Volume 1 Chapter 1

September 2011

guide

Daily reference guide

to Psychrometrics

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Chapter 1 of 9

LIMITED RANGE
Barometric Pressure 101,325 kPa

ry A
ir

PSYCHROMETRICS
PSYCHROMETRIC
CHART
BASED ON CARRIER

80

75

A RACA Journal initiative

20

10%

10

0,75

10
0,80

15

20

Dry Bulb Temperature C

25

30
0,85
Volume m3 /kg dry air

Sponsored by:

Changes for the better

35

Message from
the sponsor
As a worldwide organisation, Mitsubishi is
committed to training and the upliftment
of knowledge and therefore its a great
pleasure for us to sponsor this issue of the
RACA Guide on Psychrometrics.
The determination of physical and
thermodynamic properties of gas vapour
is the basis of our understanding of the
business of HVAC & R.
It is this fundamental that must be used
on a daily basis for designers, engineers
and contractors to gain the optimum
benefit from a system design and for the
ultimate benefit of the customer.
Geoff Alder has not only excelled himself
in the compilation of this guide, he has provided an electronic workbook that further
contributes to the understanding, in a practical way, of psychrometrics.
Mitsubishi believes in access to knowledge and providing such knowledge,
especially to your young people. These young people, a countrys future, as well as
our experienced folk, the mentors, we urge you to be willing to learn and mentor and
become sponges, taking in all the reliable knowledge, to the benefit of this industry
of which you are a proud member.
Marco Ferdinandi, Marketing Director, MS Airconditioning

Daily reference to installation

techniques & mandatory standards

guide

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UNDERSTANDING AND USING PSYCHROMETRICS.

Written and compiled by Geoff Alder.

WORKBOOK
There is a downloadable Workbook to support this material
available on the RACA Website. The intention of this is to make
available some simple exercises for you to help embed
Psychrometrics into your mind as you pursue a study of this
interesting subject. This download also contains certain additional
explanatory material. The pdf file containing this Workbook may be
found at this address, www.refrigerationandaircon.co.za
What do you see half a metre in front of your eyes? Well, you can't see it, because it is air, and
air is invisibleof course! But the final outcome of all air conditioning and most refrigeration
systems is to add or remove energy from this invisible air. So, while this air is invisible in itself,
its psychrometric properties assume great importance to us. HANDLING THE ENERGY WE
CANNOT SEE, CONTAINED IN THIS AIR WE ALSO CANNOT SEE IS THE VERY REASON
FOR THE EXISTENCE OF ALL AIR CONDITIONING INSTALLATIONS AND MOST
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS!
As people who depend on this Industry for our incomes, it would be foolish for us to walk
round blindfolded. We have a great need to UNDERSTAND this key subject!
Definition:
Psychrometrics or psychrometry are terms used to describe the field of engineering
concerned with the determination of physical and thermodynamic properties of gasvapour mixtures.
This energy comprises a mix of two formssensible and latent heat.
Explanation:
Sensible heat: That aspect which can be sensed. i.e. As on a thermometer.
Latent heat: Dictionary definition is 'hidden heat'. This is heat involved with a change in
state (i.e. Evaporation or condensation of a liquidin our present case this refers to
the evaporation or condensation of water. i.e. Atmospheric humidity.) This latent heat
aspect is NOT directly associated with any temperature shift.
The mixture that is air. Air consists of


78% nitrogen

21% oxygen

1% other substances (Including water vapour)

The water vapour contained in the air is termed humidity.

Understanding humidity: The understanding of
humidity is the key to the understanding of the
psychrometric chart. We are going to move in that
direction.
Fig 01 presents a highly theoretical impression of
what we would see, were we to view a sample of
BONE DRY AIR under an extremely powerful
microscope. In fact, it may have to be more
powerful than any microscope in existence.
A molecule of O2 (oxygen) comprises two atoms
of oxygen (O) which have firmly attached to one
another. Equally, a molecule of N2 (nitrogen)

Nitrogen molecules.

Oxygen molecules.

Fig. 01

DRY AIR (GREATLY MAGNIFIED.)

RACA Guide l September 2011

2
comprises two atoms of nitrogen (N) which have
Water vapour molecules.
attached to one another equally tightly. These are
natural default situations within the chemistry of Nature.
It is completely normal for air to contain water vapour.
(Humidity.) Even in the driest desert, there would be at
least 5% or so of relative humidity. In fact, the only place
you would find bone dry air is in a laboratory.
In Fig. 02 we have allowed an amount of water vapour
to mix in with the bone dry air sample of Fig. 01. Fig.
03 shows how we get from dry air to ordinary room air.
When made available, the molecules of water vapour
Fig. 02
simply slot into the relatively enormous gaps between
ORDINARY HUMID AIR.
the air molecules. (Which is how we could reasonably
view the mix of oxygen and nitrogen molecules which constitute dry air.)

Mi

x.

DRY AIR

x.

Mi

NORMAL HUMID AIR.

WATER VAPOUR

THE MIXTURE THAT IS

NORMAL AIR
Fig. 03

If you have printed out your Workbook to obtain maximum benefit from this
material, please work through Exercise 1. You will find in several cases that
additional assistance is given in the Workbook.
We require to take a look at DALTONS LAW:

In chemistry and physics, Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures)
states that the total pressure exerted by a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of each individual component in a gas mixture.
What we glean from Daltons Law is that each gas of a mixture does its own thing, just as it
would do if it was on its own, but under the same temperature conditions, as we shall attempt to
explain. So the water vapour of the lower left block of Fig. 03, where it stands on its own, will
follow precisely the same rules of pressure versus temperature at saturation as will do the same
water vapour, but now slotted in with the air molecules, to the right of Fig. 03.
If the water vapour of the lower left block of Fig. 03 was transferred exactly as it is to the right
block (and if we happened to be at sea level, where atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa, or
101,325 kPa exact) then the presence of that 3 kPa of water vapour would contribute 3 kPa to
the total 101 kPa of the sample. The contribution of oxygen + nitrogen in this case would be 98

September 2011 l RACA Guide

kPa. If vapour pressure of the moisture was only 2 kPa, then the pressure of the oxygen +
nitrogen molecules of the mix would total 99 kPa. (Assume we are making these imaginary
changes in the air of a normal leaky room, which is far from airtight, and are thereby avoiding
any awkward squeezing in questions.)

Please work through Exercise 2 in your Workbook.

Absolute pressure
(kPa)

CHANGE OF STATE.
We need to focus on the energy implications of a change of state. While we can produce liquid
oxygen or nitrogen, these two can only be converted into their liquid states at temperatures
which are vastly too cold for human survival. Therefore in psychrometrics we only need consider
those two as being gases. Any heating or cooling processes regarding them can only be
sensible. (A simple temperature change.) Atmospheric humidity is completely different. In many
cases it changes state, entering or exiting the system of our psychrometric study as it does so.
Herein lie considerable energy (enthalpy) implications.
For example, note the enthalpy value
ringed in blue in Table 1. This is the
enthalpy of one kg of saturated water at
20. (Saturated water is any water in
isolation that is on the threshold of
evaporating.)
Enthalpy of a kilogram of saturated
vapour is ringed in red . The difference
between these two (i.e. The amount of heat
that must be added or abstracted to bring
about many of the changes involving
humidity is considerable. The enthalpy to
be added to evaporate one kg of water at
TABLE 1: ENTHALPY OF WATER
20 is boxed in green. This should convince
you of the great energy-related importance
of humidity in air calculations. The psychrometric chart has been designed to handle such
matters with ease.

Please work through Exercise 3 in your Workbook.

A REFRIGERANT AT SATURATION.
If you come from a refrigeration background you may have some understanding of just what we
are talking about if we refer to A refrigerant at saturation. In case you do not, we will provide a
swift although rather scanty explanation.
If we had a peep-hole into a refrigerant cylinder which was half-filled with a refrigerant, we
would see something as appears on Fig. 04.
Before charging the refrigerant into the cylinder,
we would first EVACUATE this vessel. As an
outcome, as liquid later is allowed to be sucked
in, some vapour would be formed from
evaporation of part of the liquid, and would rush to Saturated vapour.
fill the void above the liquid. The whole will settle
itself to adopt the SATURATED CONDITION.
The saturation condition is a variable the
higher the temperature, the greater the number of
water molecules in the vaporous state that would
Saturated liquid.
be driven from the liquid phase to occupy a unit of (In this case, WATER.)
Fig. 04
volumetric measurement within the vapour. This
drives up the pressure, following a precise
THE SATURATED CASE.

RACA Guide l September 2011

250

Pressure (kPa Absolute)

Temperature (C)

ABSOLUTE pressure (kPa)

relationship. This relationship of temperature versus vapour pressure is unswerving and absolute
never changing for any given pure refrigerant.
Please note that WATER is a recognised refrigerant, (Water is termed R-718. By way of
comparison, ammonia is R-717.) Any pure refrigerant has its own unique pressure-temperature
relationship. Apart from water enjoying its own unique pressure-temperature relationship, the
saturation situation surrounding water is as for any other refrigerant. In pressure terms, its
saturation curve is very much lower than that for any of that of the usual refrigerants.
A narrow band of such data for water ( Range 0 to 50) appears in Fig. 05.

200
150
100
50

Atmospheric pressure (Sea level.)

Atm pressure (Gauteng.)

0
0

50

100

150

Temperature (C)

TABULAR.

GRAPHED.

PRESSURE VERSUS TEMPERATURE OF WATER AT SATURATION.

Fig. 05

In Fig. 06, we have played around with the content of Figs. 03, 04 and 05, and have mixed
saturated water vapour at 20 in with an equal volume of bone dry air, also at 20. This will result
in a marginal increase of volume in the original dry air example. The pressure will equalise
through room leakage. As previously stated, we have no need to distract ourselves by exploring
that avenue.

20

Mix.

Result is SATURATED
air at 20

20

Mix.

Water vapour.

Gas cylinder.

Bone dry atmospheric

air at 20

20

20C. Therefore this SATURATED water

vapour is at 2,34 kPa (Abs.) as per Fig. 5.
THE MIXING OF EQUAL VOLUMES OF BONE DRY AIR AND
SATURATED WATER VAPOUR.
(A REHASH OF FIG. 3 AND A THEORETICAL EXERCISE.)

Please work throughExercise 4 in your Workbook.

September 2011 l RACA Guide

Fig. 06

5
SATURATED AIR
The bone dry air sample we conjured up in Fig 06 had a matching volume of SATURATED
water vapour merged into it, with the two sources, for the sake of consistency, both being at
20. The situation indicated by the term saturated is that the water vapour within its
previous confines of the cylinder, at that temperature, would be carrying all the water
molecules in the vaporous state that it was capable of carrying. (If it had arrived at that state
by way of a fall in temperature, there would at this arrival have briefly been present an
excess of molecules in the vapour state. That excess would CONDENSE, and drift and
dribble down to join the liquid water volume. Conditions would normalise to saturation.)
If we recall the Daltons Law discourse, and we realise that the water vapour, although
now thoroughly mixed in with the dry air sample, will continue to behave exactly as it did
when in isolation inside that cylinder. This is a key and critically important understanding.
What we particularly need to grasp at this moment is that our air sample presently is at
saturation. In other words, it is presently standing at 100% relative humidity. It is carrying all
the moisture in vapour form that it is capable of carrying WHEN AT THAT TEMPERATURE.
If the samples temperature were reduced, it would be compelled to lose some of its
previous content of water vapour. The mechanics of this would be for a mist of liquid
droplets to develop, and these would slowly settle to form a layer of liquid. (As such, that
part would remove itself from the psychrometric chart,
and the heat of condensation, produced by this change would be reflected on the
psychrometric chart as a cooling requirement that we would . This happens at a cooling coil
when this is actively cooling and dehumidifying. )
Conversely, if the air sample was heated, it would be capable of carrying MORE water as
a vapour. (It would be up to us to introduce that water, by way of one or another
psychrometric process. See Fig. 23 / 24.) If evaporation were to take place in connection
with this opportunity, heat would be required to bring this about. The psychrometric plot
would make possible calculation of the exact amount of necessary heat.
DRY AIR ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART.
As we become involved with the psychrometric chart, we will see that it has been
configured to provide the user with many different properties of 1 kg of DRY air at any
intersect point of conditions. As we are aware, air in nature always contains a percentage of
moisture. Therefore this description of dry air containing moisture strikes many as being a
conflict of terms.
But, in the foregoing illustrations we have seen bone dry air, then with moisture added,
thus to become HUMID air. The amount of air considered on the psychrometric chart
comprises sufficient air molecules (i.e. Oxygen and nitrogen) for that alone to have a mass
of 1 kilogram. To this dry air vehicle is added, as a passenger, a VARYING amount of
water vapour.
BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART.
Fig. 07 illustrates the basic grid upon which our customary South African version of the
psychrometric chart is constructed. (Also for USA, UK, etc.)
The x-axis is a scale of DRY BULB TEMPERATURE. (See Fig. 6.) This is limited in extent to
cover the intended use of the chart. (e.g. The range shown here would suit normal air
conditioning. A low temperature chart would cover anticipated cold and freezer room
temperatures. A chart intended for use in connection with kiln drying of timber and other
materials would cover the high temperature range of such an activity. The y-axis has been
displaced to the right, from the customary y-axis position on the left of the chart. This has
been done so as to rationalise the functionings of the completed chart.
ALTITUDE
Altitude is of great significance. We will require to select for RACA
use a Guide
chart which
has been
l September
2011
prepared for the ALTITUDE OF THE APPLICATION, and also one which will embrace the

6
30

0,028

25

er
at
ur
e

(C
)

0,020

10

10

15

0,015

20

Constant dry bulb

tur
Sa

p
em
T
n 15
ti o

20

Constant moisture content.

0,010
0,005

25

30

Dry Bulb Temperature (C)

35

40

45

BASIC FRAME OF THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART.

50

Moisture Content (kg/kg Dry Air)

0,025

CHART IS FOR
1 kg of DRY AIR
And is valid for a
SPECIFIED
ALTITUDE.

0,00
Fig. 07
MOISTURE CONTENT.

SATURATION LINE.
The SATURATION line completes the boundaries of the
chart. Thus the working boundaries of the chart are as
depicted in Fig. 08. The significance of the saturation line
as a boundary is that water features on the chart solely in
the vaporous condition. If vapour is converted to a liquid
as part of the process, it will move to the left, beyond the
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE.
saturation line, and will disappear from off that chart.
For example, in the extremely common process of
WORKING BOUNDARIES
Fig. 08
OF THE CHART.
cooling and dehumidifying, liquid water will form on the fins
of the cooling coil, and will run down into the condensate
drain. From here, it usually is allowed to flow to waste. It is possible to do a physical
measurement of the liquid run-off by measuring into a bucket, while timing the flow with a stopwatch, and converting to kg/s. This may be compared with a predicted run-off rate on a
psychrometric chart as a verification procedure, accompanied by information which allows
determination of the amount of refrigeration that must be committed to achieving this objective.

Please work through Exercise 5 in your Workbook.

1. Far from sufficient attention is paid to the fact that condensate runoff from a cooling coil is
excellently suited as makeup feed water for a cooling tower or an evaporative condenser. It does
not contain the dissolved solids of a regular water supply, and therefore will not cause significant
scaling, if any, of heat exchange surfaces. This is of greatest importance in humid regions,
where a considerable amount of condensate is yielded by the dehumidification process. Where
water is costly and in short supply, it is practically inexcusable to not use this water runoff for
non-potable applications, such as cooling tower makeup feed water. (An aside: NEVER use
untreated ground water for this purpose. Doing that can introduce microbial corrosion on a
horrific scale.)

September 2011 l RACA Guide

7
MOISTURE CONTENT
The scale of moisture content is shown vertically on the right side of the chart. Note that it is
expressed in kg/kg of dry air. (This serves to give us the number of kilograms of moisturea
small decimal valuewhich is contained in any one kilogram of dry air that we might be
examining.) We have stated kg/kg, as it is a rule of the SI system that multiples of units shall not
be mixed in a single expression.
However, you will find that use of the term grams per kilogram is often encountered. This is
similar to use of the pressure term: bars. Rules of SI prefer that decimal intervals between units
and sub-units are in removes of THREE. Bars require a remove of two decimal places, when
converting from kPa. This adds confusion. But the term is in widespread use. Like g/kg, it may
be considered a confusion-setter, but is not viewed as being a totally serious misdemeanour.
A second name for the moisture content scale is the SPECIFIC HUMIDITY SCALE. Units, as
before, are kg/kg dry air. Specific means, of course, that we have in mind the ACTUAL total
amount if water vapour in that air sample. The term specific humidity is less in every-day use
than the term relative humidity. There is unfortunately widespread confusion between these two
within the Industry. You will need to get your own thinking extremely clear, so that you can assist
in eliminating this Industry-wide confusion.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY.
Fig. 09 introduces us to the concept of relative humidity. The constant temperature line
signifying 25 dry bulb temperature will provide a good, rounded example. Note that at 25
saturation, the moisture content is 0,020 kg/kg of dry air.
An intersect point has been indicated half-way down the dry bulb line that originates at 25
saturation. You will see that, at this point, moisture content is shown as being 0,010 kg/kg.
Exactly 50% of the 0,020 kg/kg it was at saturation.
By the same token, the specific humidity of 20 saturated air is almost 0,015 kg/kg. Where 20
intersects the 50% rh, the moisture content is almost 0.0075 kg/kg. (I am well aware that almost

30

0,028

atu

io
ra t
u
t
Sa 10
0

0,015

20

er

p
em
T
n

15

0,010

0,005

10

15

25
30
20
35
Dry Bulb Temperature (C)

40

THE BASIS OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY.

45

50

Moisture Content (kg/kg Dry Air)

Re
la
%
50

25

0,020

re

(C

tiv
e

Hu
m

idit
y

0,025

0,00

Fig. 09

RACA Guide l September 2011

8
is not good enough in a psychrometrics exercise, but it is used here entirely to avoid crazy
decimal places in an attempt to illustrate a difficult point in uncomplicated terms.
This thinking may be extended across the face of the chart, to provide a full family of relative
humidity lines. (Fig. 10.)
This means the chart-maker must get down to very high levels of accuracy, but this all is stems
from the rationale we originally provided for the derivation for 50% rh at 25C.
VAPOUR PRESSURE.
You will recall that our original curve of Fig. 05 was based on vapour pressure. Things have
now moved to moisture content. The outcome is very similar. But, to focus too much on this point
(kPa absolute versus kg/kg dry air) would add unnecessary confusion. It will receive mention on
our Exercises download.

a ti

Re
la

0,020

50

%
40

20

0,015

30

15

0,010

20

10

10%

10

15

20

25

30

35

Dry Bulb Temperature (C)

40

45

0,005

50

Moisture Content (kg/kg Dry Air)

r
atu

tiv
e

Hu
m

70%

60%

25

)
(C
re
atu

er

p
em
T
n

0,025

idit
y

90%
80%

30

0,028

0,00

THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY LINES.

Fig. 10

Please work through Exercise 6 in your Workbook.

A SLING PSYCHROMETER (AKA WHIRLING HYGROMETER.)
A sling psychrometer is described in Fig. 11. In application, it is whirled rapidly. (e.g. At about 200
rpm.) The bulbs of the two thermometers are thus well aspirated. The dry bulb thermometer (the
uncovered bulb) will register the true (dry bulb, or DB) temperature, the same as it would were
it not being spun.
However, evaporation will be free to take place from the wetted sock. (Wet a finger in your
mouth, and blow on it. You will notice a distinct cooling. This is due to your skin sensing the
removal by evaporation of the latent heat of evaporation from the moisture.) Evaporative cooling
by evaporation of bodily perspiration is a natural cooling mechanism of the human body. In part, it
is one function of air conditioning to take care of this. The temperature measured under this
wetted wick is termed wet bulb, (or WB,) temperature.
Point here is, evaporation of water from the close-fitting wetted sock will depress the
temperature of its water content. This temperature depression will be registered by the

10

September 2011 l RACA Guide

9
Frame carried on a bearing.
W

ET

DR
YB

BU

UL

LB

RE

Two identical, high quality

thermometers.
RE

AD

AD

A close-fitting wetted
cotton wick is fitted
over this bulb.
(For WB reading.)

IN

G.

IN

G.

Water reservoir.

Bulb directly exposed

to airstream. (For DB reading.)

(Use distilled water. OK to use water

from cooling coil condensate run-off)

Fig. 11

SLING PSYCHROMETER.

DEW POINT.
Consider the condensation on this bottle of cold
water. (Fig. 13.) How does such condensation
occur? We need to look at the humidity in the
room, and something termed the dew point to
find that answer.
If there is a cold surface inside a space (e.g. An
uninsulated chilled water pipe running within the
space), this will lower the air temperature at the
contacting surfaces. This could cool the contacting
air to the point of saturation. (Fig. 09, and
associated discussion.) This will not yet bring
about wetting down, or sweating. But the
situation will be poised to bring about
condensation of part of the moisture contained in
the contacting air. This important point is termed
the dew point.

Moisture Content (kg/kg Dry Air)

Re
lat
ive

25 DB.

20

40

50
%

25

60%

70%

Hu
mid
ity

30
90%
80%

appropriate thermometer
0,028
Wet bulb and dry bulb lines
bulb. If the air sample
0,025
being measured contained for the same value always
water vapour at saturation, intersect at saturation.
no evaporation would be
0,020
25
possible. The wet and dry
WB
.
bulb temperatures would
100% rh.
0,015
reflect this by both
%
30
registering the same values.
We
t Bu
15
See on Fig. 12 the example
lb T
0,010
)
0%
em
C
(
e
as would be measured for
per 2
t ur
a
era 10
t
p
u
re
saturated air at 25.
Tem
tion
u ra 5
10%
Sat
The further the air sample is
0,005
0
from saturation, the greater the
extent of evaporation, and
0,00
therefore the greater will be the
50
5
40
0
15
10
30
45
20
35
25
Dry Bulb Temperature (C)
wet bulb depression.
Fig. 12
With regard to the use of a
THE WET BULB LINES.
sling psychrometer (or, for that
matter, for all your work in psychrometrics) it is necessary to work as close to an accuracy of
0,1K as possible.

Bottle contains fridge water.

Note condensation formation
on its outer surface.

Fig. 13
THE FORMATION OF CONDENSATION.

RACA Guide l September 2011

11

tiv
e

Re
la

50

40

rh
%

0,015

50

30

Room condition.

29,7 DB.

0,010

20

To establish the SPECIFIC HUMIDITY,

10%
plot horizontally from the room condition 0,005
to the moisture content scale.

0,020

10

15

20

25

30

35

Dry Bulb Temperature (C)

40

45

50

Moisture Content (kg/kg Dry Air)

Hu
m

70%

15

20

er

p
em
T
n

io
ra t
u
t
Sa 10

25

(C

60%

To establish DEW POINT,

plot horizontally from the
room condition to the
saturation line.

re
atu

Dewpoint =18 C.

0,025

idit
y

90%
80%

30

0,028

Specific humidity = 0,0132 kg/kg of dry air.

10

0,00

Fig. 14

ESTABLISHING THE DEW POINT AND SPECIFIC HUMIDITY OF AN AIR SAMPLE.

This tells us that any surface which might be cooler than the dew point of the room (18 in
this case) has the potential to sweat. At 18 it will be borderline. If the bottle contained water
at 15, you certainly could expect it to sweat. If its contents were at 12, you could expect
considerable sweating to take place, possibly to the point of run-off and nuisance. There can
be no problem in this instance with any surface that is higher than 18.
This procedure may be followed to determine (e.g.) whether a duct, containing air at a
certain temperature, and passing through a room at a given set of conditions is likely to
sweat if it is not insulated.
ENTHALPY
A further major situation covered by the psychrometric chart is that of providing ENTHALPY
values. (Enthalpy is assigned the symbol h.) While the full engineering definition of enthalpy is
far reaching and complex, for our purpose in psychrometrics it is sufficient to consider enthalpy
as being heat content. In the psychrometrics case, as the chart refers to the properties of 1 kg
of dry air, enthalpy would be expressed as being per kilogram of dry air. The unit of energy (in
heat, or other form) is the joule. (J.)
As we are working with kilograms of air as our unit, and not with grams, our heat content
value would be expressed as kilojoules. (kJ) Thus the unit of heat (energy) within
psychrometrics is expressed in full as kJ/kg of dry air. (Once we are amid a discussion, the
of dry air rider is usually accepted as read.)
In obtaining the enthalpy value of the plotted chart condition above, a CONSTANT WET BULB
line has been followed. While very near the mark, this is not wholly true. The lines of constant
enthalpy fall very close to being parallel with lines of constant wet bulb temperature. But not
absolutely so. (See Fig.16.)
Our charts thus far have been much simplified of detail, and this minute deviation is not highly
obvious. Fig. 16 has been extracted from a full chart.
Fig. 16 shows this cut from a CSIR (Actually the old NMERI) psychrometric chart with a black
line, representing a line of constant enthalpy, having been overscored.
A glance at Fig. 16 will convince you as to why psychrometric charts, other than those printed in
multicolour and in an unusually large format, cannot carry both wet bulb and enthalpy lines. The
Industry has two solutions. Many charts, including those published by the CSIR, have a

12

September 2011 l RACA Guide

%
50

%
40

20

0,015

30

We
tB

ulb

15

Tem

per

A known set of conditions.

atu

re

0,010

20

15

20

25

Dry Bulb Temperature (C)

30

35

40

45

0,90

10

0,005

50

Moisture Content (kg/kg Dry Air)

tiv
e

Re
la

60%

Hu
m

70%

idit
y

30
90%
80%

90

25

70

65

60

t sa

55

hal
p
50 y a
Ent
40

0,020

45

40
35
30

h = 50 kJ/kg dry air.

0,85

0,025

10%

0,08

25

25

20
15
10

e(
t ur
era 10

C)

0,028

tura

The enthalpy scale.

Tem
on
ra ti 5
u
t
Sa

80

/kg

75

(kJ

tion

Properties of 1 kg of dry air.

Sea Level 101,325 kPa

Dry

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

85

Ai r
)

95

100

11

0,00

Volume (m3/kg Dry Air)

Fig. 15

THE ENTHALPY SCALE.

h = 51 kJ/kg. (Black.)
18 WB. (Green.)
CLOSENESS OF WET BULB AND ENTHALPY LINES.

Fig. 16

perimeter scale for enthalpy. Once you have identified a point on the chart, for which the enthalpy
value is known, you will place a straight-edge directly over that point, and will adjust it until it
intersects the same enthalpy value on both scales.
That, without further ado, is the enthalpy value of interest. Fig 17 illustrates this case for a
check that produced an enthalpy reading of 61,0 kJ/kg.
Willis H Carrier (widely recognised as being the Father of Air Conditioning) was the inventor of
the psychrometric chart. His approach was different from that just explained. I personally find his
method to be considerably easier to use.
Dr Carrier has preliminary enthalpy lines running parallel with wet bulb lines. His enthalpy scale
has been adjusted to be correct at saturation. His chart has a few curves which indicate
subtractions to be applied for correction purposes.

RACA Guide l September 2011

13

12

AS

TR

AIG

HT

ED

GE

Straight-edge alignment
must be with BOTH the left
and right sides scales.

READING AN ENTHALPY VALUE ON A PERIMETER-SCALED CHART.

Fig. 17

Please work through Exercise 7 in your Workbook.

The sea level chart which appears as Fig. 18 will be too tight to read, as it should occupy at
least a full A4 page. (Preferably A3.) But the prime objective now is to illustrate the enthalpy
deviation lines and the correction values.

Please work through Exercise 8 in your Workbook.

SPECIFIC VOLUME.
Another (more limited) family of lines presented on the chart provide specific volume. Whenever
you see the word specific, used in conjunction with SI material such as this, know that it means
per kilogram. In this case, specific volume tells us what volume a kilogram of air would occupy
at chart altitude.
Note that specific volume is one of the values that alters substantially for a change of altitude.
Fig. 21 determines specific volume at sea level for the popular indoor conditions of 22 DB; 55%
rh would be 0,85 m/kg.
THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE.
Fig 20 will provide some idea of the effect of altitude upon any sample of air. As air, unlike
water, is COMPRESSIBLE, the greater the atmospheric pressure, the more closely the
molecules of air (nitrogen and oxygen) will be bunched. In improved technical terms, as we
go up in altitude from sea level, the air becomes less dense. A kilogram of air will become
larger. At sea level, it will occupy about 0,83 cubic metres. At 1700 metres (Johannesburg),
it will have expanded to occupy about one cubic metre.
This is one reason why we must work initially in kilograms of air, not in volumetric terms,
such as l /s, or as m/s. That conversion can only come later. Also, note that it is necessary
to work on a psychrometric chart which has been made for the altitude of the installation
under consideration.

14

September 2011 l RACA Guide

13

110
105
100

90
%

y
idit

Hu
m
ive
Re
lat

50
%

25

40
%

0,026
0,024
0,023

0,8

0,6

0,4

,2
0

17,0 WB; 24,5 DB.

0,021
0,020
0,019
0,018
0,017
0,016

0,95

0.75

0,010
0,009

0,006
0,005
0,004
0,003
0,002

0,001

10

15

20

25

Dry Bulb Temperature C

0,80

30
0,85

Volume m3 /kg dry air

0,90
0,95
1,00

35

40

45

50

55

0,00

0,90

20

Below 0C Properties and Enthalpy Deviation Lines Are For Ice

0,80
0,85

0,008
0,007

10%

0,70

0,011

0,75

0,65

0,014
0,013

20%

0,55

0,60

0,015

0,012

10

0,50

0,022

1,2

20

,1

C
re
atu 10
per
Tem

0,45

0,025

Sensible Heat Factor

1,0 E n th a lp y d e v i a ti
o n k J /k g d r y
a ir

80
%
70
%
60
%

75
70

65

60

tion

55

tura
t sa

50

ya
40

05

15

35

45

40

Enth

alp

,
0

0,40

Moisture content kg/kg Dry Air

30

0,027

30

30
25

0,033

Enthalpy deviation correction values.

25
20

0,36

55

0,029

kJ/k
gD

ry A
ir

Enthalpy values.
(Correct at saturation.)

15

145

50

0,030

80

Pink box has been

enlarged below.

n
atio
tur
r Sa
lb o 5

140

0,028

85

SEA LEVEL

10

135
45

0,031

90

SI METRIC UNITS

Barometric Pressure 101,325 kPa

10

130
40

0,032

95

NORMAL TEMPERATURES

125
35

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

t Bu
We

120

115

Carrier

10

0,4

,2
0

,1

,0

15

47,

h = 47,9 0,2 = 47,7 kJ/kg.

Measured condition:
17,0 WB; 24,5 DB.

Dry Bulb Temperature C

Volume m3 /kg dry air

ENTHALPY DEVIATION LINES ON THE CARRIER CHART.

Fig. 18

The reason for this variation of the chart with altitude is that gravity pulls down on air. Fig. 20
will give you some idea of how this comes to be.
As it is the MASS of air which is being handled by any air conditioning system, we will find that,
for any air conditioning installation of (say) 1000 kW, an installation at the coast or in Gauteng
would be designed to handle the SAME kg/s, or mass flow rate, of air.
However, due to the air being more expanded in Gauteng, the air VOLUME flow rate would be
GREATER. The ducts would be larger for the same capacity, and it might be necessary to select
a larger fan. (Or to drive the fan faster.) However, the POWER required to drive the fan would
remain unchanged.

RACA Guide l September 2011

15

14
115

120

125

130

135

40

140

45

145

50

0,36

55

0,033

110

35

0,032

105

0,031
0,030

100

%
90

0,027

Barometric Pressure 101,325 kPa

20

Hu
m

ive
Re
lat

%
50
%

0,6

0,4

,2
0

0
,1

40

15

0,021
0,020
0,019
0,018
0,017

0,95

0,016

0,70
0.75

0,012
0,011
0,010
0,009

Below 0C Properties and Enthalpy Deviation Lines Are For Ice

10

0,80

0,80
0,85
0,90
0,95
1,00

0,008
0,007
0,006

10%

Popular indoor conditions:

22,0 DB; 55% rh.
5

0,65

0,014

0,005
0,004
0,003
0,002

0,55

0,60

0,015
0,013

0,75

0,50

15

20

25

Dry Bulb Temperature (C)

THE SPECIFIC VOLUME LINES.

30

35

40

45

50

0,85
0,90
Volume m3 /kg dry air Specific volume of
this air is 0,85 m 3 /kg.

55

0,00

Moisture content kg/kg Dry Air

25
10

0,8

tion

55

tura
t sa
ya

50

alp
Enth

45

40
35
30

25
20
15

10
5
0

0,023
0,022

0,001

10

0,45

0,024

0,026
0,025

S.

20%

C
re
atu 10
per
Tem

30

INE

n
atio
tur
r Sa
lb o 5

L
ME

OLU

05

,
0

40

25

65

60

IC V

kJ/k

CIF

gD
ry A
ir

70

60

75

SPE

t Bu
We

idit

80

70

85

FOR 1 kg OF DRY AIR AT SEA LEVEL

1,2

80

1,0 E n th a lp y d e v i a ti
o n k J /k g d r y
a ir

90

SI METRIC UNITS

30

95

NORMAL TEMPERATURES

0,40

0,029
0,028

Sensible Heat Factor

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

Fig. 19

ON A SEA LEVEL CHART.

Please work through Exercise 9 in your Workbook.

CITY or AREA
All coastal regions.
(i.e. Sea level)
Pietermaritzburg
Nelspruit
Upington

ALTITUDE
(m)

671
670
814

CITY or AREA
Pretoria
Bloemfontein
Polakwane
Johannesburg
Germiston
Windhoek

ALTITUDE
(m)
1369
1426
1293
1753
1665
1728

TABLE 2: ALTITUDE OF SOME SOUTH AFRICAN PLACES.

Fig 21 illustrates a plot for specific volume for air at these same conditions of 22 DB; 55% rh,
but when occurring at the altitude of 1700 metres. This indicates that the 1 kg package of air
would have expanded from occupying 0,85 m at sea level, to now occupying 1,02 m.
Frequently it is necessary to establish the conditions of an air mixture on the
psychrometric chart. For example, we could know outside air design conditions and intended
return air conditions on an installation that is undergoing design. It is necessary to provide
the potential suppliers of the cooling coil with the DB and WB conditions that will enter that
coil. (Plus various other data.)
An example follows. The relevant data are contained in the box top left of Fig. 22.
Essentially, the mixture condition will be found upon a straight line which connects the two
primary conditions. Its actual point will be determined by the proportions of (in this example)
outside air and return air. If there was 50% outside air mixing with 50% return air, the mixture
condition would be exactly at the midpoint of the line. But it seldom is that easy!

16

September 2011 l RACA Guide

15

33 kPa
Absolute.

80,0 kPa Abs.

10

,2
0

,1
0

,0

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
FOR ALT 1500m

0,4

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR

DUE TO GRAVITY ACTING ON THE AIR COLUMN.

The same indoor conditions:

22,0 DB; 55% rh.

Fig. 20

0,6

101,325 kPa
Absolute.

30

20%

5
10%

+1,0

0,95

Dry Bulb Temperature C

1,00

Volume m3 /kg dry air

1,02 m/kg.

SPECIFIC VOLUME LINES ON A CHART FOR 1500m

1,05

Fig. 21

On the next page you will be provided with an example of how this situation may be tackled.

RACA Guide l September 2011

17

16
Given conditions:

18,5

WB

24,8 DB

AIR MIXTURES ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

Fig. 22

1. We measure the line length. It is 69 mm.

2. We proportionalise. We choose between placing the amount of outside air over the total air
flow, OR the amount of return air over that total. We have opted for working on the basis of
outside air over total air.

0,4
69 mm = 10 mm.
(2,3 + 0,4)
Experience has shown that the best .rule of thumb way to proceed from here is to apply the
logic that the mixture point will be closest to the greater volume of source air. In this case, return
air contributed the greatest source air volume flow. Therefore the mixture point will be closest to
the return air entry point. The calculation showed 10 mm out of 69 mm. Therefore we will
measure 10 mm UP from the return air entry to establish the mixture point.
Our reading of this derived mixture condition is: 24,8 DB; 18,5 WB. These are the conditions
which will appear as information to the potential suppliers who may be quoting for the required
cooling coil or coils.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
A psychrometric process will move from a point to a point. Our study, in one way and
another, will be determine what is to happen along the way, and the energy involvements and
other technical requirements of establishing that process.
To start out, we will consider a given starting point, and will consider the nature of the
processes which potentially could be followed. Our starting point (not necessarily realistic for
each process) will be 25,0 DB and 50% rh.

18

September 2011 l RACA Guide

17

H
B

50

rh

F
E

25 DB.

DIRECTION FOLLOWED BY VARIOUS PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES.

Fig. 23

N.B. While the starting point for these processes have all been shown starting from what is
perhaps a ROOM CONDITION, in many cases actual start would be nearer the point marked
with a star.
Various processes might indeed have start points from many different points on
the chart.
In Fig. 24 we have indicated pictorially the type of equipment we could expect to find in
connection with each discrete process.

There will be more explanation of these processes, along with

questions and answers, in the printable Learners Workbook.

Look out for the next issue on

Daily reference to installation

techniques & mandatory standards

guide

THERMODYNAMICS
Sponsored by:

Changes for the better

RACA Guide l September 2011

19

18

CASE

DESCRIPTION

Sensible heating of air.

There is an increase in DB; no change in

moisture content. Therefore process will
extend HORIZONTALLY to the right.

Sensible cooling of air.

There is a reduction of DB; no change in

moisture content. Situation does not involve
the formation of condensation. Therefore NO
moisture leaves the system. Process moves
HORIZONTALLY left. Does not reach the
saturation line.

Sensible AND latent

cooling of air.
Moisture is REMOVED
from the system.

There is a reduction in DB and in moisture

content. (Condensation is to be seen actively
running off coil fins.) Net process line moves
left AND curves downward.

Evaporation of water.

There is a REDUCTION in DB, but an equal

(in energy terms) INCREASE in moisture
content. Process follows a line of
CONSTANT WET BULB to the left. This is
an ADIABATIC process.

Chemical drying of air.

There is a INCREASE in DB, but an equal

(in energy terms) REDUCTION in moisture
content. Process follows a line of
CONSTANT WET BULB to the left. This is
an ADIABATIC process.

Sensible and latent

heat gain.

Typical process for heat flowing from diffuser in

an application with both sensible and latent
heat loads. Typical a/c process (given a lower
starting point) for summer cooling in a humid
region.

HEATER BANK.

B
COOLING COIL.

NO condensation.

COOLING COIL.

WHAT OCCURS

Condensate run-off.
WATER SPRAY BANK.

High pressure, fine

water spray bank.

DESICCANT
MATERIAL.

*F

High humidity.

Fig. 22 for a more complete

* See
representation of this common
process.

Sensible heat gain,

latent heat loss.

Similar to F , but in a dry area where

there could be an overall moisture LOSS,
due to moisture outflow through porous
structure to desert-like outdoor air.

Humidification by steam
injection.
Moisture IS ADDED to
the system.

A common supplementary process for close

control of humidity in (e.g.) a computer room.
(About 90% of the total heat being injected is
LATENT heat. The sensible heat fraction is
undesirable, but unavoidable).

Dry desert-like.

STEAM JET.

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PROCESSES OF FIG. 23.

20

September 2011 l RACA Guide

Fig. 24

19
See Fig. 25. We will think of what occurs to the conditioned air from the time it leaves the coil
face, and until it enters the return air grille. While passing along the route from A to B , it will
pick up heat. This will be both gains of sensible heat, from the lights, computers, indirectly from
the suns heat and sensible heat from the people themselves.
Simultaneously, there will be gains of latent heat, from the breath and perspiration of the folks in
the room, and also outdoor humidity, which presses in through any crack, such as round doors
and windows, and also that amount of moisture driven inward by penetration of vapour through
the fabric of the structure. (No moisture will press in through glass; moisture in vapour form will
certainly be pressed in through brick and concrete.)
These various gains will both drive the temperature upward, as well as driving upward the
vapour content of the air as the air travels from A to B .

THEME: The cooled, dehumidified air gently flows through the

conditioned space. As it travels, it mops up excesses of both
sensible and latent heat.

Return air grille.

B
Supply air diffuser.

Heat pickup occurs

along the way.
A real life process.
PICKUP OF BOTH SENSIBLE AND LATENT HEAT.

Fig. 25

Sensible Heat Factor

The upshot of the
The same on a
Ratio (SHFR.)
foregoing would show on
Psychrometric chart.
the psychrometric chart as
Room condition.
in Fig. 26.
Note how this forms an
angle, which directly relates
to the ratio of sensible
Air leaving cooling coil.
versus latent heat of the
process.
Indeed, this is resolved on
the chart as the ratio of
Fig. 26
EXPLAINING S.H.F. RATIO.
sensible to total heat.
Assume you were designing an application. For a conditioned area, your designs showed a
sensible heat loading of 8 kW and a latent loading of 2 kW. Total heat in this case would be
8 + 2 = 10 kW. (Total heat is the amount of refrigeration that would have to be applied to
accommodate the calculated loading of this specific space).

RACA Guide l September 2011

21

18
In point of fact, the SHF is the ratio of SENSIBLE HEAT to TOTAL HEAT. So for our example
we would have
8 = 0,8
10
130

135

140

45

145

50

55 0,033

110

40

0,032

105

0,031
0,029

90
%

0,028
0,027
0,026

80
%

90

30

95

100

0,030

70
%

85

0,025
0,024

idit

80

0,023

Hu
m

60
%

ive

SHF = 0,8

0,019
0,018
0,017
0,95

0,016
0,015
0,014
0,013

1,2

0,8

0,6

0,4

,2
0

0,020
1,0 E n th a lp y d e vi a tio
n k J /k g d ry a ir

40
%

20
,1
0

,0

0,021

Re
lat

50
%

25

75
70
ir

65

ry A

60

kJ/k
gD
tion

55

tura
t sa
ya

50

alp

40

15

45

Enth

0%

0,40

0,45

0,50

0,022

Any process with a SHF of

0,8 (as per our example)
would follow a process line
parallel with this.

Alignment point.

0,36

SHF Ratio scale.

125
35

20%

0,012
0,011
0,010
0,009

0,55

0,60
0,65
0,70
0.75
0,80
0,85
0,90
0,95
1,00

SHF ratio = 8,0

115

120

Sensible Heat Factor

SHF =

0,008

10

If an installation had a SHF of 1,00 the

process would follow a line parallel with this.
PLOTTING THE SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR RATIO LINE.

Fig. 27

Please work through Exercise 11 in your Workbook.

Exercise 11 is a compound exercise, embracing many of the indicated processes indicated on
Fig. 24. You will find more help in connection with use of the SHF ratio when you work through
Exercise 11.

This brings us to the end of this learning material which describes in some
detail the content, features and intentions of the Psychrometric Chart.
I have available an Audiovisual Course on Psychrometrics, which delves
far more deeply into this subject than we could hope to achieve in this
Booklet. Please visit my Website www.alder.co.za to learn more about
this comprehensive Course which is on offer.

22

September 2011 l RACA Guide