defined graphical navigation on drawings and photos individually defined for each
bridge and tunnel and further for each component in the hierarchy.
The navigation possibilities can be combined arbitrarily.
32
Reports:
The system has both tailor-made standard reports for each module and a built-in report generator
able to design new reports. The implemented standard reports cover different needs such as data
overview, statistical analysis, economic overview, job overview, etc. The system includes at present
approximately 50 standard reports.
A major standard report is the Yearly Policy Plan automatically generated by DANBRO+ for each
bridge and tunnel. The report extracts all information regarding inspections, repair and maintenance
works including budgets and agreements made for the coming year. The report function as a script
for all work on the bridge in the coming year.
A key standard report is the Annual Report for each bridge and tunnel. The report includes
documentation for the inspections, maintenance and rehabilitation jobs that have been carried out,
budget overview etc.
Via remarks/comments in the Logbook in module 6.1 it is possible to generate updated reports for
each individual bridge and tunnel.
Job management:
The job management system has been designed to meet DRDs and the contractors and consultants
requirements.
All jobs in the system run through the following 6 phases:
- Registration (need)
- Selection (ranking/prioritization)
- Planning (allocation of consultant/contractor/supplier etc., budget and schedule)
- Carrying out of works (inspection/design/contractor works)
- Reporting (as built, economic and technical)
- Archiving (filing of documents),
and the system includes 3 main types of jobs:
- Inspections (routine -, principal - and special inspection).
- Maintenance works (routine - and preventive maintenance, cleaning and supplies e.g.
electricity, water etc)).
- Repair/rehabilitation works.
In relation to job management a number of possibilities are available in the system:
- Each job follows a specific flow in the system controlled by its status.
- Each job can individually be divided into sub-jobs in 3 levels, combined freely between the
main types.
- The ranking module can via different ranking codes give an overview of the consequences of
postponing jobs.
- The principal inspection module has several facilities to create an overview and to assist in fast
and easy reporting.
- Individual condition description and condition rating for each component in the hierarchy.
- Photos and sketches can be attached to each component.
- Statistical and chronological overview for condition ratings can be generated.
- Tools to carry out multi-reporting on several components.
33
Traffic management by a traffic restriction hierarchy:

Traffic passability and minimizing traffic restrictions are main issues for DRD. Therefore, the
management of traffic restrictions is an important part of the management system.
For each bridge and tunnel a flexible multilevel traffic restriction hierarchy is established. The
system is best illustrated by an (very simplified) example a tunnel consisting of two tubes:
A. The most restrictive traffic restriction is the closure of the whole tunnel.
A.1. The closure of the northern tube is a sub-restriction to A.
A.1.1. The closure of the northern traffic lane of the northern tube is a sub-restriction to
A.1.
A.1.2. The closure of the southern traffic lane of the northern tube is a sub-restriction to
A.1.
A.2. The closure of the southern tube is a sub-restriction to A.
Example: Maintenance work XX requires the closure of the northern tube Restriction A.1.
Maintenance work YY requires the closure of the northern traffic lane of the northern tube
restriction A.1.1. When work XX is planned, and restriction A.1 is consequently planned to be
effective, the system finds all activities that can use the same restriction, i.e. all activities that
require restriction A.1 or any sub-restriction to restriction A.1 (A.1.1 and A.1.2).
Figure 5; Examples of a bridge to be administered using DANBRO+.

On-line maintenance and implementation manuals:
To optimize and standardize the implementation and the subsequent use and updating of data in the
system, DRD has prepared manuals which in detail describe topics such as how to maintain each
specific catalogue, how to set up the organization, how to define, follow-up and report jobs
etc. The manual is online and presented on level 1 in the component hierarchy.
34
4. Conclusion
30 years of experience with managing cable-supported bridges and other major bridges and with
developing management systems form the background for the programming of the Internet-based
management system DANBRO+. The system has been developed to meet the systematic
maintenance and management requirements of the Danish Road Directorate. The purpose of the
system is to optimize, support, systematize and quality-assure the management of major structures
carried out by many engineers and technicians from DRD and consultants/contractors.
The cable-supported bridges as well as the other bridges and tunnels are divided into a hierarchical
system of structural and mechanical/electrical installation components. To each component may be
allocated various types of relevant data and documents. The system includes an extensive list of
tailor-made facilities such as advanced navigation possibilities, tailor-made standard reports for each
module, a flexible report generator, advanced job management facilities, access to digitalized
archive material and a module structure that supports the daily management.
DRD has concluded that a tailor-made bridge and tunnel management system is superior to a
standard system, particularly because of the possibilities of fast adjustment to new and changed
requirements. Furthermore, the system provides for each module precisely (and only!) what is
needed.
References
None.
35
36
NORWEGIAN SUSPENSION BRIDGES

HOW THE INSPECTIONS ARE CARRIED OUT AND FEEDBACK
FROM THE MAINTENANCE
Knut A. Grefstad
Senior Bridge Engineer
Norwegian Public Roads Administration
Directorate of Public Roads Address: Brynsengfaret 6A, P. O. Box 8142 Dep, N-0033 Oslo
e-mail: knut.grefstad@vegvesen.no, web page: http://www.vegvesen.no
Abstract
In Norway, suspension bridges are subject to regular inspection by two different types of routine
inspections. Principal inspection is performed every year. Access equipment is not required for this
type of inspection. The inspector should have general knowledge about bridges and be educated as a
civil engineering or possess similar qualifications. Major inspection is normally carried out every fifth
year. Access equipment must be used and the inspector must be able to closely examine every vital
bridge element. The inspector should be educated as a civil engineer and possess a good general
knowledge of bridge durability properties and construction. The experience from the inspections is
that hangers and cables will develop damages having consequences for the load bearing capacity. The
bulk of maintenance costs are related to the corrosion protection system of steel members, the
protection of the bridge deck from wear and de-icing agents and the design (and number) of the
bearings and joint constructions.
Keywords
Suspension bridges, Inspection system, Major inspection, Maintenance costs.
1. Introduction
The Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA) has a long tradition of building and operating
suspension bridges. The oldest suspension bridge still in service is Bakke Bridge built in 1844. The
Inspectorate of Ancient Monuments and Historic Buildings list the bridge as an historic monument.
Today, the bridge carries pedestrians, cyclists and lightweight vehicles on a local road system.
The experience from owning and operating suspension bridges has been implemented in inspection
guidelines. Inspections have been optimised and known vulnerable details of cables, hangers and
anchors are given special attention. For long free lengths of cables and hangers, representative areas
are selected for close visual examination, while remaining areas may be examined from a distance.
Damages effecting the load bearing capacity have been detected several times thereby preventing
major failures to occur. The inspections and maintenance have provided knowledge making it
possible to improve the use of materials and special construction details in order to reduce future
maintenance costs when new bridges are designed.
2. Norwegian suspension bridges
The Norwegian suspension bridge stock can be categorized into three different types or generations of
bridges.
The first generation consists of bridges where the superstructure was designed as a bridge deck carried
by longitudinal beams between the hangers. The longitudinal beams are supported by cross beams
connected to the hangers. The superstructure is slender and the vertical deflection from heavy traffic
loads could be as much as 500 mm.
37
This solution was very cost effective compared to other bridge types available in the past. A great
number of bridges with this design were built and many of them are still in service. Some have been
replaced, some have been strengthened with a longitudinal steel truss but most of them are still in use
as they were originally designed. The last suspension bridge of this design was built in 1976. Then, the
design was considered very old-fashioned and no longer cost-effective.
The Fyksesundet Bridge built in 1937 with a span of 230 m was the longest main span built with this
kind of superstructure. The bridge has been strengthened with longitudinal steel trusses and the traffic
is regulated with traffic lights reducing the number of lanes to one. Those measures still enable the
bridge to carry the heaviest loads allowed on the road network today.
The second-generation suspension bridges have a longitudinal steel truss instead of steel beams
enabling them to have larger spans. The steel trusses are made from profiles connected with bolts and
have a complex geometry. This combined with a large steel surface area has resulted in large
maintenance costs in order to keep the corrosion protection system at a satisfactorily condition level.
The third generation suspension bridges are partly a result of this. The superstructure is now a hollow
box-girder cross section with a smooth surface outwards. All the stiffeners are located inside the boxgirder which is dried out by a ventilator system keeping the air humidity below 50 % in order to
prevent corrosion.
Generation Period built Number
in
service
0.
1844
1
1.
1920-1975 47
2.
1956-1982 16
3.
1991-2000 6
1844-2000 70
Total
length* [m]
53.5
6918
9974
6096
23042
Total bridge
deck area *
[m2]
232.7
43008
92704
73840
209785
Replacement
cost*
[USD**/m2]
2800
4600
6000
-
Total replacement
cost* [USD**]
120.000.000, 427.000.000, 443.000.000, 990.000.000, -
*: Sidespans are included

**: 7 NOK = 1 USD
3. The inspection system
Our inspection system includes two different routine inspection types. Principal inspection is basically
carried out annually and the purpose is to check for vital damages that can affect the load carrying
capacity of structures, traffic safety, future maintenance or adversely affect the environment/aesthetics.
No access equipment is necessary. It is a requirement that inspectors have a general knowledge of
bridges. For complicated bridges such as suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges, movable bridges,
the inspector should be educated as a civil engineering or possess similar qualifications.
The purpose of major inspections are to ensure that the condition of the entire bridge is functional,
determining any need for maintenance activities, and making cost estimates for these activities.
3.1 Major inspection
A major inspection is generally required every fifth year for bridges. The first major inspection shall
be performed at the required interval after the end of the claims deadline. Major cable inspections shall
be performed at least every fifth year.
38
If a bridge has suffered damage whose potential for development remains unknown, then the
inspection frequency should be increased. When determing this individual inspection frequency are
some significant conditions to consider:
Traffic volumes
Proportion of heavy traffic
Bridge type and size
Significance of the road network
Low load carrying capability
Condition and damage development that might lead to too low capacity
Bridges exposed to flooding or erosion
Major inspections will include a visual check of the entire bridge structure. Major inspections of
cables shall include a visual check of cables, hangers, connections and anchoring. The inspection shall
be supplemented by measurements and materials investigations where necessary to assess the
condition of these elements.
Visual check
The inspection is to be of the close visual type, which means that the inspector can touch all elements
of the structure. This requirement may be deviated from in special cases if anticipated damage can be
discerned from a distance. This may be the case for uniform steel and concrete surfaces and free
lengths of cables or hangers. In such cases representative areas shall be selected for close visual
control/inspection, while remaining areas may be examined from a distance.
A close visual check shall always be made of exposed elements such as bearings, hinges, upper and
lower hanger connections, anchoring, cable saddles etc.
Measurements
For bridges affected by settlement, displacement, deformation or when such are suspected to have
occurred, measurements shall be performed to determine the extent of any movement.
Rutting measurements should be taken and possibly checked if the remaining wearing course
thickness is greater than that allowed for.
Where hanger slippage has been observed or suspected, measurements of the slippage or of the
relative sag should be taken.
If there appears to be a need to implement a measurement program this must be described and
included in the inspection plan.
Materials investigations
The extent of materials investigations should be assessed relative to climatic exposure and previous
investigations. In fact, if considered appropriate they may be omitted altogether. Such investigations
shall be considered random and not obligatory.
Inspection and maintenance plan
The results of a major inspection will decide if inspection and/or maintenance plans need adjusting or
supplementing. It may be necessary to prepare such plans when none exist.
Reporting
Reports from major inspections shall contain a comprehensive description of all registered damages,
photo documentation, and an assessment of these. The inspection reports are recorded in the computer
based bridge management system named BRUTUS. BRUTUS also includes a bridge inventory
module and module supporting the planning and execution of future maintenance & repair works.
39
In the case of large bridges an expanded report may be required describing the maintenance,
associated costs special inspections already performed. Alternative maintenance strategies should be
evaluated when high future maintenance costs are expected. These shall include the impact of utilizing
the remaining service life only.
Where a major inspection uncovers the need for extensive maintenance or proves to be insufficient in
determining the type of damage, its extent or cause and impact on the structure, a special inspection
shall be undertaken. Indications shall be given as to which inspections/materials investigations are to
be performed and to their scope and location.
Access
To perform a major inspection requires equipment that makes it possible for the inspector to come
within the prescribed distance from the structure. Some of suspension bridges have special access
equipment like special inspection wires on the cables and maintenance carriages underneath the
superstructure. If maintenance personnel taking care of navigation lights and so on use this equipment
regularly, the equipment must be inspected and maintained in a way that satisfies the safety
regulations. These regulations call for a yearly inspection. If the access equipment is used only every
fifth year by a bridge inspector, it is necessary to inspect and maintain/repair the equipment before the
inspection of the bridge is performed. This operation is more expensive than the inspection itself ant
the most common access technique has been climbing secured by professional mountaineering
equipment.
Qualification of inspector
The inspectors should be qualified civil engineers and possess a good general knowledge of bridge
construction and durability.
Private consultants carry out most of the major inspections of suspension bridges. Only consultant
companies having skills and experience from designing new suspension- or cable-stayed bridges are
allowed to perform these inspections. In addition, NPRA has staff with a lot of experience from
designing new suspension bridges and operating the existing ones.
3.2 Assessment of damage and conditions
When inspecting bridges, a description of the damage/deficiencies shall be prepared. An assessment
shall be made as to how each damage/deficiency could affect the associated structural element, the
bridge, the bridge users and/or the environment.
Damage assessment
The description of the damage/deficiency observed should be reported. To obtain as uniform a
description as possible, standard descriptions Types of Damage are to be used to indicate what kind
of damage has been found. Reference is made to the Handbook for Bridge Inspections [1].
The location of the damage/deficiencies to the bridge and/or element shall also be recorded.
Damage/deficiencies may be documented using sketches and/or photos. This should always be
performed when serious damage deficiencies are discovered.
Degree of damage
The degree of damage is measured on a numbered scale used to give a technical assessment of the
magnitude of the damage/deficiency. This scale indicates whether maintenance activities must be
employed or not and if so, how soon. The degree of damage must be viewed in conjunction with basic
cause.
40
The following codes are used to indicate the degree of damage:

1 Slight damage/deficiency, no action required
2 Medium damage/deficiency, action needed during next 4 -10 years
3 Serious damage/deficiency, action required during the next 1-3 years
4 Critical damage/deficiency, immediate action required or within year at the latest
9 Not inspected
Budgetary concerns shall not be taken into account in the assessment of the degree of damage. That
must be handled later in conjunction with prioritisation between bridges.
The degree of damage code shall also be used in connection with acceptance and guarantee
inspections. However, a separate evaluation is made at a later stage as to which damage/deficiencies
are the liability of the constructor and within which time frame these shall be rectified.
Consequences of any damage
The impact of damage is represented by a letter code used to indicate the consequences any
damage/deficiency might have for the bridge, the bridge users and/or the environment.
The following codes are used to indicate the consequences of the damage:
B Damage/deficiency threatening load carrying capacity
T Damage/deficiency threatening traffic safety
V Damage/deficiency that may increase maintenance costs
M Damage/deficiency that may affect the environment/aesthetics
Correlating degree and consequence of damage
The results of measurements and materials investigations shall, along with inspections, form the basis
for establishing the degree of damage and the consequences of the damage.
The codes for the degree of damage and the consequence of damage shall be used together when
damage is to be assessed. An example of this could be as follows:
3B: Serious damage/deficiency that can reduce the bridge carrying capacity if it remains untreated for
more than 1-3 years. Action required within 1-3 years.
Cause of damage
For a principal inspection there is no requirement to indicate the cause of the damage.
For major inspections and special inspections the cause(s) of the damage should be uncovered as far as
possible. This may be of major significance in order not only to determine the proper action to be
undertaken document experience for use in conjunction with the design of new bridges and in the
revision of handbooks. In addition to a description of the cause of the damage, it should also be coded
in accordance with the damage code given in the Handbook for Bridge Inspections. [1]
Activating condition
The term activating condition means that a structure or an element has suffered damage or
developed faults or deficiencies that require a maintenance/repair action. This condition or standard is
described for each damage type in the Inspections Handbook for Bridges.
When inspecting a bridge, the activating condition must be determined, i.e. what can be accepted in its
current condition and what will require an action. This shall be indicated using the degree of damage
in the following manner:
Degree of damage 1:
Degree of damage 2- 4:
Condition may be accepted without action.

Condition will require a short or long-term action (up to 10 years).
41
4. Feed back from the maintenance

Special attention has been given to inspection of suspension bridges over the last 20 years. This period
has provided a lot of experiences related to how the existing suspension bridges are performing and
can be summarized as follows:
First generation of bridges
The first generation of bridges were designed for lower traffic loads than todays standard. Despite
this, many of them still have the required load bearing capacity to carry a total live load of 50 tonnes,
which corresponds to the heaviest vehicle allowed on the Norwegian public road system. This has
been achieved partly by strengthening the superstructure and improving the distribution of traffic load
to the hangers, by reducing the number of lanes to one single lane and exploiting the materials to a
greater extent than when the bridges were designed.
Those bridges are very flexible and the movements in the load bearing system caused by todays
traffic loads are higher than the bridges were designed for. These excessive movements have caused
and still cause a lot of problems. Joint constructions and bearings have been totally redesigned and
replaced.
Hangers have been slipping at the connection to the main cable. Also backsliding in the anchorage
cones in the cable head of the hangers has occurred several times.
Since the load bearing capacity is low, it has not been possible to apply a sufficient water proofing
system and asphalt layer. Because of this and the use of de-icing agents in the wintertime, chlorides
have penetrated in to the concrete bridge deck causing the reinforcement to corrode. Freeze/thaw
cycles combined with the extensive use of studded tyres during wintertime have worn the concrete
deck to an extent where the upper reinforcement is freely exposed.
These first generation suspension bridges were designed and built at a time when Norway was one of
the poorest nations in Europe and when it was important to build as many roads as possible for the
available money. The designed lifetime was 50 years and they have on average stayed in service for
such a period. Now they are expensive to maintain and do not satisfy the user or todays standard
anymore.
Second generation of suspension bridges
The second-generation suspension bridges have some of the same weaknesses as the first. The details
related to bearings and joint constructions were not improved and the problems in those areas were
affected by longer spans. It has been experienced that the cables literally have a long-term creep. This
creep has lead to permanent vertical deformations of the superstructure and reduced joint clearances
because of the vertical curvature of the bridge deck.
The relative steel surface area of the superstructure increased formidably compared to the first
generation bridges. In addition, the geometry of the steel truss in the main girder in relation to the
maintenance of the corrosion protection was worse. Because of this, the maintenance cost of the
corrosion protection system is high, even if the most common system used has been of a good quality
and had long maintenance intervals.
Third generation of suspension bridges
The problems experienced from the first and second generation suspension bridges now have been
eliminated or reduced as much as possible. The smooth outer surface of the steel box-girder making up
the main girder is easy to maintain and the de-humidifying units keeping the humidity below 50 %
inside of the box-girder are working well.
The number of bearings and joints has been reduced as much as possible and the details have been
improved.
42
A new problem that occurs some times is oscillation of the superstructure due to wind. Because of the
low traffic volumes, there is no need for more than two lanes and this reduces the width of the cross
section of the super structures. Despite testing models of the bridges in wind tunnels, there have been
problems on site when special wind patterns occur. This has never been a structural problem but the
comfort of the users has been seriously affected on some occasions. Installing spoilers on the
superstructure has solved this particular problem.
Cables and hangers
Cables and hangers are usually made from prefabricated full-locked coil ropes. Main cables are made
from these ropes assembled in open bundles arranged in one, two or three separate layers. A full locked coil rope consists of a core wire and one or several layers of round wires. Several layers of Zshaped wires are stranded in alternating directions on top of this round wire core. All wires are hot
galvanized and during the spinning process the interstices between the wires are filled with spinning
compound for internal protection against corrosion. After erection of the ropes, a permanent protective
coating of paint is applied.
Basically, the corrosion protection system has proved to perform well. For a few occasions, the
spinning compound is leaking out to the surface causing the protective painting of paint to flake off. It
could be difficult to maintain the paint system between the layers in the bundles and in local areas
where the hangers are connected to the main cables.
In the saddle and anchoring regions, corrosion protection has been a problem. De-humidification
systems are now used to solve this but the air volumes inside the chambers must be large enough to
take care of leaking water.
5. Conclusion
Principal and major inspections have most certainly prevented a major failure of suspension bridges or
its elements. Furthermore, the inspection system has provided data necessary to optimise the
maintenance activities and improve the design of new suspension bridges.
References
[1]: The Norwegian Public Roads Administration, Handbook 136: Handbook for Bridge Inspections
[2]: The Norwegian Public Roads Administration, Handbook 147: Guidelines for management,
inspection, maintenance, repair and strengthening of Bridges
[3]: Klinge R. (2001):Protection of Norwegian steel bridges against corrosion, Proceedings of the
fourth symposium on straight crossings, Bergen, Norway 2-5 September, pp 251-262.
[4]: Isaksen B., Grindland O. and Djuve G (2002): Protection of Prefabricated Main Cables Against
Corrosion, Proceedings of the fourth International Cable Supported Bridge Operators'
Conference, Japan 2002.
43
44
REJUVENATING THE TAMAR BRIDGE

A REVIEW OF THE STRENGTHENING AND WIDENING PROJECT
AND ITS EFFECT ON OPERATIONS
David I.List
Bridge and Ferry Manager
Tamar Bridge and Torpoint Ferry Joint Committee
Torpoint
Cornwall
United Kingdom
e-mail : david.list@tamarbridge.org.uk web page: http://www.tamarbridge.org.uk
Abstract
The Tamar Bridge, a suspension bridge in the south west of the United Kingdom, was opened in 1961.
Structural assessment in 1994 indicated that the deck had to be replaced and the stiffening trusses
strengthened. With no feasible diversion routes, it was imperative that impact on traffic was
minimised.
The final design incorporated a lightweight steel main deck, and an additional cantilever deck at each
side, initially serving as a diversion route and subsequently offering additional facilities and capacity.
New cables were also added to supplement the suspension system.
The procurement strategy adopted a partnering approach with the client, contractor and designer tied
contractually to a target cost. The project was completed only a month late and within 8% of budget,
with overall traffic flows affected by less than 2%, leaving the client with a rejuvenated bridge with
improved capacity and safety for all users.
Keywords
Strengthening, widening, partnering, rejuvenation, safety, traffic management, instrumentation
45
1. Introduction
This paper in effect serves as a sequel to a paper Tamar Bridge Strengthening and Widening A Case
Study1, submitted in 1999 to the 2nd International Suspension Bridge Operators Conference, when
construction was in its very early stages. To allow this paper to be reasonably self-contained there is a
degree of overlap, but more detail on the initial stages and technical detail of the project can be found
in the earlier paper.
The Tamar Bridge forms a vital transport link carrying the A38 trunk road over the River Tamar
between the county of Cornwall and the city of Plymouth in the south west of England, and when
opened in 1961 its main span was the longest in the country. The bridge is owned, operated and
maintained by its original sponsors, two local authorities, Cornwall County Council and Plymouth
City Council, and has relied solely on toll income to cover all capital and recurrent costs. The bridge is
operated in conjunction with another estuarial crossing the Torpoint Ferries as a single business
unit, by a Joint Committee formed by the two authorities.
The original bridge was designed by Mott Hay and
Anderson as a conventional suspension bridge with
symmetrical geometry, having a main span of 335
metres and side spans of 114 metres, and with
anchorage and approach spans the overall length is
642 metres. Unusually for a suspension bridge of
this era, the towers were constructed from
reinforced concrete, and have a height of 73 metres
with the deck suspended at half this height. The
towers sit on caisson foundations founded on rock.
Main suspension cables are 350mm in diameter
and each consists of 31 locked coil wire ropes, and
carry vertical locked coil hangers at 9.1 metre
centres.
The main cables are splayed at anchorages and anchored some 17 metres into rock. The stiffening
truss is 5.5 metres deep and composed of welded hollow boxes, and the original deck, spanning
between cross trusses, was of composite construction with a 150mm deep reinforced concrete slab on
five universal beams. The deck was surfaced with hand-laid mastic asphalt 40mm thick. The main
deck carries three traffic lanes, which are operated in a tidal fashion to match the dominant traffic
direction.
Following a European Directive for harmonisation of vehicle weights and consequent increases in
permissible weight of heavy goods vehicles, the United Kingdom undertook a nationwide programme
of bridge assessments, and in 1994 the Tamar Bridge underwent a comprehensive structural
assessment. This identified that the main structural components of the suspension system, anchorages
and towers could cope with the forecast loadings, although with little reserve capacity. However the
concrete bridge deck and the steel stiffening trusses which were both found to be substandard to the
extent that the deck clearly had to be replaced. Introduction of a weight restriction was quickly ruled
out while heavy vehicles do not form a major component of bridge traffic, the crossing is a key
component of the regional trunk road network.
The owner responded to these findings by commissioning Acer (later re-named Hyder) to carry out a
feasibility study to investigate solutions which could produce a structure capable of handling forecast
demands while at the same time minimising impact on the travelling public, and with a high degree of
certainty on cost, due to the Joint Committees limited reserves and public sector borrowing
restrictions essentially the project had to be funded from reserves and toll income received during
the project period this magnified the importance of minimising traffic impact.
46
The consultant proposed replacement of the main deck with a lightweight orthotropic steel deck, and
having investigated a range of traffic diversion options, proposed construction of temporary relief
lanes cantilevered off the bridge truss, to act as a supplementary diversion route while the main deck
was being replaced.
As the design developed, it soon became apparent that the permanent addition of cantilever lanes
offered a cost-effective improvement in terms of both capacity and safety, as well as satisfying the
temporary diversion requirement, although such permanent widening would require primary
legislation.
This paper describes the implementation of the project, illustrating the benefits of the chosen
procurement route, the effectiveness of project management in minimising impact on traffic flows, and
the performance of the finished, rejuvenated bridge.
2. Procurement Route
Having appointed designers in 1996, the first phase of the design developed the Feasibility Study and
gave a cost estimate of between 25 million and 30 million, stretching the clients budget to the limit,
and highlighting the need for maximisation of outturn cost certainty.
This need for cost certainty coupled with a desire to maximise the scope for innovation from designer,
contractor and client, led to the adoption of a partnering approach for the project. This involved
tendering for construction with only part of the design fully detailed, and offering contractors the
flexibility to take on all or any of a range of risks in their tenders (e.g. weather risk). Bids were invited
on a quality and price basis, with tenderers essentially pricing only for the orthotropic deck. Cleveland
Bridge of Darlington, United Kingdom, was appointed as preferred contractor in March 1998, and
Cleveland Bridge staff joined the project team. Early contractor involvement optimised opportunities
for innovation and value engineering.
Active team building took place to form a strong partnership between client, consultant and designer,
employing the services of a professional facilitator to lead a series of partnering workshops. The
strength of this partnership would be well tested in the course of the project.
The contract form utilised was the New Engineering Contract (now renamed the Engineering and
Construction Contract) Option C, which provided for the contractors submission of a Target Price
which required the contractors appraisal of the existing partial design and developing a
comprehensive scope of works, working closely with the consultant and client. A Target Price of
47
23.5 million was subsequently agreed and accepted, with contract signing in March 1999 following
completion of legal arrangements, and work started immediately thereafter. This Target Price gave an
overall project budget estimate of 31.6 million.
The contract was structured to financially bond the client, contractor and consultant, by sharing of any
savings or additional costs, but with an upper bound above which the contractor carried all additional
cost. This financial structure would strongly influence all parties in due course.
3. The Strengthening and Widening Works

The construction took place in three distinct phases.
Phase 1 commenced in March 1999 and comprised the preparatory work to strengthen the structure in
advance of the addition of cantilever lanes, and the construction of new approach roads and associated
retaining structures.
On the bridge itself, eighteen new 100mm
diameter locked-coil cables were installed
and stressed to supplement the original
suspension system. Their primary purpose
was to help carry the additional dead load
of the new cantilever lanes and associated
temporary works, before the concrete main
deck was removed. In addition they
reduced the extent of truss strengthening
required, and restored some 400mm of the
original hogged longitudinal profile of the
main deck, which had been lost due to
main cable creep over the previous 40
years. The cable locations are shown on
the half elevation below, and for sixteen of
them this required fitting to new saddles at
the tower tops. Temporary platforms were
erected to provide safe conditions for
tower-top work, and key lifting and
lowering operations had to take place
during full closures overnight.
INSTALLATION OF ADDITIONAL CABLES
ADDITIONAL CABLES
SHOWN RED
The truss was strengthened by the installation of a supplementary parallel element fitted below the
bottom chord, and by welding additional steel plates at key locations.
48
Also, at an early stage of the project, new environmental and structural monitoring equipment was
installed, which supplemented with live loading information obtained from a weigh-in-motion system,
allowed the project team to examine the behaviour of the structure under changing environmental and
loading conditions. This information was used to refine design assumptions and monitor actual
behaviour of the structure, and if necessary make adjustments to work schedules.
Phase 2 began in December 1999 and involved the
erection of the cantilever decks. The orthotropic
panels, each typically 15m long and 3m wide were
fabricated in Clevelands Darlington works and
transported some 600km by road to site fabrication
sheds where pairs were welded longitudinally to form
each of the 108 sections of deck needed. The first
panels were erected by crane but subsequent panels
were positioned by transfer from an elevating
transporter to davits running on rails.
To ensure reasonable symmetry of loading,
construction was progressed fairly evenly from each
of the four corners of the structure towards the centre.
Near the end of this phase, the project suffered the
wettest autumn on record, experiencing 100
consecutive days of rain, seriously affecting progress.
This had serious cost implications and at one stage
pushed the forecast cost up to the point where the
financial model imposed all additional cost on the
contractor. As a result the contractor focussed on
measures to improve productivity and progress and
was able to recover most of the delay.
Cantilevers Approaching
Completion
MAIN DECK REPLACEMENT
LOWERING CANTILEVER
SECTION FROM DAVITS
Once the new lanes had been surfaced with hand-laid

mastic asphalt and barriers fitted, traffic was diverted
onto the new lanes and Phase 3 work began in March
2001 to replace the main deck. This was done in two
stages, separating the deck into two longitudinal
halves, to allow one lane of traffic to run on the main
deck at peak times, which with the new cantilevers
gave three lanes to the public. Starting
simultaneously at the two ends, the original deck was
sawn into manageable slabs of around 10 tonnes each
and removed off site. Replacement panels, fabricated
in the same way as the cantilever panels, were placed
using travelling portal gantries, following behind old
deck removal.
Approximately 2,800 tonnes of structural steel was
added together with 125 tonnes of cables, but offset
by the removal of the old main deck, the final weight
of the suspended structure rose by just 25 tonnes to
7,925 tonnes, reflecting the effectiveness and
efficiency of the design. The deck replacement
process was completed by December 2001, just a
month behind schedule, and the structure was fully
opened to traffic before Christmas 2001.
49
4. Traffic Management
As identified earlier, it was vital to minimise impact on this busy publicly owned crossing, both in
terms of user interests and income. Before work commenced, considerable efforts went into the
planning of working windows for the various stages of the project.
Commuters form a large component of bridge traffic, with a strong tidal flow eastbound in the
morning and westbound in the evening. The main deck has three lanes which are operated in a
corresponding tidal fashion. A typical weekday traffic flow profile is shown below indicating the peak
periods and identifying a relatively slack period which formed the normal weekday working window
of 0930hrs to 1530 hrs, when one lane was closed to the public and handed over to the contractor. At
weekends other working windows were allocated depending on prevailing workload and traffic
conditions, and from time to time work was permitted between 1930 hrs and 2300 hrs on weekdays.
For most of the project duration the bridge had to be closed to pedestrians and cyclists, and for this
period a free 24hr shuttle bus was offered for those users. In addition, during the thirteen total
overnight closures a free shuttle passenger ferry service was provided.
TYPICAL DAILY TRAFFIC PROFILE
AND POSSESSION PERIOD
3000
VEHICLES PER HOUR
2500
2000
EAST
CONTRACTOR'S
POSSESSION
PERIOD
WEST
1500
1000
500
05
:0
0
06
:0
0
07
:0
0
08
:0
0
09
:0
0
10
:0
0
11
:0
0
12
:0
0
13
:0
0
14
:0
0
15
:0
0
16
:0
0
17
:0
0
18
:0
0
19
:0
0
20
:0
0
21
:0
0
22
:0
0
23
:0
0
In the early stages of the work, original overhead gantries were used to control public lane use,
supplemented with temporary coning and barriers traffic management as necessary. In the later stages
gantries had to be removed and other health and safety issues came into play. For the removal and
replacement of the main deck, it was necessary to install a barrier and fencing system to separate the
public on the other half of the main deck from the works area, which was both dangerous and
distracting to drivers.
Clearly the liaison between contractor and operator had to be excellent to maximise capacity and
working time. The partnering approach and the focus on a common goal mitigated the inevitable
conflicts of interest that arose from time to time.
The trade-off between retaining traffic capacity and providing useful working windows was one of
the key balancing acts performed in the project, striking a balance somewhere between a total bridge
closure for around 12 months, and using marginally useful working windows over several years. It is
considered in hindsight that giving due weight to the stakeholders and constraints involved, the chosen
balance was close to optimal. The chart below illustrates the low impact on traffic flows during the
50
project, which resulted in less than 2% loss of traffic and income measured against previous years. It
also shows the rapid increase in traffic volume immediately following project completion, but in 2004
this is now beginning to flatten out.
MILLION VEHICLES PER ANNUM
EFFECT OF WORKS ON TOLLED TRAFFIC

7.8
7.6
CONTRACT
PERIOD
7.4
7.2
7.0
6.8
6.6
6.4
6.2
6.0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
5. Testing the Partnership

This was a demanding project both technically and operationally, with a tight overall time frame and
short working windows, and by its nature was always going to test the partnership and the
commitment of the individuals forming the team. However, two external issues presented themselves
in the middle of the construction contract which introduced additional unforeseen pressures.
The first was a change in the ownership of the contractor, Cleveland Bridge, which involved what was
effectively a management buyout. For a time this threatened the stability not only of the contractors
staff on site, but also the project as a whole.
The second challenge occurred when the majority of Hyders design and supervision team left to join
another consultant, Faber Maunsell, in January 2001, potentially losing a major part of the teams
collective technical expertise and historical knowledge of the project. Taking an active approach to
this threat, the client elected to second the key staff to ensure continuity.
It is considered that strong team involvement, well-developed relationships and an open style of
working contributed greatly to the robustness of the project team and ensured its survival through
these difficult times.
6. The Finished Product

The Strengthened and
providing
Widened Bridge was opened fully to the travelling public in December 2001,
an additional traffic lane
a dedicated pedestrian/cycle path
elimination of a dangerous access road junction
improved public transport priority
safer access for toll collectors and maintenance inspectors
improved environmental and structural monitoring
51
In conjunction with the project, lane control signals and traffic management systems have also been
upgraded. Traffic levels since opening have increased significantly, and the additional traffic lane has
introduced a higher level of flexibility and redundancy to handle maintenance and contingencies such
as vehicle breakdowns.
It must be recognised that the addition of the trafficked north cantilever did bring with it the need for
improved breakdown recovery, and the new bus lane and barrier system have brought additional
maintenance and administration expenditure, but in comparison with the benefits, the additional costs
and resources are considered quite modest.
It should also be noted that while the capacity of the carriageway in the tolled direction has been
increased, the toll plaza cannot now cope with the potential capacity of the structure, and will soon be
on the critical path for upgrade. Other upgrades on the bridge are planned over the next few years,
particularly the introduction of electronic toll collection and the re-development of the administration
offices.
The Project has received considerable acclaim, winning a range of national awards from professional
institutions and the construction industry, and has also been cited as a successful example of early
contractor involvement and project partnering. In addition the project has recently been selected as an
example of effective project management and delivery by the National Audit Office.
7. Conclusion
This technically advanced and innovative project strengthened and widened a major suspension bridge
while it remained open to over 40,000 vehicles a day. The client chose a partnering approach to
procurement to share risk and maximise certainty of cost, and the project was completed within 8% of
budget and just a month late, despite significant challenges presented by operational constraints, the
environment and major changes within partner organisations.
References
1
Tamar Bridge Strengthening and Widening A Case Study

R.J.Fish, J.A.Gill and P.J.Ladd
2nd International Suspension Bridge Operators Conference
52
LITTLE BELT SUSPENSION BRIDGE

DURABLE LONG LIFE ROADWAY SURFACING
Vibeke Wegan1), Matthew L. Bloomstine2)
1
Project Manager, The Danish Road Directorate, viw@vd.dk

2
Senior Project Manager, COWI A/S, mlb@cowi.dk
Bridge Operator - The Danish Road Directorate
Niels Juels Gade 13, Postboks 9018
DK-1022 Copenhagen
e-mail: vd@vd.dk, web page: www.vd.dk
Abstract
Innovative maintenance engineering - during both the original design and operation phases - on the
roadway surfacing of the Little Belt Suspension Bridge has resulted in a number of cost-effective features, which also provide a high level of safety for the users. This is illustrated by:
This surfacing was designed on the basis of a comprehensive series of tests including performance testing and test of various primers, Mastix compounds and Mastic Asphalt mixtures, and further the entire roadway surfacing including the steel deck was assessed.
Regular annual maintenance from an early stage.
Replacement of the original wearing course at the optimal time.
Keywords
Roadway surfacing, pavement
Introduction
The Little Belt Suspension Bridge carries the E20 motorway over the crossing between the island of
Funen and the mainland of Jutland, connecting east and west Denmark. The bridge was opened in
1970 and it carries three lanes of traffic in each direction. The average traffic pr. day is 50,000 vehicles.
The suspension bridge has a main span
of 600 m and two side spans of 240 m
for a total length of 1,080 m. The
approach spans have a total length of
620 m, giving a total length of 1,700 m
for the entire connection.
The superstructure of the suspension
bridge is a steel box girder with a total
width of 33.3 m. The width of the carriageway and the paved area is 26.6 m.
The roadway surfacing on the box
girder of the suspension bridge is the
subject of the paper.
Figure 1 Overview of the Little Belt Bridge
53
There are three 3.5 m wide traffic lanes plus a 2 m wide emergency lane in each direction. The total
roadway surfacing area of the suspension bridge is approx. 29,000 square metres.
Figure 2 Cross section
Original surfacing
The original surfacing on the suspension bridge is composed of the following layers:
Adhesive primer (Neoprene-resin)

Waterproofing/ stress absorber, 4 mm bitumen/filler Mastix
Bearing course, 20 mm Mastic Asphalt 0/8 mm
Wearing course, 30 mm Mastic Asphalt 0/12 mm with 8/12 mm imbedded chippings
This surfacing was designed on the
basis of a comprehensive series of tests
carried out by the Danish Road Directorate including performance
testing in regard to rutting, fatigue and
durability. Various primer and mastix
compounds and Mastic Asphalt
mixtures were tested as well as testing
of different combinations of the total
surfacing. In addition, the entire
roadway surfacing including the steel
deck was subject for assessment and
fatigue testing. These efforts have
resulted in a surfacing with an unprecedented lifetime.
Figure 3 Fatigue test on the entire roadway surfacing including 12 mm steel plate under varying loads
at -20 and 0C.
54
Inspections and strategies
Since the early eighties, annual inspections of surfacing and joints have been carried out. After each
inspection the damage found was assessed, and necessary repair were carried out. Up till the midnineties, only minor repairs had been carried out, typically in the form of crack sealing. These repairs
were mostly carried out by the bridge personnel.
From the mid-nineties the damage to certain parts of the surfacing of the suspension bridge in the form
of severe, open cracks, stone tearing and tracking was so comprehensive that extensive repair in the
form of partial or future span-wise wearing course replacements were foreseen.
Assessment of the surfacing indicated that the damage was mainly located in the wearing course.
Cracks observed in the surface had penetrated through the wearing course. However, in many instances the cracks did not continue into the bearing course, and the mastix layer was in almost all
cases intact. Furthermore, the bond between the mastix layer and the steel deck was shown to still be
at full strength.
Figure 4 Crushing in slow lane
Figure 5 Tracking in the middle lane
Based upon these inspections, an analysis of the following main repair strategies was carried out in
1994:
1
2
Replacement of the entire surfacing including waterproofing.

Replacement of the wearing course and a total replacement of the surfacing 15 years later.
A calculation of present day values for the two strategies showed that strategy no. 2 was clearly advantageous.
55
New type of wearing course on the bridge
Before the replacement of the worn down wearing course was initiated, an assessment was made of
alternative surfacing types able to approximately match the same good durability characteristics of the
original Mastic Asphalt.
During the preparation of the Great Belt bridges a comprehensive research effort was executed with
the purpose of developing a high performing and long-life wearing course. The research quickly identified two types of surfacing as candidates for the further research of material properties. The two candidate types were Mastic Asphalt and Stone Mastic Asphalt. The research included examination of the
resistance to rutting, fatigue and durability.
The findings of the research effort made it possible to describe a new high performance long-life SMA
material. The SMA could be formulated either as an 8 mm nominal size or a 11 mm nominal size
SMA. The basic idea in the new SMA material was to achieve a surfacing with a low air void and high
binder content without problems with rutting or lack of friction. The solution was found in the properties within the combined fraction of highly polymer modified binder and special limestone filler.
The polymer modified binder was based on a special blend of bitumen with high affinity to the SBS
polymer. The dosage of SBS was approximately 6 % of a linear type SBS. Several types of filler were
tested during the research. The main objective was to identify a filler with a high stabilising effect. A
fine grinded lime stone filler from northern Jutland was found to satisfy the criteria. In the final assessment of the candidate mixtures and constituent components the SMA combinations were tested for
performance in regard to wheel tracking, fatigue and durability.
During 1995 a small portion of the bridge surfacing (the north part of the side span of Funen) was replaced as a trial using the SMA 11. The purpose of the trial section was to try out the new SMA for
use at the Great Belt West Bridge.
The performance of the trial section together with the experiences from trials at other locations in
Denmark were very promising, and the new SMA material was chosen for replacement of the old Asphalt Mastic wearing course.
In addition to the durability aspects SMA has the following advantages compared to the asphalt mastic:
Keener competition at tender

Fast application - less traffic disruption
Cheaper at procurement
Greater evenness - improved driving comfort
Replacement of the wearing course
Before preparation of the project, special inspections of the broken up wearing course were made. At a
few locations the inspection was supplement by boring of cores. The individual locations of broken up
wearing courses were inspected visually, and study of the cores was carried out by the Danish Road
Directorate.
56
Generally the following was concluded:
Where there is severe tracking, there is risk of loose surfacing.

Outside stretches with tracking, the wearing course is in good condition.
The mastic layer is still tight.
Adhesion to the steel deck has generally not deteriorated during the life of the bridge.
Replacement of the wearing course is recommended.
5.1 Replacement, Project

As mentioned above, a small portion of the wearing course was replaced in 1995. A tender project for
the replacement of the remaining wearing course was prepared for execution in two stages: 1. The remaining northern carriageway in 1999 and 2. the southern carriageway in 2000. In the year 2000 a total approximately 300 million vehicles had passed the bridge since opening, including about 30-40
million trucks. The wearing course was replaced in the slow and middle lanes in each direction,
whereas the condition in the fast lanes was still so good that only about 40% of the area was replaced.
The project tender included the following principal activities:
Removal of existing Mastic Asphalt wearing course

Local repair of waterproofing and Mastic Asphalt bearing course
Application of new SMA wearing course
Establishment of elastic joints at the expansion joints
Road markings on wearing course.
The replacement was done by milling off the original wearing course and approximately 5 mm of the
bearing course and applying the following new wearing course:
35 mm wearing course of Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) based on crushed rock. The binder
was specified as Styrene Butadiene Styrene co-polymer (SBS) modified bitumen, Pen 60.
The stone size in the stone mastic asphalt was different for the north and south carriageways. On the
north side a 0/11 mm stone size was used. On the south side a 0/8 mm stone size was used.
Originally the project in the north side of the suspension bridge was tendered with SMA 8. This was
however not accomplished because of various unfavourable circumstances and unsatisfactory results
of various test applications. Part of 1999 was consequently spent for completion of the development of
SMA 8 by optimization of specifications and test applications to prepare the mix design for application as wearing course in the south side of the suspension bridge. The design mix known from replacement of wearing course in the side span Funen in 1995 was applied for the north side.
5.2 Replacement, execution

Replacement of Mastic Asphalt wearing course by SMA was carried out as follows:
Side span Funen, north side in 1995. All 3 traffic lanes - totally approx. 2,700 square metres
The north side of the suspension bridge excluding side spans Funen in 1999. Slow and middle
lane - totally approx. 6,000 square metres
57
The south side of the suspension bridge in 2000. Overall slow and middle lanes in main span Jutland and side span Funen and all 3 lanes in side span Jutland and main span Funen - totally
approx. 10,000 square metres.
Side span of Funen, north part

Replacement of wearing course in all three traffic lanes took place in the month of May 1995. A total
of 15 working days were spent for replacement of wearing course including miscellaneous repairs of
the waterproofing, the bearing course and traffic regulations.
Deeper repair work was only carried out to a moderate extent. Repairs all the way to the steel deck
covered only approx. 10 square metres, and the repair of the bearing course approx. 35 square metres,
corresponding to 0.4% and 1.3% of the total surface of the side spans respectively.
Figure 6 Milled-off wearing course with steel damage
Figure 7 Repair with asphalt mastic
Suspension Bridge, North part

Replacement of the wearing course in the slow and middle lanes was carried out in April and May
1999. A total of 33 working days were spent for replacement of the wearing course including miscellaneous repair of the waterproofing and the bearing course and traffic work.
Repair work was only carried out to a moderate extent. Repairs all the way to the steel deck covered
approx. 55 square metres, and the repair of the bearing course approx. 90 square metres, corresponding to 0.9% and 1.5% of the replaced surface area respectively.
Figure 8 Marking of damage to bearing course
Figure 9 Ready for application of SMA 11
58
Suspension Bridge, South part

Replacement of the wearing course in the slow and middle lanes and parts of the fast lane were carried
out in July to October 2000. A total of 65 working days were spent for replacement of the wearing
course including miscellaneous repair of the waterproofing and the bearing course and traffic regulations.
Repair work was only carried out to a moderate extent. Repairs all the way to the steel deck covered
approx. 133 square metres, and the repair of the bearing course approx. 284 square metres, corresponding to 1.3% and 2.8% of the totally replaced area respectively.
Figure 10 and 11 Damage and repair of steel
Figure 12 Surface ready for wearing course
Figure 13 Loose SA bearing course
Figure 14 and 15 Application of SMA 8 wearing course
59
Replacement, summary
Under the 3 contracts in 1995, 1999 and 2000 the average daily progress was respectively 180,
182 and 154 square metres a day. The progress in the last phase is atypical, as the time schedule
was adapted to a long-term adjacent surface work to the west of the suspension bridge. The typical progress including traffic regulations is assessed to approx. 180 to 185 square metres a day.
The following table shows the quantities of each type of repair from each contract, as well as the
relative areas of the repairs.
Replacements/repairs
Wearing course
Bearing course
Mastix
Side span, North. 1995
2,700 m2
35 m2
10 m2
North side, 1999
6,000 m2
90 m2
55 m2
South side, 2000
10,000 m2
284 m2
133 m2
Total in m2
18,700 m2
409 m2
198 m2
Total in % of rep. area
100 %
2.2 %
1.1 %
Total in % of the Bridge
64 %
1.4 %
0.7 %
Economy
The table below shows the contractor expenses, excluding traffic regulations.
Replacements/repairs
Total replacement
Total expenses
DKK
Total expenses
DKK/ m2
Side span, North. 1995
2,700 m2
763,000
282
North side, 1999
6,000 m2
1,837,000
306
South side, 2000
10,000 m2
3,220,000
322
The average price adjusted to the December 2003 level is approx. DKK 358 per m2.
60
Conclusion
The renewed surfacing has an expected remaining service life of at least 15 years, resulting in a total
lifetime of 45 years. The main reasons for this extraordinarily long lifetime can be briefly summarised
by the following:
Optimisation of the individual layers as well as the entire surfacing system.
A system with a separate wearing course allowing a relatively simple life prolonging repair.
Quality workmanship during the original works.
Regular maintenance from an early stage.
A stiff bridge deck structure, which minimises stresses in the surfacing due to deflections of the
deck during passage of heavy vehicles.
The 4 mm Mastix layer is very durable and crack resistant.
The Mastic Asphalt is very durable with excellent resistance to rutting.
The surfacing system has a relatively large total thickness, app. 55 mm.
The design provides a good water runoff.
Furthermore, the relatively thick and hard surfacing has another beneficial effect. It reduces stress levels and thereby increases the fatigue life of the deck structure. This is caused by the following two effects:
There is a greater distribution of wheel loads through the surfacing.
It is active in a "composite" cross section, in which steel and surfacing work together.
No problems with fatigue are expected and inspections of the most critical areas have confirmed this.
61
62
DEVELOPMENT OF A PAINTING ROBOT FOR BRIDGES

Mitsushige Sakamoto1), Shoji Hirota2), Ken Sugimoto3)
1
Manager, Equipment Section, Maintenance Department, Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority

4-1-22 Onoe-dori, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 651-0088, Japan
e-mail: sakamomt@hsba.go.jp, web page: http://www.hsba.go.jp/
2
Deputy Manager, Facilities Section, Maintenance Department, First Construction Bureau,

Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority
4-115 Higashi Maiko-cho, Tarumi-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 655-0047, Japan
e-mail: hirota@hsba.go.jp, web page: http://www.hsba.go.jp/
Bridge Maintenance Section, Maintenance Department, Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority
4-1-22 Onoe-dori, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 651-0088, Japan
e-mail: sugimoto@hsba.go.jp, web page: http://www.hsba.go.jp/
Abstract
No instances exist of the full-scale use of bridge-painting robots despite the strong demand for
automation to reduce maintenance costs, alleviate arduous manual tasks, and solve labor shortage
problems. Factors impeding automation include complex bridge structures, fragile scaffolding, and
environmental concerns about the generation of airborne paint particles and paint mist. To address
these issues for use on the box-girders of the Honshu-Shikoku Bridge, we developed a painting robot
system that consists of a cylindrical rotating brush, paint roller, and a wheeled base with an articulated
arm to which the brush and roller are fitted. This base can be placed on maintenance platforms already
in place on bridges. Test painting with this robot on the Oshima Bridge verified the successful
development of a painting robot capable of quality equal or superior to that of manual painting and a
work rate over ten times greater than that of human labor, with no generation of airborne paint
particles or mist.
Keywords: bridge, repainting, cylindrical brush, paint roller
1. Introduction
Bridge painting is arduous and risky work because of the severe conditions under which it is
performed, including exposure to great heights, heat, and strong winds. The demand for technology to
automate bridge painting has increased because of rising maintenance costs and imminent labor
shortages due to declining birth rates in an aging society. However, no instance exists of the full-scale
implementation of such automation. The Honshu-Shikoku Bridge, a series of large bridges with a total
painting surface area exceeding four million square meters, is a prime candidate for automation
because of the desire to reduce the costs of an upcoming complete repainting project.
Factors impeding the automation of painting include the complex bridge structure, fragile scaffolding,
and the need for preventative measures against airborne paint particles and mist. To address these
issues, for use on the box-girder structures of the Honshu-Shikoku Bridge, we have developed a
painting robot that consists of cylindrical rotating brushes and painting rollers, an articulated arm to
which these are fitted, and a wheeled base. The rotating brush and painting rollers in this new structure
were optimized in laboratory testing. Using the knowledge gained through this testing, we built a
working unit and tested it in the painting of 3,000 m2 of the Oshima Bridge. The results indicate
quality equal or superior to that of manual painting and a rate of over 500 m2 per day, or ten times
greater than that of human labor, with no generation of airborne paint particles or mist, demonstrating
the success of this development effort.
63
2. Development Strategy
2.1 Characteristics of the Honshu-Shikoku Bridge
The Honshu-Shikoku Bridge is a structurally diverse
series of multiple bridges, including suspension,
cable-stayed, truss, and box-girder structures. Each
bridge is equipped with maintenance platforms, which
serve as scaffolding. The bridge surfaces are treated
with a six-layer, 250-m-thick coating of long-term
rustproof paint. Localized areas of degradation are
addressed by spot repainting, but once the top two
layers have degraded overall, plans call for complete
repainting by performing Class 4 surface preparation Photo
and then applying undercoating and surface coating.
Because of the large surface area involved (four million
square meters), automation to reduce painting costs is
sought as part of efforts to reduce overall maintenance costs.
1: Example of a movable
maintenance platform under
bridge girders
2.2 Guidelines
2.2.1 Focusing on the Box-Girder Structure
Being structurally diverse, the bridge complex contains structural members of a wide spectrum of
shapes. Although a solution capable of painting all the bridges structural members would be ideal,
attempting to design a single unit capable of such work might conversely result in one that is not
optimal for any. We therefore decided to focus on the box girders, which have flat, smooth surfaces.
2.2.2 Scope of Work: Surface Preparation, Undercoating, and Surface Coating
Our efforts focused on the complete repainting of flat, smooth surfaces, which are conducive to
automation. Spot repainting of seams and other dispersed locations that account for only a small
fraction of the surface area is excluded from consideration. Despite this omission, the target surface
area still accounts for 95% of the total, justifying that the benefits of automation will not be lost.
2.2.3 Work Capacity of Over 500 m2 per Day
In order to make development worthwhile, it is necessary to verify that the benefits of automation will
exceed development costs. Because the goal is to save labor, a work capacity exceeding human labor
by several times is needed. Based on such factors as development costs, ease of development, and cost
effectiveness, we estimate the needed capacity to be 500 m2/day, the equivalent labor of ten persons.
2.2.4 Utilizing Existing Maintenance platforms
As shown in Photo 1, the main bridges in the Honshu-Shikoku Bridge are equipped with moveable
maintenance platforms. These maintenance platforms are suspended from and traverse along rails
fitted to the lower surface of bridge girders. Loaded with workers or materials, they can traverse the
full length of the bridge axis at a speed of up to 30 m/min. Therefore, attaching the painting robot to a
wheeled base that moves perpendicular to the bridge axis, and then placing this base on the
maintenance platforms, will provide access to the entire lower surface of the girders.
3. Surface Preparation
3.1 Current Surface Preparation Method
Current surface preparation consists of removing spots of adhered foreign materials and degraded
paint and then scoring the intact paint underneath, i.e., forming an anchor pattern. This is
conventionally accomplished with a disc sander, a power tool with a sandpaper disc that is rotated by a
motor in the tool. The user presses the surface of the sanding disc against the painted surface, and
moves it up and down and side to side, while visually verifying removal of the degraded paint. This
method requires fine-tuning the pressure and sanding time (i.e., the pattern in which the sander is
moved) according to the unevenness of the painted surface. Automating a process that requires such
judgment and fine-tuning is difficult.
64
3.2 Rotating Brushes

One method of automating surface preparation is by
using a cylindrical rotating brush of the type used in
a car wash. This would entail affixing such a
rotating brush to the arm end and moving the arm in
such a way as to press the brush against the painted
surface while moving the maintenance platform,
thereby surface-preparing a long strip of the surface
equal in width to the brush. If a brush 0.5 m wide
were used, for instance, then a maintenance
platform speed of 5 m/min would enable a work
rate of 150 m2/h, thus easily achieving our target.
Fig. 1: Conceptual illustration of the rotating

brush
3.3 Technical Issues

The main technical issue in developing a practicable rotating brush is how to deal with surface
unevenness. Unevenness of approximately 5 mm can exist on the painted surface in the form of weld
beads and weld distortion.
The paint-scraping effectiveness of the brush is directly proportional to contact force and rotational
speed. Therefore, when an ordinary rotating brush scrapes an uneven surface, the difference in contact
pressure results in overscraping of protrusions and underscraping of depressions. Although uniform
contact with both types of unevenness is possible with a low-rigidity brush, paint scraping requires a
material of hardness greater than the paint, and hard materials are in general of high rigidity.
A solution that satisfies these seemingly opposing requirements is a nylon brush containing abrasive
particles and utilizing centrifugal force. In this solution, a low-rigidity nylon brush uniformly contacts
the uneven surface, achieving the requisite contact pressure by centrifugal force and scraping the paint
by means of the abrasive particles embedded in the brush bristles. As centrifugal force is proportional
to the square of the product of mass, radius, and angular velocity, a brush radius of 50 mm will, in the
case of 5-mm surface unevenness, result in a 10% differential, which we believe to be a practically
negligible amount.
Nylon brushes consisting of an array of nylon bristles held by U-shaped metal fixtures are
commercially available. By positioning such brushes in a spiral pattern around the axis of rotation, a
cylindrical rotating brush can easily be fabricated. Adjustment of the scraping force according to the
degree of paint degradation can be accomplished by adjusting the angular velocity (i.e., speed of
rotation). Furthermore, the release of airborne paint particles can be prevented by enclosing the
rotating brush in a case and collecting the particles using an attached vacuum. An illustration of the
rotating brush is shown in Fig. 1.
4. Painting
4.1 Brush Application
Bridge painting is normally accomplished by brush application, whereby the tips of the brush bristles
are caused to absorb paint in a paint can, and the paint is then transferred to the bridge surface. The
thickness and quality of the applied paint depends on such factors as the quantity of paint absorbed,
the force with which the brush is pressed against the surface, and the rotational and linear speed of
movement of the brush. Consequently, the worker is required to adjust these factors according to
painting conditions. Automating such complex brush work is as difficult as the aforementioned surface
preparation. The rate of painting using human labor is approximately 50 m2/man day, and it is not
realistic to try to automate such complex brush work in a way that would meet the target of 500
m2/day.
4.2 Spray Application
Another approach for automated painting operations is spraying, which does not require contact
between the surface and painting mechanism. This approach is suitable for complex curved surfaces
and so is widely used in automobile painting. Such painting devices have nozzles that produce a fine
mist and spray it onto the surface at high speed. However, in outdoor applications, not only can wind
65
disperse the mist but in an upward-spraying

situation, paint striking the surface can rebound and
add to mist dispersal. Actual applications face strict
environmental-protection
requirements.
Even
during brush application, when the area to be
painted is normally enclosed with sheets and fine
netting, complete containment is difficult.
Therefore, with regard to environmental protection,
it is not practical to use spray application, which
generates more airborne particles (i.e., mist) than
brush application.
4.3 Roller Application
Automated painting by rollers is used in the
painting of colored steel sheeting. As shown in Fig.
2, paint in a paint pan is transferred via a pickup
roller to an application roller. Because the paint is
transferred from one roller surface to another, this
method does not generate mist. Furthermore, the
adjustment of the paint layers thickness and
uniformity is relatively easily accomplished by
controlling the application roller's rotational speed
and distance from the steel sheeting. The rate of
roller application is the product of roller width and
linear speed, and achieving a rate similar to that of
the aforementioned surface preparation (150 m2/h)
should be possible.
Fig. 2: Example of the roller painting of

colored steel sheets
Fig. 3: Paint supply line
4.4 Technical Issues

In view of issues such as suitability for automation, painting rate, and environmental-protection
measures (i.e., particulate containment), we chose roller application as the method of painting.
However, the painting of colored steel sheeting involves applying a flat surface of paint of 10 m
thickness with the pickup and pass rollers, whereas the surfaces of a bridge are slanted and uneven and
require a paint thickness of 50 m. To summarize, the technical issues involved in applying roller
painting to bridges are how to cope with slanted, uneven surfaces and how to achieve thick painting.
Roller application requires a uniform contact pressure between the rubber roller and the surface to
paint. However, the rollers commonly used contain hardened rubber with a hardness of approximately
50, which on uneven surfaces is likely to result in unpainted areas. To achieve uniform contact over an
uneven surface requires a soft, low-elasticity roller. Candidate materials include sponge rubber, which
is produced by a foaming process. However, paint entering the foams air pockets can change the
rollers elasticity, while organic solvents in the paint can degrade the foam, requiring the use of a
protective layer against the paint.
Achieving the required paint thickness requires increasing the amount of paint that adheres to the
roller surface. This amount can vary depending on the paints viscosity. Therefore, for the roller
surface we use a bristled material that holds more paint.
Painting a slanted surface requires slanting the roller as well, which would be impossible with the
combination of paint pan and pickup roller shown in Fig. 2. Furthermore, the paint must be delivered
via a closed circuit. Consequently, we use a pressure roller in which paint is delivered by a pump to
the inside of the roller, from where it is secreted onto the surface.
A paint supply line providing such capabilities consists of a paint supply hose, a supply roller that
secretes the delivered paint from its interior and transfers it to the painting roller, and the painting
roller, which molds itself to the uneven surface and applies the paint (Fig. 3).
66
5. Support Mechanisms
5.1 Degrees of Freedom Required
In addition to the rotating brush and painting
rollers, which are the main technical components,
a support mechanism capable of holding these
components in the desired position is also
necessary. The required functions (i.e., operations)
are summarized as follows:
(1) Reversing the painting roller at the ends of the
area being painted (i.e., accomplishing the
sequence of front and rear rollers).
(2) Vertically moving the rotating brush and
painting roller (since the vertical distance between
the floor of the maintenance platform and the
surface to paint differs among bridges).
(3) Adjusting the angle of the rotating brush and
painting roller (i.e., for painting horizontal,
slanted, and vertical surfaces).
(4) Horizontally moving the rotating brush and
painting roller (traveling as painting work
progresses).
(5) Swiveling the overall mechanism to the left
and right (to paint slanted surfaces on the left and
right sides).
A support mechanism that fulfills these
requirements consists of an articulated arm with
five degrees of freedom and a wheeled base
(Fig. 4). The overall painting mechanism therefore
consists of a wheeled base, arm, and painting robot
(Photo 2).
5.2 Support Mechanism of the Rotating Brush
The rotating brush achieves the required contact
pressure (i.e., scraping force) by means of
centrifugal force, so the bristles flexure (as
determined by the distance between the surface
and the rotational axis) must be kept constant.
Because of the random changes in surface
evenness, the guide roller is kept pressed against
the surface by means of the arm-end spring
(Photo 3), and the rotating brush is supported with
this guide roller as the reference point. The spring
has a pressing force of 50 kgf and an effective
stroke of 50 mm, enabling the bristle flexure to be
kept constant regardless of unevenness in the
surface to paint or flexure of the maintenance
platform floor.
Fig. 4: Degrees of freedom of the articulated

arm
Photo 2: Painting robot
Photo 3: Rotating brush support mechanism
5.3 Support Mechanism of the Painting Roller

The paint roller cannot transfer paint when
separated from the surface to paint, so the roller
Photo 4: Painting roller support mechanism
must be kept in contact with the surface.
Furthermore, because variation in the contact pressure would result in inconsistent paint thickness, the
pressing force must be maintained within a specific range. Laboratory experimentation has shown a
67
pressing force of 1013 kgf to be optimum. The support mechanism must therefore maintain a
constant pressing force regardless of random changes in surface evenness and flexure of the
maintenance platform floor. Hence an arm-end spring keeps the guide roller pressed against the
surface to paint, and a lever having the guide roller as a fulcrum is established, with the pneumatic
cylinder on one side and the painting roller on the opposite side (Photo 4). Because the pneumatic
cylinders pressing force is proportional to the pressure of the supplied air, the required contact
pressure for the painting roller can be maintained by adjusting the air pressure.
6. Testing on an Actual Bridge
6.1 Painting Specifications
Functioning of the painting robots rotating brush, painting roller, and other main components was
verified in laboratory testing. However, because testing on the scale of actual application was needed
to verify functioning of the overall system (e.g., interoperation between the support mechanisms and
the maintenance platform), the robot was used in actual repainting of the Oshima Bridge, located
along the Nishi-Seto Expressway. Opened to traffic in January 1988, the Oshima Bridge is an
840-m-long, single-span, two-hinged steel-box-girder suspension bridge. The box girders have an
inverted trapezoid shape 2.2 m high, with a lower and upper flange 17 and 20.1 m long, respectively,
and which are secured on either end with a hanger rope held by a bracket.
Table 1 lists the initial painting specifications and the repainting specifications. Repainting involved
first forming an anchor pattern (Class 4 surface preparation) in the polyurethane undercoating in the
degraded surface layer, then applying over that an epoxy resin undercoating and a fluorine resin
surface coating. The section painted was 170 m long, with a surface area of roughly 3,000 m2.
Initial
painting
Repainting
Table 1: Painting specifications for the Oshima Bridge

[gr/m2]
1st layer
2nd layer
3rd layer
4th layer
5th layer
6th layer
Zinc-rich
Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Polyurethane Polyurethane
primer
Mist coat undercoating undercoating undercoating surface coat
[75]
[60]
[60]
[30]
[30]
Fluorine
Epoxy resin
undercoating resin surface
coat
[120]
[140]
6.2 Quality Assessment of the Surface Preparation

As no method is established for quantitatively assessing the degree of surface preparation, we used
glossiness as an expedient. Glossiness is a function of reflectance; when the anchor pattern is formed
on the surface to paint, glossiness decreases due to irregular reflection. Prepared surfaces having a
roughness equivalent to that of well prepared surfaces sanded with disc sanders during the repainting
of the Onaruto Bridge had a glossiness of 20%. Therefore, we used glossiness as a metric for assessing
surface preparation and set a goal of reducing glossiness from the current 5060% to 20% or less.
Prior to surface preparation, we programmed the maintenance platform to move at the planned linear
speed of 5 m/min and determined the correlation between brush rotational speed and glossiness. We
found the rotational speed at which glossiness would be 20% or less up to a linear speed of 8 m/min.
From that point, we proceeded with a brush rotational speed of 4,000 rpm and a maintenance platform
linear speed of 8 m/min.
6.3 Glossiness after Surface Preparation
During surface preparation, glossiness was measured at appropriate times. Four hundred
measurements produced an average glossiness of 15%, with a standard deviation of 4%. Glossiness
before surface preparation was an average of 51% with a standard deviation of 9%, indicating that
surface preparation created a uniform anchor pattern.
68
6.4 Rate of Surface Preparation

Over the course of painting, the work rate of surface
preparation varied between 50 and 150 m2/h (Fig. 5). The
Oshima Bridge has splice plates located every 24 m.
Section 1B in Fig. 5 indicates the rate for 24-m lateral
movements and round trips with the robot; 3B indicates
the rate for 72-m lateral movements and round trips.
The initially low rate was due to unfamiliarity with
operations. The low rate in 1B compared to that of 3B is
due to the difference in round-trip times. In both cases,
however, the target of 500 m2/day was met.
6.5 Painting Work
The standard dry thicknesses were 30 m for the
undercoating and 25 m for the surface coating. Taking
into account dry thickness and overapplication brings this
to a wet thickness of 70 m. Initially, the paint pump was
set to a pumping rate assuming a maintenance platform
linear speed of 5 m/min. Next, we gradually increased
platform speed while checking the quality of paint
application. Quality was good up until 7 m/min, but at
8 m/min streaks began to appear, and work was resumed at
7 m/min from that point onward. Paint was initially evenly
distributed between the front and rear rollers, but paint
supply was later increased to the former and decreased to
the latter. A distribution of 7080% to the front roller
resulted in a high-quality painted surface. This is similar to
the technique used to obtain an even finish in brush
painting by initially distributing the paint thickly, then
finishing with lightly absorbed paint in the brush.
6.6 Rate of Painting Work
Application of undercoating and surface coating showed
similar trends, so only undercoating application is
discussed here.
The rate of painting work varied between 60 and 150 m2/h
(Fig. 6). The reasons for this variation were exactly the
same as with surface preparation. The goal of 500m2/day
was easily met.
Figure 7 shows the relationship between the number of
continuous application blocks and the work rate as
determined by taking into consideration lateral movement
time between the ends and operating time when passing
over joints, which increase loss time. As the figure shows,
the work rate increases with the number of
continuous-application blocks. Continuous operation over
approximately five blocks will be desirable in future
planning.
Fig. 5: Surface preparation work rate
Fig. 6: Painting work rate
Fig. 7: Correlation between continuous

painting blocks and work rate
6.7 Quality of Painting

After surface preparation and undercoating application, 20-m-thick steel tape was adhered to the
surface. This was then peeled off after painting in order to measure the thickness of the applied paint.
A total of 350 measurements were made (over a total length of 72 m) at 70 locations for both
undercoating and surface coating. As the results in Table 2 show, we obtained good values,
comparable to the paint thickness standards that are applicable to new bridges.
69
In subsequent adhesion testing performed using separation between the previously painted steel
surface and the first layer, adhesion was over 20 kgf/cm2. These results indicate that the painting robot
could yield quality equal or superior to that of brush painting using human labor.
Table 2: Measurements of paint thickness
Category
Control parameter and standard value
Average > standard thickness 0.9
Minimum thickness > standard thickness 0.7
Standard deviation < average 0.2
Undercoating
Surface coating
30m
37
23
6.9
25m
33
20
5.9
6.8 Effectiveness in Labor and Cost Savings

The rate of manual painting is 50 m2/man day, whereas
that of the painting robot is 500 m2/day. As planned, the
robot was operable by two to three people. Hence the
painting robot enables savings of 7080% per area in
labor costs compared to manual painting. The cost
effectiveness of the painting robot versus manual
painting is governed by the difference in painting costs.
When labor costs and mechanical expenses are taken
into account, the difference is such that work costs with
the painting robot are lower by approximately Photo 5: Deployment of the tower-painting
robot
1,000/m2. This represents savings of 2030% in total
painting costs, including materials. Based on the target
surface area, we calculated the benefit (B), i.e., the savings in the costs of repainting the box girders of
the Honshu-Shikoku Bridge, which is conducive to painting by robot. Dividing (B) by the costs of
development (C) reveals a benefit/cost ratio (B/C) of over 600%.
6.9 Environmental Protection Measures
The major environmental protection measures required in bridge repainting are containment of
airborne paint particles during surface preparation and containment of paint mist during painting.
Manual painting operations realize containment by means of fine netting and vinyl sheets.
The painting robot is equipped with a vacuum to collect paint particles, thereby preventing release.
The transfer of paint from the roller surface to the surface being painted precludes the generation of
paint mist. This enabled us to forego the use of netting and sheeting for containment. This in turn
prevents the accumulation of evaporating organic solvents at the work site, thereby improving the
work environment.
7. Conclusion
The painting robot was operated by painters who had until the previous day been responsible for the
brush painting of joints on the bridge. Their comments upon seeing the robot operate summarize
everything: Who would have thought that such a convenient machine could be invented? Times are
really changing. Although repainting of the box girders was completed using the painting robot, this
surface area represents only 5% of the total painted surface of the Honshu-Shikoku Bridge.
Thus, this painting robot has merely laid the foundations for the automation of bridge repainting.
Automating the repainting of the main towers, splice plates, trusses, and other components is also
needed. Using the expertise gained in deploying our box-girder painting robot, we developed a new
robot for painting bridge towers and used it to repaint the exterior of the main towers of the Innoshima
Bridge, thus demonstrating the successful development of a bridge-tower repainting robot (Photo 5).
We next intend to consolidate our expertise and experience gained so far and apply this technology to
the Oshima, Innoshima and other bridges to automate repainting of splice plates, trusses, and other
bridge components.
70
METHOD OF PREDICTING THE REMAINING SERVICE LIFE OF

PARALLELWIRE MAIN CABLES OF SUSPENSION BRIDGES
Ronald M. Mayrbaurl, P.E.1, Adrian J. Powell, P.E.2, Dr. Todorka Paskova, Ph.D., P.E.3
1
Principal Weidlinger Associates, Inc.

Associate Weidlinger Associates, Inc.
3
Principal Research Engineer Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority
2
Weidlinger Associates, Inc.

375 Hudson Street, 12th Floor
New York, NY 10014, U.S.A.
e-mail: apowell@wai.com , web page: http://www.wai.com
Abstract:
There is currently minimal quantitative data on the long term strength and time-dependent
deterioration of bridge wires in main cables of suspension bridges. The Triborough Bridge & Tunnel
Authority began a research program in which the objective is to establish a method of predicting the
remaining service life of main cables of suspension bridges. Once the present in-service cable
capacity has been determined and the strength degradation parameters established, the remaining
service life of the cables can be predicted by; estimating wire conditions at several future dates,
utilizing the Cable Strength Deterioration Model results, determining cable safety factors at these
future dates, and estimating date at which the cable will no longer satisfy safety factor requirements.
Using the degradation parameters established in the research program, along with the estimated cable
strength at the time of inspection, the remaining service life of the main cables can be estimated.
Keywords:
Cable wire, suspension bridges, cable, cable strength model, degradation parameters, safety factor
1. Introduction
The mechanisms associated with bridge wire deterioration and failure is the primary subject of this
study. Knowledge of the nature and rates of bridge wire failure and of strength degradation will
enable estimation of wire conditions in the future and, therefore, cable capacity. The ultimate
objective is to predict the future conditions and capacity of cables of four suspension bridges owned
by the Triborough Bridge & Tunnel (TBTA); the Verrazano Narrows Bridge, the Bronx-Whitestone
Bridge, the Triborough Bridge, and the Throgs Neck Bridge. The degradation parameters established
as part of this research program can be used to estimate the remaining service life of other suspension
bridges that have parallel-wire main cables.
The four stages of corrosion first identified by Hopwood and Havens [1] are still used today. They
have proven themselves over time to provide accurate descriptions of the various states of corrosion in
bridge wire and to produce a usable grouping of wire strengths for cable evaluation. However, in
order to facilitate the development of the cable degradation model, two additional theoretical stages
are proposed, Stages 5 and 6. These stages will be discussed in more detail in Section 2.
Stage 1: White spots on the surface of the wire, indicating early stages of zinc oxidation;
Stage 2: White zinc oxidation over the entire surface of the wire;
Stage 3: White zinc oxidation on some areas of the wire, with brown rust in a few spots;
Stage 4: Brown rust spots prevalent over the wire surface;
Stage 5: Theoretical stage that represents the first broken wire in a segment;
Stage 6: Theoretical stage that represents the point at which all the wires in a segment are broken.
Cable strength capacity is determined on the basis of analytical models founded on mechanics of
materials and on complex relationships between broken wires and cable bands. Determination of
cable strength is not the focus of this paper; however, detailed information on this subject can be found
in several other publications [2, 3]. At any one time, the capacity of the cable is based on knowledge
71
of the capacity of the unbroken wires and the capacity of cable bands to redevelop the force in broken
ones.
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Wedge
locations
Stage 4
Stage 5
Stage 6
a. Condition of Cable at age 70 years
Each ring
represents
one wire
diameter
b. Condition of Cable at age 85 years
Figure 1 - Cable Cross-Sections showing as-inspected corrosion stages
2. Cable Strength Deterioration Models

There are currently three different models that are used to determine cable strength loss rate for
predicting degradation in a parallel-wire cable with galvanized wires:
Linear Cable Strength Deterioration Model [4].

Delayed Linear Cable Strength Deterioration Model [5].
Non-Linear Cable Strength Deterioration Model.
The first model was used to estimate the degradation rate for cables on several suspension bridges in
New York City. The results varied from bridge to bridge, from insignificant to 0.37% per year. The
report from which this data is extracted assumes that deterioration proceeds at an increasing rate that
cannot be determined for lack of data [4]. Each bridge was evaluated only once; thus, only the average
rate of deterioration for each can be determined.
The first method does not account for an initial period of minimal degradation, during which the zinc
coating is compromised at a rate that increases with time. In the second model, the onset of Stage 3 is
assumed to coincide with strength loss onset, because Stage 1 and 2 wires show no appreciable loss of
tensile strength. The time required to reach Stage 3 corrosion in typically varies from about 20 to 70
years. The length of this initial period can be estimated by assuming that the next higher stage is
imminent for any observed stage in the cable. Stage 5, an additional stage, is postulated for broken
wires and that the advancement of the stages is linear with time; it is assumed that there was no
activity for the first 10 years of the cables life. It can also be calculated by the following equation:
t3 =
3(t t0 )
+ t0
Stage + 1
where:
Stage = maximum stage of corrosion observed at age t
t = age of the bridge in years at the time of inspection
t0 = period during which no corrosion occurs (10 years assumed)
t3 = age of bridge in years at inception of Stage 3
A version of this model was used to predict the future strength of the Williamsburg Bridge cables [5].
Even this second method does not account for an increasing rate of deterioration.
72
The third model is the basis for the research project that is the focus of this paper. The model uses data
from the most recent inspection to develop a cross-section of the cable in the most seriously degraded
panel. A degradation rate is calculated for each stage present in the cross-section, based on a curve
showing the time required to reach that stage based on the testing data. The condition of the crosssection at a future date is estimated from these degradation rates and in conjunction with cable strength
models used to estimate the cable strength at a future date.
Figure 2 is a graphic comparison of the effect that each of these models has on estimated future cable
strength. The future rate of degradation increases with each model.
100%
Stage 1 Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Broken
wires
Cable strength
Initial period of
no deterioration
Deterioration model
Linear
Delayed linear
Non-linear
Time of
inspection
0%
Age of cable
Figure 2 Three deterioration models
The non-linear model requires experimental data to develop a graph showing the rate of deterioration
of a wire in an environment similar to that inside a cable. The data must be obtained using accelerated
tests in a more aggressive environment than exists in the cables, or else the duration of the tests would
approach the lifespan of the bridge. A hypothetical graph is shown in Figure 3. The onset of each
corrosion stage is plotted against the start time of the test.
6
Corrosion stage
Hypothetical only.
Test data is not yet
available.
Suggested linear
relationship
Shortest time
to failure
0
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
Longest time
to failure
2.00
2.50
Time (years)
Figure 3 - Corrosion stage vs. time from test data
Each data point is the average of many tests, except those for Stages 5 and 6 for broken wires. Stage 5
represents the first broken wire in a segment of a ring of wires that extends from one wedge line
halfway to the center of the adjacent wedge line. The shortest interval in the tests from the onset of
73
Stage 4 to the wire breaking is used as the interval from Stage 4 to Stage 5. Similarly, Stage 6
indicates that all the wires in the segment are broken. The longest interval in the tests from the onset of
Stage 4 to the wire breaking is used as the interval from Stage 4 to Stage 6. The number of wires that
are broken in the segment is assumed to be proportional to the fractional stage between Stages 5 and 6.
For example, Stage 5.5 represents a condition in which half the wires in the segment are broken.
3. Correlation & Deterioration Factors
A correlation factor can be derived from the data shown in Figure 3. This factor is the number of years
it takes to cause the same effect on a bridge as in one test year. It varies for each stage of corrosion in
the cable, and can only be applied to the cable depth at which a stage of corrosion increases to the one
above it. For example, the factor for Stage 3 is applied at the point in the cable that Stage 2 changes to
Stage 3. The correlation factor is calculated as the time on the bridge from the assumed start of
corrosion activity to the time of an inspection divided by the time it takes in the test for a specific stage
of corrosion to appear.
where:
CFk = correlation factor for Stage k
tx,k = time in the experiments to reach Stage k, in years
k = stage of corrosion
CFk = (t t 0 ) t x , k
A deterioration rate is calculated for each stage of corrosion. This factor is the time it takes for
corrosion on the bridge to advance exactly one stage, and is the time for the corrosion in the test to
advance one stage multiplied by the correlation factor,
DRk = CFk (t x ,( k +1) t x , k )
where:
DRk = deterioration rate for Stage k, in years
These factors are applied to the wires in the cable to estimate the corrosion stage at some future date, kf
where:
kf = future stage of corrosion tf years after an inspection
tf = time from an inspection to the date on which future strength is
sought, in years
k f = k + t f DR k
Figure 4 shows the corrosion stage in one octant of the cable as a function of depth into the cable. One
this same graph, the depth of each stage into the cable is determined from a plot of this calculated data,
rounding the location at which the wires change from one stage to the next to the nearest ring of wires.
20
inspected at 70 yrs
calculated at 85 yrs
rounded at 85 yrs
19
18
Stage 1
17
Depth into cable (rings)
16
Stage 1
15
Stage 2
14
13
Stage 2
12
Stage 3
11
10
9
Stage 4
Stage 3
Stage 5
6
5
4
3
Stage 4
Stage 6
2
1
0
Stage
Figure 4 - Depth into Cable vs. Stage of Corrosion
74
This information is developed for each quadrant or octant of the cable, after which the number of
wires in each stage is calculated, along with the number of broken wires. The cable strength equations
are then applied to estimate the cable strength at that future date.
4. Cable Research Program
Weidlinger Associates, Inc., along with ALTRAN Corporation, was selected by the TBTA to initiate a
ten year research program to determine the strength degradation parameters for wires of parallel-wire
suspension bridge cables. The work plan for the research program was divided into the following
testing programs:
4.1. Cable Research Program - Baseline Testing
Baseline information is extremely valuable because any time additional strength information is
obtained it adds confidence to the current understanding of cable wire behavior. Having an accurate
statistical characterization of the strength behavior of wires at different corrosion stages is the key to
making accurate cable strength calculations of existing cables. It becomes even more important if
strength degradation predictions are to be made. This is because any time-dependent prediction has to
have a baseline from which to start. This testing will provide the current state of condition of the wire
and cable and any reduction in strength resulting from time-dependent corrosion will be based on this
current baseline knowledge. The baseline testing proposed in this study consists of the following:
Chemical analysis
Mechanical properties (tensile and yield strength, elongation)
Toughness
Metallography, fractography and hardness
Corrosion behavior
Note that the techniques listed above will be applied to both used new wires and used wires that
include field failures.
The work will be carried out on new wires, new wires with notches, new wires with galvanizing
removed, used wires with corrosion stage 1-2, used wires with corrosion stage 3-4 (both from
Triborough bridge) and used additional wire (unknown corrosion grade) from the Bronx-Whitestone
Bridge (wires found broken in field), and from one additional bridge. Selected wires that are likely to
have cracks will be scanned in an attempt to locate cracks; these locations will be studied before and
after breaking the specimen for clues as to the environment in which these cracks formed.
Some of this type of work has been carried out in the past on various bridges [2]. However, this work
will provide the most comprehensive testing and characterization of the behavior of bridge wire to
date, particularly regarding the statistical strength behavior. The strength data will be analyzed using
Weibull statistics that relates probability of failure, F, to fracture strength, f, through the relationship:
where:
f t m t = threshold strength value
F =1 exp (
)
o
m, o = Weibull constants.
The more samples that are tested the more accurate the estimates of the Weibull parameters (and thus
the mean and standard deviation of the strength). This testing will result in statistically significant
estimates of the strength parameters.
Areas that have not been investigated before this research will evaluate are the strength versus notch
size behavior and basic potentiodynamic corrosion behavior. This is necessary information for
understanding the degradation behavior of these wires. This knowledge will also assist in scaling the
accelerated laboratory conditions to actual field conditions. Although strength vs. crack size has been
discussed for the Bronx-Whitestone Bridge in a paper by Weidlinger [6], the data there presented is
based on estimated crack sizes; these tests will provide more accurate data.
Baseline testing will consist of at least 30 wire specimens of each corrosion grade from the BronxWhitestone and Triborough bridges. In addition, 30 tensile tests on new wire specimens will be
performed. Effective toughness tests will also be conducted at room temperature and low temperature
(approximately -28C) using new wire.
75
4.2. Cable Research Program - Screening Tests

The screening tests are slow strain rate tests in accelerated environments (fast transients) designed to
determine the susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking or hydrogen embrittlement. The tests place a
constant strain rate (constant stress rate in the elastic region) on an actual sample while exposed to a
corrosive environment. Although some limited testing of wires has been carried out under constant
load in a salt spray environment, no detailed testing has been performed to quantify this susceptibility.
As a result, it is not known what environmental conditions lead to this type of cracking and
embrittlement damage in high strength galvanized bridge cable wire. If strength degradation and life
prediction models are to be developed, it is paramount that this behavior be understood.
The proposed testing involves evaluating the behavior of new wire with and without galvanizing and
used wires of different corrosion grades. This will allow us to determine if there is a difference in
susceptibility in new wires and used wires. The environments to be evaluated consist of those known
to cause cracking and embrittlement problems in high strength steel. The environments consist of
acid-rain chemistry, nitrates, carbonates and bicarbonates, highly alkaline environments and seawater.
Various concentrations of these environments will be evaluated with and without electrochemical
polarization to accelerate the generation of hydrogen. These will be the first ever tests of the influence
of these environmental species on the embrittlement of this type of wire.
These screening tests will identify which environments cause the type of cracking and damage
observed in bridge cable wire. These results will then be used to identify the environment that will be
used in the extended slow strain rate testing and the long-term dead load testing. Without the results
of these tests no meaningful long-term testing can be performed. It is important to first identify the
cause of the problem before time and money are spent on long-term testing. The screening tests will
identify the problem.
Finally, verification of the local internal cable environments would be extremely beneficial to verify
the presence or absence of any specific chemical species. If more were known today about this local
environment then perhaps a less extensive screening test program would be possible. However, since
this is not the case it is quicker and easier to evaluate the effects of a variety of environments during
the screening tests than it would be during long-term testing.
4.3. Cable Research Program - Extended Slow-Strain Rate Tests (ESSRT)
The baseline testing provides information as to the current condition of the wires and the screening
tests will identify the cracking and embrittlement mechanisms and environments. The purpose of the
extended slow strain rate tests is to determine the rates of degradation of the wires in the chosen
environment. The tests are similar to those in the screening tests except that the strain rates will be
decreased to levels to cause failure in 3 months to 2 years. The specifics of the rates and environments
will be determined after analyzing the results of the baseline and screening tests. Testing will be
performed on new wires with notches and pre-cracks and used Corrosion Grade 4 wires.
4.4. Cable Research Program - Dead Load Tests
As discussed in the previous section, the tests used to obtain strength degradation rate behavior of
cracked and degraded wires will be the extended slow strain-rate tests. This is of critical importance
because current cable strength models show that these cracked wires exist in significant numbers and
have a significant influence on overall cable strength. It is also important to understand the rate of
degradation of wires from relatively new condition to the cracked and degraded corrosion grade 4
condition. This can be accomplished using dead load testing in accelerated environments and
observing the rate of deterioration on the surface of the wire. Dead load testing can be used to verify
any predictive model to see if the predictions are accurate, conservative or non-conservative. It can
also be used to determine the rate of deterioration of relatively new wires. Deviations from
predictions can then be used to make adjustments to the model.
The proposed research plan involves an approach to dead load testing that will allow both the crack
initiation phase and crack propagation phase to be evaluated. Testing has shown [2] that once
Corrosion Grade 4 is reached, it is likely that incipient cracks have formed at corrosion pits and/or zinc
depletion areas and crack propagation will proceed. Dead load tests will be used to determine the time
required, in an aggressive environment, for the wires to progress from new condition to the various
76
degraded corrosion grades. These times will then be correlated to field inspection observations.
Additional dead load tests in an environment selected after the screening tests will be used to
determine the rate of degradation of cracked and corrosion grade 4 wires. These tests will also be used
to verify and calibrate degradation predictions based on the extended slow strain rate tests.
The initiation phase of the dead load testing will consist of applying constant loads to wire specimens
in a very aggressive environment designed to cause degradation to corrosion grade 4 or failure in
about 2-3 years. The testing will consist of evaluating the condition and appearance of the corroding
wires and then relate that appearance to the various stages of corrosion of actual bridge wires observed
during bridge cable inspections. The times required to reach certain corrosion grade appearances in the
test wires will be used to determine correlation factors needed to predict the time required to reach
the same corrosion stage appearance in actual bridge cable wires. This approach results in the
empirical models given above for the future condition of the wires in a cable for which the condition at
a specific time is known.
The propagation phase of the dead load testing will consist of applying the same constant loads to
cracked and Corrosion Grade 4 wire specimens in an environment determined after the screening tests.
The environment will be similar to that in the extended slow strain-rate tests that will evolve from the
results of the screening tests. The approach will be to apply the loads for a given period of time (up to
9 years) and then to strength test the wires to evaluate any strength degradation and/or any other type
of deterioration and crack propagation. Further, the surface condition of the wires will also be
evaluated for signs of deterioration similar to the initiation tests.
4.5. Cable Research Program - Bridge Wire Testing Environments & Stressing Levels
The wires will be subjected to either an aqueous or damp environment. The environments to be used
in the testing are defined as E1, E2 and E3 with E1 representing an approximation of the Williamsburg
Bridge acid rain water, E2 is a formulation that is approximately 3 times more concentrated and E3 is
a formulation that is approximately 10 times more concentrated. The following table summarizes the
formulations for each of the environments.
Table 1 - Testing Environment Breakdown
Species
NH4 +
HCO3 Ca 2+
Cl Na +
SO4 2NO3 pH
E1
Bridge Approximation
(ppm)
1.9
5.5
4.0
7.1
2.1
8.0
1.7
~3.9
E2
3x Bridge Approximation
(ppm)
5.7
16.5
12.0
30.1
12.0
24
5.1
~3.5
E3
10x Bridge Approximation
(ppm)
19
55
40
116
50
96
26
~3.0
The dead loads applied to the machines will correspond to the loads required to produce a simple
tensile stress (ignoring residual and straightening stresses) of either 480 MPa or 830 MPa. The area
used in the load calculation is the nominal diameter of the base steel diameter of the new wire. The
nominal diameter of the wire including the zinc coating is 4.98 mm and the diameter without the zinc
is 4.85 mm. Thus, the corresponding net steel wire area, A, is 18.50 mm2. The dead load, P, is
calculated from the relationship, P = SA where S is the desired applied stress. The following table
summarizes the loads required for the two applied stresses used in the dead load testing.
77
Table 2 - Applied Stresses
Test Condition
Applied Stress, MPa
Dead Load, kN
S1
830
15.36
S2
480
8.88
5. Summary
Once the present in-service cable capacity has been determined and the strength degradation
parameters established, the remaining service life of the cables can be predicted by: estimating wire
conditions at several future dates, utilizing the Cable Strength Deterioration Model results,
determining cable safety factors at these future dates, and estimating date at which the cable will no
longer satisfy safety factor requirements. Using the degradation parameters established in the research
program, along with the estimated cable strength at the time of inspection, the remaining service life of
the main cables can be predicted.
A thorough research program is underway that will provide the empirical results necessary to establish
the strength degradation parameters for use in the degradation model. Once the degradation
parameters are determined and the correlation factors calculated, the proposed cable strength
degradation model can be used to estimate future safety factors and the remaining service life of
parallel-wire main cables of suspension bridges. Although the degradation parameters are being
developed for the suspension bridges owned by the TBTA, these same factors can be used to help
estimate the remaining service life of other bridges around the world.
References:
1. Hopwood, T. and J.H. Havens, Corrosion of Cable Suspension Bridges. 1984, Kentucky
Transportation Research Program, University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky: Kentucky.
2. Mayrbaurl, R. Corrosion in Suspension Bridge Cables. in 2000 16th Congress Meeting of IABSE.
2000. Lucerne, Switzerland.
3. Mayrbaurl, R. and S.Camo. Strength and Reliability of Corroded Wire Cables in Third
International Suspension Bridge Operators' Conference. 2002. Awaji Island, Japan.
4. Betti, R. and M. Bieniek, Unpublished Report on Condition of Suspension Bridge Cables. 1998.
5. Steinman, et al., Williamsburg Bridge Cable Investigation Program: Final Report. 1988, New
York State Department of Transportation & New York City Department of Transportation: New
York, NY.
6. Mayrbaurl, R. and S. Camo, Cracking and Fracture of Suspension Bridge Wire. ASCE Journal of
Bridge Engineering, 2001. 6(6): p. 645-650.
78
RELIABILITY OF DAMAGED PARALLEL WIRE CABLES

Sante Camo, P.E.1
1
Principal Weidlinger Associates, Inc.
Weidlinger Associates, Inc.

375 Hudson Street, 12th Floor
New York, NY 10014, U.S.A.
e-mail: camo@wai.com , web page: http://www.wai.com
Abstract:
Reliability Estimates depend on sound inspection practices, judicious sampling of damaged wires,
laboratory testing, analytical probabilistic techniques for estimating cable strength, and reliability
analysis to determine probability of failure.
The paper touches on field operations illustrating access to cables, wedging, wire sampling, and cable
restoration. Criteria for minimum inspection locations and number of wedge lines are discussed.
Deterministic strength models (approximations of exact strength calculations) will be discussed, with
specific focus on the Brittle Wire model. The long term durability of pitted or notched wires is
discussed and the significance of reliability assessment over time will be highlighted.
Broken wires pose analytical problems; their presence in other panels near the inspected panel affects
the strength. These panels must also be inspected or the number of broken wires assumed.
Keywords:
Suspension bridge cables, cable strength, wire corrosion, cracked wires, inspection, strength models
1. Background
Reliability of degraded cables is a subject that concerns bridge operators and Consultants alike. The
causes of cable wire damage are complex; the root cause is water in the cable by rainfall penetration or
by condensation. Removal of water plus an effective barrier will extend cable life considerably
beyond any previously imagined life expectancy, provided wire pitting has not yet started.
Present knowledge allows for a determination of reliability for a period of time in which it is presumed
that the cable has not degraded. The degree of comfort that such a determination brings depends on
the rate of degradation of the cable and the confidence that rehabilitation of protection systems and
efforts to arrest corrosion are working.
It is very difficult to assess rates of degradation and to prognosticate future reliability because there is
little data to work with, which must be acquired with long term testing and corroboration by multiple
cable openings over time. This is complicated by the various approaches to protection systems and
their maintenance.
There are methods of listening to the breaking of wires. Acoustic monitoring devices permit the
identification of wire breakage, by virtue of its distinct signature, and to locate spatially such breaks.
For cables that are highly degraded and have broken wires, acoustic monitoring can gather sufficient
data to determine whether the rate of wire failure is increasing, decreasing or constant. This data can
be curve fitted onto life models that typically describe system life, and are found in the family of
extreme value distributions. For planning purposes, life can be adequately estimated using such
analytical techniques, with a good record of acoustic monitoring data, and when the cable is highly
degraded.
This paper addresses primarily ways to investigate capacity at one time in the history of the cable.
Differing assumptions as to the live load causes variations on the load side of reliability of long span
suspension bridges. However, conservative assumptions can be made over a short period of time in
which the cable capacity may be assumed constant, or is monitored and knowable.
79
2. When should an assessment be made?

Investigations by Mayrbaurl and Camo as part of an NCHRP investigation indicate that there is a wide
scatter of conditions in cables of United States bridges. It is also known that, in Japan, prior to the
advent of dehumidification, bridge cables were deteriorating at a fast pace. It is noted that airborne
moisture in Japan is very similar to that in the New York City area where several cables have been
found in poor condition.
For bridges that were protected with red lead paste and wrapping wire, and were inspected between 20
and 40 years from the bridge inception, three out of eight had already developed a significant level of
stage 4 or cracked wires. See Figure 1 for corrosion stages.
This is a high level of degradation that could spell significant loss of capacity. The recommendation
of the guidelines indicate that after 30 years from the inauguration of the bridge, there should be at
least a baseline inspection for such bridges.
For bridges where dehumidification devices have been installed in new cables, it is expected that the
zinc will last about 150 years, according to laboratory studies by Japanese teams. A good point to
corroborate and test the veracity of this thesis would be to open and inspect and test for remaining zinc
as well as for zinc holidays at 50 or 60 years.
Where dehumidification was installed in cables in which corrosion stage 3 or worse was already
present, it is worth investigating the effectiveness of dehumidification early after installation (say 10
years). To indicate inspection intervals beyond this time would be speculative.
Cables that are highly degraded and oiled should be inspected every ten years and should be monitored
for wire breaks using acoustic monitoring techniques. The recommended guidelines suggest
inspection activities according to Table 1.
Table 1. Recommended inspection intervals
Inspection Number
Maximum Corrosion
Stage Found in
Previous Inspection
Age of bridge at
Previous Inspection
(Years)
( Years )
First
Additional
Inspection Interval
30
1
Any age
30
40 or more
20
30
10
60 or more
20
Any Age
10
Broken
Any Age
5
These guidelines are general and should be used with judgment. When corroded wires are found only
on the surface of the cable with little damage internally, only corrosion stage criteria inside the cable
should apply.
3. Inspection Locations and Access
It is always a tricky question in deciding where to sample (to inspect) the cable. The important thing
is to identify the worst panel location. In North American practice, the criteria were established in
1986 by the FHWA document: Inspection of Fracture Critical Members Supplement to the Bridge
Inspection Manual [1]. The minimum number of panels therein prescribed four per cable - has
served the industry well to identify general conditions, but not always the worst.
When conditions indicated by four openings warrant, rehabilitation measures (to arrest corrosion)
may be called for, or additional sampling of 10 to 20% of the panels in the cable to make a better
assessment of the variability of the conditions in the cable.
80
A cable walk may help determine potential areas of cable damage and it is recommended before panel
locations are selected. Cracked paint, gaps in wrapping wire, white or brown leachate may be signs of
internal corrosion. Judgment must then be used to make a selection.
Generally cables suffer the most damage at a) the bottom of the sag in the main span, b) quarter point
of the main span and c) one or two panels removed from the tower. In some cases, damage is found in
one of these areas but not the others, and much depends of the protection systems at the cable turning
points (i.e., saddles). Figures 2, 3 and 4 illustrate some conditions seen in cable walks.
Contractor assisted access must be specified with flexible provisions that give the investigator the
option of to do or not to do given openings, wedging, suspender removals etc. This limits costs to
actual work done on the basis of agreed unit prices, and allows the investigator to change course as the
investigation proceeds.
If oil is introduced in the cable to arrest or slow down corrosion, the cable will have to be unwrapped
and wedges driven for oiling. Engineers have used this opportunity to inspect cable wires before the
oil is introduced. The tasks of oiling and inspecting wires do not go hand-in-hand as may be desired.
A little planning of the tasks may keep the two operations separate with minimal effect of the oiling
operation.
It is necessary to recognize that wedging for oiling requires keeping the oil in the port (space between
wedges) as long as possible so that it travels transversely into the cable, instead of by gravity between
the flutes of the wires. This requires close wedge spacing. However, experience indicates that, when
broken wires are present, close spacing of wedges does not permit the observation of loose wire whose
broken ends are not observable by virtue of their being near the cable band or not in the same wedged
surface. It is then necessary to conduct calibration tests by removing wedges, conducting new
observations, and comparing with those with close wedge spacing.
4. Wedging
The historically adopted convention is to designate eight wedged openings as illustrated in Diagram 1.
The wedge lines are identified as by the hours on a clock.
It is preferable that the wedge be driven to the middle of
the cable, but that is not always possible or necessary.
Damage is usually closer to the edge of the cable. Even
when a wedge reaches only to a depth two thirds of the
way to the center, the area which is unexplored is only
one ninth of that of the cable. It is noted that there are 8
observations at the ends of the wedge which could be
taken to represent the interior one ninth of the area. With
eight observations the statistical inferences regarding
damage would have larger error than for the remainder of
the cable. However, for a cable with little damage this
error is not significant even when wedges are driven to a
2/3rd depth.
If Stage 4 damage is found at this location with possible
strength loss of the wires, it is useful to obtain more
accuracy in the strength estimate by wedging deeper to
the center of the cable.
12:00
Wedge
10:30
1:30
9:00
3:00
7:30
6:00
4:30
Looking Upslope
Diagram 1
The cost of wedging for a 40 ft (12 m) panel is estimated between $1000 and $2000 per wedge line
depending on cable size and expected damage, and where the cable diameter is between 22 inches
(0.56 m) and 30 inches (0.76 m). If the cable is in relatively good shape, with corrosion stages 2 and
few 3 reducing the number of wedge lines is permissible but not worth it. The erection of inspection
platforms costs between 50 to 100 thousand dollars per panel, depending on the number of inspections
locations and difficulty of access. Once access is obtained it should be used to the fullest.
To improve the body of data, should the damage be significant or considerable, additional wedges can
be driven at intermediate locations (of the standard eight), but wedging need not go all the way to the
81
center. This will improve the statistics of the estimated conditions of the outside of the cable, which is
generally the part with greater damage.
5. Data Collection
The most important aspect of cable inspection is that the inspector must be comfortable during his
observations, and recognize that behind one or two days of inspection there lie possibly man months
of fabrication, erection, containment of hazardous waste, and other activities. The inspector must be
prepared for the inspection with all necessary tools, including a camera that can focus short distances
and good illumination of the wedged part of the cable, if a camera ring flash is not available.
Some engineers have experienced difficulties identifying corrosion stages deep in the cable, where the
wire is observed at a sharp angle and is partly hidden behind other wires. Wedging should be done to
open the cable as much as possible; hydraulic wedges can heal with this. Patience must be exercised
in observation and record keeping of wires which have less than half of their surface exposed..
Investigators should take solace in the fact that general nearby conditions are also indicators of the
condition of the wire. Wires that are exposed in the wedge grooves are also indicators of the hidden
part of the wires. Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8 show conditions inside wedged cables.
A 22 inch cable (0.56 m). has a population of 10,400 wires. Each wedge line allows the partial
observation of at least 120 wires (960 wires in all). Even if it is assumed that half this number
represents a full observation, to account for front and back of the wires, it is a huge sample, for such a
population, and highly representative of the cable.
6. Wire Sampling and Testing
Sampling should not be done spatially, but preferentially, with wires of greater damage sampled more
frequently. The inspector should take representative wire samples from damaged populations.
However, a stage 4 wire (i.e. stage 4 is the worst found in it) of 23 ft (7 m), may contain three (3)
laboratory specimens of stage 4, Five (5) of stage 3, three (3) of stage 2 and wastage length. These
specimens should be used to build up the statistical data of condition stages, regardless of what is the
worst condition of the wire from which the specimens were made.
The level of confidence increases, and random error (standard error) decreases as the number of
specimens increaser. In the opinion of this writer, based on the experience of a severely damaged
cable, 30 specimens of stage 3 and 60 of stage 4 is a satisfactory number of specimen to perform cable
strength ; 20 Stage 3 and 40 Stage 4 are also satisfactory in those cases when few cracks are found. If
the cable has few stage 4 and mostly stage 3, the number of specimens and number of wires sampled
can be significantly reduced. Stage 2 and 1 wires need not be sampled if specifications of the wires
are available.
Care must be taken to identify, by laboratory observation, the number of stage 4 wires that have pits or
cracks, and how these correlate with strength. Stage 4 and Cracked-Stage 4 should be treated as two
different stages. The latter carry probably as much load as the former, but their life will be
foreshortened. At some point in the life of cracked wires, fatigue becomes preponderant over the
corrosion mechanism that propagates pits to cracks. The rate of failure of these wires can be estimated
by fracture mechanics principles, if a distribution of crack sizes is obtained in the laboratory, and a
stress range environment of the cable wires is known. Figure 9 shows Lehigh University personnel
doing instrumentation work on the eye bars of the Walt Whitman Bridge to measure the live load
stress ranges on in the cables.
Little data has been collected that correlates Stage 4 (as outwardly observed) to Cracked-Stage 4, or
correlation of Stage to strength reduction. For instance, it is known that for one severely degraded
bridge, the average strength reduction of Stage 4 wires is 12 %, but with a wide variation within that
stage. However, conditions do vary from bridge to bridge and it would be a very erroneous estimate
for a bridge which is less degraded to presume the same mean strength reduction or standard deviation
for the same stages. Similarly, the difference in strengths between Stages 3 and 4 will be larger for
more degraded cables. There is no measurable strength reduction for stages 2 and 1. Although many
bridges have been inspected and sampled, and the data may exist, it has not been gathered or studied.
82
The presence of Stage 4 cracks should be ascertained early during the inspection of a cable so that it
can affect the sampling of wires in later panel openings. Early samples should be sent to the
laboratory immediately.
7. Cable Strength
Engineers have used different methods of estimating strength, and controversies have arisen between
proponents of different simplifying assumptions. It is, however, important not to overestimate
capacity by the use of principles of ductility, accompanied by assumptions about the number of
damaged wires that should be considered worthless.
The NCHRP Guidelines currently in preparation will present all the idealized strength models that
have been proposed; the Brittle-Wire Model that is recommended for use can be summarized as
follows:
1. Wires fail at different strains and different stresses. When the failure stress is plotted against
the failure strain, a dotted scatter results. Often stronger wires have a lower failure strain, but
the scatter cloud closely follows the stress-strain curve of the wire.
2. In the strength analysis, wires that fail first must be removed from the cable area that still
carries load and can be further loaded.
The following thought experiment illustrates how the strength of a cable, whose wire properties are
fully known could be evaluated (a deterministic model):
1. Start by straining the cable. Force need not be calculated before wires have reached yield.
2. At each level of strain, multiply the mean stress in the wires by the area of the remaining
wires. Record the force in the cable. This presupposes a mean strain/strength curve has been
developed.
3. As wires begin to fail redistribute the force in the failed wires to the remaining continuous
wires. Calculate the new strain. Increases strain again and calculate new mean stress in
remaining wires and force in the cable. Record.
4. Continue until further strain does not produce a positive increment of force in the cable. This
is the cable strength.
The above analysis requires an elaborate set of data from which a tangent modulus above the yield
point is obtained, with failures of the cable wires estimated along it. This approach is laborious and
unnecessary. It is laborious because laboratory practices are such that only ultimate strength and %
elongation are usually obtained. Laboratories prefer not to obtain stress-strain curves near ultimate
failure because of the probability of damaging expensive extensometers. It is unnecessary because
with simplifying assumptions (i.e. analytical models that disregard strain) very accurate estimates are
still obtained.
The Brittle Wire Model assumes weaker wires fail first, regardless of strain. This is not necessarily
true, especially with new cables. But it is more and more true with degraded cables. The error of this
assumption, for new cables, of 1 to 2 % is less than generally accepted for typical civil engineering
structures.
It is the experience of this writer that the presumption of the Normal distribution of degraded wire
populations will make no practical difference in the estimate relative to the case where bounded
distributions are used (i.e. that do not go to minus and plus infinity as the Normal distribution does).
A good estimate of cable strength of continuous wires is given by:
Strength = Afi(1-N(fi)) when it is maximized after a series of trials of fi, and where:
A is the net metallic area of the cable,
fi is the failure stress which maximizes strength, and
N(fi) is the cumulative Normal distribution at fi ( a value less than 1)
Since the distributions are developed with sampled data there are inherent uncertainties and levels of
confidence in the results. These are discussed in a paper by this writer [2]. That paper also outlines
83
the method of determining cable strength when there are broken wires, whose quantities are estimated
with significant uncertainties.
In the case of broken wires in a cable the strength is estimated with Monte Carlo simulations using the
Binomial distribution as a model of the presence of broken wires in all the panels that are affected.
The number of affected panels depends in the ability of the cable bands and of the wires, which are in
contact, to redevelop the force in a broken wire by friction. This property is determined
experimentally, in the field, by mere observation of the gap between the broken ends of a wire. Figure
10 illustrates such measurement, which can be taken by scale from the wire diameter.
If the gap is equal or less than the shortening that would occur by the removal of the load in the wire at
the moment of measurement, it can be said the band and the wires develop at least that load. If the
separation is greater, the actual capacity to redevelop is less than the load in the wire and can usually
be calculated by assuming fixity at the next adjacent band.
This capacity of the band and adjacent wires to redevelop force is estimated at service load. It is
questionable that it could be applied at limit states as has been the practice in the US without
verification of its validity at that state.
It is noted that, as load increases, the wires decrease in area (by Poisson effect) causing a decrease in
the normal force of the cable bands. But, as load increases the normal force increases at one side of
the band, with different pressures in the wires within the band. Also, as wires fail, they fatten, again
by the Poisson effect and the pressure increases. This is still a gray area that requires investigation.
8. Needed Work
This writer has made rough calculations that, at limit states, redevelopment forces could come close to
those estimated at service loads, but this is really complicated analysis that should take into account
cable band forces; forces that the wires alone contribute by virtue of the fact that they are in tension
next to one another; and the variation of pressures within the cable band caused by the suspender.
This requires elaborate analytic and experimental work.
There are about fifty plus suspension bridges in North America and a bare majority of them have been
inspected. Wires were sampled and tested from many investigations. There has been no work that has
gathered all the test data and studied it for a better understanding of the variations of corrosion stages
and variations of capacity of wires within each stage. Percent of strength degradation for wires of
different original strength and stage of corrosion would also be useful. Without such knowledge,
sampling and testing of wires will always remain as high as the present level.
References:
1. Harland, J.W., et al., Inspection of Fracture Critical Bridge Members. 1986, Federal Highway
Administration.
2.
Camo, S., Probabilistic Strength Estimates and Reliability of Parallel Wire Cables. Journal of
Bridge Engineering, 2003. 8(5): p. 297-311.
84
Stage 2
Stage 1
End stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 4
Figure 1. Corrosion stages

Figure 2 Left. This view is indicative of paint
problems in bays near tower. Paint cracks due
to extension of cable from live loads, causing
wrapping wires to separate.
85
Figure 3 (below. left). This picture illustrates a bulge of the cable near the cable band. The larger the
bulge the more it indicates crossing wires emanating from the cable.
Figure 4 (above.right) Unlaying of suspender strands is visible in this suspender where the D/d Ratio
- of saddle diameter to suspender diameter is about 11.4, at the low end of design range. Water in
suspenders of this bridge has been reported.
Figure 5. Wire damage in a severely damaged cable. Much of the damage is attributed to crossing
wires, as indicated by the white arrow, and the presence of water.
Figure 6.(left) Wedged lines are here too close to estimate number of wire failures. Close wedge lines
allow better visibility deep into cable
Figure 7. (right) Blow-up of Figure 6 Close-up of wires at strand former
86
Figure 8.(above) Large populations of stage 4

wires similar to those identified by the arrow
have been found on this Bridge. Loss of strength
in these wires is not suspected, nor the presence
of pits behind the rust. Strength tests and
microscopic examination have been ordered.
Figure 9 (right). Personnel from Lehigh University installing of strain gages on the eye bars of the
anchorages of this bridge. Fatigue of pitted wires cannot be studied without stress range histograms.
Figure 10 Measurement of broken wire ends separation
87
88
THE GREAT BELT BRIDGE, DENMARK

STRUCTURAL MONITORING
Ernst Laursen
Operations Manager, Structures
Sund & Blt Holding A/S
Storebltsvej 70
DK-4220 Korsr
e-mail: ela@sbf.dk web page: http://www.sundogbaelt.dk
Abstract
The Great Belt East Bridge in Denmark comprises a 2.7 km long suspension bridge and 2 approach
spans with a length of respectively 1.6 and 2.5 km.
The operation of the bridge includes surveillance of a variety of systems to monitor the structural
behaviour and health of the bridge structures. The results from monitoring are an integral part of the
basis for planning of inspection and maintenance activities. The monitoring can thereby contribute to
optimize the cost of these activities.
This paper gives an overview of the systems adopted and focus particular on:
GPS monitoring of movements
Corrosion monitoring system
Geotechnical monitoring of anchor blocks
In addition an update is given on the state of the hanger deicing project and damping of hangers and
safety barrier hand rails. These topics were mentioned in the presentation given by Sund & Belt at the
3rd ISBOC in Kobe.
Keywords
Monitoring, Movements, GPS, Settlements, Corrosion.
89
1.
Introduction
Surveillance and maintenance of a complex and comprehensive infrastructure like The Great Belt East
Bridge naturally invites for the use of monitoring systems in the daily operation.
The bridge construction contracts included installation of a number of systems for monitoring of:
Corrosion in concrete structures

Anchor block movements
Movement in bridge bearings, buffers and expansion joints
Humidity in girders and anchor block splay chambers
Movements in tuned mass dampers
Inclination of pier shafts
In addition hereto GPS monitors and accelerometers have been installed after the inauguration in 1998
at various locations for surveillance of specific problem areas such as wind induced vibrations in
hangers and hand rails etc.
Another important monitoring system is the online collection of data from the meteorological stations
located at 5 positions along the 19 km fixed link.
Besides from giving information on the actual on site weather situation the meteorological stations
transfer weather data to the Danish Meteorological Institute for use in an overall data base for
providing short and long term weather forecasts. These forecasts are an important tool in planning and
execution of inspection and maintenance works at the bridge site.
The structural monitoring data are collected by automatic system, reading on site of values on installed
scales and instruments, by surveys or by photo registration.
2.
GPS monitoring of movements
A GPS based system that can follow the changes of the coordinates to a number of selected locations
can be used for the following purposes:
long term deformations

low frequency movements (e.g. initiated in bridge girder due to wind)
verification of design assumptions for deformations due to wind or traffic load
verification of deformations of steel and concrete structures due to temperature
structural health (e.g. permanent deformations caused by unusual conditions)
With regards to both the free span of the bridge deck and its height above the sea, the design of the
Great Belt East Bridge represented specific technical challenges. Since the structure and the traffic are
both exposed to strong winds, the integrity of the structure and the comfort for the users are primary
focal areas for the bridge management.
In order to follow movements of such nature a GPS system for monitoring of the Great Belt East
Bridge structure was installed in 2003.
90
GPS monitoring points

Selected points on the structure (1 to 6) have been equipped with GPS-transmitters which, through a
local wireless network, are connected to the computer system in the operation-centre. This set-up
allows both an instant read-out of the three dimensional movements of the structure as well as a study
of historical data. Furthermore the choice of a wireless network enables easy repositioning of the
transmitters
The accuracy of the transmitters is expected to be within 15 to 20 mm in horizontal plan and 30 to 40
mm in vertical plan. The system is still under commissioning and is expected to be fully operational
during 2004.
Deflection at central node from

heavy lorry passing
GPS transmitter
In addition to above GPS is used in monitoring of settlements in foundations for pier shafts, anchor
blocks and pylons.
3.
Corrosion Monitoring System (CMS)
The fact that the concrete substructure of the East Bridge is exposed to seawater makes it vulnerable to
penetration of chloride. When the chloride content around the reinforcement exceeds certain threshold
value corrosion may start resulting in a reduction in service life for the structure.
By placing corrosion sensors in the concrete cover and in critical sections of the concrete structures the
ingress of chlorides can be monitored and preventive measures can be planned as and when necessary.
The Great Belt Link is monitored using a total of 446 corrosion sensors with 180 sensors in the West
Bridge placed in pier shafts and bridge girders, 42 sensors in the East Bridge placed in the pylon, the
pier shaft and the anchor block, and finally 224 sensors in the East Tunnel placed on the inside and the
outside of the tunnel ring segments and in the cut and cover tunnels.
91
Sjlland
Sprog
1
(+14 to +20
(+10 to +12
E
D
C
B
A
(+4 to 6,5
(+2,5
(+0 to 1,5
( +0
Cross sections at all levels
S
V
(-3.5 to -1.0
East Bridge Location of CMS sensors

The corrosion sensors used in the Great Belt Link are of the anode ladder type from S+R Sensortech,
Germany. The anode ladder has 6 sensors of black steel and a built in thermocouple. The cathode is a
platinised titanium bar. The corrosion sensors are supplemented by reference electrodes type ERE10
from Force Technology, Denmark. The sensors are placed in critical areas such as construction joints
and structural elements in places that are difficult to access or where inspections cannot easily or at all
be carried out.
External surface of
concrete
2 cathodes
20 mm cover
Reference electrodes
Ladder with 6 anode and

Pt100 temperature
V, A, ,
Reinforcement
xx mm cover
75 mm concrete
The sensors were first developed for the East tunnel structures in the period 1989 to 1991.
Measurements are carried out with portable data logger equipment.
92
Results from a number of campaigns are presently being evaluated and will be ingredients in
establishing lifetime models for the concrete structures.
4.
Monitoring of anchor block
The movements of the anchor blocks are monitored both by means of an automatic system and by
regular surveys.
In order to monitor vertical and angular movements of the anchor blocks a number of sensors are
placed in different levels below the anchor block foundations.
For each anchor block 2 nos. of 150 mm cased borings were made at three locations drilled through
the concrete structure down to level -35 m.
In the casings at each location sensors were placed to measure pore pressure (3 nos.) and inclination
at different levels (5 nos.).
Overall settlement Anchor Block 15

30
10
Settlement [mm]
-10
-30
-50
-70
-90
-110
-130
04-12-2004
05-12-2003
05-12-2002
05-12-2001
05-12-2000
06-12-1999
06-12-1998
06-12-1997
06-12-1996
07-12-1995
07-12-1994
07-12-1993
07-12-1992
-150
Tid
Expected settlement
Actual settlement
Overall settlement of anchor block 15

The purpose of the system is to online register any movements in the anchor blocks by registering pore
pressure in different levels down to level -25 and to register any inclinations or displacement in the
soil strata down to level -35. The collected data are transmitted online to the operation-centre.
93
Casing profile with inclinometers installed

The monitoring system is supplemented by routine survey of the anchor blocks using also GPS.
The development of the protective islands around the anchor blocks is monitored by photo
registration.
5.
De-icing of Hangers
During the early construction stage in 1995

extensive in-cloud icing was observed on cable and
crane structures placed on the pylons above level
+150.
In order to eliminate the potential risk of falling ice
flakes hitting vehicles passing when temperature
rises a research- and cooperation agreement was
established with the Canadian firm DGlaage
Industrial Inc. (DGI), for development of an
Electro-Impulse De-Icing system (EIDI).
Test field Quebec 2001
94
In-cloud icing on cable structure at pylon top, 1996

The EIDI system was installed on the top 100 m of two hangers next to a pylon as a pilot project
during 2002-2003. The design of the pilot project was based on experience gained from experiments
made at DGI in Quebec on samples of hangers similar to those of the East Bridge.
De-icing wires installed on top part of hangers
Wire connection
The system is now operative however judgement of the efficiency can not yet be given as no icing has
yet been observed on the main cable structure since the system was installed in 2003.
The EIDI system is controlled and activated from the operation room located at the operation-centre in
Halsskov. From here the hangers equipped with the deicing system is monitored by means of video
cameras. During night time floodlight installed in the camera is activated. In case of low visibility the
road patrol is send to the pylon top to record the situation.
The operation room receives an early warning through the weather forecast Glatterm system in case
of risk of icing on the cable system.
95
6.
Damping of wind induced vibrations in hangers
The hangers are installed in pairs with an intermediate distance of 0.5 to 0.6m. The outer diameter of
the HDPE sheathing varies between 80 to 110mm and the length is up to 177m.
In accordance with the design, a number of separators were initially installed on the longest hangers,
but during the last period of construction and the first months of operation additional separators were
installed on shorter hangers as well. There have been several occasions with high wind speeds (20-30
m/sec) without any significant movement of the hangers, but in October 2000 large movements
(amplitudes above 1m) of the longest hangers were observed for the first time. From 2000 to 2003
large movements have been registered at 3 different occasions at wind speeds between 7 and 24 m/s.
Various parameters other than the wind which might have initiated the movements have therefore
being investigated, but so far no certain cause have been identified.
In order to prevent large movements of the hangers, and the long-term detrimental effect, three
different damping concepts are being tested:
Wind ropes - horizontal 19mm wire rope connecting the 12 longest pair of hangers. The rope is
pre-stressed to 35 kN through a counter weight system.
Spiral ropes a helical, 16 mm, steel wire rope wrapped around the hangers with a pitch of 1m.
Fluid dampers - a glass fibre box with 13 to 22 cells partly filled with a mixture of glycerine and
water.
Wind ropes
Spiral ropes
Fluid dampers
All three concepts plus a group of un-dampened reference hangers are presently being monitored by 2dimensional accelerometers and it is being considered to extend the monitoring to also include the
movements of the adjacent girder, pylon and main cable.
7.
Damping of vibrations in crash barrier handrails
Shortly after the bridge was opened to traffic, significant vibrations of the outer safety barrier
handrails were observed. The vibrations were often seen at transversal wind speeds of app. 10 m/s.
Strain gauge measurements were therefore carried out to determine the additional stresses in the post
top plate and at the cut-outs in the handrails.
The strain gauge measurements showed additional top plate stresses in the range of 75 to 100 MPa
resulting from the high frequency (app. 16 Hz) vibrations of the handrail.
96
Stresses in top plate
Top plate
In order to prevent fatigue failures in the top plate a number of solutions for increasing the damping of
the handrails were tested.
Stock bridge dampers on
the handrails tuned to the
handrail frequencies
Straps between handrail
and guard-rail
Neoprene blocks between
handrail and the internal
pre-stressed wire rope
Steel plates closing the open
handrail profile
Stock bridge damper
After a testing period of about 6 months it was

decided that neoprene blocks fitted under the
handrails would provide the best and most
economical solution. The technical feasibility of
this solution had been documented by strain gauge
measurements on-site which showed a significant
improvement of the damping and a minor
reduction of the additional stresses in the top
plate. Neoprene blocks have therefore been
installed inside the handrails at every 4 m across
the 6.8 km East Bridge.
97
Straps
Neoprene block
8.
Conclusion
Monitoring of structural behaviour in combination with regular inspection has proved its legitimacy in
the operation and maintenance of the Great Belt Link. In addition the monitoring systems have been
useful when evaluating structural response.
Such systems are important tools both in respect of optimizing inspection and maintenance activities
as well as in obtaining up to date information regarding the structural health of the bridge.
However when considering procurement of monitoring systems it is important to ensure that the
selected systems are prepared for future upgrading. Otherwise high replacement costs may occur.
98
RESUND BRIDGE CABLE SYSTEM

VIBRATION INCIDENTS
MECHANISMS AND ALLEVIATING MEASURES
Bjrn Svensson 1) , Lennart Emanuelsson 2), Eilif Svensson 3)
1
2
resundsbrokonsortiet
3
ES-Consult Ltd.
Vester Sgade 10
DK 1601 Copenhagen V
www.oeresundsbron.com bsn@oeresundsbron.com
Abstract The16-km resund link connects the road and rail system of Sweden and Denmark through
a bridge, an artificial island and a tunnel over the resund channel. The link was open for traffic July
2000. During operation cable vibration incidences have been reported by visual observation and by the
installed monitoring system. A brief account of the cable system, the vibration events, an overview of
various damping contributions, the potential suspected triggering mechanisms as well as subsequent
measures aiming at mitigating possible future detrimental effects is presented. New measures have
been instigated to rule out any concern for possible user discomfort and accumulation of fatigue
damage in the cable system and structural parts to which the cables are attached.
Keywords: Cable systems, damping, vibrations mechanisms,
1. Introduction
The 16 km resund link connects the road and rail system of Sweden and Denmark through a bridge,
an artificial island and a tunnel over the resund channel. The link was open for traffic July 2000.
FIG. 1 The resund Link The Bridge.

The bridge consists of two-level truss girders with 4 lanes of road traffic at the upper level and a 2lane railway at the lover level. The bridge girder consists of a steel truss girder on top of which a 23.5m wide concrete slab carrying road traffic and acting in composite with the steel truss is placed.
99
The bridge has a total length of 7.85 km and the approach spans count for approximately 6.7-km and
the high bridge part of 1.1 km.
The greatest loads come from heavy freight trains and high-speed passenger trains travelling at
200km/h.
The high bridge is a cable-stayed bridge with 203m high freestanding pylons in concrete. It has a free
span of 490m and a free sailing height of 55m.
The bridge girder is supported by two vertical planes of cables connected to a pair of pylon columns at
each side of the main span.
The two vertical cable planes are spaced 30.5 m apart, which means that the centre lines of the stay
cables are positioned 3.5 m from the edges of the roadway. Triangular lattice brackets are positioned
outside the main trusses in the same inclined plane as the long diagonals to allow the large stay cable
forces to be transferred efficiently to the longitudinal member of the girder.
Each cable is actually two cables sitting on top of each other and joined by twin cable connectors. The
single cable consists of approx. 70 7-wire strands (150 mm2) with a protecting HDPE tube diameter250mm. The HDPEs tubes have helical fillets to minimise rain-wind-induced vibrations by preventing
oscillating water rivulets. Cable length varies from 52 m for the shortest to 262 m for the longest
cables.
A fully computerised and automatic monitor system for design verification is installed on the high
bridge. The measuring system consists of following:
Weather stations measuring climatic conditions on top of pylon and at road level.
Accelerometers measuring accelerations and vibrations at cables, high bridge truss and pylon
top.
Strain gauges for monitoring forces.
Temperature sensors for monitoring temperatures in the pylon walls and steel truss.
2. Cable vibration incidents

A brief account of available information of 12 cable vibration events covering the period September
1999 to March 2002 is shown on fig. 2. In addition to the compressed information, fig. 2, it can be
added, that of the 12 reported events, 10 took place during the cold season Oct March (8 in the
month Dec-Feb), and that the longest cables [6/7 to 10] are the most severely affected.
Fig. 2 consisting of 5 graphs. Taken from top to bottom:
The first graph shows the 10-min. mean wind velocity at level 135 m, i.e close to the middle of the
cables.
The next graph shows the dominant wind direction. 90 0 is perpendicular to the bridge axis and 0 0
is parallel to the bridge axis.
The third graph contains the min. and max temperature over 24 h (dotted lines) and the estimated
temperature during the event.
The fourth graph: Precipitation, mm over 24 h.
The last graph (bottom page): Snow, cm over 24 h.
100
Wind velocity V m/s
40
30
20
10
0
1
11
11
80
axis degr.
Angle with bridge
Ev e n t
60
40
20
0
1
7
Ev e n t
Temp. degr. C
20
15
10
5
0
-5
1
11
11
Precipitation mm
Ev e n t
20
15
10
5
0
1
7
Ev e n t
Snow - cm
20
15
10
5
0
1
11
Eve n t
FIG. 2 Brief account of 12 cable vibration events, cf. text preceding

pages.
The first vibration incidences took place during construction in the autumn 1999 and following this it
was decided to install dampers to prevent future vibration incidents. Malfunctioning of the dampers
attributed to leakage of the fluid contained in the damper system possibly caused by the combined
effect of insufficient sealing and excessive loading on the dampers resulted in occasional excessive
cable vibration with peak amplitudes in the range 2.5 to 3 m.
The mechanisms that are suspected to be the cause of the cable vibrations and additional measures
taken to prevent future excessive cable vibrations will be treated later in the present paper.
First however it is important to underline, that regardless of the underlying mechanisms generating
the vibrations the cure in all cases is to introduce as much damping as possible in the cable system.
The cables without additional measures possess an inherent damping, which is of the order of
magnitude 1% log. decrement, i.e in = 1%
101
Except for very short cables, common knowledge today is that this in most cases the inherent cable
damping is insufficient to prevent unacceptable cable vibrations and that additional damping has to be
introduced in one way or another. Most up to date codes acknowledge this fact and include
provisions /1/, /2/ accounting for this.
A common way of providing additional damping consists of adding passive dampers of a type which
we name end-dampers, the modus operandi of which is explained below together with other
contributions adding to the inherent cable damping, such as aerodynamic damping.
3. Damping contributions in addition to the inherent damping

The end-damper:
The most simple and often used way to provide additional damping is actively to provide what is
categorised as passive damping and the most commonly used passive damping device is what we
choose to label the end-damper.
Close to one or both of the anchorage points of the cable, a damper device rigidly attached to the
bridge structure is provided, see figure 3.
e
Viscous damper
D kg/s
FIG. 3 The end-damper concept
Assuming that the damper produces a force F directly proportional to the velocity V of the cable at the
position of the damper, i.e. that the damper is a linear viscous damper and F = D V , the following
important features characterises the contribution to the damping of the cable:
There exist a maximum obtainable contribution from the end damper, p ,max , obtained when D
assumes an optimum value, Dopt . This is illustrated by the example of figure 4. Small D a soft
damper has small effect and big values of D, hard dampers, makes the damper act almost like a
fixed support with the only effect that it changes the cable length from L to L-e without adding
damping to the system. Hence for intermediate values of D an optimum value Dopt exists, which
provides maximum possible damping.
There exist a simple relation, eq. (1), between the key parameters mentioned above. Actually by
application of the Buckingham -theorem it can be demonstrated that the relationships (1) exists,
where S is the cable tension [N] and the cable mass [kg/m]. f1 and f2 are functions of the ratio
e/L.
102
e
= f2 S
L
e
p ,max = f1
L
Dopt
(1)
p,max
7
6
p %
5
4
3
2
1
0
1.E+03
1.E+04
1.E+05
1.E+06
1.E+07
Dopt
1.E+08
D kg/s
FIG. 4 Example:
Cable: L = 200 m , = 100 kg / m , S = 5.00 MN L =

Length of cable, mass per m and S is the tension force
in the cable. End damper applied: e = 4 m and D varying.
p is the damping contribution from the end-damper.
In /3/, numerical calculations have been performed in the interval
e
0.005 0.030 . Typical results
L
are shown on figure 5.

12
10
p %
8
6
4
2
0
1.E+05
1.E+06
1.E+07
Passive end damper D kg/s
FIG. 5 Example. Cable data:

L = 216 m, = 99.2 kg / m, S = 5.94 MN
Damping contribution is shown on curves. From top to bottom:
e
= 0.030, 0.025, 0.020 ....., 0.005 . Ranges of D providing from
L
80% to 100% of the maximum obtainable damping contribution
p ,max has been included.
103
From the results, /3/, it has been deducted that the relationship (1) in the interval
e
0.005 0.030
L
takes the form

1.02
p ,max
e
= 3.5
L
e
= 0.30
S
L
e
= 0.16
S
L
e
= 0.63
S
L
Dopt
D80
D80+
(2)
Values of D, providing 80% of the maximum obtainable damping contribution, D80 and D80+ have
been included. Hence the interval D80 < D < D80+ is the interval for D in which 80 100% of the
maximum obtainable damping is achieved.
It is seen that a very simple relationship between p ,max and Dopt exists: p ,max Dopt S .
In /4/, it has been demonstrated, that the theoretical asymptotic result for
e
e
0 is p ,max = ,
L
L
which corresponds well with the result (2).

The types of dampers which actually are applied today normally are not of the linear viscous type
often damping is non-linear, for instance of the type F = C g X , X and an elastic restoring effect
may be included in the damper characteristic. The above results, with proper modifications, still may
be applied, cf. /5/.
Aerodynamic damping
Depending on the conditions under which the cable vibrates another kind of damping adds to the
inherent damping and the installed passive damping, i.e. aerodynamic damping. Two main cases can
be described: 1) The along-wind case: The cable is vibrating in the direction of the wind or 2) The
crosswind case: The cable is vibrating perpendicular to the direction of the wind. In the first case, the
C D V
aerodynamic modal damping, mode i, is given by: a ,i = D a and in the second case half this
2 fi
C D V
value: a ,i = D a , where CD is the drag coefficient, D the diameter of the cable, a the density of
4 fi
air, fi the cable eigen frequency no. i and the mass per m of the cable. This contribution often is of
the same order of magnitude as the inherent cable damping in .
3. Mechanisms causing vibration incidences and mitigating measures.

Almost all incidents, cf. figure 2, have occurred under cold weather conditions and at relatively
elevated wind velocities, and wind direction predominantly perpendicular to the bridge axis.
Conditions for aggregation of ice and sleet on the cables have been present during many of the
incidents. Typically the longest 3-4 cables, L in the range 192-m to 262-m, have been the most
vulnerable to these weather conditions. Vertical oscillations have dominated over horizontal
104
oscillations.
Several potential mechanisms have been contemplated as responsible for the incidents: Buffeting,
Rain induced vibrations, Galloping caused by ice/ slush, Inclined galloping, Along wind galloping
(drag crisis), various wake galloping phenomena, vortex shedding and parametric self excitation.
Most of these mechanisms have been ruled out, except for two, which at present are regarded as
capable of producing the kind of cable response observed either as isolated mechanisms or
occasionally as simultaneous acting and mutual reinforcing mechanisms. The mechanisms in question
are galloping caused by ice/ slush and parametric self-excitation.
New incidents, Dec.2003 Feb. 2004, confirm this and further gives evidence that the galloping
phenomenon has been the more severe of the two.
Galloping
When exposed to certain weather conditions ice and/or slush may accumulated on the surface of the
cable, see figure 6, which shows and example of aggregation of a thin layer of so-called glaze or blue
ice on the surface of the sheathing protecting the cable.
A layer of limited thickness, in the present case less than 20 mm suffice, create conditions under
which the sum of the drag coefficient and the derivative of the lift coefficient taken at an angle of
dC
incidents = 0 , the Galloping or Den Hartog constant aG = CD + L > 0 . The resulting

d = 0
damping then for a sufficient high wind velocity Vcr become negative, the cable undergoes a Hopf
bifurcation and oscillates at high amplitudes, the only amplitude limiting factor being non-linear
effects.
FIG. 6 Aggregation of a thin layer of ice (glaze),

Source: /6/
The critical wind velocity, Vcr, above which high amplitude oscillations are generated is given by (3):
K cr Sc
f0 D
aG
Sc =
a D 2
Vcr =
(3)
In case the glaze/ sleet has aggregated over the complete length of the cable, K cr = 8 25 , /1/.
When only on part of the length of the cable K cr > 25 . For more details in the latter case, see /7/.
Note the influence of the cable damping through the Scruton parameter Sc , in which =
. In /1/, a
2
value aG = 1.0 in given for ice layers as thin as 6% of the cable diameter D. Hence if the resulting
cable damping consisting of the inherent damping and added passive damping is too small, Vcr
becomes small enough to provoke galloping oscillations at actually occurring wind velocities.
105
Parametric self-excitation/ resonance

Sustained global bridge oscillations, typically provoked by aeroelastic phenomena acting on the global
bridge structure (pylons, bridge girder) and more frequently occurring under low temperature low
turbulent wind conditions, can under certain conditions initiate cable oscillations. Periodic stretching
and shortening of the cable as well as the lateral imposed cable movement can create resonance
involving the stretching effect (parametric resonance closely related to classical Mathieu equation
and for the linear case first described in /9/ and /10/) or only the lateral effect (classical resonance).
Critical parameters are the frequency ratio i.e the ratio between the globally imposed frequency and
the frequency of the cable the amplitudes of the imposed movements of the end points of the cable
and the damping of the cable. Normally attention is focussed on type 1 and 2 resonance, however
also type parametric resonance may occur. The latter when the imposed global movements occur
at frequencies close to times the frequency of the cable. Although a weaker phenomenon that 1
and 2 resonance, it may be of importance and we regard it as one of the two participating
mechanisms behind the incidences of the resund bridge reported here.
As an example we have performed a non-linear cable dynamic investigation of response of some of
the longer cables when subjected to periodic imposed global bridge movements of the end points of
the cable at different frequency ratios, /8/. One such example is shown on figure 7 in which the ,
1 and 2 resonance are recognised as well as the characteristic bend response signature of the
non-linear cable stiffening effect. Modal analyses including 12 modes have been applied and the
example below is for the in-plane case.
6.0
Max amplitude, m
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
Frequenc y ra tio
2.5
tot %
2
5
8
14
Max amplitude, m
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
Frequenc y ra tio
FIG. 7 Cable data: L = 216 m, f0 = 0.57 Hz, inclination 300. Upper cable anchorage
at the pylon undergoes horizontal periodic movements with amplitude 0.15 m.

Upper part: The imposed frequency at the pylon in the entire range 0 to 2.2 times f0,
i.e from 0 to 1.25 Hz. Maximum cable response, including transients, during 7minutes response histories. Cable damping 8% assumed.
Lower part: More detailed response in the resonance interval, i.e for imposed
frequencies in the interval 0.45 to 0.55 times f0, i.e from 0.25 to 0.31 Hz and for cable
damping in the range 2% to 14%.
106
4. Alleviating measures
Following the first cable vibration incidents, 1999, end dampers were installed in the 7 longest pair of
cables in each of the 8 cable fans.
It is apparent from the previous section 3, eq. (2), that geometrical constraints such as a pre-defined
fixed value of e imply a maximum achievable damper effect. This limitation is more pronounced for
the longest cables due to the decreasing value of e/L.
Vibration incidents occurring after the installation of the dampers have been generated by the
mechanisms described in the previous section. The nature of the vibrations can be attributed to the
combined effect of insufficient damping and the resulting overstressing of dampers with limited
robustness finally leading to damper leakage and further loss of damping capacity, thereby
aggravating the nature of the incidents.
Additional measures therefore have been implemented: Stress-relieving bracings reducing periodic
bending moments in the lattice brackets to which the lower anchorage of the 4 longest cable pairs in
each fan are attached were installed during 2003. In parallel to this new test end-dampers, carefully
optimised to an equivalent D-value close to Dopt, see eq. (2), and designed to provide improved
robustness, were installed at two cable pairs.
An evaluation of these improvements is ongoing and a decision on their implementation and the
necessary modifications during 2004 is pending this process.
5. Conclusions
Cable vibrations are still commonly experienced - many examples, also for newly constructed cable
stayed structures have been recorded.
There seems to be a slight overrepresentation of cases involving bridges in colder climates. If not
scientifically based, it is at least a conjecture that deserves further attention and for which there might
be good explanations, some of which are included in one of the previous sections.
Our understanding gradually increases but still leaves plenty of room for improvements.
It is therefore important that experience is openly shared between bridge owners and engineers in
order to improve our understanding and develop efficient solutions.
6.
References
/1/
Eurocode prEN 1993-1-11, feb. 2003
/2/
CIP recommendations on cable stays, Setra, June 2002.
/3/
Svensson, E,: Damping, Cable-Stays, End-dampers, Optimum damping characteristics, ESConsult A/S, july 2003.
/4/
Krenk, S.: Vibrations of a taut cable with a viscous damper, Jour. Appl. Mech., ASME,
vol.67, dec. 2000.
/5/
Svensson, E.: Discrete point absorbers, equivalent linear viscous damping, ES-Consult A/S,
jul. 2003.
107
/6/
Institut Montefiore, University of Liege.
/7/
Svensson, E.: Galloping, Beams and Taut Strings. Only fraction of member length galloping
prone, 5th International Conference on Bridges across the Danube, IABSE, Novi Sad, June 2426 2004.
/8/
Svensson, E: Notes concerning non-linear parametric excitation carried out for the
resundsbrokonsortieum, 2003.
/9/
Lubkin, S. & J.J. Stoker: Stability of Columns and Strings under periodically varying Forces,
Quarterly of Appl. Mech., Vol. 1, No.3, 1943.
/10/
Irvine, H.M & T. K. Caughey: The linear Theory of Vibrations of a Suspended Cable, Proc. R.
Soc., London, A341, 1974, pp. 299.
108
STRAIN GAUGE MONITORING OF SUSPENDER CABLES TO

ISOLATE STRESSES IN THE STEEL ORTH OTROPIC BOX
GIRDER OF THE CARQUINEZ BRIDGE
Dyab KHAZEM
Lead Project Engineer
PARSONS
100 Broadway
New York NY 10005 USA
Phone 212-266-8355, Fax 212-266-8540
Dyab.a.khazem@parsons.com
www.parsons.com
Brian BOAL
CALTRANS
3045 Research Drive
Richmond ,CA 94806, USA
Phone 510-262- 6810
e-mail: Brian_Boal@dot.ca.gov
ABSTRACT
The deck erection of the Carquinez bridge orthotropic steel box girder utilized many new
construction techniques which required significant amounts of construction and structural
engineering to ensure that the new bridge did not suffer any permanent damage or undue stress
due to the temporary loads and displacements imposed during construction. Each stage of the
orthotropic steel box girder (deck) erection, from the free cable condition thru the final closure
operations had to be analyzed and the stresses in the permanent bridge components checked, to
ensure that the new bridge could handle the construction loads being imposed upon it. The
major structural concerns during the various erection stages included; overstress of the deck
segments during lifting and skidding operations, slippage of the temporary cable bands,
bending stress in the main cables, slippage of the main cables through the tower saddles, uplift
of the main cable strands at the anchorage splay saddles, overstress of the permanent
suspenders and temporary deck connections, and proper pre-stress of the deck at closure. Strain
gages at selected suspenders were installed for the purpose of verifying the predicted forces and
validating the analysis.
KEYWORDS
Suspender forces, strain gages, monitoring, deck erection.
1. Introduction
The new Carquinez Strait Bridge in California, USA, opened to traffic in November 2003, is
the first major suspension bridge to be constructed in the United States since the second
Chesapeake Bay Bridge in 1973. It will replace an existing steel cantilever truss bridge built in
1927 that was found to be seismically inadequate. The new bridge consists of an orthotropic
closed steel box girder superstructure, two 512 mm (20-1/8) diameter main cables, reinforced
concrete towers and gravity anchorages.(see figure 1)
109
F
i
g
u
r
e
147 000
728 000
181 000
1
Figure1 Bridge Elevation
The orthotropic steel box girder was divided into 24 segments which were prefabricated in
Japan and transported via ship to the bridge site. The typical deck segment was approximately
90 feet wide and 160 feet long, weighing 600 tons. The basic erection scheme for the typical
main span box girder segments utilized 4 19 strand (290t capacity) deck mounted strand jacks
attached to the main cable with temporary cable bands to lift the segments from the ship and
into position for attachment to the main cable. Some segments were lifted vertically from the
ship until they reached the necessary superstructure elevation where the permanent suspenders
could be attached. Other segments had to be swung or trapezed into position as they could not
be lifted from the ship directly below their final position on the bridge.
The erection of the side span deck segments posed additional challenges due to limited access
to the area beneath the side spans of the bridge. The erection schemes for these segments
required a combination of lifting/swinging of the deck segments as well as skidding of the
segments on mobile hydraulic jacks to their final positions for installation.
The closure operations for the bridge required detailed calculations to determine both the
amount of trimming and jacking forces required to achieve the desired pre-stress moment in the
bridge deck at the end of construction.
2.
Deck erection
Suspended Dead Loads

The calculated weights were determined for the various items contributing to the total self
weight of the suspended deck along its entire length and to the total self weight of the cable in
all spans in the full future dead load condition. The suspended deck self weights were
distributed to the permanent hanger/rocker locations by modelling the deck as a continuous
beam from pier P1 to abutment A4 mounted on unyielding supports at each hanger/rocker
location. The reaction at each support under these self weights, was then taken as the point load
applied by the deck at the bottom of the corresponding suspender in the full future dead load
condition. The loads were then applied to the main cable to determine its full future dead load.
These weights, appropriately adjusted, give the actual weights of the units during deck erection.
Cable Profiles
The profile of the main cable under the action of the total loads arising from the self weight of
the cable and suspended deck was established in accordance with the design assumptions. The
dead load profile of the cable in the main span was set to give the sag specified on the contract
drawings and in the side span was set to equalize the horizontal components of tension in the
cable on the two sides of the towers when these are vertical. Account was also taken of the
expected forward movement of the south anchorage under the increasing cable tension as
construction proceeds. The free cable profile was determined by assuming that the unstressed
length of the cable in each of the three spans, from anchor face to anchor face, and the total
110
span length between anchor faces is the same as in the dead load condition apart from the
effects of the south anchorage movement mentioned above.
Allowance was made for the expected total shortening of the towers caused by the load
imposed by the cable in the dead load condition.
The full future dead load profile of the cable was used to determine the required length of the
permanent hangers to give the theoretical vertical profile of the deck when the tension in them
was equal to the predetermined value. This ensured that the bending moment distribution in the
deck in the full future dead load condition is the same as in the condition assumed when
distributing the deck weights to the suspenders i.e. the continuous beam or zero global
moment distribution. The hanger and pier P1 tie-down lengths were given and were also
measured for verification.
Erection Sequence and Tower Balance
The sequence in which the deck units were chosen to be erected was developed so as to
minimize the unbalance on the towers.
For each stage of the chosen erection sequence, the approximate cable H and tower setbacks
were determined. These values were also incorporated into the calculation of joint forces, gaps
and suspender tensions for each erection stage which corresponded to the values taken from the
finite element model analysis of each erection stage.
Erection Schemes Mainspan - Units 11, 12, 13, 10 and 14 - Lifts 1 to 5 incl
Figure 2. Deck erection sequence

The scheme of operations required was to lift units 11, 12, 13, 10 and 14 in the mainspan from
the delivery barge into their final position on the cable suspended by their permanent
suspenders.
The longitudinal restraints across the various joints were a requirement. Their purpose was to
prevent excessive longitudinal movement of the lifted unit when its weight was being
transferred from the strand jacks to the permanent hangers. If this movement were to occur, the
strand jack tendons, which for these particular lifts were relatively short when the unit was at its
final height, would become excessively inclined (see figure 3)
Main span - Units 15, 9, 8, 7, 16, 17, 6 and 18 - Lifts 6, 7, 9 to 12, 18 and 20.
these units were lifted from the delivery barge into their final position on the cable suspended
by their permanent hangers. The erection of all these units is relatively straightforward.
111
Figure 3 Main span units being lifted and swung into position
Mainspan - Tower End Units 4 and 20 Lifts 17 and 19
A special sequence of operations was required to lift the tower end units from the delivery
barge into their final position. Before these units were lifted, certain preparatory operations had
to be performed that were associated with the erection of the permanent rockers and lateral
bearings at the towers. These activities together with the further activities during the lifting of
the tower end boxes to connect them to the rockers and lateral bearings were detailed.
The units were initially lifted up vertically from the barge, offset longitudinally from their final
position to clear the towers. When they reached lower strut level, they were pulled in to the
towers by high level horizontal tackle. The joints at each end of the tower end units were the
closure joints and remained unconnected to the adjacent units until the final closure operations.
(see figure 4)
Figure 4 Closure unit erection procedure
112
Table 1. Example of theoretical suspender forces at given erection stages
The joint forces, gaps, suspender tensions and rocker reactions ( as shown in table1) apply, for
a setback of the A4 rocker of about 600mm towards the anchorage. At various stages of the
erection when the north side span units, the A4 rocker setback varied, this altered the joint
forces, gaps, suspender tensions and rocker reactions.
Figure 5 A special south side span closure unit being lifted into position
During the various stages of erection of the steel orthotropic box girder sections, strain gauges
were placed on selected suspender cables for the purpose of monitoring the forces during
erection as compared to the predicted forces from the finite element model. The strain was
113
measured in the unloaded condition, and then again after the deck load was fully transferred to
the suspender cables.(see table 2)
Table 2 Comparison between measured and calculated forces at selected suspenders
3/18/03 - Unit 24 Erected

Theoretical
Tension
(kN)
1557
1557
Measured
Tension
(kN)
1397
1414
% Difference
in Tension
(%)
-10.3
-9.1
12N - East
1080
916
-15.2
2N - East
2N - West

1330
1330
1210
1228
-9.0
-7.7
Suspender Location
Date & Construction Activity
87N - East
87N - West
Unfortunately the strain gauges could not remain in place after final erection and connection of the
continuous box girder. Determining the in place state of stress of the suspenders and rocker would
be of great value to the bridge owner. The bridge towers are concrete and will experience
additional shortening due to concrete creep during service. Mechanical strain gauges were
installed in all the rocker links shortly after bridge opening and measurements taken to establish a
baseline from which the difference in strain of the rocker links can be monitored over time. This
information was used to determine the negative moments in the continuous deck at these
supported locations
Figure 6 South Side Span Closure unit 3 being lifted into final position
The load cycles and stress range scan then be recorded to determine the history of loading
conditions at these panel points. This information can be used to isolate areas that may have higher
stress ranges than others and help pinpoint any potential fatigue related issues for planned
maintenance for the duration of the design life of 150 years. In addition, the tension rods of the
lower suspender connection are adjustable and provide the potential for future suspender length
adjustment should it become necessary to mitigate load distribution over time.
The rocker links at the towers were also monitored during erection of the closure units for
compressive forces. This information was used to determine the negative moments in the
114
continuous deck at these supported locations. Determining the actual pre stressing jacking forces
was sensitive to thermal gradient between top and bottom of the box girder, accuracy of trimming
of deck plates, wind, and the rocker link as-built elevation.
3. Conclusion
The measured forces obtained from the strain gages readings were in reasonable agreement with
the predicted theoretical forces during erection and served a dual purpose. 1) as a verification of
the predicted forces during erection as well as validation of the analysis, considering some of the
on site modifications, and ensured that no overstress condition existed that would adversely impact
the service life of the bridge. 2) Also, the strain gages will serve as useful tool for future
structural health monitoring to help plan future maintenance.
115
116
ZINC PASTE AS A CORROSION INHIBITOR FOR THE MAIN CABLES

AND ITS AFFECTS ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE CARQUINEZ
BRIDGE
Dyab KHAZEM
Kenneth SERZAN
Lead Project Engineer
Technical Director
PARSONS
100 Broadway New York NY 10005 USA
Phone 212-266-8355, Fax 212-266-8540
Dyab.a.khazem@parsons.com
www.parsons.com
Brian BOAL
CALTRANS
3045 Research Drive Richmond ,CA 94806 USA
Phone 510-262- 6810
e-mail: Brian_Boal@dot.ca.gov
Abstract
This paper discusses the application of water proofing zinc paste on the main cable of the Carquinez
Bridge. A background about its development and its impact on the construction schedule is also
discussed. This new product originally developed during the construction for the Great Bealt East Bridge
project in Denmark, is considered a significant advancement in the state-of the art of cable water
proofing today. The application, although similar to that of oil-based paste,it requires closer quality
control.
Key Words
Cable, corrosion, water proofing, suspension bridge, zinc paste.
1. Introduction
The traditional method of waterproofing
suspension bridge main cables utilizing
oil-based pastes such as red lead paste,
white lead paste or zinc oxide pastes, is
well documented as being ineffective as
waterproofing or as a corrosion
protection component in the traditional
wire wrapping system over the years
See Figures 1,2&3.
These paste
materials have been formulated into a
number of different mixtures for general
use since the early 19th century.
Historical reviews as to the long-term
performance of these oil-based pastes is
necessary to understand why they failed
Figure 1. conventional Cable Protection System
to protect suspension bridge cables
consisting of galvanized wire, paste, galvanized
against corrosion to the extent originally
wrapping wire and exterior coating of paint.
intended. In short, it is known that
traditional oil-based materials have demonstrated a tendency to dry, shrink, become brittle, crack, debond, and in some cases retain moisture, all contributing to potential corrosive environments with regard
to the cable wires.
117
Several attempts at improving cable

protection technology in Japan have
been made over the last two decades,
with some successes and other notable
failures. Not until 1996, when the
Storebealt
Bridge
cables
were
constructed in Denmark, was a
noteworthy attempt made to advance
the state-of-the-art in cable pastes away
from the oil based product line to
modern elastomeric materials. A new
product application using a urethane
based zinc paste was adopted for that
project.
Parsons was , the contractors engineer
during the construction of the Great
Bealt East Bridge project tasked to
oversee the development of the material
to meet the performance Specifications
in the contract. This material would
replace the old oil-based technology
with a product that will not shrink or
dry and which can remain elastic over
time, thereby overcoming the historical
problems associated with conventional
oil based pastes.
Figure 2. Example of failure of the coating system over time.
Figure 3. Example of Corrosion of main cable wires under the wrapping wire where oil based paste
(red lead) failed to protect the wires over time.
The specified elastomeric product for the Storebaelt Bridge would permanently fill the voids formed
between the wrapping wire and main cable perimeter wires, preventing water from penetrating the cable
wrapping system by way of the elastic barrier that would be physically bonded to both the main cable
wires and the wrapping wires.
118
Testing by Caltrans, Division of Engineering Services, Materials Engineering and Testing Services
(METS), Corrosion Technology Branch demonstrated the advantages of this paste system (see table 1).
Efforts were made to simulate actual main cable conditions with respect to coatings and paste products,
however, the testing of the complete corrosion protection system consisting of paint, wrapping wire and
waterproofing paste was not attempted. An elastomeric product is one of the two pastes tested in a study
conducted by Caltrans. The currently marketed formulation of Eletrometall 8870 is a urethane-based
material that consists of 97% pure zinc powder and a moisture-curing liquid urethane elastomer.
Table 1 Comparison between the characteristics of the Urethane based-zinc paste and oil-based
paste.
Features/Properties
Urethane Based (Eletrometall)
Oil-Based Paste
2. Composition
400% more effective than oil-based

paste for the first and second layer of
wires. No corrosion of second layer.
Urethane-based zinc paste
3. Elasticity(ASTM D522)
4. Bond/Adhesion (ASTM D4541)
5. Shrinkage
Very Good, >30%

Very Good , >1.5 MPa
None
6. Separation
No if mixed properly
7. Specific Gravity
8. Compatibility with Noxyde paint
3.4-3.8 g/ml
Good (can be painted over if hand
wipe cleaning is performed after
wrapping)
9. Documented Bridge Applications
New Suspension Bridges:(Past15

years)
Used in Storebaelt East Bridge,
Denmark, Bomlabrua Bridge,
Norway, Stordabrua Bridge, Norway,
Hoga Kusten Bridge, Sweden, and
two new Suspension Bridges in
China. Carquinez Bridge in
California, specified for the New
Tacoma Narrows Bridge in
Washington State
Existing Suspension Bridges:
Waldo Hancock Bridge in Maine,
and tested on Golden Gate Bridge in
California and Bear Mountain,
Brooklyn, and George Washington
Bridges.
Trowel Grade application in advance
of wrapping.
Less effective in protecting against

corrosion of first and second inner
layer of wires.
Oil-based zinc and zinc oxide paste
or read lead
N/A
N/A
Did not overcome the shortcomings
experienced with the earlier
generations of oil-based pastes that
are known to dry, shrink, crack and
separate from the wire.
Yes
Oil separation in 30 hrs < 0.25% at
100o C.
2.8-3.0 g/ml
Not compatible with acrylic paint
because of the oil. Contaminated
cable surfaces are traditionally
thoroughly cleaned prior to painting.
New Suspension Bridges (past 15
years)
Tsing Ma, Kwang Ah
Older Suspension Bridges:
Rehabilitation work especially where
main cable oiling was specifiedMount Hope and Bear Mountain
Bridges (used as an equal by the
contractor for the specified zinc oxide
paste) and the Wheeling Bridge
1. Corrosion protection
(Loss of Zinc)
10. Application
119
Trowel Grade application in advance

of wrapping.
2. Construction issues:
During the wrapping of the Carquinez Bridge cables, with the elastomeric urethane-based paste some
construction issues were encountered. Since the paste is a mixture of pure zinc powder and a urethane,
the two are mixed with
an electric mixer for
five minutes. The paste
is applied to the main
cables when it has set
enough not to run or
drip, but not too thick to
spread
into
the
interstices of the cable
wires. This time frame
is generally from 30
minutes to three hours
depending
on
the
humidity
and
temperature..
The paste is a moisture
cured Urethane product
so
dew
point
temperatures must be
observed
and
rain
forecasts must also be
Figure 4. Carquinez main cable coated with zinc paste and being
noted.
Since no
wrapped with wire
environmental
enclosure was used, as was the case on the Great Bealt East bridge project, this had some impact on the
construction schedule as all of the cable bands were erected in the winter, and the early stages of cable
wrapping were also conducted during the wet season.
One phenomenon noted during construction was that the urethane separated from the mixed paste under
many of the cable band. This results in the same amount of zinc, but less urethane, under the cable
bands. From a corrosion stand point, this is an acceptable condition. However, the cable band bolt
tensions decreased rapidly after initial tensioning and retightening was necessary to ensure the cable band
bolt tensions did not fall below 80% of design tension. The thick application of the paste under the cable
bands may have contributed to this phenomenon among other factors such as compaction..etc. The
extrusion of the urethane from the paste, leaves a smaller volume, and hence a relaxation of the cable
band bolt tension could occur. This issue was mitigated by re-tensioning the bolts. Testing confirmed
that the required 15% coefficient of friction between the cable band and main cable was achieved.
Another condition presented by the zinc paste was during the wrapping of the main cables. Some
sections of the cable, exhibited urethane seepage through the wrapping wire similar to oil seepage from
oil based paste. The moisture-cured urethane has been observed to react with the primer paint. The
curing of the urethane produces carbon dioxide gas, which can result in blisters in the areas where the
primer bond has been weakened by contact with the urethane. The occurrence of urethane seepage
through the wire wrap was intermittent and distributed randomly throughout the cable system. However,
some general patterns were observed to the occurrence of blistering. The highest frequency of blisters
was observed at the lower areas of the east cable near the sag point of main cable. Water was draining
out of the cables during the wrapping and coating operations. The water accumulating in the lower
elevations of the cable may have provided for an accelerated curing rate in those areas, driving the
blistering. The East cable experienced more blistering that the west. The East cable was painted first and
it is likely that the west cable benefited from the longer curing time provided to the urethane which
allowed for the curing of the paste longer and the release of the carbon dioxide prior to application of the
120
paint. The manufacturer of the zinc paste has also proposed that the urethane separation may have been
due to improper mixing or excessive thickness of the application. It is noted that the application under
the cable bands, where the most copious seepage occurred, was thicker than under the wrapping wire.
However, samples of paste for which the mixing and application were closely inspected for compliance
and were examined at a Caltrans materials lab showed no evidence of improper mixing. The areas where
this material was applied also showed evidence of urethane separation and seepage. This type of
segregation of a suspended solid from a viscous liquid could occur whenever the system is confined
while subject to pressure. But attempts to replicate the phenomenon in a controlled laboratory setting
were not successful.
These issues were mitigated during construction and there should be no adverse affects on the longevity
of the cable protection system. Periodic inspection and maintenance are recommended to carried out as
part of the instituted inspection and maintenance program in the State of California.
3. Conclusions
1.
2.
3.
The zinc paste used was an improvement to the current state of the art in cable protection despite
some of the application issues partly related to the learning curve.
One of the important characteristics is the galvanicCathodic Protection. The Elettrometall is
the only known commercially available high-zinc-content elastomeric waterproofing paste
marketed for specific application on suspension bridge cables.
The most important characteristic is the percent of solids and elasticity. The Eletrometall will
not suffer from the problematic characteristics historically encountered with oil-based products,
inclusive of drying, shrinkage, embrittlement, cracking and de-bonding.
This elastomeric product, and perhaps similar elastomeric products that may come on the market in the
future, should represent the preferred approach to cable water proofing paste applications unless atypical
circumstances dictate otherwise. Proper precautions during construction must be taken to avoid similar
application and quality control issues.
121
122
LITTLE BELT SUSPENSION BRIDGE - CORROSION PROTECTION

OF THE MAIN CABLES AND MAINTENANCE OF MAJOR
COMPONENTS
Jens Vejlby Thomsen1), Matthew L. Bloomstine2)
1
Area Manager, The Danish Road Directorate, jvt@vd.dk

2
Senior Project Manager, COWI A/S, mlb@cowi.dk
Bridge Operator - The Danish Road Directorate
Niels Juels Gade 13, Postboks 9018
DK-1022 Copenhagen
e-mail: vd@vd.dk, web page: www.vd.dk
Abstract
Innovative maintenance engineering - during both the original design and operation phases - on the
Little Belt Bridge has resulted in a number of cost-effective features, which also provide a high level
of safety. This is illustrated by:
The corrosion protection of the steel box girder, internally by dehumidification, externally on a
minimal and smooth surface by painting.
Replacement of the expansion joints, studies performed to reduce the movement capacity and use
of modern joints.
The new corrosion protection for the main cables, incorporating wrapping and tightening with
dehumidification.
Keywords
Corrosion protection, main cables, steel box girder, expansion joints, dehumidification
Introduction
The Little Belt Suspension Bridge carries the E20 motorway over the crossing between the island of
Funen and the mainland of Jutland, connecting east and west Denmark. The bridge was opened in
1970 and it carries three lanes of traffic in each direction. The average traffic pr. day is 50,000 vehicles.
The suspension bridge has a main span of
600 m and two side spans of 240 m for a
total length of 1,080 m. The approach spans
have a total length of 620 m, giving a total
length of 1,700 m for the entire connection.
The superstructure is a steel box girder with
a width of 33.3 m. It is the first such
structure to be corrosion protected
internally by means of dehumidification.
The pylons are 118 m tall and made of concrete.
Figure 1 Overview of Little Belt Suspension Bridge
123
The main cables each have a length of approximately 1.5 km and are composed of 61 prefabricated
strands, giving a total diameter of 580 mm. The suspender cables are made up of pairs of 52 mm
locked coil cables and are spaced at 12 m intervals.
This paper covers the following subjects:
Corrosion protection of the steel box girder

Replacement of expansion joints
Corrosion protection of the main cables by wrapping and dehumidification
Corrosion protection of the steel box girder
The design of the steel box girder with regards to corrosion protection was outstanding in its time.
This was the first bridge girder to be protected internally from corrosion by means of dehumidification. The shape of the box girder gives a minimal outer surface to be painted and this surface is smooth
for ease of painting and has no areas where contaminants can collect and accelerate deterioration. This
design has proven to be exceptionally economical concerning the original construction costs and especially economical regarding maintenance.
There are altogether four dehumidification plants in the bridge girder, one in each side span and two in
the main span. Since this was the first such structure to be protected by dehumidification it was chosen
to paint the inner surfaces as well. However, a number of shiny steel plates were hung up at various
locations throughout the box girder in order to verify the functionality of the dehumidification system.
These plates are still shiny and have not changed appearance during the past 34 years. Only a very
small amount of maintenance has been required for the dehumidification plants and the original units
are still in operation.
The bottom surface of the box girder, which comprises approximately 85% of the exposed surface, has
been repainted once, after about 20 years of service. The current surface treatment is in excellent condition after 14 years of service and is believed to be of a better quality than the original paint job.
Based on the condition observed during inspections it is expected to have a lifetime of 25 years or
longer.
Figure 2 Surface treatment bottom side
Figure 3 Surface treatment upper side of wing
The upper surfaces on the "wings" of the box girder comprise the remaining 15% of the outer surface
and are exposed to a harsher environment that the bottom side. These areas are exposed to direct sun
light, salt and other contaminants from the roadway and mechanical damages from stones and the like
thrown from the roadway by vehicle tires. The lifetime of the paint is subsequently shorter here and
124
these areas have been repainted twice. The southern wing is especially exposed to the sun and the lifetime has shown to be shorter than for the north side. The expected lifetime for the surface treatment of
these areas is approximately 15 years.
Replacement of expansion joints
The suspension bridge has altogether 6 expansion joints, as the bridge girder is divided in 3 independent sections, two side span sections and a main span section.
At the side tower the movement of the side spans is limited to 40 mm by blocks in the sliding bearings and movement due to traffic loads is limited by buffers. The main span girder is however not
fixed in any way and is in constant movement due to varying traffic loads. During extreme uneven
traffic loads, e.g. a queue on half of the main span caused by an accident, the movements of the main
span can be very large.
The original expansion joints were roller plate joints and after 30 years of service were worn down and
outdated. As the traffic increased over the years it was necessary to perform major repairs at increasingly shorter intervals. As this work is done on the roadway it was necessary to close off half the carriageway at a time and divert the traffic to the other side, which was an unacceptable situation. Furthermore, the old joints allowed water and contaminants to pass through to the components below and
were extremely noisy.
A technical and financial study was performed in order to determine the optimal solution. In this study
life cycle costs were calculated concerning construction, maintenance and road-user costs caused by
delays. Also indirect costs such as the benefits of watertight joints for underlying elements were taken
into account. The conclusion was to replace the joints with modern watertight modular expansion
joints.
Figure 4 Removal of roller plate joints
Figure 5 Installation of modular joints
In order to make the replacement as economical as possible a 4 stage study was carried out to determine the necessary movement capacity.
1
2
3
The characteristic traffic load effects (98% percentile) were determined by bridge-specific stochastic modeling of traffic loads.
A probabilistic assessment was performed with bridge-specific stochastic modelling of loads and
model uncertainties.
The movements caused by traffic were calculated by means of a FEM-model of the bridge.
125
A test-loading program with up to 7 trucks carrying tanks was carried out to verify the calculations.
This study resulted in a substantial reduction of the movement capacity, as shown in the following table, and corresponding savings.
Expansion joint
Original movement
capacity [mm]
New movement
capacity [mm]
Reduction
Side span, at side tower
280, total 560
120/200, total 320
240 mm / 43%
Side span, at main tower
280/380, total 660
245/315, total 560
100 mm / 15%
Main span
780, total 1,560
640, total 1,280
280 mm / 18%
Table 1 Reduction of movement capacity

In order to promote competition, tendering regulations require that bidders to have the freedom to
choose the manufacturer of e.g. expansion joints as long as the technical requirements are fulfilled.
Therefore it was to decided to tender the works as "design and build", with the contractor responsible
for the detailed project. The northern half of the joints were replaced over 4 months in 2002 and the
southern half were replaced over 3 months in 2003 and they have been performing satisfactorily.
Corrosion protection of main cables
4.1 Introduction and background

The main cables are each approximately 1,500 m long with an
outer diameter of 580 mm. There are 61 prefabricated strands,
55 with a diameter of 69 mm and 6 "corner strands" with a
diameter of 41 mm. The round cross section is achieved by the
corner strands and plastic filler strips. The original corrosion
protection is a modified Roebling system:
Galvanized wires in the strands

Zinc paste on the bundle of strands
Galvanized wrapping wire
Paint on the surface of the wrapping wire
Figure 6 Cross-section cable
Cracks and other defects in the paint appeared shortly after the bridge opened. These were regularly
repaired until the entire surface treatment was replaced after about 15 years of service. With the new
paint job history repeated itself and defects were soon detected again. The painted surface was hereafter continuously repaired for the next 15 years, at which point the scope of necessary repairs was close
to a totally new paint job. Inspections to determine the condition of the main cables were carried during the latter part of this period. After removal of the wrapping wire in several locations, superficial
rust was discovered on the bottom of the lower strands. The zinc on the inner side of the wrapping
wire was depleted and the wire was corroded. These observations combined with international experience regarding corrosion problems prompted in 1996 the commencement of investigations for the renewal and improvement of the corrosion protection system.
126
The original system has two main weaknesses:
The paint can not adequately cover the small gaps between the individual rounds of the wrapping
wire, allowing water and moisture laden air to enter here.
The connections at the cable bands and saddles are not tight, allowing water and moisture laden
air to enter here too.
The objective for the new system was to solve these problems and if possible develop a new and better
system. The original concept was to apply dehumidification, which had been successfully used on the
box girder and other structures for many years, combined with a better sealing of the cables.
4.2 Investigations
A number of on-site test were performed with different surface treatment
systems, including 2 paint systems, a 2 layer tape system and a painted rubber
wrap system. Research was also done to acquire knowledge on these
materials from application on other bridges. At the same time a number of
activities were carried out to verify the feasibility of applying
dehumidification by forcing dry air to flow through the cables, including
blowing air and a trace gas through a 170 m section. The goal of these efforts
was to develop a system combined of surface treatment, sealing the cables,
and dehumidification.
Figure 7 On-site testing, injection
Late in the test period the Cableguard Wrap System from the D.S. Brown Company came under
consideration. As there was not sufficient time to perform on-site tests, an inspection trip was carried
out and the Cableguard System was inspected on a number of bridges in the USA, with test sections
up to 8 years old.
Based on the experience from the above mentioned investigations a technical and financial analysis
was carried out. A preliminary evaluation determined the two most suitable surface treatment systems;
a paint system and the Cableguard system. These two systems were analyzed in depth and the Cableguard system was recommended for the following main reasons:
Lower life-cycle cost in present day value

Able to withstand sufficient overpressure
Environmentally friendly, no paint products to remove or apply
Good working environment, no fumes and no blasting work
Execution is less sensitive to poor weather
Shorter work period - one season contra 2
Easy to remove and replace
4.3 Dehumidification concept

Based on the test results from the bridge site as well as knowledge of the cable details from drawings
and inspections, a dehumidification system was developed, as illustrated below in figure 8. On each
main cable there are the following 6 sections, where the dry air flows from injection point to exhaust
point:
From the injection point at each side tower to the exhaust point in each anchor house
From the injection point at each side tower to the exhaust point at the top of each main tower
From the injection point at the central node to the exhaust point at the top of each main tower
127
Figure 8 Layout of dehumidification system

The system includes the following unique features, which ensure an economical operation:
A tight surface treatment with elastomeric wrap, which is expected to have a long service life
with virtually no maintenance.
A dry air supply is maintained in three positions in buffer tanks in the bridge box girder. Each
buffer tank is an isolated section of the box girder with its own dehumidification plant and the air
is kept at approximately 40% RH. This ensures a minimal operation period of the dehumidification units, which is the only part of the system with a relatively high electrical consumption.
The individual strands of the cables are slightly spread at the injection and exhaust points, which
reduces the singular resistance at these points and allows the system to operate at a lower pressure
level.
All elements which require regular service are easily accessible and are hardly visible.
4.4 Execution
The elastomeric wrap is applied under tension by a special wrapping machine with a 50% overlap.
After wrapping it is heated by a heat blanket, which melts the two layers together and gives a slight
shrinkage and a snug fit. The total thickness of the wrap is app. 2.2 mm.
Figure 9 Application by wrapping machine
Figure 10 Bonding with heat blanket
The works were completed in one summer season, a period of 5 months in 2003. The total cost of
the works, including traffic regulations, other related works such as painting the hanger cables as well
as the owner's supervision, was approximately DKK 20 million. This corresponds to approximately
DKK 6,600 pr. m incl. other works and access equipment. Others works account for app. 10% of the
total price and access equipment accounts for app. 20%.
128
Figure 11 Injection points at central node.
Figure 12 Exhaust points at main tower
4.5 Monitoring
The control and monitoring system for the dehumidification system contains the following features:
In buffer tanks: relative humidity, temperature and functionality of dehumidification plant.

At injection points: dry air flow (m3/h).
At exhaust points: relative humidity, temperature and dry air flow (m3/h).
Ambient: relative humidity and temperature.
Hence it is possible to monitor all the vital information regarding the systems functionality as well as
adjust settings as necessary from a remote central computer. Data from the first days of operation
showed that the cables dried out relatively quickly, as the relative humidity of the exhaust air fell from
an initial level of about 60-90% to a level of about 40-50%. Data from the first half year indicates that
relative humidity of the dry air supply in the buffer tanks is generally in the range of 40-45% and that
the corresponding exhaust air is generally in the range of about 35-55%, ref. figure 13.
Cable dehumidification, Ny Lillebltsbro
Mid section
60
55
Relative air humidity (%)
50
45
Exhaust, W.pylon NE
Exhaust, W.pylon SE
Dry air supply, Mid bridge
Exhaust, E.pylon NW
Exhaust, E.pylon SW
40
35
30
25
11-03-2004
04-03-2004
26-02-2004
19-02-2004
12-02-2004
05-02-2004
29-01-2004
22-01-2004
15-01-2004
08-01-2004
01-01-2004
25-12-2003
18-12-2003
11-12-2003
04-12-2003
27-11-2003
20-11-2003
13-11-2003
06-11-2003
30-10-2003
23-10-2003
16-10-2003
20
Figure 13 Relative humidity of injection and exhaust air over a 5 month period
129
A graph for a single day in March 2004, ref. figure 14, illustrates the following:
The relative humidity of dry air supply varies between about 35 and 43%.
The relative humidity of corresponding exhaust air is close to that of the dry air supply and varies
between about 35 and 50%.
The relative humidity of the ambient air varies between about 70 and 90%, a much higher level.
The ambient temperature varies from about +5 to +10 C.
Cable dehumidification, Ny Lillebltsbro

Western section, one day, march 2004
100
90
Relative air humidity (%)
80
70
Ambient air
Exhaust, W.pylon NW
Exhaust, W.pylon SW
Dry air supply, side tower W
Exhaust, NW anchor
Exhaust, SW anchor
Ambiernt temperature C
60
50
40
30
20
10
16-03-2004 00:00
15-03-2004 18:00
15-03-2004 12:00
15-03-2004 06:00
00:00:00
Figure 14 A one day graph for the relative humidity of dry air supply, exhaust air and ambient air, as
well as ambient temperature.
Altogether the data from the monitoring system indicates that the dehumidification system for the
main cables is functioning as planned. Data is being continuously recorded by the system and after a
full year of service this will be further analyzed and the possibility for further optimization will be explored. The final goals for optimization are:
Sufficient safety against corrosion

As economical operation as possible
As low pressure as possible in order not to load the sealing system more than necessary
Conclusion
This paper illustrates that design work - both the original design as well maintenance and repair design
- are crucial for obtaining an economical operation and a long service life for major bridge components. The key points for bridge owners and designers to remember are:
Maintenance friendly details during the original design, such as the smooth outer surface of a box
girder and dehumidification internally.
Thorough analysis, calculations, testing etc. before major repair works in order to determine the
optimal solution. A small investment during this stage can result in substantial short term and
long term savings.
Strive to incorporate new technology or combine existing technology in new ways in order to devise better solutions.
130
FRACTURE ANALYSIS OF THE MID-HUDSON BRIDGE MAIN

CABLE WIRE
Khaled M. Mahmoud1), William J. Moreau2)
1
Principle Associate & Director of Long Span Bridges

Hardesty & Hanover,
1501 Broadway, NY, NY 10036, USA
E-mail: kmahmoud@hardesty-hanover.com
2
Chief Engineer
New York State Bridge Authority
Mid-Hudson Bridge Plaza
Route 44/55, Highland, NY 12528, USA
E-mail: bmoreau@nysba.state.ny.us
Abstract
This paper reports on the propsed fracture assessment model for broken wires retreived from main
cables of the Mid-Hudson Suspension Bridge. The purpose of the assessment is two folds. First, to
quantitatively evaluate the fracture toughness of the wires using fracture mechanics testing
methodologies. Second, to determine the dominant mode of wire deterioration, i.e. brittle versus
ductile. This information is of paramount importance in the evaluation of the factor of safety of the
main cables. Fracture tests of fatigue pre-cracked test specimens will be conducted using wire
samples removed from five locations in the cable representing different levels of corrosion damage.
A fracture mechanics model for an edge-crack, expriencing geometry change, under combined tensile
and bending stresses will be used.
Keywords
Stress corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement, fracture toughness, fracture analysis, cable safety factor
1. Introduction
With an over all length of about 914 meter, and a main span of 456 meter, the Mid-Hudson
Suspension Bridge in Highland, New York was opened to traffic in 1930. Each of the two main
cables is composed of 6,080 parallel wires. At the time of writing this paper, wire samples were taken
from the south cable only due to weather condition during the past construction season. Wires from
the north cable will be retreived in the upcoming construction season in the summer of 2004.
The degradation of bridge cable wire takes different forms: stress corrosion cracking, pitting,
corrosion-fatigue and hydrogen embrittlement. These mechanisms compromise the strength and
ductility of wires leading to a reduced service life of bridge cables. Stress corrosion cracking: occurs
by slow environmentally induced crack propagation, which results from the interaction of mechanical
stress and corrosion reaction. Pitting frequently leads to the development of corrosion cracks in
surfaces, which are in contact with aqueous solutions. Corrosion-fatigue: results from the combined
action of a cyclic stress and corrosive environment. It is dependent on the interaction between
loading, environmental and metallurgical factors. This interaction increases the rate of growth of
transversal cracks in wire under tension. Hydrogen embrittlement, on the other hand, occurs when the
metal surface is cathodically protected. It takes place due to the diffusion of atomic hydrogen through
the surface of the wire.
131
Stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement represent the major regimes of deterioration in
bridge cable wire. However, very little work has been done on the quantification of cable wire
deterioration due to stress corrosion and/or hydrogen embrittlement. The presence of cracked/broken
wires in cables underlines the importance of conducting a fracture-based analysis in the safety
evaluation of bridge cables. In such analysis, fracture toughness of the wire material is an
indispensable parameter.
2. Forms of Wire Degradation
2.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking
Stress corrosion is usually accompanied by a cross sectional area reduction and a significant loss of
ductility. The loss of ductility may be up to one-third of that of a new wire. For the purpose of
assessing corrosion damage during the inspection of bridge cables, the following criterion has been
established to reflect the degree of wire corrosion severity [1]:
Stage I: the zinc coating of wires is oxidized to form zinc hydroxide, known as white rust.
Stage II: the wire cross-section is completely covered by white rust.
Stage III: appearance of a small amount of (20-30% of wire surface area) of ferrous corrosion due to
broken zinc coating.
Stage IV: the wire cross-section is completely covered with ferrous corrosion.
These measures of corrosion, illustrated in Figure 1, are visual and do not provide a quantitative
assessment for the corrosion damage in bridge cable wire.
Figure 1: The Four Stages of Corrosion

2.2. Hydrogen Embrittlement
It is well established that hydrogen generated by the corrosive action of hydrogen sulfide on high
strength steel cable wires causes embrittlement, cracking and failure. Although molecular hydrogen
is, for all practical purposes, insoluble in steel at ambient temperatures and pressures, atomic
hydrogen can diffuse into the steel. The diffusion of hydrogen atoms into the interior of the wire
weakens the interatomic bond of the wire high strength steel, thus reducing its ductility. An
investigation of some of the factors that affect the rate at which hydrogen permeates steel is a crucial
step towards revealing the true mechanism of hydrogen diffusion into high strength steel.
The earliest examples of a unique fracture mechanism, later to be known as delayed failure or
hydrogen-assisted cracking, were observed in cadmium-plated steel aircraft parts with yield strengths
of 1100 to 1240 Mpa [2]. A characteristic of these failures was their occurrence at relatively low
static load, even though the same part previously had withstood much higher dynamic loads. The
fractures appeared to be brittle, but tensile specimens machined from failed parts exhibited normal
ductility and strength in the conventional tensile test. It was also characteristic of these failures that
the parts had absorbed hydrogen during some manufacturing process. High strength steel cable wires
demonstrate a similar behaviour. It is also worth noting that the formation of pitting associated with
zinc depletion generates galvanic action at the pits freeing atomic hydrogen, which causes
embrittlement and eventual reduction in the fracture toughness of the wire material.
132
3.
Embrittlement versus Ductility
The loss of ductility, due to environmental deterioration, is not always manifested in a wire crosssectional area reduction. On the contrary, under the influence of hydrogen embrittlement, the area
reduction may be quite inconsequential, while the ductility loss is significant [3]. Figure 2(a)
demonstrates a fractured wire specimen with minimal necking.
Figure 2(a) Wire Sample with Minimal Necking
Figure 2(b) Stress-Strain Curve for Wire with Minimal Necking

The stress-strain curve of the same wire, shown in Figure 2(b), reveals a signifcant reduction in
elongation at failure. In this case, reduced ductility, along with non-reduced cross-section is
suggestive of a brittle regime of fracture. On the other hand, Figure 3(a) shows a wire specimen with
a typical cup and cone fracture. Its elongation displayed in Figure 3(b), though about one-third of a
new wire, is almost double that of the embrittled wire shown in Figure 2(b). This suggests a fracture
mode, which is more ductile than the brittle behavior demonstrated by the wire in Figure 2. This
indicates that the effect of hydrogenation is mirrored in the reduced ductility of the wire material and
not in the effective cross-sectional area.
133
Figure 3(a) Wire Sample with Typical Cup and Cone
Figure 3(b) Stress-Strain Curve for a Cup and Cone Fracture

4. Fracture Model
4.1 Fracture Analysis
The presence of broken/cracked wires in cables and the loss of ductility associated with the corrosion
process are indicative of a higher rate of deterioration of cable strength than that inferred from only
the loss in wire cross-sectional area. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that the conventional
methods of calculating cable strength by summing the strength of all the wires, without accounting for
the loss of ductility of the wire material, obviously overestimate the true factor of safety for bridge
cables. In the traditional approach to structural design, the two major variables under consideration
are the material strength and the applied stress. The component is assumed to be adequate if its
strength is greater than the expected applied stress. Such an approach guards against brittle fracture
through the introduction of a safety factor. In the presence of a flaw, however, fracture can occur at
stresses below the materials yield strength and even at the allowable design stress. In fracture
analysis, an additional variable to consider is the flaw size, and fracture toughness replaces material
strength as the relevant material property. In the assessment evaluation of cable wires against
fracture, the applied stress, flaw size and fracture toughness constitute what is known as fracture
mechanics triangle. Fracture-based analysis provides a mathematical relationship between these
variables, which defines a fracture driving force represented by the stress field ahead of a sharp crack.
This stress field is characterized by a single leading parameter called the stress intensity factor, K I .
The fracture resistance, on the other hand, is defined by the critical value of the stress intensity factor.
The wire material will sustain a crack without brittle fracture as long as the applied stress intensity
134
factor, K I , is below the critical value, K C , which is called fracture toughness. With that rationale,
fracture toughness, which is a measure of the material resistance to brittle fracture, is an indispensable
parameter in the evaluation of cracked wires.
The most favorable conditions for the occurrence of processes of absorption of hydrogen are found at
the crack tip, in the small area of fresh metal surface not covered with a protective oxide film. The
underlying principle in the application of fracture mechanics to this case is that fracture occurs when
the stress intensity factor, K I , at the crack tip reaches a critical value K ISCC called the threshold
stress intensity factor. The influence of moisture and hydrogen, therefore, is most significant in the
process of sub-critical crack growth, where the incubation period is always highly dependent on the
state of the surface of the smooth specimen and, when there is a notch, on its sharpness.
The rate of sub-critical crack growth
dl
is a function of the stress intensity factor, K I :
dt
dl
= f (K I )
dt
(1)
The function f ( K I ) is equal to zero when K I < K ISCC . When K I > K ISCC , f ( K I ) is increasing
monotonically with increasing K I . The ratio of
KI
for ductile metals is usually close to 1, while
K ISCC
for high strength and brittle alloys it is much less than 1.

In contrast to other compounds, hydrogen is capable of chemisorption and diffusion in all metals.
Hydrogen is present in the metal in the atomic state in the form of protons (proton gas). As
temperature and external pressure increase, solubility increases. The capability of hydrogen for
dissolution and diffusion in metals is significantly retarded by the adsorption of oxygen and the
presence of oxide films. The inhibiting effect of oxygen in hydrogen and water is explained by the
much greater chemical activity of the oxygen-metal pair than the hydrogen-metal pair. Therefore, a
thin oxide film is formed on the fresh surface of metal at the crack tip, protecting the metal from
contact with hydrogen. When the oxygen feed stops, the process of reduction of oxygen by hydrogen,
or dissolution of the film by water, begins to predominate. Following this mechanism, hydrogen
embrittles the high strength material of the wire, decreasing the ductility and strength (the greater the
concentration of hydrogen, the less the strength, [4]).
Fracture-based analysis requires consideration of the following parameters:
1. Stress intensity factor solutions.
2. Fracture toughness of the high strength steel wire.
3. Changes in the crack shape front.
The assessment of cracking potential on the service life of a bridge wire highly depends on these
parameters. To date, however, fracture toughness of wire material is not well defined. The first
author has developed a new model for the assessment of fracture toughness of deteriorated cable wires
[5] & [6]. The model determines the mode of wire fracture, i.e. brittle versus ductile, through the
examination of broken wire surfaces using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the stress-strain
curve of tested wire samples. In studying the notch toughness of cable wires, a surface edge-crack
subject to tensile stress is considered the prevalent mode of fracture. To develop the appropriate
stress intensity factor and its critical value, the fracture toughness, it is necessary to accurately
determine the crack geometry. Examination of broken wires indicates that surface cracks undergo a
shape change [3]. The crack tends to assume a semicircular front very early in the crack growth
process, as shown in Figure 4(a).
135
Figure 4(a) Semi-Circular Crack Front

As the crack extends, its front tends to flatten and approaches a straight shape, as demonstrated in
Figure 4(b). It is worth noting that the straight-front crack has a higher value of the stress intensity
factor, K I . This is reasonable realizing the larger crack area of the straight-front crack compared
with the circular crack at the same crack depth to wire diameter ratio (a/D). Therefore the change in
the crack front shape will impact the fracture capacity of the wire and affect the overall assessment of
the cable rating. The new model provides a solution to the stress intensity factor covering the entire
range of the crack growth process for axial tension and for the bending stress resulting from
straightening the wire. Finally, the fracture toughness of the wire is determined based on the
measured crack depth at failure.
Figure 4(b) Sraight-front Crack

4.2 Fracture Toughness Determination
At the time of writing of this paper, wire samples were retrieved from the south cable only. During
the summer of 2004, wires will be sampled from the north cable and a testing program for the
determination of fracture toughness of degraded wires will be conducted at the ATLSS Center of
Lehigh University. A total of 20 fracture tests of fatigue pre-cracked test specimens will be conducted
using wire samples removed from five locations in the cable representing different levels of corrosion
damage. Tests will be performed over a range of temperatures including room temperature and the
minimum anticipated service temperature for the bridge. A total of 30 wire test specimens (~ 450 mm
length) with a mechanical edge notch (1 mm depth) cut with a diamond saw will be used to establish
fatigue pre-cracking parameters that reliably produce the desired fatigue crack size. This will be
determined by fracturing fatigued test specimens and visually examining the resulting crack size.
Approximately 10 test specimens will be allocated to establish suitable pre-cracking parameters.
136
Fatigue testing will be performed on the remaining 20 pre-cracked specimens. Test specimens will be
axially loaded at a static load rate within an insulated chamber maintained at the test temperature to
determine the crack size at failure. Analysis of the test data to determine the fracture toughness from
the measured crack depth and load at fracture will be determined using the proposed model.
In the process of reviewing previous studies, records of tested wire samples taken from the main
cables of the Mid-Hudson Suspension Bridge during a 1991 cable investigation [7] were analyzed to
shed light on the pattern of wire breaks in the main cables. Based on existing data for tested wire
samples, the crack depth at failure was determined and the proposed model was used to estimate the
values of the fracture toughness for degraded wire as shown in Table 1.
Wire Sample
a/D
K (MPa m )
Tension
0.156
73.60
Tension
0.208
67.20
Tension
0.208
80.30
Tension
0.156
68.60
Fatigue
0.43
82.10
Fatigue
0.388
67.00
Fatigue
0.417
76.90
Table 1: Estimated degraded wire fracture toughness, KC

The results obtained in Table 1 are promising given the fact that they were derived from an old set of
data. The testing program and the new model will consider the fracture behavior of the wire and will
establish fatigue pre-cracking parameters. Therefore more accurate results are expected for the
fracture toughness of degraded wire and for the factor of safety of the main cables.
5. Conclusion
The degrading effect of stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement on bridge cable wires has been
modeled with a focus on fracture-based analysis. Fracture toughness was determined for degraded
wires, based on test results of wires retreived in a previous cable investigation at the Mid-Hudson
Bridge. Good results were obtained for fracture toughness values based on the old set of data. More
accurate results are expected from the current investigation of the main cables at the Mid-Hudson
Suspension Bridge. It is envisioned that more accurte assessment of the wire fracture parameters
would render more precise estimates of the main cable factor of safety.
References
[1] Hopwwod, T. and Havens, J.H., Inspection prevention and remedy of suspension bridge cable
corrosion problems, Research Report UKTRP-84-15, Kentucky Transportation Research
Program, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 1984.
[2] McEowen, L.J. and Elsea, A.R., Behavior of high strength steels under cathodic protection.
Corrosion, Vol. 21, pp. 28-37, 1965.
[3] Mahmoud, K.M., An absorbing process. Bridge Design & Engineering, Issue No. 31, Second
Quarter 2003.
137
[4] Mahmoud, K.M., Hydrogen embrittlement of suspension bridge cable wires. Second
International Structural Engineering and Construction Conference (ISEC), Rome, Italy,
September 23-26, 2003.
[5] Mahmoud, K.M., Corrosion and embrittlement cracking of suspension bridge cable wires.
First International Conference on Bridge Maintenance, Safety and Management, Barcelona,
Spain, July 14-17, 2002.
[6] Mahmoud, K.M. and Fisher, J.W., Assessment of cracking potential in bridge cable wire.
Seminar on Bridge Cables: Assessment, Design and Erection, Bridge Engineering Association,
New York City, 2003.
[7] Modjeski and Masters, Consulting Engineers, Mid-Hudson Bridge Main Cable Investigation.
1991.
138
EMBRITTLEMENT AND CRACKING OF COLD-DRAWN HIGHSTRENGTH BRIDGE CABLE WIRE

Thomas Service, Ph.D., P.E.,1), Thomas McKrell, Ph.D.2),
Ronald Mayrbaurl, P.E. 3) ,Ronald Latanision, Ph.D. 4), Todorka Paskova, Ph.D., P.E. 5)
1
Principal Engineer, Altran Corporation

Senior Engineer, Altran Corporation
3
Principal Engineer, Weidlinger Associates
4
Practice Director, Exponent
5
Principal Research Engineer, TBTA
2
TBTA
Robert Moses Building
New York, New York
e-mail: thomas.service@altrancorporation.com, web page: http://www.altrancorporation.com/
Abstract
A corrosion science based approach has been utilized to understand the long-term deterioration and
cracking of bridge cable wires. Slow strain rate testing (SSRT) and concurrent electrochemical
polarization were utilized to quantify and characterize the behavior of bridge wire in a wide variety of
environmental factors that are expected inside a bridge cable located in the industrial northeastern
United States. The environments examined included sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, sodium
nitrate, sodium carbonate-bicarbonate and sodium sulphate aqueous solutions of varying pH. In the
SSRT the relative influence of these environments on the degradation of the bridge wires was
quantified using tensile properties and by characterizing the fracture behaviour. The results showed
that under anodic conditions significant material loss due to general corrosion was possible. Cathodic
polarization of the wires resulted in significant loss of strength and ductility, typical of hydrogen
embrittlement. Actual degraded bridge wires typically show indications of localized corrosion,
cracking, embrittlement and fracture.
Keywords
1. Introduction
Inspections of suspension bridge main cables have shown that the high-strength galvanized steel wires
can degrade and fracture in-service [1-4]. These degraded and broken wires have an adverse effect on
the overall load bearing capacity and safety factor of the cables. Understanding the corrosive
mechanisms causing this deterioration is necessary if rates of further degradation are to be predicted
and if preventative measures are to be implemented.
The slow strain rate (SSR) testing was chosen as an experimental technique to evaluate the
susceptibility of bridge cable wire to environmentally assisted cracking (EAC); cracking that may
occur by the combined effect of a media and tensile stress. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and
hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) are forms of EAC mechanisms that are potentially likely sources of
the observed wire deterioration. The assessment of these mechanisms was carried out by controlling
the electrochemical potential on bridge cable wire specimens in a specific environment while
performing SSR tests. A diagnostic with regard to the mechanism of environmentally-induced wire
fracture is knowledge of whether degradation is driven by anodic dissolution and/or by the absorption
of hydrogen produced as a consequence of the cathodic partial reaction in a corrosion cell. In this
sense, there is a wealth of literature that illustrates that constructional steels are susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking in nitrates, in carbonate/bicarbonate solutions, and in alkaline solutions. In general,
SCC is more likely to occur in environments which are relatively benign with respect to general
corrosion; i.e., the uniform corrosion rates are relatively low. Chloride solutions on the other hand are
139
not environments which are known to cause SCC of such alloys. Chlorides may, however, promote
localized pitting corrosion which may, in turn, produce both a stress concentration at the pit and a
local environment in the pit that is acidified (due to metal ion hydrolysis) relative to the bulk solution
chemistry. Similarly, acid chloride conditions may stimulate the production of hydrogen at the tip of a
propagating pit crack leading to hydrogen embrittlement.
In the slow strain rate experimental design susceptibility of bridge wires to known aggressive
environments, all of which are likely to be present in the wire bundle, was examined at anodic and
cathodic potentials. Hydrogen embrittlement effects were studied by cathodically polarizing the wire
to promote hydrogen reduction and adsorption of the resulting hydrogen on the wire surface. Stress
corrosion cracking studies were performed by anodically polarizing the wire into the region where
active corrosion, passivation and pitting of the sample may occur. Accordingly, the management of the
wire electrochemical potential allowed assessment of the sensitivity of the bridge cable wires to anodic
and cathodic conditions.
Selection of Test Environments
Since the actual environment that wires experience inside a cable is not known testing was conducted
in a variety of environmental species that are likely to be present inside cables and have been shown to
affect the mechanical behavior of high strength steel. Naturally, the environment present on the
interior of the cable will be related to the chemical species present in the exterior environment of the
bridge; i.e. in rain, snow and air. Chemical species and concentration change and from time to time,
depending upon industrial development, pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels, pesticides, etc.
[5]. These factors are also seasonally dependent [6,7]. Due to the interconnection that exists among
the air, water and land; it is difficult to precisely determine which species are or have been present in
the bridge cable wire environment. Pollutants that are characteristics of one realm may be present in
another - for instance, pesticides used in agriculture may be found in rain.
Chemical species that are likely to be present in the bridge environemt and which affect the wire
corrosion are sulfur dioxide (SO2), chloride (Cl-), ammonia (NH3), nitrous oxide (N2O), and hydrogen
sulfide (H2S). Carbonyl sulfide (COS) is another source of H2S [6]. Atmospheric sulfur and nitrogen
oxides are emitted from both natural and anthropogenic sources; anthropogenic sulfur dioxide (SO2) is
produced when fossil fuels burn. SO2 hydrolyzes to sulfuric acid, and H2S and COS may be
particularly important in stimulating the absorption of atomic hydrogen into steels since the sulfide
anion is an effective hydrogen recombination poison. Chloride is present in coastal and marine areas
and in deicing salts and road splash. Chloride concentration in any level aggravates and accelerates the
corrosion process on bridge wires since this anion increases electrolyte conductivity and decreases the
stability of otherwise protective films [5,6]. Additionally, for a bridge cable the enhanced relative
humidity and chloride content of a damp seawind can enhance the corrosion of wires.
Another factor that affects bridge cable wire corrosion is the pH of rainfall. However, the hydrolysis of
some of the contaminants listed above will drive the pH to even lower (more acid) and more corrosive
values. Pristine rainfall has a pH of 5.6 as a consequence of the solubility of atmospheric CO2. In the
northeastern United States anthropogenic emissions are considered the major source of acid-forming
anions in acid precipitation. Therefore, there is a tendency for the rainwater to be more acidic in the
New York area.
140
2. Experimental Procedure
Slow strain rate tests were performed in compliance with ASTM standard G-129-00, Standard
Practice for Slow Strain Rate Testing to Evaluate the Susceptibility of Metallic Materials to
Environmentally Assisted Cracking. Bridge cable wire samples were tested in air, and in chemical
environments while being polarized to anodic and cathodic potentials. These tests were performed at a
specific strain rate that was determined by
preliminary testing to be in the range of 7.45 x10-7 s-1
to 3.45 x10-8 s-1.
Wire specimens were prepared from new five mm
(0.196 inch) diameter zinc coated cold drawn steel
wire with a cast of about 1.8 m (6 feet). The tensile
strength was measured at 1,725 MPa (250 ksi), the
yield strength at 1,420 MPa (206 ksi) and a strain at
failure of 7%. The wires were notched to a depth of
0.5 mm (0.02 inch) using a carbide wheel. The
notches were orientated perpendicular to the wires
longitudinal axis and were introduced onto the
concave surface of the 280 mm (11 inch) long wire
specimens. The zinc coating was locally removed
from central 100 mm (4 inches) of the wire samples.
A polycarbonate environmental chamber 83 mm
(3.25 inch) in diameter and 64 mm tall (2.5 inch) was
slid over the wire and ferrules on both ends of the
wire were used for gripping. The wire was preloaded
to around 2,700 N (~600 lbs), linear variable
displacement transducers mounted on the wire were
used to record displacement of a 160 mm (6.32 inch)
gauge length and a load-cell measured applied load.
The bridge cable wire (working electrode), platinum
Figure 1. Slow Strain Rate Test under Cathodic
counter electrode and saturated calomel reference
Polarization.
electrode (SCE) were electrically connected to a
potentiostat/galvanostat (4 channel VMP or 273
Perkin-Elmer). The open cell potential was measured and recorded for 15 minutes and then either an
anodic or cathodic potential step was applied. For each test condition two to three wires were tested
under anodic and cathodic polarization. Figure 1 shows a photograph of a wire being tested in the
slow strain rate apparatus under cathodic polarization. Table 1 shows the various aerated aqueous
environments used in the slow strain rate testing. The concentrations shown in Table 1 were prepared
and the pH subsequently adjusted with the species indicated. Upon completion of the SSRT, wire
specimens were subjected to fractographic analysis for comparison with in-service degraded wires.
Table 1. Slow Strain Rate Test Enviroments
Test Environment
Test pH
pH Adjusted Using
Air
0.01% Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
As Required Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
-11
8 and 11
4 N Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3)
2 and 8
-Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
Nitric Acid (HNO3) or Sodium
Hydroxide (NaOH)
Sodium Carbonate-Bicarbonate (1 N
Na2CO3 - 1 N NaHCO3)
1 M Sodium Sulfate (Na2SO4)
9.5
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
4 and 7
Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
141
3. Results and Discussion

Cyclic Polarization
Figures 2 and 3 show representative cyclic polarization curves for birdge wire samples tested in the
Figure 2. Representative Cylic Polarization Curves for Wire samples Tested in: A) 0.01% NaCl pH 11,
B) NaOH pH 8, C) NaOH pH 11, and D) 4 N NaNO3 pH 2.
B
Figure 3. Representative Cylic Polarization Curves for Wire Samples Tested in: A) 4 N NaNO3 pH 8,
B) 1 N Na2CO3-1 N NaHCO3 pH 9.5, C) 1 M Na2SO4 pH 4, and D) 1 M Na2S04 pH 7.
142
enivironements given by Table 1. These curves show that in all environments, except for sodium
chloride and sodium hydroxide, the samples exhibited a negative hysteresis indicative of stable
passivity with no occurrance of pitting at the higher anodic potentials. Testing in NaOH at pH 8,
Figure 2B, was the only environment to show no active to passive transistion, exhibiting essentially
active behavior throughout. These observations were verified using optical and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) to examine the samples surfaces after testing. This cyclic polarization testing was
used to determine the potentials that the SSRT samples would be tested at.
Tensile Curve Properties
Representative stress-strain curves for samples tested using the SSR test machines in NaNO3 at pH 8
and are shown in Figure 4. Shown are the results for specimens tested in the environments without
polarization and with anodic and cathodic polarization. The reduction in strength and ductility under
cathodic conditions is evident. Although there are variations from test to test these results are typical
in that with cathodic ploarization, the stress at failure and failure strain are consistently lower that
when tested with anodic polarization or without any ploarization.
300
2,000
250
Non-Polarized
1,500
Stress (ksi)
150
1,000
Cathodic
Tensile Strength, MPa
Passive
200
100
500
50
Non-polarized
Passive region (0.8 V)
Cathodic (20 mA)
0
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
Strain
Figure 4. Stress Strain Curves Obtained in NaNO3 pH 8.

The results of all the slow strain rate tests are summarized in Figure 5. Shown for each test
environment is mean tensile strength obtained with anodic and cathodic polarization. These results
clearly show that there is a reduction in strength when tested under cathodic conditions in all of the
test environments.
Fractographic Examination
After the wires failed the fracture surfaces were examined using optical microscopy and when
appropriate (SEM). Additionally, longitudinally sectioned samples were mounted and metallographic
prepared for examination of the fracture surface. The results did illustrate the types of differences in
fracture morphology that can occur under anodic and cathodic conditions. Figure 6 shows a fracture
surface when tested in sodium sulfate solution at pH 7 under anodic polarization compared to the
fracture surface when tested in sodium hydroxide solution at pH 8 under cathodic polarization. The
results show the type of localized pitting that can occur under anodic conditions wheras under cathodic
polarization there is no such deterioration. Further, the fracture surface shows a much more brittle
type fracture under cathodic conditions.
143
300
Air
Passive
Stress to Fracture (ksi)
250
Cathodic
200
150
100
50
0
NaNO3
pH2
NaNO3 pH Carbonates NaOH pH 8 NaOH pH

8
pH 9.5
11
Na2SO4
pH4
Na2SO4
pH7
NaCl pH 11
Air
Figure 5. Summary of SSRT Tensile Strength Results in All Environments.
Figure 6. Fracture Surface when Tested in Sodium Sulfate Solution at pH 7 under Anodic Polarization
(left) and Sodium Hydroxide Solution at pH 8 under Cathodic Polarization (right).
4. Conclusions
It is well known that hydrogen embrittlement has a pronounced influence on the fracture behavior of
high strength steels. This testing supported the importance of hydrogen embrittlement in the reduction
of mechanical properties and subsequent failure of the bridge wires. It is significant and diagnostic that
cathodic polarization in each of the environments examined led to comparable loss of strength
independent of the particular environment that was under study. The results also show that under
anodic conditions significant material loss due to general corrosion occurs, similar to what is observed
on wires located in the bridge anchorages. The results of this research allow for the selection of
environments for long-term testing of bridge wire that will more accurately represent environments in
bridge cables that cause the observed embrittled wire failures.
144
5.
References
[1] Hopwood, T. and Havens, J. H. (1984). "Inspection Prevention, and Remedy of Suspension Bridge
Cable Corrosion Problems." Kentucky Transportation Research Program, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky Research Report UKTRP-84-15.
[2] Hopwood, T. and Haven, J. H. (1984). "Corrosion of Cable Suspension Bridges." Kentucky
Transportation Research Program, University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky, Kentucky
Research Report UKTRP-84-14.
[3] Mayrbaurl, R. M. (2000). "Corrosion in suspension Bridge Cables,", Congress Report, 16th
Congress of IABSE, International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering, Zurich,
Switzerland.
[4] Box, R., Patel, A., Camo, S. Ben Franklin Bridge Main Cables Investigation and Rehabilitation
2nd International Suspension Bridge Operators Conference West Point NY 2000.
[5] Likens, Gene, E. Acid Precipitation. C&En, Nov. 22 (1976). Pp. 29-44.
[6] Knfel, Dietbert, Corrosion of Building Materials (1978) Pp. 46-53
[7] Eiselstein, Lawrence E. & Caliguiri, Robert D. Almospheric corrosion of the suspension cable on
the Williamsburg Bridge. Degradation of metals in the Atmosphere, ASTM STP 965. S. W. Dean
and T. S. Lee, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, (1988), pp. 78-95.
145
146
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NON-DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION

TECHNIQUE FOR SUSPENDER ROPES OF SUSPENSION BRIDGE
A. Moriyama1), S.Suzuki2), H.Hoashi3) and Y.Yoshida4)
1
2
Deputy Manager of Engineering Development Division, Long-span Bridge Engineering Center

Former Manager of Engineering Development Division, Long-span Bridge Engineering Center
3
Manager of Bridge Maintenance Division, Maintenance Department
4
Former General Manager of Mukaijima Operation Office, Third Operation Bureau
4-1-22 Onoedori Chuo-ku KOBE 651-0088 Japan
e-mail: hoashi@hsba.go.jp , web page: http://www.hsba.go.jp/
Abstract
Disassembly and inspection of suspender ropes showed the occurrence of corrosion in unspecified
areas inside the ropes. No correlation could be found between external appearance and internal
corrosion and this indicated that the internal corrosion of ropes couldnt be detected by external visual
inspection alone. Under these circumstances, we developed a non-destructive inspection technique that
uses an electromagnetic method (main flux method) to identify internal corrosion of suspender ropes
from the exterior.
This report describes the results of the thus performed inspection of the disassembled suspender ropes,
the development of a new non-destructive inspection method, and the results of inspecting in-service
ropes by means of the new method, as well as the research we are conducting to establish a rational
maintenance method for suspender ropes.
Keywords
suspender ropes, non-destructive inspection, main flux method, corrosion, maintenance
1. Introduction
A suspender rope is a critical structural member to suspend stiffening girder from main cable, and a
galvanized stranded wire (CFRC; consisting of a core strand, inner-layer strands and outer-layer
strands) is generally used.
Conventionally, the integrity of suspender ropes was evaluated by means of external visual inspection
because no other effective method was available. The Innoshima Bridge, which was built about 15
years ago (completed in 1983 with a main span of 770 meters) and is the oldest suspension bridge
among the Honshu-Shikoku bridges, was found by visual inspection to be oozing rusty water from
rope surfaces near the sockets fastened to the stiffening girder. To check for corrosion inside
suspender ropes, we removed two in-service suspender ropes from the bridge and performed a
disassembly inspection. The conclusion of this inspection was that the ropes were corroded inside
though the corrosion was not so critical as to deteriorate rope strength. This inspection also found that
internal corrosion and external corrosion did not have significant correlation in terms of location,
indicating that visual inspection was not useful to discover internal corrosion. We have therefore
committed ourselves to developing a non-destructive inspection method to enable the discovery of
corroded locations inside suspender ropes.
This report describes the results of the thus performed inspection of the disassembled suspender ropes
sampled from the Innoshima Bridge, the development of a new non-destructive inspection method,
and the results of inspecting in-service ropes by means of the new method, as well as the research we
are conducting to establish a rational maintenance method for suspender ropes.
147
2. Detailed Structure of Suspender Rope

The suspender rope of the Innoshima Bridge are of CFRC, 54 mm in diameter. Each suspender rope,
both ends of which are socketed, is looped over the main cable and fastened to a stiffening girder with
the sockets. Fig. 1 shows the cross section of the rope. The wires comprising suspender ropes are
galvanized, and the external surface of the rope is painted as specified in Table 1.
Of the Honshu-Shikoku suspension bridges, the six suspension bridges constructed earlier, including
the Innoshima Bridge, use the suspender ropes of the CFRC. On the other hand, the more recently
built bridges, such as Akashi Kaikyo Bridge and Kurushima Kaikyo Bridge, use ropes made of
prefabricated parallel wire strands (PWS), which are factory-covered with polyethylene (PE) pipe.
These ropes are not looped over the main cable and therefore do not have the loop bends, realizing
improved cross-sectional efficiency, streamlined structure, and enhanced corrosion resistance.
3.
Inspection of Internal Corrosion
3.1 External and Internal Corrosion Conditions

To identify the corrosion conditions inside suspender ropes, we removed two suspender ropes from the
Innoshima Bridge, and performed a disassembly inspection. The two we selected had considerable
corrosion on the exterior as discovered by close visual inspection and were short in length for easy
replacement.
Firstly, we visually inspected the painted exterior of the two removed suspender ropes for any
corrosion, and then removed the paint from the rope surface to check their bare circumferential surface
for any corrosion. These inspections identified the following:
cOn the circumferential surface of the two suspender ropes, corrosion was especially significant
near the sockets, which had been fastened to stiffening girder.
dThe surface areas that had been covered with paint film were intact.
We then divided each of the suspender ropes (14 m) into 16 portions, and each portion was
disassembled into a core strand, inner-layer strands and outer-layer strands to inspect rope interior for
any corrosion (Fig. 2). This inspection revealed the following:
cThe socketed portions were intact, in spite of the concerns based on overseas reports concerning
rope corrosion.
Core Strand
Outer Layer
Strand
suspender clam p
clam p m etal
suspender rope
hunger collar
Inner Layer
Strand
locking plate
socket
Fig-1 Cross Section of Suspender Rope

Table-1 Painting Specifications for Suspender Rope
Position of
painted rope
Surface
treatment
TYPE
(Brush-painted)
Cleaning
TYPE
(Dipping-painted)
1st coat
2nd coat
3rd coat
4th coat
5th coat
Total dry coat

thickness
Chloroplane
Chloroplane
Chloroplane
Chloroplane
Chloroplane
rubber calcium rubber calcium rubber calcium
rubbe paint
rubber paint
plumbate primer plumbate primer plumbate primer (Base coat)
(Surface coat)
35180g/ 35
180g/ 35180g/ 35160g/25
130g/
Thick-coating
Chloroplane
epoxy resin
rubber paint
(Base coat)
(Surface coat)
130280g/ 35
150g/
148
165
dThe core strand and inner-layer strands had corrosion around the entire circumferential surface as
shown in Photo 1.
eOn the circumferential surface of the outer-layer strands, the outer areas that had been covered
with paint film were intact; however, the inner areas that had been in contact with the inner-layer
strands were corroded.
fThe portions that had been looped over the main cable were intact, because the looped-over
portions were entirely caulked.
As can be seen from the above observations, suspender ropes may develop greater corrosion inside
than outside, and the locations of such internal corrosion are not closely correlated with visually
identifiable external corrosion.
3.2 Tensile Test
We checked how corrosion might influence suspender rope strength by performing a tensile test on the
cut rope portions. Table 2 shows the results. This test indicated that the breaking load of the ropes was
still far higher than the minimum breaking load (1,940 kN), and that rope strength was not
significantly different compared with the average tensile strength of factory measurements (2,246 kN).
After the tensile test, we checked the conditions of the wires broken by the test, finding that all the
wires of the cable band portions, which had not corroded, were broken uniformly at or near their mid
positions, while the wires of corroded ropes were broken at varied locations.
Next, we performed another tensile test to identify any difference in wire tensile strength among the
intact portions, cable band portions, and corroded portions of individual strands. The results indicated
that each wire of the intact and cable band portions showed almost no deterioration in tensile strength,
while the wires of the corroded portions of the inner-layer and core strand failed to satisfy the standard
requirement. In addition, corroded wires showed deterioration in toughness.
3.3 Microscopic Inspection of the Cross Sections of Strands
We examined the corrosion conditions of the cross sections of strands, using an optical electronic
microscope. Photo 2 shows the cross sections of a corroded portion and intact portion of the core
strand. The photographs of the intact portion indicate that wire plating has been thinned partially,
which is attributed to friction between strands when the rope was twisted. The photographs of the
corroded portion indicate that the core strands corrosion occurred on the exterior (on the surface
where strands were in contact).
Cable band portion
Inner Layer strands
Rust-observed area
Outer Layer strands
Sea-side
Road-side
Socket
Socket
Fig-2 Results of Disassembly and Inspection

Table-2
Sea-side
Core strand
Length
(mm)
Photo-1 State of Corroded Strands
Tensile Test Result of Rope
Breaking load
(kN)
Minimum reaking
load (kN)
Cable band portion
Road-side
149
Elongation
(mm)
Elongation
percentage (%)
(a) Intact Core Strand Portion

(b) Corroded Core Strand Portion
Photo-2 Microscopic Photograph of Cross Section
4.
Non-destructive Inspection
4.1 Inspection Technique

Table 3 provides typical non-destructive inspection methods applicable to structural members
including steel ropes. For thin steel ropes, a non-destructive inspection method called magnetic flux
leakage method is common. This method is useful to detect locally developed damage such as breaks,
while it does not easily identify damage involving gradual changes in the longitudinal direction of
ropes such as corrosion. Another disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult to evaluate damage
such as corrosion quantitatively. Therefore, we selected the main flux method as the base method for
developing a non-destructive inspection method.
4.2 Principle of the Main Flux Method
Fig. 3 shows the measurement principle of the main flux method. The principle of the main flux
method is that, when a wire rope is strongly magnetized, magnetic flux (a given number of magnetic
lines of force passing through a unit area of cross section) flows in the rope: When the magnetic flux
reaches a given number of magnetic lines, the cross section is saturated, and the flux in a saturated
condition is proportional to the unit area of cross section. In other words, this method can identify the
degree of corrosion (in cross-sectional area) by comparing the amount of flux between the intact cross
section and corroded cross section.
Table-3 Typical Non-destructive Inspection Methods
Inspection method
Visual inspection
Magnetic flux
Electromagnetic leakage method
method
Main flux method
Electromagnetic ultrasonic method
Acoustic emission method
Wire breakage
Corrosion
measurement measurement
Characteristics
Assesses surface conditions only
Measures local defects, such as fatigue-caused wire
breakage
Measures change in cross sectional area caused by
abrasion or corrosion
Produces elastic waves in the axial direction of rope by
non-contact method, to check for reflection surface and
elastic-wave attenuation
Detects energy emission resulting from wire breakage
Note) Certainly Possible, Possible, Difficult, Impossible
[Normal]
N-pole Area S
Flux
[Corroded]
Area S S-pole
Flux
Wire rope
Magnetic line of force
Fig-3 Principle of Main Flux Method
150
Fig. 4 provides a magnetization hysteresis curve showing how magnetic-field intensity and magnetic
flux correlate when wire ropes are strongly magnified. In this hysteresis curves approach-tosaturation region (where the curve is blocked) extending over the positive side and negative side, the
curve representing the correlation between magnetic-field intensity and magnetic flux is almost linear.
The magnetic flux can therefore be obtained by the linear regression of intensity measurements in the
approach-to-saturation region. The thus obtained flux of corroded ropes is compared with that of intact
ropes under the equal magnetic intensity, thereby identifying the reduction in cross-sectional area.
M agnetic Flux (kM x)
4.3 Inspection Using the Main Flux Method

We tested the applicability of the main flux method and the results confirmed the applicability of this
method as a non-destructive inspection method, though measurement errors were excessive at the rope
portions where ferromagnetic bodies were closely located, such as the rope ends fastened to the
stiffening girder. At a later date, we incorporated solenoid type magnetizing coils into the measuring
apparatus to reduce measurement errors, improving its magnetizing capability and other characteristics.
As a result, measurement errors were substantially reduced, making it possible to use the apparatus to
examine the corrosion of suspender rope. The measuring apparatus was additionally improved to
enable continuous examination of the entire length of the suspender rope(Photo.3).
M agnetic Field Intensity (kA /m )
Fig-4 Magnetic-field Intensity and Magnetic Flux
Photo-3 Inspection Using the Main Flux Method
151
Prior to on-site inspection, we performed a laboratory test to confirm the measuring capability of the
improved apparatus, by providing a 35.5-mm diameter rope with artificial defects (at equal spacing of
about 300 mm to provide four levels of changes in cross-sectional area). The apparatus was moved
along the rope in the longitudinal direction to measure changes in magnetic flux and magnetic-field
intensity. Fig. 5 shows the test results. The magnetic flux measurements showed a correspondence
with the changes in cross-sectional area created by artificial defects. The magnetic flux also showed
changes at the locations of artificial defects, confirming that corrosion could be evaluated with
sufficient accuracy.
The same laboratory test was conducted on polyethylene covered rope, which is widely used as the
cable of cable-stayed bridge. The test yielded similar results without any influence of the covert,
proving that the main flux method was also applicable to the evaluation of corrosion in covered rope.
4.4 On-site Inspection Results
We performed an on-site inspection of the suspender ropes of the Innoshima Bridge and
OhnarutoBridge (completed in 1985 with a main span of 876 meters) by the main flux method. To
confirm the results of the inspection by the main flux method, we removed the ropes inspected at the
Ohnaruto Bridge, and performed a laboratory test by the main flux method and a disassembly
inspection simultaneously. As Fig. 6 shows, these inspections indicated that the difference between
on-site inspection results and laboratory inspection results was a small 1 kMx in magnetic flux, which
represents an about 0.3% difference in terms of influence on measurements, indicating that the on-site
measurements and laboratory measurements were almost equivalent in accuracy. Based on changes in
magnetic flux, the greatest corrosion-caused reduction in the cross-sectional area of suspender ropes
was about 2% for the Innoshima Bridge and about 1% in the general part of the Ohnaruto Bridge. The
locations of these greatest area reductions had no correlations with the corroded locations found by
visual inspection, including those found by the inspections of previous years.Whereas, 9% of
corrosion-caused reduction in cross-sectional area of suspender ropes was caused near the sockets,
which had been fastened to stiffening girder.
Rope 6WS(36) 35.5mm
Cross-sectional area 5442
340
Percentage change in
cross-sectional area (%)
Cross-sectional area 2.472

(+0.45%)
330
5.192
(+0.95%)
250
10.382
(+1.91%)
2.5
2.0
Change of magnetic flux
1.5
0.95 %
1.0
0.45 %
0.5
0
-0.5
500
1000
7.942
(+1.46%)
1.91 %
1.46 %
Sampling position
Position (mm)
1500
2000
Fig-5 Result of Continuous Measurement Test By Main Flux Method in Laboratory

93
MagnetickMx)
Flux (kMx)
369
continuous measurement
in laboratory
368
continuous measurement
fixed-point measurement
measurement
fixed-point
on site
in laboratory
on site
367
366

365
364
363
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Distance
from
Bridge
Beam
(m)
Fig-6 Difference of On-site Inspection Results and Laboratory Inspection Results
152
40
5. Study for Establishing a Maintenance Method

Although suspender ropes are replaceable, their service life should be as long as possible in the light of
life-cycle cost, by taking adequate service lifeextending measures and integrity evaluation actions.
The Honshu-Shikoku suspension bridges use an enormous number of suspender ropes, and to reduce
their maintenance cost, it is necessary to establish a rational maintenance method at an early stage.
Fig. 7 gives a suspender-rope maintenance flowchart.
As the first step to establish a system, the Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority (HSBA) developed a
method for evaluating the integrity of suspender ropes quantitatively, as described in this report.
Based on the knowledge newly obtained through the process of developing the method, such as the
characteristics of internal corrosion, the HSBA has established the objectives described below, and is
working on them to establish a rational maintenance method.
cCorrelation between the degree of corrosion and rope strength
The strength of strands is known to decrease at a higher rate than the rate of corrosion-caused
cross-sectional area reduction. To identify the correlation between the corrosion of CFRC and
rope-strength decrease, we performed a tensile test on corroded ropes. The test results are given
in Fig. 8. This diagram shows the rate of cross-sectional area reduction and the rate of rope
strength decrease of different types of ropes.
d Estimation of remaining life of rope, evaluation and judgement
To determine adequate rope-replacement frequency, we intend to work on methods for estimating
the progress of corrosion-caused rope deterioration and establishing service-life limits by
specifying safety requirements to be satisfied at maintenance stages.
e Understanding of the corrosion mechanism and a method to elongate service life
Suspender ropes have air space inside, and internal corrosion is likely to be initiated from such
space. Therefore, it is necessary to establish methods for preventing such internal corrosion. We
are conducting research on the effects of various corrosion prevention measures, including the use
of resin or other material to fill such space. Based on the results of this study, we intend to
establish method to elongate service life applicable to currently used ropes or to newly produced
ropes as the replacements of old ropes.
f Repairing and replacing methods and required equipment
In the replacement of suspender ropes, required safety factor depends on the replacement
methods.Thus, we intend to establish rational replacement methods and equipment such as
tension relief equipment.
Understanding of Corrosion Mechanism
CFRC Suspender Rope
Method to Elongate Service Life

Grasp of an Extend of Corrosion by NDT
Study on Correlation Between
Strength and Corrosion
Estimation of Remaining Life,

Evaluation and Judgement
Study on Introduction of New Material
Repair and Replacement
Fig-7 Maintanance Flow Chart
153
Tensile
Strength Reduction Rate
(%)
60
40
Y=5.9765
X0.6145
20
719Strand
Rope
C.F.R.C.
Suspender
Rope
0
0
5
10
Cross-Sectional
Area Reduction
Rate (%)
15
Fig-8 Relation Between Sectional Area Reduction Rate and Tensile Strength Reduction Rate
6. Conclusion
The disassembly inspection of the suspender ropes of actual bridges found that ropes had internal
corrosion at various locations. Such internal corrosion had no correlation with the external corrosion
of the same suspender ropes in terms of location, confirming that visual inspection was not sufficient
to identify internal rope corrosion.
In terms of adequate maintenance of suspender ropes, it is essential to grapse the conditions of internal
corrosion quantitatively. We are certain that the newly developed non-destructive inspection method
will be effective.
The HSBA is conducting research to clarify the mechanism of suspender rope corrosion development
and to extend suspender ropes service life. By using the newly developed non-destructive inspection
method together with the achievements of such research, we intend to establish a rational maintenance
method for suspender ropes.
154
Bear Mountain Bridge Cable Replacement

1
William A. Moreau, P.E.1), Peter Sluszka, P.E.2)

Chief Engineer, New York State Bridge Authority, Highland, NY, USA
2
Vice President, Ammann & Whitney, New York, NY, USA
New York State Bridge Authority
P.O. Box 1010
Highland, NY, USA 12528
e-mail: bmoreau@nysba.state.ny.us, web page: http//www.nysba.net
Abstract
Due to corrosion damage and a subsequent reduction in load-carrying capacity, the existing main
cables of the Bear Mountain Bridge are projected to have a limited service life. The New York State
Bridge Authority, with Ammann & Whitney as consulting engineers, is evaluating alternative concepts
to restore the structural capacity of the bridge.
The focus of the present study is to investigate alternative methods to relieve the load on the existing
cables either by adding supplementary cables or by replacing them with new cables. The selected
alternative will be developed through 50% final design. The work will include geotechnical and
environmental studies, plans for maintenance of traffic during construction and development of load
transfer and erection methods.
Keywords: Suspension bridge, cable replacement, hangers, load transfer, design, erection
1. Introduction
Fig. 1: Bear Mountain Bridge
The Bear Mountain Bridge spans the Hudson River between

Fort Montgomery on the west and the mountain known as
Anthonys Nose on the east, near Peekskill, New York. The
bridge was designed by Howard C. Baird and construction was
completed in 1924 by The Terry and Tench Company with
John A. Roebling Sons Company responsible for the cable
spinning. The monumental bridges setting in a spectacular and
historic spot in the Hudson River Valley adds to its
significance as a landmark structure. Both the Bridge and toll
house (present administration building) were listed on the
National Register of Historic Places on November 23, 1982.
The bridge is a classical suspension bridge with a suspended main span of 497.56 meters (1632 feet)
and simply supported steel truss side spans of 64 meters (210 feet). The west approach comprises a
30.49 meter (100-foot) long simply supported truss span and two 15.24 meter (50-foot) girder spans.
At the time of its completion, the bridges main span was the longest in the world. The 11.6 meter (38
foot) wide roadway carries two lanes of traffic.
The two main cables each contain 7,252 parallel galvanized wires of 4.94 mm diameter (0.195-inch,
no. 6 gauge), compacted and wire-wrapped to a finished diameter of about 46 cm (18 inches). In the
anchorages, the cables splay out into 37 strands of 196 wires each, looped around semi-circular strand
shoes that are pinned to eyebar chains. The eyebars are anchored inside tunnels that were dug into the
natural rock and filled with concrete. The tunnels vary in length from about 27 to 34 meters (90 to 110
feet).
Sixty-three wire rope suspenders connect each cable to the stiffening trusses. Each suspender
comprises two parts of 57 mm (2-inch) diameter wire rope that passes over the cable band. The
lower ends of the suspenders are socketed and pin-connected to a steel assembly at the level of the
truss bottom chords.
As discovered during an in-depth inspection of four panels in 1991, numerous wires are broken due to
stress corrosion cracking, and it was decided to rehabilitate the cables by unwrapping, oiling and
rewrapping them. This work began in March 2000 on the southwest backstay. As longer lengths of the
155
backstay were unwrapped, more broken wires were found than anticipated. It was also observed that
the broken wire ends were moving further apart as the wedging and oiling progressed an indication
that the broken wires were slipping and not regaining tension due to friction (there were no cable
bands on the backstays, only lightweight clamps supporting the handrope stanchions). There was
further evidence of wire slippage and elongation of the backstay in the splay chamber of the
anchorage. Immediate action was taken to stabilize the backstay with clamping bands. Subsequently,
the other three backstays were similarly clamped prior to allowing them to be unwrapped. The work
was then allowed to progress to completion.
The southwest backstay continues to be monitored by measuring the distance between the anchorage
and the tower top, and by acoustic monitors that can detect breaking wires. While a few new wire
breaks have been detected, the condition appears to be stabilized since the addition of the clamping
bands.
American design practice uses the working stress method of design for cables. The design capacity is
commonly defined in terms of a safety factor, being simply ultimate strength divided by the
unfactored working load (Fu/T). A safety factor below two is deemed unacceptable and would lead to
closing of a bridge.
Based on the number of broken and corroded wires recorded during the oiling, it has been estimated
that the strength of the cables has been reduced by 12 to 16%, and the computed safety factor (ultimate
cable strength divided by working load) is currently around 2.4.
While the oiling and rewrapping may have slowed or even halted the deterioration of the cables, they
will need to be monitored and periodically inspected to ascertain that additional damage is not
occurring either through continued corrosion or propagation of cracks.
The New York State Bridge Authority has retained Ammann & Whitney to develop alternative
methods to strengthen or replace the main cables should it become necessary in the future. A peer
review panel is working with the owner and consultant to assist in development of alternatives.
2. Project Objectives
Because the long-term effectiveness of the oiling and rewrapping is yet to be determined and the
extent and rate of wire cracking cannot be predicted, the Bridge owner needs to consider long term
solutions that may be implemented in the future should the cables be deemed unreliable. The objective
of the project therefore, is to investigate and develop options to restore the strength of the main
suspension system should it become necessary to keep the bridge operating. While the focus is not to
further evaluate the strength or projected life of the existing cables, this must be considered when
evaluating concepts that include their continued use in supporting the bridge.
With the completion of the preliminary studies, the selected options are being developed in sufficient
detail to allow the owner to prepare and let contract documents for construction within a relatively
short period of time.
3. Design Criteria
The two fundamental concepts studied are to strengthen the existing cables with supplemental material
or to replace them entirely with new ones. A third, temporary concept was developed to reinforce only
the southwest backstay in the event that additional local distress is observed in the future.
Structural steel details, concrete structures and foundations are being designed in accordance with
American Association of State and Highway Officials (AASHTO) Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges, supplemented by state and local design requirements. Cables, suspenders and
appurtenances, which are not specifically covered by AASHTO, are being designed in accordance
with current US practice for new suspension bridges.
Supplemental cables will be designed to relieve one half of the suspended load from the existing
cables.
156
4. Development of Alternative Concepts

The Bear Mountain Bridge study has advanced into the detailed design stage. In order to focus on the
most promising and practical alternatives, certain options were eliminated as permanent solutions
early in the project. These are summarized below.
4.1 Addition of Individual Wires or Strands
An obvious solution would be to add more healthy wires to the damaged cables, either individually or
in bundles (strands). Because of the large numbers of wires required, the idea has been rejected as
impractical as a permanent solution. It is immediately obvious that adding supplemental cables is a
more practical way to accomplish this.
4.2 Cable-Stayed Alternatives
This is another solution that comes quickly to mind, but is similarly rejected when considered in any
detail. The existing bridge towers are half as high as needed for a two-tower cable-stayed bridge with a
similar span length. Because of this limitation stays can only be partially effective. In addition, the
horizontal component of stays would need to be resisted either through compression at the truss level,
or by balancing opposing stays through tension ties The bridge is discontinuous at the towers and
would need extensive modifications to transmit the thrust of stays. Alternatives utilizing stays that are
tied through the main span can be effective, but their behavior becomes that of point-loaded
continuous cables, a solution better handled with supplemental suspension cables.
4.3 Falsework Alternatives
One option is to temporarily support the bridge, remove the existing cables, erect new ones and
transfer the load back to the new cables. Temporarily supporting the bridge on falsework is
immediately rejected because any such solution would require large structures to be built in the river.
Temporary suspension systems are the feasible alternatives for this option.
5 Retained Alternatives
Having rejected those alternatives deemed impractical, the study focused on the following three
general scenarios:
Scenario 1: Leave the existing cables in place, add supplementary cables and transfer part of the
suspended load to them. This achieves the immediate goal of reducing the load on the existing cables.
The existing cables continue to carry a portion of the load and must continue to be maintained. Under
the reduced stress the failure of additional wires due to stress corrosion cracking is presumed to be
slowed or arrested. The remaining service life of the existing cables is still uncertain and continued
monitoring will be necessary.
Scenario 2: Construct new cables, transfer the full suspended load to them and remove the old cables.
This removes any uncertainty about the life of the existing cables. The new cables can be expected to
perform at least as long as the original ones, and with new protection methods such as dry air
injection, they can be maintained indefinitely.
Scenario 3: Construct temporary cables, transfer the entire suspended load to them, remove the old
cables, construct new cables in the original location, transfer the load to them, and remove the
temporary cables. This has the important advantage of maintaining the original appearance of the
bridge but it is twice as costly as Scenario 2 and was ultimately dropped from further development.
The accepted long-term solutions are complete cable replacement or erection of supplemental cables.
The supplemental cable option is identical to the full replacement option except that the supplemental
cables and their anchorages would be smaller. The following discussion is therefore focused on the
cable replacement solution.
157
6 Key Structural Issues and Site Constraints

6.1 Towers
Fig. 2:Bear Mountain Bridge Existing Tower Fig.3: Tower Modified to Support New Cables
The existing cable saddles completely cover the tops of the tower legs and there is no additional space
to support new or supplementary saddles. This will limit the options for supporting new saddles.
Options considered included bearing on the existing saddles and heavy bolted connections to the
vertical faces of the tower legs. Ultimately, due to anchorage placement limitations, the most practical
alternative is to locate new cables to the sides of the existing, supported on new tower extensions.
6.2 Anchorages
New external anchorages may be constructed using mass concrete in excavated foundations, rock
tunnels similar to the existing ones, anchor rods terminating in excavated galleries, or high capacity
rock anchors placed in holes drilled into the rock. The quality of the rock at the site is excellent and
will accommodate new anchorages of any type. The difficulty lies in the lack of free space,
particularly at the southwest anchorage where the Bridge Authoritys operations, toll and maintenance
facilities are located and one existing anchorage lies beneath the 80-year-old stone masonry
administration building.
Fig.4:Existing Southwest Anchorage
Fig.5: Existing Southeast Anchorage
On the east side the existing anchorages are situated between the roadway of State Route 9D to their
west and the National Guards Camp Smith to their east. The terrain immediately east of the existing
anchorages slopes sharply upward.
158
Fig.6: Existing and New
Fig.7: Existing and New
Southwest Anchorage
Southeast Anchorage
Due to the site characteristics at both ends of the bridge, compact anchor blocks utilizing high capacity
rock anchors placed in the rock have proven to be the most practical solution. For the replacement
cables, each anchorage will utilize twelve anchors with capacities of 270 kN each. The general details
at each end of the bridge are shown above.
7 Load Transfer
After erection of the new cables the suspended load must be systematically transferred from the old
cables to the new ones without overstressing elements of the superstructure and suspension system.
This is achieved by jacking the new suspenders into place and allowing the old suspenders to lengthen.
While theoretically possible to simultaneously jack all new suspenders at once, it would be an
unnecessary complication and expense.
Experience on Lisbons Tagus River Bridge Railroad Retrofit provides a good practical example of
how the operation can be carried out.
Supplemental cables were added to the Tagus River Bridge in the late 1990s in order to stiffen it
sufficiently to carry a new lower level railroad deck. The new cables carry all of the added dead load
and participate with the old cables in carrying live load. The construction sequence was developed to
ensure that no elements would be overstressed and that the bridge geometry would be held within safe
limits for the roadway traffic. Part of the new dead load was initially placed on the lower level,
causing a deflection of the bridge. The new suspenders were then jacked into their connections at
sixteen locations at a time in predetermined increments. After sufficient passes, all new suspenders
were in their final position. The existing suspenders remained in place and did not need adjustment.
After completion of the new lower deck, the bridge was back to its original geometry.
This proved to be a practical and efficient method of transferring load to the new system. The situation
for the Bear Mountain Bridge differs in that there will be no new dead load added to the
superstructure. In this case, the new cables will cause the bridge to rise as load is transferred to them.
To keep stresses within acceptable limits, it will be necessary to allow some of the existing suspenders
to lengthen in the last stage. This can be done in discrete increments, using the existing ropes with
adjustable extensions at the connections to the trusses or by the insertion of adjusting devices in the
body of the ropes. For the cable replacement alternative, the old suspenders would be scrapped and the
new suspenders would take their place at the same connection points. For supplemental cable
alternatives, the old suspenders would be replaced with longer ones.
During the load transfer, the free-hanging replacement cables will travel downward toward their final
positions while the existing cables will travel upward toward their free-hanging, as-erected positions.
The old cables will pull the tower tops outward toward the shores, while the new cable saddles will
need to move in toward the main span. This can be accommodated by allowing the relatively flexible
159
towers to deflect with the old cables while allowing the new cable saddles to roll or slide along the
tower tops.
Our analysis shows that every fifth suspender can be removed with no detrimental effect on the bridge.
The first step in load transfer is therefore to remove every fifth suspender (13 on each cable) and
install new suspenders in their place. The 13 new suspenders are then jacked part way into place until
they carry the same load as the old ones that were removed.
In step two, another 12 suspenders are removed and replaced with new ones. All 25 new suspenders
can then be jacked into their final position at the stiffening trusses without overstress. This must be
done at prescribed increments. At the completion of this step, the new cable will be carrying about
35% of the bridge load. The bridge superstructure will have risen about 1.2 meters.
This process would be carried out in three additional steps, at the end of which, all suspenders will
have been replaced and all load will have been transferred to the new cables. The bridges original
geometry will have been restored. In the final step, the last twelve old suspenders will need to be
lengthened to allow the full rise in the old cable.
8 Removal of Existing Cables
The most likely practical method will be to remove the old cables strand by strand after the suspended
load has been transferred to the new cables and the old suspenders and cable bands have been
removed. The splay castings would also be removed and the strands would be allowed to splay to the
tower saddles. They can then be unloaded, cut, and removed in pieces. The tower tops will be held
back and gradually released to return to vertical after the cable removal is complete.
9 Conclusion
Replacing the main cables of a suspension bridge is necessary and practical in some instances. While
expensive, it may still be the best alternative when faced with the huge cost of replacing a vital
transportation link.
Though simple in concept, existing details of each bridge will demand unique cable replacement
design details and construction procedures. The new cables need to be erected and anchored as
dictated by the specific details of the existing bridge, the load needs to be transferred without
overstressing members or creating unacceptable deformations, and finally, the existing cables need to
be removed in a practical manner.
160
The Waldo Hancock Bridge

Inspection, Monitoring and Strengthening of the Main Cables
Devin Andersen, P E* and Jamey A. Barbas, PE**
*Project Manager, Maine Dept. of Transportation, 16 State House Station, Augusta, Maine, USA
**Senior Project Manager, Parsons, 100 Broadway, New York, NY 10005 USA
This paper describes the in-depth inspection, findings, condition assessment, monitoring and
strengthening of the main cables of a 73-year old suspension bridge. Proper evaluation and analysis
may lead us to extend the useful life of existing structures as an alternative to total replacement. In this
regard, assessment of cable safety is of utmost importance. Hydrogen-assisted, stress corrosion
cracking, and observations of corroded and pre-cracked wires are discussed. An acoustic monitoring
technique used for detecting wire breaks in service is presented as a useful tool for risk management.
Finally, the strengthening scheme utilizing supplementary strands is described.
Key Words: Suspension Bridge, Cable Strengthening, Supplementary Strands, Acoustic Monitoring
1. Introduction
The Waldo-Hancock Bridge, designed by Robinson and Steinman, was opened on November 16,
1931. It was completed at a construction cost of $846,000 and connects the Town of Prospect and
Verona Island in Maine. The bridge is an important part of Maines coastal U.S. Route 1 and State
Route 3 over the Penobscot River, and carries two lanes of traffic. The towers were built with tapered
legs and horizontal struts forming Vierendeel trusses. The Waldo-Hancock Bridge was the first
suspension bridge to utilize a Vierendeel Truss in its main towers.
The suspension structure is 3-span, 2-hinge suspension bridge with an 800-foot main span and two
equal 350-foot side spans. The Waldo-Hancock Bridge shares the distinction with one other bridge
(also completed in 1931) of being the first in the United States to utilize pre-stressed twisted wire rope
strands in the main suspension cable.
The Maine DOT commenced a rehabilitation contract on the Waldo-Hancock main cables in January
of 2002. By August of 2002, it became apparent that condition of the main cables was worse than
anticipated. Over 200 wires were discovered broken in one location on the north cable. A live load
restriction permitting only one truck over the bridge in either direction at a time was enforced. When
the rehabilitation work moved over to the south cable in June 2003, even more deterioration of main
cable wires was uncovered. Although the number of wire breaks in the south cable were of the same
order of magnitude as the number of breaks seen in the north cable, the observation of wire breaks in
the inner core of strands were of great concern and indicative of the brittle nature of the wires.
Laboratory testing of a 37-wire strand sample extracted from the south cable supported the visual
observations.
Applying the brittle model to the south cable yielded an unacceptable low safety factor in response the
live load was further restricted to a 12-ton limitation by Maine DOT in July 2003. In addition, Parsons
recommended removal of the concrete safety walks and curb to reduce the dead load until the
strengthening of the cables by supplementary strands could be implemented. With concurrence by
other bridge experts, Maine DOT immediately directed Parsons to detail the proposed supplementary
strand scheme. An acoustic monitoring system, similar to the one Parsons recommended for the Bear
Mountain Bridge, was quickly installed by Pure Tech. Other monitoring of the cable included weekly
conventional survey of the cable elevations. Through intensive partnering and teamwork by Maine
DOT, Parsons, the contractors Piasecki Steel and Cianbro Corp., as well as the Williamsport Wirerope
Works supplier, the project was completed in 14 weeks.
161
2. Inspection
In the autumn of 2002 the wrapping wire was removed from the North cable of the 73-year old WaldoHancock Bridge. Over its entire length from anchorage to anchorage, as part of the contract work for
rehabilitating the main cables, replacing the suspenders and retightening the cable band bolts. At
several locations along the North main cable, broken wires from the outer wire layers on the outer prefabricated helical wire strands were unleashed from their confined state as the cable wire wrapping
was removed. The resulting birds nest of numerous broken wires in isolated locations was cause
for concern, and Maine Department of Transportation contacted Parsons to investigate the cable.
350 ft.
800 ft.
350 ft.
Figure 1. Bridge Elevation

The main suspension cables are composed of thirty-seven 1-3/8 diameter strands, each composed of
thirty-seven No.6 galvanized wires (0.195 inches in diameter). The cables pass over cable bents before
entering the anchorages. In the backstays, two extra strands are added, for a total of 39. The 37
strands lie parallel, forming a hexagonal section. Outer voids are filled with redwood or cedar fillers
at each face to form a traditional circular shape. Finally, the cable is spiral-wrapped with No. 9 soft
annealed galvanized wires.
Wire Diameter = 0.195 in.
Wood
Fillers
9-5/8 in. Diameter

Detail of Strands
37 1-3/8 inch strands
Figure 2. Cable Cross Section

Summary of Past Cable Inspections
Portions of the main cables were unwrapped and inspected in 1992 by Lichtenstein Associates and 13
broken wires were found in the South cable near midspan. Wire samples were removed and tested for
physical properties. In 1998, the main cables were inspected by Parsons from the outside only. The
condition of the paint on the main cable wrapping was found to be poor, with complete paint failure
noted along the cables, numerous cracks and extensive flaking paint.
In 2000, Parsons removed the wrapping at four panels near the center span of each cable. One broken
wire was observed at one panel. The exterior wires of the exterior strands at the bottom third of the
cable were observed to exhibit Stage-IV conditions with pitting and ferrous stains displacing most of
the white corrosion product. Exterior wires of lower interior strands were generally noted to be in
Stage-II and Stage-III condition.
162
Photo 1
Typical birds nest phenomenon
which was observed in 2002 on
several panel points of the north
cable.
Note the wires color-coded red (at right middle) are only 3 remaining first layer wires in the strand.
The wires color-coded yellow are second layer wires. The third layer wires show remaining
galvanizing and zinc oxide corrosion. In Row 6 (second row of strands from bottom) the second wire
layer is visible where first layer wires are broken. These second layer wires exhibit rust and pitting.
It was clear upon initial investigation that the wire fractures were of a brittle nature, and they
originated where first layer wires in the strands are in contact with each other. Many wire breaks
show a distinctive fracture surface that is transverse to the direction of stress for part of the fracture
and facetted at a 30 - 45 degree angle for the remainder of the fracture surface. Inspectors noted in
each case that the transverse fracture surface occurred on the exterior side of the wire (the side that
touches the adjacent strand). Twenty-eight fractured wire samples were extracted for laboratory
testing, and additional wire samples were later extracted for a second phase of laboratory tests.
Photo 2-Typical Wedging Operation

Cable between panel points was wedged
from both sides, row by row, from top to
bottom so that all strands could be
inspected and broken wires counted.
The main cable was wedged open for more in-depth inspection at the key locations exhibiting severe
wire breakage. The main cable was wedged open horizontally by driving wedges from both sides,
strand row by strand row, so that all 37 strands could be inspected from their exterior surface except
areas where strands are in horizontal contact with adjacent strands. The character and extent of
corrosion, as well as corrosion stage of the exterior of each strand were noted (top and bottom of
strand) in successive 5 ft sections of cable between the cable bands.
163
Fractured wires were recorded by their coordinate positions in the panel point: (1) distance from edge
of lower-numbered cable band; (2) row and strand number (top row = Row 1, bottom row = Row 7,
strand numbering began with Strand 1 on the inboard side of the cable); and (3) clock position, facing
midspan. Where possible, second and third layer strand wires were inspected and wire fractures
recorded when broken first or second layer wires afforded a view of them.
The maximum wire breakage is defined as the sum of wire breakages observed in each 5 ft. sections.
The maximum estimated number of broken wires, including hidden wires but subtracting any double
counting, is 234 broken wires in the north cable and 309 in the south cable, which corresponds to
over18% of the wires in the cable cross sections.
The cable conditions improve toward the tower tops, but the lowest elevation points are not
necessarily the locations in poorest condition. Wire breaks are concentrated in the bottom one-third
strands of the cable section, and the most severe deterioration occurs in the bottom row of strands.
As the inspection progressed, it became clear that the pattern of moderate to severe Stage-IV ferrous
corrosion with pitting at the locations where strands are in contact with each other is typical for every
strand throughout the cross section. The corrosion and pitting with section loss is more severe where
strands are in contact in the horizontal plane, where it was observed that corrodant accumulates. At
these locations moisture is more likely to be retained and further aggravate corrosion. Thus, each first
layer wire in each helical strand (excepting corner strands in the hexagonal cross section) contacts
adjacent strands in the horizontal plane two times per lay length of approximately 15.25-15.5 linear
inches. It was clear during the inspection that the location of wire fractures, when inspectors directed
them from their splayed position back to their original alignment in the strand, closely corresponds to
contact points between strands.
Photo 3
This panel was stained with
rust from the wrapping wires.
Wire breaks, concentrated in
the bottom three strands of
south cable.
In 2003, when the south cable was unwrapped and wedged open for inspection, one location was
revealed where significant deterioration was evident in one of the lower strands, compromising the
entire strand. In addition, after the wedges were removed, we noticed that the lower nine strands were
separated from the remaining upper portion of the cable. This indicated that the strands were not in
full tension and thereby not carrying their load. Laboratory tests of this strand revealed low tensile
strength and brittle wires.
164
4. Laboratory Testing
Laboratory tests were performed at Lucius Pitkin Inc. in two phases. Phase I tests included 17 tensile
and 6 fatigue tests, and Phase II comprised 74 tensile and 9 fatigue tests. Phase II tests supplemented
the Phase I tests by increasing the population size to be statistically more valid, and focused on
investigating the distribution of pre-existing cracks in long lay wire samples (typically 72-inch long),
the effects of crack parameters on the physical properties, and fatigue tests in different stress ranges to
obtain a relationship between stress range and number of cycles to fracture. In both phases, Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) examination, surface chemistry, and metallographic examination were
also conducted.
From the fractographic examination of in-service fracture surfaces, it was found that the cracks were
due to hydrogen-assisted stress corrosion. The stress corrosion crack, which is barely detectable from
the surface, penetrates inward to destroy the integrity of the cross section of the metal. The stress
corrosion crack initiates from combinations of tensile stress and chemical environment, and the crack
growth is sometimes very rapid. It is not known whether stress corrosion cracking already existed at
the time of the 1992 inspection.
Photo 4Multiple micro-cracks

Samples exhibited brittle failure when pre-existing cracks existed in the specimens. Significant
reduction in elongation and strength are correlated with the pre-existing crack size. Testing smaller
segments of long lay wire samples showed that several weak points sporadically exist along a wire
length.
The distributions of tensile strengths of specimens taken from the same wire were compared.
Significant reductions in the tensile strengths along the wires suggest fractures occurred at pre-existing
micro-cracks. This was confirmed by examining the fracture surface after the test. The tensile
strengths which relate to pre-existing crack depth indicates significant reduction in strength with
increasing crack depth. It also indicates that crack depths of less than 5% of wire diameter did not
result in strength reduction, and crack depths greater than approximately 40-50% is a threshold
condition for fracture.
Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis of the corrosion product indicated that sulfur, chloride
and calcium were present, indicating influence from the environment. These chemicals are known to
affect stress corrosion cracking.
165
5. Acoustic Monitoring
After discovering the corrosion problems on the north main cable, Parsons recommended to the Maine
DOT that acoustic monitoring be used to ensure the integrity of the main cables. The acoustic
monitoring system provided by Pure Tech has proven capable of detecting wire failures as they occur
in the main cables of suspension bridges. (See reference no. 3)
Acoustic monitoring relies on installing sensors along the length of a main cable to electronically and
continuously monitor the sounds (or acoustic events) being transmitted through a main cable to
identify the acoustic event associated with a wire break. The sensors are piezoelectric and are
connected to a data acquisition system located on or near the bridge. The data acquisition system
continuously monitors the bridge to determine if an acoustic event meets basic criteria for a wire
break. If an event meets the criteria, the data acquisition system collects data from the sensors at high
data sampling rates and the data is transmitted to a processing center where trained personnel
determine if the acoustic event was generated by a wire break in the cable. An acoustic monitoring
system is capable of detecting when a wire fails and determining the location of the wire failure.
Permanent acoustic monitoring systems employed on the Bear Mountain Bridge and the Bronx
Whitestone Bridge utilized hardwired sensors that were connected to the data acquisition system.
However, one of the challenges associated with the hardwired systems is maintaining the integrity of a
low voltage signal as it is transmitted through a long data cable. To overcome this challenge on the
Waldo Hancock Bridge, wireless sensors were utilized which transmit the data from the sensor to the
data acquisition system with a wireless transmitter.
After the system was installed on the structure, wires were cut at several different locations along the
main cable to verify the acoustic properties of a wire break on this specific structure. The wires were
cut in a wrapped condition (where only a small section of cable was unwrapped- between 150 mm and
600 mm) and in an unwrapped condition (where the cable was completely unwrapped between the
cable bands). Once the wire cuts were performed, the installation was complete and the system began
monitoring the main cables on July 19, 2003.
Four wire breaks were recorded by the system (8/5/2003, 8/5/2003, 8/13/2003, and 9/7/2003) prior to
the completion of the cable strengthening described elsewhere. Since the strengthening was
completed there have been no further wire breaks.
6. Cable Strengthening - Analysis and Construction
Analysis of the Waldo Hancock Bridge was performed using the non-linear finite element program
LARSA 2000. The model was used to establish the forces and deflections resulting from adding
supplementary strands to the existing structure. We provided a total of eight 2-inch structural strands
per main cable that are connected to the existing suspenders ropes directly below the main cable
bands. The eight strands are arranged in two pairs of 4 strands. These supplementary strands are
located above and to either side of the original main cable. Supplementary cable bands with clevis
attachments were used to connect steel rods down to a strong-back that is located just below the
original main cable bands.
166
Figure 3
Suspender Details
The analysis was performed in several steps to establish the correct geometry and associated forces.
First the dead load of the bridge was confirmed, providing the original bridge position with an inhouse bridge program that calculates cable geometry as a function of key points and loading. This
geometry was transferred to LARSA so that the changes in dead load could be modeled. This depicted
the cable geometry prior to the retrofit.
Uplift forces were then applied to the varsa model. These forces represent the effect of the
supplementary strands. The final configuration of the bridge under the action of uplift forces was then
determined. The deflected cable and truss geometry was then used to create a new bridge model of the
supplementary strands and connections. The deflected truss was checked to verify the stresses in the
slender truss elements.
Finally, the varsa model was used to evaluate the load transfer. The supplementary rods were all
unstressed to establish the free cable geometry of the supplementary strands. For each step of the load
transfer, specific rods were stressed to represent the jacking forces at appropriate locations. Iterations
were made to ensure that an acceptable jacking sequence did not overstress rods, cause geometric
difficulty or deformation of the rods themselves. The load transfer analysis assumed that the contractor
would have 8 teams, working on 4 panel points on two cables simultaneously. There was a 50 kip
limitation for the tension rods. The procedure took 33 steps.
Photo 5Installation of retrofit system
167
The construction included two new concrete anchorages with 30-foot long anchor rods. Crews
installed the continuous runs of 2-inch diameter strands on new tower and cable bent saddles that were
bolted and welded on top of the existing ones with new base plates. Initially the new strands were up
to 12 feet above the main cable. A rope pull was used, connected to a 7/8-inch pull cable, which was
hydraulically winched back across and connected to the strand. The strands were fed through a
tensioner holding back set for 15,000 lbs. The strands were connected to the anchor rods and the sag
was set to a predetermined geometry. Hydraulic jacks were used to transfer the load from the main
cable to the supplementary strands. Fifty percent of the dead load was transferred out of the main cable
and into the supplementary strands. At final configuration, the supplementary strands are about 3 feet
above the main cable. The bridge profile is also higher by about 7 inches at mid span due to the load
transfer. After load transfer, a load test was performed with a known truck weight. Agreement
between surveyed elevations and the analytical model was confirmed.
7. Conclusion
Through effective teamwork and partnering, this complex emergency load transfer successfully
restored the cable system to its original load carrying capacity. After the load test, the Maine DOT
Posting committee changed the 12-ton vehicle limit to 80,000 lbs, eliminating the arduous, 40-mile
detour for commercial traffic. The cost for this project was $18,000,000.00 which included the initial
rehabilitation contract of, $7,500,000.00 and the cable strengthening, at $10,500,000.00. The cost of
design and construction engineering services for this project came to $4,400,000.00.
References
1) Waldo Hancock Bridge Main Cable Safety Factors - Final Report, April 11,2003, Parsons
Transportation Group, Roger Q. Haight, Dr. Harukazu Ohashi, Jamey A. Barbas
2) Dr. Harukazu Ohashi, Jamey A. Barbas, Roger Q. Haight- Safety Assessment and Health
Monitoring of Suspension Bridge Cables, July, 2003
3) Health Monitoring Combined With Visual Inspections- Obtaining a Comprehensive Assessment of
Cables, The 4th International Supported Bridge Operators Conference.
4) Theodore Hopwood II, James H. Havens: Corrosion of Cable Suspension Bridges, Research
Report UKTRP-84-14, May 1984
5) William M. Moreau, Jamey A. Barbas: The Rehabilitation, Survey and Monitoring of the Bear
Mountain Bridge, The 3rd International Suspension Bridge Operators Conference, Kobe, May
2002
168
ACCESS FOR LONG SPAN BRIDGE MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION

James Gibson1, Andy Charge2
1
Maintenance Engineer Long Span Bridges

Deputy Maintenance Engineer Long Span Bridges
Tsing Ma Management Limited
(Part Owned by AMEC International Construction )
(Operator of the Tsing Ma Control Area)
The Administration Building
North West Tsing Yi Interchange
Tsing Yi, New Territories
Hong Kong
e-mail: jimgibson@tsingma.com.hk web page http://www.tsingma.com.hk

Abstract
In order to inspect and maintain long span bridges safely, efficiently and effectively, it is essential that
suitable access equipment be provided for this purpose. Unfortunately, due to the unique nature of
most long span bridges, there are generally no standard designs for bridge owners to adopt. This
particular aspect creates difficulties in the initial choice of equipment and the future use of the adopted
scheme where limitations occur in the flexibility of the application of a particular device.
Keywords
1.
Access, traveler, gantry, cable, underdeck, cradle, suspended access, platform
Introduction
In order to inspect and maintain long span bridges safely, efficiently and effectively, it is essential that
suitable access equipment be provided for this purpose. Generally, work takes place at height and over
water or traffic; as a result there are a multitude of different types of access in various permutations of
shape and size available to the bridge owner. Obviously the matter of safety is of primary concern, as
it not only affects the users of the equipment but also the members of the public using the bridge or
passing underneath. The equipment may have to be used for varying types of tasks, which could be
categorised as follows:
Routine Inspections Light duty.
Routine Maintenance such as bolt tightening, repairs to protective treatment, concrete
repairs, E & M works-Medium duty.
Special Works such as replacement of suspenders, cable stays -Heavy Duty.
This paper concentrates on the first two categories mentioned above.
Unfortunately, due to the unique nature of most long span bridges, there are no standard designs
available off the shelf, for bridge owners to adopt. This particular aspect creates difficulties in the
initial choice of equipment and the future use of the adopted scheme where limitations occur in the
flexibility of the application of a device. Obviously the cost of equipment plays a significant part in the
decision making process, both initially and in the long term, although it is the authors view, that a
well thought out and implemented access system at the design stage, significantly reduces routine
inspection and maintenance costs during the lifetime of the structure. An example of this is that if a
part cannot be accessed readily, then it may not be inspected on a routine basis and severe damage
may occur during the periods between principal inspections, resulting in high costs for repair or
replacement.
2.
Legislation
Most countries have legislation in place to ensure that the respective bridge maintenance authorities
keep underdeck bridge gantries, cable cradles and suspended platforms and the like in a safe condition
for use. In general there are various obligatory or statutory inspections that have to be undertaken such
169
as an annual thorough inspection and load test or a test after major adjustment or modification i.e. after
erection of a suspended platform or installation of a new gantry. (Some references can be found at the
end of this paper under items 1, 2, 3, 6 & 7). The majority of countries require this test or examination
to be undertaken by a competent person. This has been defined in the US legislation7 as one who is
capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards in the surroundings or working conditions
which are unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to take
prompt corrective measures to eliminate them. Obviously, there are varying levels of competency
required depending on the type of test being undertaken; it could mean a person who has achieved a
certain level of training or a qualified engineer.
However, no legislation has been specifically dedicated to the operation, maintenance and use of
underdeck bridge gantries. In the UK, as a consequence of this lack of advice being available, the
bridge owners and operators made representation to the Institution of Structural Engineers Informal
Study Group on the Management and Maintenance of Bridges. This resulted in a task group being
established to study and report on this problem. Over a two-year period, advice was sought from
bridge owners and operators and a consultant was commissioned to assist with research and the
preparation of a report4. The guide was published in July 1996 and it should be considered essential
reading for all bridge owners.
One other piece of UK legislation has an influence on the design and procurement of access for new
bridges, that of the Construction Regulations 19945. In general terms, the designer has a contribution
to make in avoiding and reducing health and safety risks which are inherent in the construction process
and subsequent work (e.g. maintenance). To do this the designer will need to assess the risks of their
design that can reasonably be foreseen. Usually this will include risks to those building, maintaining or
repairing the structure as well as those who might be affected by this work (e.g. members of the
public).
Lastly with respect to suspended working platforms (cradles), the legislation is very specific in its
requirements for design, use testing and safety. Most countries have very similar legislation in place,
however Hong Kong8 & 9 , appears to have combined the US and UK requirements and made the
regulations even more stringent. The first example is the requirement to undertake a load test and
examination by a Registered Professional Engineer who has a Marine or Mechanical background
only. If the person is not available in-house then an additional cost is borne by the owner for testing
each and every cradle set-up. In most other countries, a competent person undertakes this test. The
second example is the use of an additional safety line. Even though there is a requirement to provide
two suspension ropes at each end of the cradle, one for the winch and the other for the over speed
safety device, each worker must attach themselves to an independent safety line, rather than the cradle
structure.
3.
Best Practice:- For New Build
The future maintenance access requirements are sometimes considered to be secondary in the thoughts
of bridge designers and clients. This is mainly due to the focus being on the provision of a new
crossing and its construction cost, rather than on how the structure is to be maintained. This could be
considered to be natural result, as the people who are going to be undertaking the maintenance are not
usually part of the design and construction team and therefore no pre-consultation or advice is
generally provided.
The clients procurement process should include a detailed plan that includes the operation and
maintenance strategy needs of the new crossing. It should include consideration of the following:
Access to structures (piers, towers etc) by road vehicle with sufficient space to erect inspection
equipment.
Accommodation for maintenance personnel, vehicles, storage of spare parts, demountable
access equipment and areas for the maintenance of equipment with craneage facilities.
170
Permanent ladders and platforms to provide access to key areas such as: splay chamber
anchorages, stay anchorages, piers/towers (both external/internal areas & tops of structures),
high level deck soffits.
Provision of lifts to provide access over the full height of towers (conventional wire rope type
preferred) with sufficient load carrying capacity.
Provision of suspended platforms with facilities for reducing the number of set-ups, such as
continuous rail supports or trolleys.
Underdeck inspection by gantry or special bridge inspection vehicle.
Provision of a means of accessing underdeck gantries and the like, but limiting the impact on
traffic flows where possible i.e. regular spacing of drop off zones or purpose designed access
system.
Provision of access doors and hatches at regular intervals to facilitate entry/egress from closed
deck boxes.
Provision of anchorage points or runway beams to facilitate access to high level deck soffits
with suspended platforms or scaffolds.
Provision of ventilation to overcome confined space regulations where the deck type is a
closed cell.
The designer should take care to ensure that a mismatch in tolerances between various
elements during construction does not manifest itself. Each element when constructed, built or
manufactured will have standard tolerances. However if two items are joined together to
create a larger unit, then an additive affect such as steps between bridge elements i.e. corbels
on the sides of concrete viaduct units or steps between flanges of runway beams may occur.
This may, for instance, result in problems being experienced with the smooth operation or
running of an underdeck gantry.
With regard to cable access equipment the major difficulties or dilemmas relate to:
To the choice of motive power, electrical, liquefied petroleum gas, diesel, petrol or hydraulic.
The need to balance the requirements for access for inspection and maintenance i.e. the size
and coverage of side cages on a main cable cradle.
The length of winch ropes that can be handled by one crew or the installation of a permanent
wire rope system (with the consequent corrosion and aesthetic problems).
The overall size of the assembled machine and the number of pieces it is broken down into for
transportation, the simplicity of assembly (pegs & pins rather than bolts) on the bridge deck
and whether one or two traffic lanes are required for assembly.
The corrosion and environmental protection provided to the equipment:- should be galvanized
as a minimum, stainless steel or aluminium and equipment protected to IP6510.
Whether there are any obstructions such as lampposts, sign gantries, other stay cables or cable
cross-ties in the vicinity.
Another area of complication is that of how the access equipment is procured as part of the
construction package. The main bridge contractor can either provide the equipment, directly or by
specialist subcontractor. Alternatively an Electrical and Mechanical Main Contractor can follow the
same arrangement. However in the authors opinion, the provision of bridge access should be included
with the main bridge contractors package of work. The principal reason being that any interfaces such
as davit anchorages or attachments to the bridge structure can be more readily coordinated by the body
responsible for creating that element, rather than another contractor liasing with the main contractor to
arrange handovers of areas to enable work to be carried out.
Lastly, the specification of equipment is probably the key matter that requires the greatest amount of
thought and input. Usually various suppliers are asked to provide schematic designs of their equipment
that satisfy the clients requirements. Sometimes the client/contractor uses these designs to auction the
eventual work to another supplier. If the clients brief is vague, then the main contractor will obviously
try to procure the most economical, compliant design possible and the quality/usefulness of the final
product will be compromised. Therefore in the clients interest, the designer/access specifier should
171
prepare a detailed specification accompanied by general arrangement drawings that clearly spells out
the access requirements of the future inspection team.
4.
Best Practice: - For Existing Structures
In general, there are several options for refurbishment, replacement or improvement.
Improvement to the existing equipment, that has reached the end of its useful life normally
around 25 years or provision of new equipment with a larger or more efficient working area.
Provision of demountable equipment for special activities such as deck corrosion protection
with containment or main cable works.
Provision of new equipment to enhance the maintenance/inspection capabilities such as
permanent walkways or platforms to reduce repetitive costs for erection of scaffolds or
suspended platforms.
In particular, for bridge underdeck gantries, the main area of concern for a bridge owner has tended to
be related to the supporting medium or interface with the bridge structure. In the authors experience
the following problems have arisen:
5.
Gantry runway beam is welded to the structure and attracts the decks global forces with the
subsequent fatigue failure of the welds. In this instance, consideration should be given to
providing a less rigid fixing such as a bolted connection.
The failure of connecting bolts between the runway beam to bridge deck connection due to
initial over tightening or bends in the bolt shanks caused by misaligned holes. Historically
grade 8.8 bolts have been used for this purpose. An alternative solution would be to use
General Grade High Strength Friction Grip bolts, as it is easier to regulate the bolt tension.
During the bolt replacement exercise, all misaligned holes should be reamed out.
Major Access Provisions
Listed in the two tables below are some of the major types of access equipment being used around the
world on various bridges.
Table 1.
Bridge
Number
Power
Load Capacity
Manufacturer
Severn Bridge
Aust Viaduct
Wye & Beachley Viaduct
2nd Severn Viaduct
2nd Severn Bridge
2nd Severn Rapid Access Train
Tsing Ma Bridge
Kap Shui Mun Bridge
Ting Kau Bridge
Great Belt East Bridge
4
2
4
2
1
1
27
3
8
2 Underdeck
91* underdeck
28* in deck
Diesel/Hydraulic
Diesel/Hydraulic
Diesel/Hydraulic
Diesel/Hydraulic
Diesel/Hydraulic
Diesel
Diesel/Hydraulic
Diesel/Electric
Petrol/Electric
N/A
1000kg
1350kg max
1350kg max
N/A
N/A
N/A
1000kg
1000kg
1000kg
Secalt
Monkcradle
Secalt
Lentjes
Lentjes
Lentjes
Secalt
CPS & Konecranes
Moog/Demag
Key
Underdeck Gantries/Travelers
N/A
N/A = Unknown/not available

* Not verified
172
Table 2.
Cable Cradles/Gantries
Load
Capacity
Speed
of
Travel
Total
Weight
Dimensions
Long*wide*high
Power
Manur
1 Cable
300kg
or 3 men
9m/min
1900kg
5.3* 3.0*4.4m
Petrol/Hydraulic
Secalt
Tsing Ma Bridge
1
Suspender
200kg or 2
men
9m/min
2100kg
3.4*3.3*4.8m
Petrol/Hydraulic
Secalt
Severn Bridge
6No
2 in use
380kg or 3
men
12 m/min
1440kg
2* 4.2*3.6m
LPG/Hydraulic
Secalt
Severn Bridge
1
Suspender
200kg or 2
men
N/A
N/A
N/A
Electric
N/A
Petrol/Hydraulic
Hordaland
Electric
Sky
Climber
Bridge/
Crossing
Number
Tsing Ma Bridge
Tamar Bridge
None
Golden Gate
None Float Scaffolds used
Storebaelt East
Bridge
1 Cable
1200kg
8m/min
4100kg
3.2*2.9*9.3m
Storebaelt East
Bridge
1
Suspender
300kg or 2
men
25m/min
100kg
0.8*2.2m
Humber
None
Forth Bridge
None at present, possible procurement
Honshu-Shikoku
Bridge Authority
6* Cable
Mackinac
None for cable Float Scaffolds used
Mackinac
Key
N/A
N/A
N/A
Sky
Climber
Suspender
N/A = Unknown/not available

* Not verified
With regard to the manufacture and provision of permanent access equipment there are many solutions
and options available, some of which (by no means exhaustive) are listed below:
Underdeck gantries tend to be manufactured by steelwork fabricators in conjunction with an
E&M contractor or a specialist supplier such as MOOG or Secalt.
Cable cradles/gondolas are generally supplied by specialist companies such as Power
Climber/Spider, Secalt, Hordaland.
Powered suspended access cradles can be supplied directly from companies like Power
Climber/Spider, Secalt, Sky Climber, EnAcSys (previously Beeche) or arranged through one
of their agents/specialist access contractors.
Suspended access platforms can be procured from companies such as Sky Climber and
EnAcSys (previously Beeche) or through a major scaffold company.
Specialist bridge inspection vehicles are supplied by companies such as MOOG, Palfinger,
HydraPlatforms, Aspen Aerials, Paxton Mitchell, Cramer.
6.
Tsing Ma Control Area Equipment
The Tsing Ma Control Area (TMCA) is a 17-kilometre transport network that provides both road and
railway access from the urban areas of Hong Kong to the international airport at Chek Lap Kok on
Lantau Island. It also forms part of a vital link between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In the
TMCA, there are three landmark long span cable-supported bridges, namely the Tsing Ma, Kap Shui
Mun and Ting Kau Bridges that represents Hong Kong's contribution to world-class bridge design and
construction engineering. The total construction cost of the TMCA facilities was US$2.7 billion and
wholly funded by the Government.
173
The major forms of access available are; lifts in the tower legs of each bridge, underdeck maintenance
gantries, five hydraulic aerial platforms in various sizes from 5m to 34m, Mass Transit Railway
Corporation (MTRC) works trains and MOOG rail mounted BIV, a modular suspended access
platform system, stay and main cable gondolas. (See Tables 3 & 4 below). Unfortunately industrial
roped access methods were prohibited for general inspection, after a change in the legislation in the
year 2000 and this technique is now only permitted under very exceptional circumstances.
Table 3 .
TMCA General Access Equipment
Road & Rail Access Equipment

5m aerial platforms (2 No)
20m aerial platform
34m aerial platform
Palfinger Bridge Inspection Vehicle
Works Train
MOOG Bridge Inspection Vehicle (Rail Mounted)
MOOG Bridge Inspection Vehicle
Table 4
TMML
TMML
TMML
Gov. HK for use in TMCA
MTRC
MTRC
HK Highways Department
TMCA Bridge Access Equipment

Number
Bridge Access Equipment

Underdeck Gantries
TMB
KSMB
TKB
9 x 3 sets
3 sets
4 x 2 sets, telescopic, capable of supporting suspended platform, additional extension towers
Gondolas
TKB
KSMB
4 Nos.-Transverse & 1 Nos.-Longitudinal

4 Nos.
TMB
1 Nos.-Suspender and 1 Nos.-Main Cable
TKB
1 Nos.-Solsit, 1 Nos.-Semi-circular,1 Nos.-6m (1-3m)

2 Nos.-U/deck gantry
4 Nos.-Solo, 1 Nos.-10m and 6Nos. - 3m)
2 Nos.-Semi-circular, 1 Nos.-8m, 1Nos.- 6m, 1 Nos.-3m
Cradles
KSMB
TMB
7.
Owner
Conclusion
The design and provisioning of access for inspection and maintenance is best achieved at the time of
construction. The options available are many and varied; no one solution can be used for every
eventuality. Care should be taken with the provision of access to ensure that it is both safe for use by
the bridge maintenance personnel, safe for users of the bridge, efficient, flexible and cost effective for
the bridge owners and operators. Underdeck bridge access equipment may be simple to construct and
operate, however every owner/operator should read the I.S.E. Guide4 to ensure that all aspects of the
operation and maintenance of their equipment are undertaken effectively and safely.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Highways Department of the Hong Kong SAR for permission to publish
this paper. In addition, they would also like to thank those owners who provided information on their
access equipment. Any views expressed are entirely those of the authors.
174
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
UK Health and Safety at Work Act 1974-HMSO.

UK The Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare Regulations) 1996-HMSO.
The Lifting Plant and Equipment (Records of Test and Examination etc.) Regulations 1992-HMSO.
UK The Operation and Maintenance of Bridge Access Gantries and Runways- The Institution of
Structural Engineers July 1996.
UK The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994 (CDM)-HMSO.
The above UK documents can be found at http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/stat.htm
6.
USA- Occupational Safety & Health Regulations For General Industry 1910 and Sub
Parts.
Some examples sections are:1910.66 Powered platforms for building maintenance.
1910.67 Vehicle-mounted elevating and rotating work platforms.
1910.68 Manlifts.
1910.176 Handling material - general.
1910.179 Overhead and gantry cranes.
1910.180 Crawler locomotive and truck cranes.
1910.181 Derricks.
1910.183 Helicopters.
7.
USA- Occupational Safety & Health Regulation For Construction #1926 and Sub Parts.
Some examples sections are:1926.32 Definitions.
1926.501 Duty to have fall protection.
1926.502 Fall protection systems criteria and practices.
1926.550 Cranes and derricks.
1926.551 Helicopters.
1926.552 Material hoists, personnel hoists and elevators.
1926.554 Overhead hoists.
The above US documents can be found at http://www.osha.gov/index.html under Standards.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
HK Factories and Industrial Undertakings Ordinance Chapter 59.Government Printer HKSAR.

HK Code of Practice for Safe Use and Operation of Suspended Working Platforms-Labour
Department OSHB.
BSEN60529:1991.
Inspection and Maintenance of Hong Kongs Long Span Bridges Current & Future Trends in
Bridge Design, Construction And Maintenance 2 - ICE Conference Hong Kong April 2001.
Maintenance Strategy of Long Span Cable-Supported Bridges in Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region. Innovation and Sustainable Development of Civil Engineering in the 21st
Century - Conference Beijing August 2002.
175

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The 4th International Cable supported

The Society of Danish Engineers Conference Centre

The Great Belt Link

Inspection and Maintenance Strategy, Outsourcing or own manpower ...................................... 9

Danbro+, An Internet-based management system for cable-supported bridges and

Norwegian Suspension Bridges.

Little Belt Suspension Bridge. Durable Long Life Roadway Surfacing....................................... 53

Development of a painting robot for bridges ............................................................................... 63

Reliability of Damaged Parallel Wire Cables ............................................................................... 79

resund Bridge - Cable system Vibration incidents

Strain Gauge Monitoring of Suspender Cables to Isolate Stresses in the Steel

Little Belt Suspension Bridge, Corrosion protection of the Main Cables

Establishment of the Non-destructive Inspection Technique for

BENCHMARKING FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Technical Director, Sund & Baelt Holding A/S

Project Manager, Sund & Baelt Holding A/S

The Great Belt Link:

In year 2003 the average daily traffic was 10,360 vehicles.

Benchmarking - a tool for improvements

Benchmarking was originally developed by companies operating in an industrial environment. It has

The benchmarking project in Sund & Belt and Oeresundsbro Konsortiet

Fig 2. Process comparisons

Maintenance costs as a % of Plant replacement value

Economic figures in relation to maintenance

Preventive and corrective maintenance costs as % of maintenance costs

Oresund Fixed Link

Preventive maintenance costs as % of maintenance costs

Corrective maintenance costs as % of maintenance costs

Fig. 3 Preventive and corrective maintenance costs as % of maintenance costs

Conclusion and proposal for restart of a benchmarking process

Although benchmarking is a relatively simple process to improve good performance, it is difficult to

Oresund Fixed Link

The Great Belt Link

Fig. 4 Key figures from the first benchmarking process in 2001

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE STRATEGY

M48 Severn Crossing

M4 Second Severn Crossing

Use of Bridge Mounted Access Equipment for Inspection and Maintenance

Cost per metre

Inspection Reporting Method

HEALTH MONITORING COMBINED WITH VISUAL INSPECTIONSOBTAINING A COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT OF CABLES

DETAILED VISUAL INSPECTIONS OF STRUCTURAL CABLES

Limitations of acoustic monitoring include:

DANBRO+ - an Internet-based management system for cable-supported

Senior Bridge Engineer (e-mail: job@vd.dk, web page: http://www.vd.dk/)

Project Director (e-mail: akn@ramboll.dk web page: http://www.ramboll.dk/)

Figure 1; Basic elements of DANBRO+ bridge management system.

2. Description of the management concept behind DANBRO+.

Figure 3; Examples of a bridge to be administered using DANBRO+.

3. DANBRO+, a tailor- made Internet based system.

6. Maintenance and repair/

7. Equipment and Materials

Table 1; Description of the modules in the system

Figure 4; Module 2.1. Organization with graphical navigation.

Traffic management by a traffic restriction hierarchy:

Figure 5; Examples of a bridge to be administered using DANBRO+.

NORWEGIAN SUSPENSION BRIDGES

*: Sidespans are included

The following codes are used to indicate the degree of damage:

Condition may be accepted without action.

4. Feed back from the maintenance