LUR-771 Ekonom 001-352lpp

LATVIJAS UNIVERSITTES
RAKSTI
771. SJUMS
Ekonomika.
Vadbas zintne
Scientific Papers
University of Latvia
VOLUME 771
Economics.
Business Administration
Scientific Papers
VOLUME 771
Economics.
Business Administration
LATVIJAS UNIVERSITTES
RAKSTI
771. SJUMS
Ekonomika.
Vadbas zintne
Latvijas Universitte
UDK 33+005(082)

Ek 700
Galvens redaktores:
Dr. oec. prof. Elena Dubra, LU Ekonomikas un vadbas fakultte
Dr. habil. oec. prof. Ludmila Bandevia, LU Ekonomikas un vadbas fakultte
Redakcijas kolija:
Dr. oec. prof. Elena Dubra (galven redaktore)
Dr. habil. oec. prof. Ludmila Bandevia, LU EVF Vadbas zinbu
SP padomes prieksdtja (galven redaktore)
Dr. oec. prof. ans Davids Avenels (Jean David Avenel, Francija)
Prof. Dovani Bals (Giovanni Balcet, Itlija)
Prof. Jei Belke (Jery Boechlke, Polija)
Prof. Dainora Grundei (Dainora Grundey Lietuva)
Dr.oec. prof. Arilds Saethers (Arild Saether, Norvija)
Dr. oec. prof. Inta Brna
Dr. oec. prof. Inta Ciemia
Dr. habil. oec. prof. Baiba Riva
Dr. oec. prof. Baiba avria
Dr. oec. prof. rika umilo
Redkolijas sekretres: Ella Jkobsone un Elna Ermane
Literrs redaktores: Ruta Puria un Gita Brzia

Maketu un vka dizainu veidojusi Andra Liepia
Visi krjum ievietotie raksti recenzti.
Prpublicanas gadjum nepiecieama Latvijas Universittes atauja.
Citjot atsauce uz izdevumu obligta.
Latvijas Universitte, 2011
ISBN 978-9984-45-421-4
ISSN 1407-2157
Saturs / Contents
Ekonomika
Dina Arja, Krlis Krzs
Zu pieprasjuma elastba un patria prognozanas iespjas Latvij
Pharmaceuticals Elasticity of Demand and Consumption Forecasting in Latvia ..................... 10
Daira Barnova, Elena Dubra
Latvijas darba tirgus tendences un izaicinjumi
Tendencies and Challenges of Labor Market in Latvia ............................................................... 24
Andrejs Bessonovs
GDP Modelling Using Factor Model: Impact of Nested Data on Forecasting Accuracy
IKP modelana ar faktoru modeli: hierarhiski strukturtu datu ietekme uz
prognou kvalitti .......................................................................................................................... 38
Inese Brante
Valsts loma ienkumu nevienldzbas regulan
The State Role in the Income Inequality Regulation .................................................................... 47
Laura Bicne
Pieprasjuma elastbas lietojums telekomunikcijas uzmuma pieprasjuma prognozan
Demand Elasticity Analysis Application for Telecommunication Enterprise Demand
Forecasting . ................................................................................................................................... 60
Zane Cunska
Demographic Characteristics of Tertiary Education inLatvia
Augstks izgltbas demogrfiskais raksturojums Latvij . ........................................................ 74
Konstantins eravskis
Riska kapitla efektivittes novrtjums un uzmjdarbbas attstbas iespjas
Venture Capital Performance Estimation and Business Development Possibilities .................. 90
Ilona Dubra
Mobilization of Human Capital in Science and Technology for Innovation Creation
Cilvkkapitla mibilizcija zintn un tehnoloijs, lai radtu inovcijas ................................. 100
Laura Kerule, Biruta Sloka
Darbinieku atdeves un gandarjuma materilo faktoru analze telekomunikciju
nozar Latvij
Analysis of Employees Performance and Motivation Material Factors
in Telecommunication Branch in Latvia ....................................................................................... 114
Krlis Ketners, Ludmila Jevuka
Budget Process and Fiscal Discipline in Latvia: Analysis of Past Progress and
Possible Future Development
Budeta process un fiskl disciplna Latvij: pagtnes progresa novrtjums un
iespjam nkotnes attstba ......................................................................................................... 126
Silvija Kristapsone
Narkomnijas izplatba Latvij 21. gadsimta skum
Drug Prevalence in Latvia at the Beginning of 21st Century ..................................................... 143
Juris Krumins, Natalja Dubkova
Life Expectancy and Mortality Changes in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia
Since 1990: Comparative Overview
Ma ilguma un mirstbas izmaias Latvij, Lietuv un Igaunij
kop 1990. gada: saldzinos apskats ........................................................................................... 158
Natlija Kulakova, Krlis Krzs

Izlietot iepakojuma savkanas depozta sistmas ievieanas iespjas valst
The Opportunities of the Implementation of the Used Packaging Deposit System
in Latvia . ........................................................................................................................................ 173
Eva Liepia
Medikamentu mazumtirdzniecbas cenu pilnveidoanas iespjas Latvij
saldzinjum ar citm Eiropas valstm
Perfection Possibilities for Medicaments Retail Pricing in Latvia
with Comparision to European Countries . .................................................................................. 184
Marija Lindemane, Ilmars Purins, Toms Reizins
Country`s Capability in Export of Financial Services
Valsts potencils finanu pakalpojumu eksport . ........................................................................ 196
Tatjana Mavrenko
Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu k mikrofinansanas institciju potencils un
attstbas iespjas Latvij
Potential and Development Opportunities of Credit Unions
as Microfinance Institutions in Latvia .......................................................................................... 212
Ilze Medne
Tristu apmierintbas faktoru struktras analze Latvij
The Analysis of the Factor Structure of Tourist Satisfaction in Latvia ...................................... 225
Gaina Reina
Nodoku process k budeta resursu veidoanas pamats
Tax Process as a Basis for Formation of Budgetary Rescurces . ................................................ 237
Ramona Rupeika-Apoga
Optiml valtas kursa rema izvle
Choosing an Optimal Exchange Rate Regime .............................................................................. 246
Svetlana Saksonova, Nataja Verina
Nodoku plnoanas ietekme uz uzmuma brvs naudas plsmas palielinanu
The Tax Planning Influence on Increase in Free Monetary Streams of the Enterprise ............. 256
Aija van der Steina
Latvijas trisma mrketinga darbbas efektivitte galvenajos mra tirgos
Productivity of Latvian Tourism Promotion in Main Target Markets ........................................ 268
Alekss Tilti
Privt un aizsardzbas sektora sadarbba militr keinsisma teorij
The Cooperation of Private and Defense Sector within the Framework
of Military Keynesianism . ............................................................................................................. 282
Inese Vaidere
Prospects of the Cohesion Policy in the Context of Analysis
of the Multiannual Financial Framework oftheEuropeanUnion
Kohzijas politikas perspektvas Eiropas Savienbas daudzgadu
finanu ietvara analzes kontekst ................................................................................................ 294
Vladislavs Vesperis
Assessment of Disparities of Socioeconomic Development of EU Member States
ES dalbvalstu socilekonomisks attstbas atirbu novrtjums ........................................... 305
Armands Vveris
Graudu raoanas potencila novrtjums Latvij un tsasnieganas
ekonomiskie nosacjumi
The Possibilities of Grain Production in Latvia and Economic Conditions
to Reach Them . .............................................................................................................................. 318
Olga Zadoronaja
MVU konkurtspjas un nodoku atvieglojumu problmasLatvij
SME Competitiveness and Taxation Privileges Problems inLatvia ........................................... 330
Baiba Zvirbule
Uzmju izvles iesaistties nu ekonomik analze
Analysis of Entrepreneur Choice to Engage in the Illegal Economy .......................................... 340
Vadbas zintne
Gundars Brzi
Radoo nozaru stratisks vadanas patnbas un prakseLatvij
Strategic Management in Creative Industries: Specific and Practices in Latvia . ..................... 354
Gundars Brzi, Vizma Niedrte
Konkurtspjas paaugstinanas sistma radoo nozaru organizcijs
System for Increasing Competitiveness in Creative Industries ................................................... 368
Olga Bogdanova
Latvijas attstbas lmenis un pastvos attstbas problmas
Latvian Development Level and Existing Development Problems . ............................................ 382
Ieva Brence, Biruta Sloka, Inra Kantne
Darba praktizana ar stipendiju pavaldbs un ts ietekme uz uzmjdarbbas
veicinanu un nabadzbas riska mazinanu
Impact of Work Practice with Stipend in Municipalities on Entrepreneurship
Development and Poverty Risk Reduction . .................................................................................. 395
Mrti Danusvis
Mazumtirdzniecbas objektu atraans vietas noteikanas metou komplekss
Retail Object Location Selection Method Complex . .................................................................... 408
Krlis Dauge
Koksnes energoresursa vadba siltumenertik un t izmantoanas pamatojums
Wood Energy Resource Management in Heat Power Industry and
Its Justification for the Use . .......................................................................................................... 416
Andris Deni, Filips Lipmans
Inovciju vadba Latvijas uzmumos un to ietekme uz uzmumu konkurtspju
Innovation Management in Latvian Companies and Its Impact
on Companies Competitiveness .................................................................................................. 442
Justs Dimants
Mrketinga stratijas nozme slandes deraa enertikas attstb
Importance of the Marketing Strategy in Hydrogen Energy Development
Process of Iceland . ........................................................................................................................ 457
Mra Gulbe, Signe Blia
Informcijas sabiedrbas un IKT nozares statistiskie rdtji Latvij un Eirop
Statistical Indicators of Information Society and ICT Industry in Latvia and Europe . ............ 466
anete Ilmete
Projektu vadanas metodoloija
Project Management Methodology ............................................................................................... 476
Justine Jaunzeme
Fair Value Measurement of Assets Held for Use in Business Operating Activities in
the Bank Based Economies of the Old EU Member States: Possible Lessons for Latvia
Uzmumu pamatdarbb izmantotu aktvu novrtana patiesaj vrtb ES ilglaicgo
dalbvalstu banku finanstajs ekonomiks: pieredzes premanas iespjas Latvij . ............ 490
Ludmila Jevuka
Cilvkresursu attstbas politika un stratija Latvijas valsts prvald
esos situcijas raksturojums un turpmks attstbas iespjas
Human Resource Development Policy And Strategy in Public Administration
of Latvia Current Characteristics and Future Development Opportunities ........................... 501
Laura Kalnia
Flexicurity in Organizations Management System
Elastdroba organizciju vadanas sistm . ............................................................................. 516
Henrijs Kais, Valrijs Praude, Irina Rezepina
Ergonomikas nozme organizcijas procesu kvalittes vadb
Role of Ergonomics in Organisation Process Quality Management . ......................................... 530
Raja Koanova
Ilgtspjas prskats k stratijas izpildes vadanas elements
Sustainability Report as an Element for Strategy Implementation Management ....................... 538
Arnis Lagzdi
Darbbas atbilstbas riska vadanas funkcijas analze un pilnveidoanas
iespjas banku darbb Latvij
Analysis of the Compliance Risk Management Function and Improvement
Possibilities in Bank Activities in Latvia ...................................................................................... 549
Ligita Landzmane
Starptautisks konkurtspjas konfliktoloiskie aspekti
Conflictological Aspects of International Competitiveness ......................................................... 558
Antra Lne
Latvijas arodbiedrbu darbbas efektivitti ietekmjoie faktori
Factors Affecting Latvian Trade Unions Activity Effectiveness ................................................. 569
Lga Mirlina
Rados sabiedrbas izaicinjumi publiskajai prvaldei un ts komunikcijai
Creative Societys Challenges for Public Administration and Its Communication .................... 581
Valrijs Praude, Sergejs Volvenkins
Uzmuma konkurtspjgu priekrocbu btba un vrtana
The Essence and Assessment of Enterprise Competitive Advantages ......................................... 595
Ilmrs Puri, Mris Purgailis
Decision Making in Household Credit Granting Process
Lmumu pieemana mjsaimniecbu kreditanas proces . ..................................................... 609
Klvs Reizi
Labkljbas analzes teortiskie aspekti un valsts ekonomisk politika
Theoretical Aspects of Welfare Analysis and National Economic Policy ................................... 626
Nellija Titova
Brvprtg informcijas sniegana par intelektulo kapitlu
Latvijas banku gada prskatos
Empirical Study on the Voluntary Reporting on Intellectual Capital in Latvian Banks ............ 639
Katri Vintia
Darbinieku rezultativittes vadanas prakse Latvijas valsts prvald un
ts uzlaboanas iespjas
Performance Management of Employees in Public Administration
of Latvia and Opportunities for Its Improvement ........................................................................ 653
Agate Zae
Dzimumldztiesbas teoriju un feminisma, un publisks prvaldes teoriju mijiedarbba
Interaction of Feminism, Management and Public Administration Theories ............................. 663
Ekonomika
Latvijas Universittes raksti. 2011, 771. sj.

Ekonomika. vadbas zintne
10.23. lpp.
Zu pieprasjuma elastba un patria prognozanas

iespjas Latvij
Pharmaceuticals Elasticity of Demand and Consumption
Forecasting in Latvia
Dina Arja
Ekonomikas un vadbas fakultte
Aspazijas bulv. 5, Rga, LV-1050
E-pasts: Diana.Araja@apollo.lv
Krlis Krzs
Attstbas un plnoanas departaments
Bazncas iela 5, Rga, LV-1010
E-pasts: K.Kruzs@inbox.lv
Ambulatorajai rstanai paredzto zu iegdes izdevumu kompenscijas sistma Latvij
attsts ierobeotu resursu apstkos, un pdjos gados pieirtais valsts budeta finansjums
tiek samazints. dos apstkos rodas nepiecieamba samazint valsts kompenscijas
apmrus, un tas izraisa pacientu ldzmaksjumu palielinjumu. Lmumu pieemanai par
kompenscijas apmra maiu pietiekama finansjuma apstkos btu jbalsts uz medicnisko
izvrtanu un ieguvumu pacientam, tomr valsts budeta finansjuma samazinanas
apstkos medicnas specilisti ne vienmr var pieemt lmumu par kompenscijas apmra
samazinanu kdai diagnozei. Tpc ir nepiecieams ekonomiskais izvrtjums. Ptjum
tiek analizta zu pieprasjuma elastba k potencilais rdtjs, kas atvieglotu lmuma
pieemanu turpmko valsts budeta finansjama apmra izmaiu apstkos, un izdartie
secinjumi liecina par zu pieprasjuma elastbas rdtja izmantoanas lietderbu lmumu
pieemanas proces ambulatorai rstanai paredzto zu iegdes izdevumu kompenscijas
sistm.
Atslgvrdi: zu tirgus, zu pieprasjuma elastba, zu iegdes izdevumu kompenscijas
sistma, lmuma pieemana, Latvija.
Ievads
Veselbas ekonomikas teorij pieprasjums zu tirg visprji tiek uzskatts
par neelastgu. Tomr, t k zu pieprasjuma elastba ir atkarga no vairkiem
faktoriem, taj skait no pacientu makstspjas, ir paredzamas rdtja atirbas
dads valsts. Ldz ar to raksta autori izvljs noteikt un analizt o rdtju
Latvijas apstkos. Ptjuma mris ir noteikt zu pieprasjuma elastbu Latvij
un izvrtt iespjas izmantot o rdtju k vienu no lmumu pieemanas un
D. Arja, K. Krzs. Zu pieprasjuma elastba un patria prognozanas iespjas ..
11
prognozanas papildu rkiem ambulatorajai rstanai paredzto zu iegdes

izdevumu kompenscijas sistm. Mra sasnieganai tika noteikti di uzdevumi:
1) raksturot zu tirgu;
2) noteikt kopj zu tirgus pieprasjuma elastbu;
3) noteikt zu pieprasjuma elastbu konkrtajs diagnou grups ambulatorajai
rstanai paredzto zu iegdes izdevumu kompenscijas sistm;
4) analizt iegtos datus, interprett rezulttus, izdart secinjumus un izstrdt
prieklikumus.
Formulto uzdevumu risinanai ir izmantotas gan teortisks ptjuma
metodes (Eiropas Savienbas normatvo aktu analze, specils literatras analze
un elektronisko resursu analze), gan emprisks ptjuma metodes (datu vkanas
metodes: dokumentu analze, statistikas datubzu analze). Datu apstrdei un analzei
ir lietotas statistisks analzes metodes (saldzinana, grupana, vidjo lielumu
aprinana) un ekonomisks analzes metodes (pieprasjuma elastbas noteikana).
Zau patria statistikas dati ir izmantoti, analizjot zu pieprasjuma elastbu
gan kopj zu tirg, gan kompenscijas sistm, elastbas rdtju noteikanai
lietojot 2008. un 2009. gada datus, kad valsts budeta finansjuma samazinanas
d tika maints pacientu ldzmaksjums un kompenscijas kategorijas. Asinsrites
sistmas slimbu diagnou grupas analzei papildus ir izmantoti 2010. gada dati,
kad kompenscijas kategorija ai diagnou grupai k galvenajam mirstbas clonim
Latvij atkal bija noteikta 2009. gada lmen. das kompenscijas apmra maias
nenodroina sistmas darbbas stabilitti, tomr rada prieknosacjumus zu
pieprasjuma elastbas izptei.
Zu tirgus raksturojums
Raksturojot zu tirgu, ir jem vr, ka pastv ar patentu aizsargts zles un
patentbrvs zles. T k zu raoana ir augstu tehnoloiju nozare, medikamenta
radana, izpte un virzba prasa nozmgus ieguldjumus, tpc medikamenta
cenas lielko dau veido raotja cena. Medikamenta attstb ieguldtie ldzeki
tiek segti pc vairkiem t sekmgas realizcijas gadiem. Pirmajos desmit gados
pc patenta noformanas notiek ptm produkta pirmsklniskie ptjumi, kas
ietver toksikoloiskos un farmakoloiskos izminjumus, kam seko klniskie
ptjumi. Klniskie ptjumi notiek etrs fzs, kur ceturt fze pcreistrcijas
uzraudzba norisins jau pc medikamenta reistrcijas un laianas tirg, un taj
notiek papildu datu vkana par medikamenta, ko lieto liels pacientu skaits, droumu.
Medikamenta reistrcijai seko aktv mrketinga posms, kas auj medikamentam
pc iespjas trk virzties tirg pirms jaunu konkurentu pardans, emot vr,
ka is ir visienesgkais posms medikamenta dzves cikl. Patentbrvie medikamenti
ir zles, kas nav patenttas un tiek raotas pc autorfirmas izstrdts tehnoloijas
un sastva vai kam beidzies patenta darbbas termi. Patentbrvo firmu raoto zu
kvalitte pilnb atbilst vism zu standartu prasbm, bet ts ir ltkas, jo raoanas
izmakss nav iekauti izdevumi zintniskiem ptjumiem.
12
Ekonomika. Vadbas zintne
Ptot zu tirgu, jizvrt konkrti zu tirgus raksturlielumi, jo, emot vr

vairkas tirgus dalbnieku grupas zau raotji, zu vairumtirgotji un aptiekas,
zu tirgus nav uzskatms par monognas formas tirgu (1. tab.).
1. tabula
Zu tirgus formu raksturojums

Characteristics of the Pharmaceutical Market (authors, based on [10, 262])
Tirgus formas
Raksturojoais lielums
Piedvjuma
monopolistisk
konkurence
Piedvjuma
neviendabg
oligopolistisk
konkurence
Piedvjuma
monopols
Aptieku darbba
Patentbrvo zu
raoana un zu
vairumtirdzniecba
Ar patentu aizsargtu zu raoana
1. Dalbnieku skaits
Liels
2. Cena
Mainga
Dai
Viens
3. Preces piegdtja vai

pakalpojumu sniedzja
kontrole pr cenu
Vidji liela
Samr liela
Liela
4. Iekana tirg
Samr grta
Samr grta
Grta
5. Peas maksimizanas
nosacjums
Robeizmaksas = Robeiemumi
6. Monopolvara
Vidji liela
Vidji liela
Liela
7. Patrtja rentes izmantoana
Iespjama
8. Slepena vienoans
Grti iespjama
Iespjama
9. Preces vai pakalpojuma

raksturojums
Diferencta
Standartizta vai
diferencta
Unikla, nav
aizstjpreces
Svarga nozme
tiek pieirta
reklmai, firmas
zmei u. c.
oti raksturga
Raksturga
10. Preces vai pakalpojuma

popularizana
Avots: izstrdjui autori, izmantojot avotu [10, 262].
1. tabul sniegto informciju var skaidrot di.

1. Dalbnieku skaits. Aptieku darbbu var raksturot k piedvjuma
monopolistisko konkurenci. emot vr vertiklo un horizontlo integrciju
ievrojam farmcijas tirgus da (starp lieltirgotavm un aptiekm), lielai daai
aptieku veidojas zinma tirgus vara ar iespju realizt kopgu cenu politiku, un ts
nesastop pietiekami efektvu cenu konkurences pretdarbbu, pai neatkargo tirgus
dalbnieku pretestbu, jo to skaits kst aizvien mazks.
13
Patentbrvo zu raotjiem un vairumtirgotjiem raksturgka ir piedvjuma

oligopolistiska konkurence, jo saldzinjum ar aptiekm tie ir ievrojami lielki
uzmumi un to skaits tirg ir saldzinoi mazks.
Ar patentu aizsargtu oriinlzu raoanu un izplatanu var uzskatt par
piedvjuma monopolu, jo raotjs ir viens. Jautjums par oriinlzlm un
patentbrvajm zlm ir atspoguots ar Eiropas Savienbas likumdoan. Eiropas
Parlamenta un Padomes 2001. gada 6. novembra direktva 2001/83/EC par Kopienas
kodeksu attiecb uz cilvkiem paredztm zlm (t tika grozta un papildinta
ar 2004. gada 31. marta Eiropas Parlamenta un Padomes direktvu 2004/24/EC un
direktvu 2004/27/EC) nosaka prasbas ar oriinlzlm un patentbrvm zlm [5].
Viens no direktvas papildinjumiem skar jautjumu par datu ekskluzivittes periodu
Eiropas Savienb. Pirms grozjumiem is periods bija noteikts k sei vai desmit
gadi atkarb no raotjvalsts. Jaun redakcija paredz astous datu ekskluzivittes
gadus pluss divus tirgus ekskluzivittes gadus, pievienojot vienu papildu gadu par
jaunajm indikcijm, kas tiek apstiprintas pirmajos astoos datu ekskluzivittes
gados. Datu ekskluzivittes perioda sasinana ldz astoiem gadiem tm zlm,
kurm iepriek bija noteikta desmit gadu datu ekskluzivitte, diviem nkamajiem
gadiem paredzot tikai tirgus ekskluzivitti, auj patentbrvo zu raotjiem ajos
divos gados veikt visus nepiecieamos sagatavoanas darbus jaunu zu raoanas
uzskanai, lai uzreiz pc desmit gadu termia beigm tirg vartu ienkt jauni
patenbrvie medikamenti, kas pc iedarbbas bs analogi patenttiem medikamentiem,
bet ltki. Tomr izmaias, kas skar zles, kurm iepriek bija noteikts seu gadu
datu ekskluzivittes periods, nav labvlgas patrtjam un valstij, ja t sedz zu
iegdes izdevumus.
2. Preces cena. Zu cenas var uzskatt par maingm jebkur izplatanas posm, kaut ar daudzs valsts tiek fikstas valsts kompensjamo zu cenas. Tomr
rpus zu kompenscijas sistmas izplatmo zu cenas netiek fikstas.
Zu raotju un dakrt ar zu lieltirgotavu veidojamai cenu politikai ir
raksturga cenu diferencana pircju grupm ar atirgu patrtja renti (horizontl
cenu diferencana) vai ar atirgu pieprasjuma cenas elastbu (vertikl cenu
diferencana) gan vienas valsts teritorijas robes, gan ar piedvjot preci dadu
valstu tirgos. Tomr vertikl diferencana dot iespju iekarot lielku zu tirgus
dau nek horizontl diferencana.
Zu cenu diferencana izraisa ar tdu pardbu k parallais imports. Zinms,
ka raotjs vienu un to pau produktu (atirbas var pastvt izmantojams
palgviels un marjuma valod) dads valsts lai tirg ar dadm cenm
atkarb no konkrts valsts iedzvotju makstspjas. emot vr s tendences, zu
vairumtirgotji gadjumos, kad tas ir finansili izdevgi, ieprk zles no lieltirgotavm
valsts ar zemiem ienkumiem un attiecgi zemkm cenm un prdod ts valsts ar
augstku dzves lmeni par cenm, kuras ir zemkas par raotja piedvtajm cenm
ajs valsts, tdjdi veidojot t saucamo parallo importu. Parallais imports rada
raotjiem netkamu situciju un zinmu konkurenci, vienlaikus atturot no prk
augstas cenas noteikanas.
Zu lieltirgotavu un aptieku uzcenojumiem daudzs valsts, ar Latvij,
tiek piemrota maksimli pieaujamo uzcenojumu sistma. Tomr o maksimli
pieaujamo uzcenojumu robes tirgus dalbnieki var maint piemrojamos
14
uzcenojumus, ldz ar to mainot ar preces cenu, par kdu t tiek prdota patrtjam.
Zu vairumtirdzniecbai piemt piedvjuma neviendabgas oligopolistiskas
konkurences pazmes, jo vairumtirgotji konkur ar neviendabgu (diferenctu)
preci, un ne vienmr informcija par konkurenta noteikto cenu ir pilnga.
Kopum, pc autoru domm, ldzsvars zu tirg tiek sasniegts, ja ir zemkas
cenas un mazks piedvts produkcijas apjoms nek klasiskaj tirg. Zu
tirg ir ierobeots patrtju skaits un patrjam prece ir specifiska. Zu cenu
samazinans pirmaj brd izraisa to pirkanas aktivizanos, jo pacienti vlas
izveidot noteiktus uzkrjumus, bet, ja cena turpintu samazinties, t praktiski vairs
neietekmtu pieprasjumu, jo patrtji nevltos trt ldzekus tdu zu iegdei,
kas tiem nebs nepiecieamas pc atveseoans.
3. Preces piegdtja vai pakalpojumu sniedzja kontrole pr cenu ir iden
tiska klasisko patria preu un pakalpojumu tirgiem atbilstoi tirgus formai: samr
maza piedvjuma monopolistisks konkurences apstkos, samr liela piedvjuma
neviendabgas oligopolistisks konkurences gadjum un liela piedvjuma
monopola apstkos. Tomr Latvij ar Ministru kabineta 2005. gada 25. oktobra
noteikumiem Nr. 803 Noteikumi par zu cenu veidoanas principiem ir noteikts, ka
zu raotjs vai t pilnvarot persona deklar Zu valsts aentr zu izplatanas
cenas Latvij, k ar ir noteikti maksimli pieaujamie vairumtirdzniecbas un
mazumtirdzniecbas uzcenojumi [4]. Informcija par maksimli pieaujamm
konkrto zu aptieku cenm ir pieejama Zu valsts aentras interneta vietn.
Savukrt ambulatorajai rstanai paredzto zu cenu veidoanu nosaka Ministru
kabineta 2006. gada 31. oktobra noteikumi Nr. 899 Ambulatorajai rstanai
paredzto zu un medicnisko ieru iegdes izdevumu kompenscijas krtba,
kas paredz, ka Veselbas ekonomikas centrs prrunu rezultt ar zu reistrcijas
apliecbas turtjiem nosaka kompenscijas bzes cenu un aptiekas cenu [2].
4. Iekana tirg piedvjuma monopolistisks konkurences apstkos ir
samr viegla. Tomr Latvij spk eso likumdoana ierobeo jaunu aptieku
atvranu. Latvijas Republikas Ministru kabineta 2002. gada 5. marta noteikumi
Nr. 102 Aptieku un aptieku filiu izvietojuma kritriji nosaka aptieku teritoril
izvietojuma kritrijus un maksimlo aptieku skaitu atkarb no iedzvotju skaita
apdzvotaj viet [3]. Iekana zu vairumtirdzniecbas tirg Latvij skaitlisk
izteiksm netiek ierobeota, bet apstklis, ka zu lieltirgotavu skaits pdjo gadu
laik nav btiski mainjies, pierda, ka iekana tirg piedvjuma oligopolistisks
konkurences apstkos ir samr grta. Patentbrvo zu raotji regulri ienk tirg
ar jauniem produktiem. Piedvjuma monopola apstkos, kad tiek piedvtas ar
patentu aizsargtas zles, konkurenta ienkana tirg ar pilngi analoiskas iedarbbas
prepartu, bet citu jaunu aktvo vielu teortiski ir iespjama, bet praktiski netiek biei
novrota. aj gadjum maintos ar tirgus forma un rastos piedvjuma oligopols.
5. Peas maksimizanas nosacjums, kas paredz, ka robeizmaksas ir vie
ndas ar robeiemumiem, ir raksturgs visiem zu tirgus dalbniekiem.
6. Monopolvara. Monopolvaras izpausme aptieku sektor pastiprins u
veidoanas gadjumos, kas Latvij vl nav sasniegusi kritisku robeu, tpc Latvij
monopolvara aptieku vid ir neliela. Piedvjuma oligopola apstkos monopolvara
ir vidji liela, bet piedvjuma monopola apstkos liela ar zu tirg.
15
7. Patrtja rentes izmantoana. Patrtju renti zu tirg izmanto gan ra

otji un vairumtirgotji, diferencjot cenas, gan ar aptiekas pieaujam uzceno
juma robes.
8. Slepen vienoans zu tirg tpat k klasisko patria preu tirgos ir iesp
jama piedvjuma oligopola apstkos. Pastv piemums, ka tdas ar tiek noslgtas,
piemram, piedaloties rstniecbas iestu vajadzbm domto medikamentu
iepirkanas konkursos.
9. Preces vai pakalpojuma raksturojums. Aptieku piedvts preces un snie
dzamie pakalpojumi ir diferencti, un ts konkur ar preu un sniedzamo papildu
pakalpojumu klstu, bet dareiz ar ar apkalpoanas kvalitti. Patentbrvo zu
raotju piedvt produkcija biei vien ir standartizta (viena visprj nosaukuma
zles), bet zu vairumtirgotjiem t biek ir diferencta. Ar patentu aizsargtu
medikamentu raotja piedvt prece ldz patenta termia beigm ir unikla.
10. Preces vai pakalpojuma popularizana. Medikamenta virzb tirg iev
rojama nozme ir reklmai. Reklmu Latvijas Republik reglament Reklmas
likums, kas nosaka galvens prasbas, taj skait prasbas saldzinoai reklmai un
aizliegumu izplatt maldinou reklmu [1]. Reklmas likums paredz ar to, ka papildu
prasbas atseviu preu, preu grupu (taj skait zu) vai pakalpojumu reklmas
saturam, noformjumam vai izplatanas krtbai nosaka Latvijas Republikas
Ministru kabinets. Ministru kabineta noteikumos ir iekauta btiska norma, kas
paredz, ka sabiedrbai ir aizliegts reklamt recepu zles. ds aizliegums pastv
gandrz viss Eiropas valsts, jo zu reklma ir jskata ne tikai no komercils
darbbas intereu viedoka, bet ar jem vr, ka zles, ts nepareizi vai prmrgi
lietojot, rada potencilu risku veselbai. Turklt, k liecina Britu medicnas urnl
(British Medical Journal) 2004. gad publict ptjuma dati, tikai 6% no zu
reklmas materiliem balsts uz zintniskiem pierdjumiem [16].
Zu tirgus raksturojums apliecina specilaj literatr iekauto ptjumu
rezulttus, kas norda uz tirgus nepilnbm veselbas aprpes jom [7; 8; 9; 11; 12].
Vairki autori konkrti norda uz tdam nepilnbm k informcijas asimetrija, galven
aenta problma un morlais risks [6; 7; 8; 9]. Informcijas asimetrija ir raksturga
zu tirgum, jo patrtjam ir daudz mazk informcijas par zu pabm, bstambu
un alternatvm nek rstam vai farmaceitam. Savukrt rstiem un farmaceitiem ir
mazk informcijas saldzinjum ar zu raotju. Ldz ar to rstu, kas darbojas
k pacienta aents, var ietekmt zu raotja veicamie reklmas paskumi [9; 12].
Morlais risks ir viena no informcijas asimetrijas socilekonomiskm izpausmm.
Saska ar M. Pauli, kura darbi tiek uzskatti par veselbas aprpes morl riska
klasikas darbiem, morl riska fenomens balsts uz indivda racionls uzvedbas
principu: ja pacients nemaks par medicniskiem pakalpojumiem vai zlm piln
apmr, tam rodas tieksme lietot vairk medicnisko pakalpojumu un zu, nek tas
ir pamatoti nepiecieams [7; 8]. Lai mazintu morl riska ietekmi, tiek izmantotas
pacientu iemaksas vai ldzmaksjums par zlm. Pc autoru domm, iepriek
nordts tirgus nepilnbas informcijas asimetrija, galven aenta problma un
morlais risks ir raksturgas ar Latvijas veselbas aprpes sistmai, turklt Latvij
pacientu iemaksas un ldzmaksjumus par zlm piemro ne tikai morl riska
mazinanai, bet ar faktisk budeta izdevumu samazinjuma apstkos.
16
emot vr iepriek minto, veselbas aprpe ir klasificjama k nozare, kur

tirgus ekonomikas apstkos pastv ievrojama valsts iejaukans, kas izpauas
k valsts budeta ldzeku ieguldana veselbas aprp, vienlaikus piemrojot
ierobeojous paskumus un stingri kontroljot izmaksas (1. att.).
Cenas
kontrole
Piedvjuma
kontrole
Vidjo cenu
noteikana
References cenas
noteikana
Izmaksu kalkulcija
Daudzuma
kontrole
Patria
kontrole
Produkcijas apjoma
ierobeojumi
Peas kontrole
Cenu samazinana
Pieprasjuma
kontrole
Primrs aprpes
rstu budets
Pacienta
ldzmaksjums
Negatvais saraksts
Pozitvais saraksts
Aizvietoana ar
patentbrvajm
zlm
FARMAKOEKONOMIKA
Uz individulas vienbas
izmaksu samazinanu
vrstie paskumi
Paskumi nepamatotas
drgu zu izrakstanas
limitanai
Kopj zu patria
lmea kontroles
paskumi
1. attls. Zu tirgus regulanas paskumi [15]

Pharmaceutical market regulation [15]
Ierobeotu resursu apstkos, ieguldot valsts budeta ldzekus, valstij ir

jnodroina pc iespjas efektvks ldzeku izlietojums, un to daudzjd zi
var paldzt nodroint farmakoekonomikas metodoloijas izmantoana. 1. attls
raksturo valsts veicamos paskumus cenas, daudzuma un kopj patria kontrolei,
stenojot piedvjuma un pieprasjuma monitoringu, kas auj izvlties veiksmgku
risinjumu atbilstoi pieejamiem resursiem.
Pc autoru domm, Latvij tiek stenots plas paskumu kopums piedvjuma
un pieprasjuma kontrolei cenu un apjoma lmen, tomr patria kontrole prsvar
notiek retrospektvi un veicamie paskumi patria samazinanai saistb ar valsts
budeta finansjuma samazinanu ne vienmr atbilst uz pierdjumiem balstts
medicnas principiem.
17
Kopj zu tirgus pieprasjuma elastba

T k par analzes periodu zu pieprasjuma elastbas noteikanai kompenscijas
sistm ir izvlts 2008. un 2009. gads, ar kopjs zu tirgus pieprasjuma
elastbas noteikanai autori izvljs o periodu, lai iegtu skaidrku priekstatu par
pastvom atirbm kompenscijas sistm un rpus ts. 2. tabul ir atspoguota
Zu valsts aentras veidot statistika par zu patriu 2008. un 2009. gad, k ar
autoru nordtie dati, kas ir nepiecieami zu cenu elastbas noteikanai.
Rinot elastbu un izmantojot patria datus iepakojumu skait, iegst elastbas
vrtbu |eiep| = 1,02, kas ir tuva neitrlai ar tieksmi uz elastgu pieprasjumu, savukrt,
lietojot patria datus pc apgrozjuma vairumtirdzniecbas cens, elastbas vrtba
|eapg| = 0,23. Tomr, pc autoru domm, par objektvku btu uzskatms radtjs, kas
balsts uz iepakojumu skaitu, jo apgrozjums ir noteikts vairumtirdzniecbas cens,
bet pieprasjuma elastbas noteikanai nodergka ir informcija par izplatanu
mazumtirdzniecb. Kopj zu tirgus elastba ir negatva, un, pieaugot cenm,
samazins patri.
2. tabula
Latvijas kopj zu tirgus patria dati 2008. un 2009. gad un izmaiu tendences
Pharmaceuticals Consumption Data and Trends in Latvia, 20082009
(authors, based on [17])
Laiks
Zu iepakojumu
daudzums,
milj.
2008. gads
58,8
2009. gads
47,5
Zu iepakojumu
daudzuma
izmaias, %
19,2
Apgrozjums,
vairumtirdzniecbas cens, milj. LVL
204,7
195,7
ApgroViena ieCenas
zjuma
pakojuma izmaias,
izmaias, vidj cena,
%
%
LVL
4,4
3,48
4,14
+18,9
Avots: izstrdjui autori, izmantojot avotu [17].
Zu pieprasjuma elastba konkrtajs diagnou grups

ambulatorajai rstanai paredzto zu iegdes izdevumu
kompenscijas sistm
Ptjum tiek skatta zu patria kontrole pacientu ldzmaksjuma aspekt
(1.att.). Latvij no valsts budeta ldzekiem tiek segti aptuveni 45% no izdevumiem
par zlm, privts apdroinanas atbalsts ir nenozmgs un lielko dau zu izmaksu
sedz iedzvotji. Saldzinot valsts pieirt finansjuma apmrus kompenscijas
sistmai Latvij un Baltijas kaimivalsts, var secint, ka Latvija ievrojami atpaliek
no kaimivalstm (2. att.).
Ldz 2008. gadam kompenscijas sistma Latvij pakpeniski attstjs atbilstoi
pieirtajam finansjumam, tomr 2009. gad finansjums tika strauji samazints
(3. att.), kam sekoja daudzi paskumi, kas ietekmja patriu. Ar 2009. gada
1.martu tika samazints kompenscijas kategoriju skaits, likvidjot 90% kategoriju
un turpmk nosakot trs kompenscijas kategorijas (100, 75 un 50%) atkarb no
18
slimbas smaguma pakpes. Kompenscijas kategorijas maia no 90 ldz 75% skra

aptuveni 70000 pacientu, un kompenscijas apmra samazinjums no 75 ldz 50%
skra aptuveni 350000 pacientu, tomr va iekauties atvltaj budet.
70
60
50
40
Igaunija
Lietuva
Latvija
30
20
10
0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2. attls. Ambulatorajai rstanai paredzto zu un medicnisko ieru iegdes

izdevumu kompenscijai pieirtie ldzeki Igaunij, Lietuv un Latvij
2003. 2010. gad, EUR uz vienu iedzvotju [14]
Financial Resources Allocated to the Reimbursement System for Pharmaceuticals and
Medical Devices in Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia, 20032010, EUR per inhabitant [14]
90
77.0
80
71.7
70
61.3
60
50
67.6
42.7
40
30.5
30
20
10
71.6
5.7
7.0 7.2
11.5
17.7 17.319.8
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
3. attls. Ambulatorajai rstanai paredzto zu un medicnisko ieru iegdes

izdevumu kompenscijai pieirtie valsts budeta ldzeki Latvij
1998.2011. gad, milj. LVL [14]
Financial Resources Allocated to the Reimbursement System for Pharmaceuticals and
Medical Devices in Latvia, 19982011, million LVL [14]
19
Kompenscijas apmra samazinjums negatvi ietekm zu pieejambu pacien

tiem, tpc tika saglabta 100% kompenscija, ja pacientam konstatta hroniska,
dzvbu apdraudoa slimba vai slimba, kura izraisa smagu neatgriezenisku invaliditti
un kuras rstan nepiecieama attiecgo zu lietoana, lai uzturtu pacienta
dzvbas funkcijas. Tomr, turpinoties valsts budeta finansjuma samazinanai un
pieaugot pievienots vrtbas nodoka likmei, kas piemrojama medikamentiem un
medicniskm iercm, vajadzja meklt jaunus risinjumus, lai iekautos pieirtaj
finansjum. K viens no paskumiem 2011. gada 1. aprl tika ieviests pacientu
ldzmaksjums 0,50 latu apmr par recepti 100% kompenscijas kategorij (prasba
neattiecas uz maznodrointajiem un brniem, k ar netiek piemrota zlm un
medicniskm iercm, kuru Veselbas ekonomikas centra apstiprint aptiekas cena
neprsniedz 3,00 latus) [2]. Latvij 100% kompenscijas kategorijas izdevumu
seganai tiek izlietoti 68% no visa pieirt finansjuma, savukrt Igaunij 45%.
Autori uzskata, ka, turpmk lemjot par pacientu ldzmaksjuma izmaim,
btu jem vr pieprasjuma elastbas rdtjs, kuru kompenscijas sistm autori
piedv noteikt pc das formulas:

E=
Zu patria maia par %

Pacienta ldzmaksjuma maia par 1%
(1)
Pc autoru domm, par zu patria mrvienbu btu jizvlas defints dien

nakts devas (DDD) uz 1000 iedzvotjiem dien rdtjs, iedalot zles grups
atbilstoi anatomiski terapeitiski miskajai (AT) klasifikcijai. AT/DDD ir
Pasaules Veselbas organizcijas rekomendt zu patria vrtjumu vienba.
AT/DDD sistma auj grupt zles un noteikt lietoanas tendences konkrtaj laika
posm un dados griezumos. Par ietekmjoo lielumu formul (1) autori izvljs
pacienta ldzmaksjuma izmaias.
Autori, analzes veikanai izmantojot Veselbas ekonomikas centra sagatavoto
informciju par kompensjamo zu patria statistiku 2008. un 2009. gad, no
teica pieprasjuma elastbu tajs diagnou grups, kuras kompenscijas apmru
samazinjums skra visvairk (3. tab.).
Iegtie dati liecina, ka izteikti elastgs pieprasjums ir diagnoz Vrushepatti,
tpc autori uzskata par atbalstmu un pamatotu Veselbas ministrijas rcbu, saga
tavojot grozjumus Ministru kabineta 2006. gada 31. oktobra noteikumos Nr. 899
Ambulatorajai rstanai paredzto zu un medicnisko ieru iegdes izdevumu
kompenscijas krtba un ar 2011. gada 1. martu diagnou grupai Vrushepatti
mainot kompenscijas apmru no 50 ldz 75%. Diagnou grup Vrushepatti ir
vislielkais pacienta maksjamais ldzmaksjums absolt izteiksm.
Viss diagnozs, izemot Asinsrites sistmas slimbas (atbilstoi AT
klasifikcijas C grupai), ir vrojama negatva elastba, kas liecina par to, ka pacientu
ldzmaksjumu paaugstinana varja izraist zu patria samazinjumu.
Pc autoru domm, diagnou grupai Asinsrites sistmas slimbas btu jpievr
paa uzmanba, jo diagnoze ir galvenais mirstbas clonis Latvij un saslimstba
turpina pieaugt, tpc patria pieaugums samazints kompenscijas apstkos
noteikti nebtu vrtjams objektvi. Ldz ar to autori veica papildu izvrtanu,
20
izmantojot Veselbas norina centra datus par kompensjamo recepu skaitu aj

diagnou grup 2010. gada 10 mneos, kad tika piemrota 50% kompenscija,
un 2010. gada divos pdjos mneos, kad pc Veselbas ministrijas iniciatvas
kompenscijas apmrs ai diagnou grupai tika atkal noteikts 75% apmr. Uz
Veselbas norina centra datu [13] pamata veikto papildu aprinu rezultti liecina,
ka vidjais recepu skaits mnes 2010. gada pdjos divos mneos pieauga par
18,5%, nordot uz btisku ldzmaksjuma apmra ietekmi uz zu patriu diagnou
grup Asinsrites sistmas slimbas. Tomr autori neizmanto recepu skaita
izmaias k rdtju pieprasjuma elastbas noteikanai, jo is rdtjs ir mazk
objektvs nek DDD, bet patria dati DDD 2010. gadam ptjuma veikanas brd
vl nebija pieejami analzei.
3. tabula
Kompensjamo zu patria dati diagnou grups, kuras btiski skra kompenscijas

apmru izmaias Latvij 2008. un 2009. gad
un pieprasjuma elastba Reimbursed Pharmaceuticals Consumption Data in Diagnosis
Groups Affected by the Trends in Reimbursed Categories in Latvia, 20082009, and
Elasticity of Demand (authors, based on [13; 14])
AT grupa
Patri,
DDD/1000 iedz./
dien
Pacienta
Patria
ldzmaksizmaias,
juma izmai%
as, %
Pieprasjuma
elastba
2008
2009
C sirds un asisnvadu sistma
198,09
202,05
2,00*
25
0,02*
D dermatoloija
1,02
0,81
20,22
25
0,81
J pretinfekcijas ldzeki sistmiskai

lietoanai (J05 pretvrusu
ldzeki sistmiskai lietoanai) un
0,41
L antineoplastiskie ldzeki un
imnmodulatori (L03 imnstimulatori)
(diagnoze Vrushepatti)
0,22
47,45
25
1,90
M kaulu un muskuu sistma (M05

kaulu slimbu rstanas ldzeki)
(diagnoze Osteoporoze)
5,50
4,92
10,50
25
0,42
R elpoanas sistma (R03 ldzeki

obstruktvm elpceu slimbam)
(diagnoze Astma)
9,86
8,64
12,31
15
0,82
* Da, kuru skra pacientu ldzmaksjuma palielinjums (kopj patria izmaias

+2,00%; kopj pieprasjuma elastba +0,08).
Avots: izstrdjui autori, izmantojot avotu [13; 14].
21
Secinjumi
1. Autoru veiktais zu tirgus izvrtjums Latvijas apstkos saskan ar cits valsts
veikto ptjumu rezulttiem, kas apliecina tirgus nepilnbas veselbas aprpes jom
un valsts reguljoo paskumu nepiecieambu. Tirgus nepilnbas informcijas
asimetrija, galven aenta problma un morlais risks raksturgas ar Latvijas
veselbas aprpes sistmai. Latvij pacientu iemaksas un ldzmaksjumi par
zlm tiek izmantoti ne tikai morl riska mazinanai, bet ar k pacientu
finansil ldzdalba samazinta valsts budeta finansjuma apstkos.
2. Ptjuma rezultt iegtie Latvijas kopj zu tirgus dati (gan kompenscijas
sistm, gan rpus ts) liecina par pieprasjuma mrenu elastbu (|eiep| = 1,02).
3. Atirb no kopj zu tirgus datiem zu pieprasjums kompenscijas
sistm prsvar ir neelastgs, un tas norda uz morl riska pazmm, tomr
ir diferencjams pc diagnou grupm. Diagnou grup Vrushepatti
pieprasjums ir elastgs (|evir| = 1,9). Tas liecina par pacientu maksjuma
nesamrgumu (diagnou grup Vrushepatti pacienti maks vislielko
pacienta ldzmaksjumu absolt izteiksm vidji 200 latus mnes).
Prieklikumi
1. Veselbas ministrijai: izmantot pieprasjuma elastbu k vienu no instrumentiem
lmumu pieeman par kompenscijas kategoriju izmaim un patria
prognozanu, pieemot, ka pacienta ldzmaksjumam ir jbt zemkam tajs
kategorijs, kurs ir zemka pieprasjuma elastba. Lmumu pieemanas
proces ir jizvrt katras diagnou grupas patnbas.
2. Veselbas ministrijai: izvrtt iespjas izmantot zu pieprasjuma elastbas
noteikanai kompenscijas sistm autoru piedvto formulu, kur ietekmjoais
lielums ir pacienta ldzmaksjuma izmaias (formula (1) tekst).
3. Ptniekiem: nkotn paplaint ptjumu, ietverot taj ar saslimstbas un citu
ietekmjoo faktoru analzi, kas diagnou grupas Asinsrites sistmas slimbas
gadjum vartu sniegt papildu informciju lmumu pieemanai, emot vr s
diagnou grupas k galven mirstbas cloa Latvij nozmgumu un saslimstbas
pieaugumu.
IEGULDJUMS TAV NKOTN
is darbs izstrdts ar Eiropas Socil fonda atbalstu projekt Atbalsts doktora

studijm Latvijas Universitt.
This work has been supported by the European Social Fund within the project
Support for Doctoral Studies at University of Latvia.
22
LITERATRA
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zu un medicnisko ieru iegdes izdevumu kompenscijas krtba. Pieejams: http://
www.likumi.lv/
3. LR Ministru kabineta 05.03.2002. noteikumi Nr. 102 Aptieku un aptieku filiu
izvietojuma kritriji. Pieejams: http://www.likumi.lv/
4. LR Ministru kabineta 25.10.2005. noteikumi Nr. 803 Noteikumi par zu cenu veidoanas
principiem. Pieejams: http://www.likumi.lv/
5. Directive 2001/83/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 November
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by Directive 2002/98/EC, Directive 2004/24/EC and Directive 2004/27/EC.
6. Haaijer-Ruskamp, F. M. Experiences with patient charges. Drugs and Money: Prices,
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7. Joumard, I., C. Andre and C. Nicq (2010) Health Care Systems: Efficiency and
Institutions. OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 769, OECD Publishing.
doi: 10.1787/5kmfp51f5f9t-ne
8. Pauly, M. The economics of moral hazard: comment. American Economic Review 58,
1968.
9. Puig-Junoy, J. Price regulation systems in the pharmaceutical market. The Public
Financing of Pharmaceuticals: an Economic Approach. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar
Publishing Limited, 2005.
10. kapars, R. Mikroekonomika. Loisks shmas. Rga: Ekonomikas ptjumu un biznesa
izgltbas institts, 2007.
11. Thomson, S., Mossialos, E. Influencing demand for drugs through cost sharing. Regulating
pharmaceuticals in Europe: striving for efficiency, equity and quality. Great Britain: MPG
Books Ltd., 2004.
12. Zerda, A., Velasquez, G., Tobar, F., Vargas, J. E. Health Insurance Systems and Access to
Medicines. Case Studies from: Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala and
the United States of America. Washington: Pan American Health Organization, 2002.
13. Kompensjamie medikamenti. Pieejams: http://www.vnc.gov.lv/lat/veseliba/Kompensejam
iemedikamenti/?doc=41
14. Kompensjamo medikamentu statistika. Pieejams: http://vec.gov.lv/lv/kompensejamiemedikamenti/statistika
15. Pharmaceutical Pricing Strategies 2000. Pieejams: http://globalbusinessinsights.com/
content/rbhc0030m.pdf/
16. Tuffs, A. Only 6% of drug advertising material is supported by evidence.
Pieejams: http://www.bmj.bmjjournals.com/
17. Zu
patria
statistika
2009.
Pieejams:
http://www.zva.gov.lv/index.
php?id=99&sa=99&top=5
Summary
The reimbursement system for pharmaceuticals in Latvia develops in circumstances
of strongly limited financial recourses. The Latvian competent authorities use a wide
range of tools for controlling pharmaceutical demand and supply but these measures are
23
not enough to cover the budget deficit. The state budget resources for the reimbursement
system have decreased over the last years that cause the reduction of reimbursed
categories. As not always such reduction can be based on therapeutic priorities, the
authors of the research paper investigate the possibilities to use additional economic
measurers as tools for decision-making process. The aim of the article is to investigate
the pharmaceuticals price elasticity of demand in reimbursement system and evaluate the
possibility to use this measure in the decision-making process. The authors conclude that
the price elasticity of demand is a useful additional tool for decision-making, taking into
account the specifics of each group of diagnoses.
Keywords: pharmaceutical market, price elasticity of demand, reimbursement
system, decision-making process, Latvia.

24.37. lpp.
Latvijas darba tirgus tendences un izaicinjumi

Tendencies and Challenges of Labor Market in Latvia
Daira Barnova
Aspazijas bulv. 5, LV-1050
E-pasts: daira.baranova@lanet.lv
Elena Dubra
Aspazijas bulv. 5, LV-1050
E-pasts: elena.dubra@lu.lv
Rakst ir analiztas Latvijas darba tirgus tendences, noteiktas galvens problmas un doti to
risinjumi, k ar analizti socilie un metodoloiskie aspekti Latvijas darba tirgus ptjumos,
lai nodrointu stabilu valsts socilekonomisko izaugsmi. Rakst ietverta informcija par
darba tirgus pilnveidoanas stratiskajiem aspektiem un darba tirgus prognozanu.
Atslgvrdi: socil politika, darba tirgus, migrcija, prognozanas metodoloija.
Pasaules finanu krze ir btiski ietekmjusi valstu makroekonomiskos rdtjus,

jo strauji pieaudzis bezdarba lmenis un samazinjies nodarbintbas lmenis,
krituies raoanas apjomi un iekzemes kopprodukts, pasliktinjusies ar fiskl
situcija, monetrie un socilie rdtji, aktivizjas darbaspka mobilitte.
Ptjuma galvenais objekts ir darba tirgus Latvij.
Raksta mris ir analizt Latvijas darba tirgus tendences, noteikt galvenos
izaicinjumus un dot risinjumus. Problmas darba tirg tiek skattas no darba
devju un darba mju viedoka, balstoties uz Labkljbas ministrijas darba tirgus
ptjumiem un Latvijas Republikas ministrijas, Nodarbintbas valsts aentras,
valsts iestu regulriem apsekojumiem. Ptjuma periods aptver informciju no
2007. gada ldz pareizjam brdim.
Mra atklsmei izvirzti di uzdevumi:
1) raksturot darba tirgu ietekmjoos faktorus;
2) analizt tendences un izaicinjumus darba tirg Latvij;
3) izstrdt prieklikumus par darba tirgu pilnveidoanas stratiskajiem vir
zieniem.
Raksta aktualitti nosaka ekonomisks krzes radts problmas darba tirg
augstais bezdarba lmenis un zemais nodarbintbas lmenis, k ar iespjamie
risinjumi nodarbintbas politikas pilnveidei.
D. Barnova, E. Dubra. Latvijas darba tirgus tendences un izaicinjumi
25
Nozmgu darbu valsts nodarbintbas politikas nostdu izveid un to

realizcij ldz ar citm valsts institcijm veic LR Ekonomikas ministrija (LR
EM), LR Labkljbas ministrija (LR LM) un tai pakauts organizcijas, galvenokrt
Nodarbintbas valsts aentra (NVA). Plaa informcija par darba tirgus jautjumiem
uzkrta un sistematizta Centrls statistikas prvaldes (CSP) datubzs. Atsevii
ptjumi darba tirgus un nodarbintbas jom veikti pc LR EM un LR Izgltbas
un zintnes ministrijas (LR IZM) pastjuma profesionls asocicijs, galvenokrt
aptverot atsevias nozares vai darba tirgus sektorus. Veikto ptjumu metodoloija
lielkoties balsts uz dadu apsekojumu un statistisks informcijas datiem,
ekspertu vrtjumiem, ierobeot apjom izmantojot matemtisks statistikas un
ekonometrijas metodi. rvalstu darba tirgus ptjumi, kuru pirmskumi aizsks
pagju gadsimta 60. gados, un prognozanas prakses analze liecina par kopgu
pieeju darbaspka pieprasjuma un piedvjuma prognozanas metodoloij. Tomr
katr valst ir savas darba tirgus ptjumu patnbas atkarb no pieejamm datubzm,
kuras izmanto prognozan. Prognozanas proces plai tiek lietota darbaspka
nepiecieambas metodoloija. rzemju ptjumos darbaspka piedvjuma un
pieprasjuma vidja termia prognou periods ir 57 gadi un ilgtermia prognozes
balsts uz tautsaimniecbas ilgtermia attstbas scenrijiem. das pieredzes
premana ir iespjama ar Latvijas apstkos.
Btiskas izmaias darba tirgus ptjumos radja ar Eiropas struktrfondu at
balstu realiztais Eiropas Savienbas struktrfondu nacionls programmas Darba
tirgus ptjumi projekts Labkljbas ministrijas ptjumi (2007). aj projekt
tika veikts ar ptjums Detalizts darbaspka un darba tirgus ptjums tautsaimnie
cbas sektoros (projekta vadtja Elena Dubra). is projekts aptvra Latvijas darba
tirgus aktulu un daudzveidgu problmu loku un bija btisks ieguldjums darba
tirgus ptjumu un nodarbintbas politikas attstb.
Pareizj nodarbintbas politika tiek izstrdta saska ar ES 2020 stratiju,
kur tiek formults mris ldz 2020. gadam ES sasniegt 75% nodarbintbas lmeni
(2064 gadu vecuma grup). Latvijas nacionlo reformu programmu 2011. gada
26.aprl ir apstiprinjis Ministru kabinets.
Latvijas Republikas tautsaimniecbas attstbas un nodarbintbas stratiskajos un
politikas plnoanas dokumentos noteikts galvens problmas ekonomikas attstbas
un nodarbintbas jom pamat atbilst ES tiesbu aktiem un politikas plnoanas
dokumentiem nodarbintbas jom. Tomr to izstrdes process ne vienmr balsts
uz pietiekami detalizti veiktu darba tirgus analzi, tajos izvirztie mri pamat
ir kvalitatvi, un tas kav izvrtt veikto paskumu rezulttus un to efektivitti.
Analizjot nodarbintbas politikas dokumentu vsturisko attstbu, atkljas, ka
tajos ne vienmr ievrota ciea saistba starp nodarbintbas politikas priorittm un
veiktajiem paskumiem. da saistba btu, ja tiktu izstrdta integrta vadlnija, kas
apvieno tautsaimniecbas attstbas makroekonomikas un mikroekonomikas lmea un
nodarbintbas politikas jautjumus.
Darba tirgu ietekmjoo faktoru mijiedarbba ir pardta 1. attl.
Tautsaimniecb izmaias darba tirg ir ciei saisttas ar izmaim ekonomisks
aktivittes cikl. Latvij ilgus gadus bija vrojama ekonomisk izaugsme. No
2005. ldz 2007. gadam t bija tik strauja, ka iekzemes kopprodukts (IKP) aj
period pieauga vidji par 11% ik gadu. Tomr ldz ar pasaules finanu krzi izmaias
26
ir izraisjuas ar ekonomisks aktivittes pasliktinanos Latvij. Piemram, 2008.

gad IKP samazinjs par 4,2%, un vl btisks ekonomisks aktivittes samazinjums
bija 2009. gad (IKP samazinjums 18%). Ekonomikas izaugsme atsks 2010.
gad, lai ar kopum aj gad IKP krits par 0,3%, 2011. gad tiek prognozts 3,3%
IKP pieaugums. Saska ar vidja termia makroekonomisks attsttbas prognozm
turpmkajos gados Latvij ir sagaidma izaugsme 34% apmr [1, 85].
Tehnoloiskais progress
Dzimums
Investciju
lmenis un to
sadaljums pa
nozarm
Darba tirgus un
cilvkresursi
Izgltba
Vecums
Reions
Tautsaimniecbas
attstbas stvoklis
iekzem un
tirdzniecbas partneru
valsts
Valdbas politikas izmaias

attiecb uz nodarbintiem
1. attls. Darba tirgu ietekmjoie faktori

Labour Market Influencing Factors
Piezme: izstrdjuas autores.
Latvijas strauj ekonomikas izaugsme 2005.2007. gad pozitvi ietekmja darba

tirgu samazinjs bezdarba lmenis un pieauga nodarbintba. Ldz 2007. gadam
nodarbinto skaits ik gadu vidji pieauga par 2,9%. 2008. gad ekonomisks
aktivittes samazinans izraisja nodarbintbas lmea izmaias un bezdarbs
palielinjs apmram divas reizes, savukrt 2009. gad pat vairk nek divas reizes,
sasniedzot 16,9% un tdjdi negatvi ietekmjot valsts iedzvotju labkljbas
lmeni un makstspju. Eksperti gan paredz, ka turpmk nodarbintbas lmenis
lnm paaugstinsies. Reistrt bezdarba lmenis Latvij 2011. gada janvra beigs
pieaudzis ldz 14,5%, un palaik uz vienu brvu darbvietu pretend 66 cilvki. Tas
nav lcienveida pieaugums, ar iepriekjos gados pirmaj ceturksn bija vrojams
neliels bezdarba pieaugums.
Valdba os socilos jautjumus risina divjdi izmantojot socilo drobas
tklu, lai mazintu ietekmi uz bezdarbniekiem, k ar ekonomikas sildanas
paskumus, kas veicina jaunu darbvietu raanos.
ie procesi atspoguojas bezdarba rdtjos (2. att.). Bezdarba lmenis Latvij
no 2000. ldz 2007. gadam samazinjs attiecgi no 14,4 ldz 6%. Pasliktinoties
ekonomiskai situcijai, bezdarbs Latvij ska pieaugt 2008. gada ruden, bet pai
strauji kop decembra. Analizjot nodarbintbas rdtjus, tas turpinja pieaugt ar
27
2008. gad par 0,2%, neskatoties uz IKP kritumu. Nodarbintbas lmea izmaias
laika zi vienmr nedaudz caurmr par 46 mneiem atpaliek no ekonomisko
aktivitu izmaim. Saska ar NVA datiem 2009. gada janvr un februr vidji
dien reistrjs ap 1000 cilvku. Strauji samazinjs brvo darbvietu skaits.
2007. gada beigs bija 20 803 brvas darbvietas, kas veidoja 1,9% brvo darbvietu
patsvaru kopj darbvietu skait, bet 2008. gada 3. ceturka beigs 9 621 brva
darbvieta un 2009. gada 1. ceturka skum tikai 2 tkstoi brvu darbvietu
[5,54].
25
20
15
10
5
0
2007
2008
2009
2010
2. attls. Bezdarba lmenis Latvij 2007.2010. gad, % no ekonomiski aktvo

iedzvotju skaita [1, 74]
Unemployment Rate in Latvia from 20072010, % of Economically Active Population
Saska ar darba devju pieteiktm brvm darbvietm zemkais brvo darbvietu

skaits bija 2009. gada decembra beigs 1400, bet, skot ar 2010. gada janvri,
brvo darbvietu skaits pakpeniski pieauga un 2010. gada beigs sasniedza 3600.
Nodarbintbas lmenis 2010. gad ir nedaudz pieaudzis. Nodarbintbas lmeni
ietekm daudzi faktori: rel iekzemes kopprodukta pieauguma temps, darba
produktivitte, izmaias nodarbinto vidji nostrdto stundu skait, k ar izmaias
darbspjgo iedzvotju skait u. c.
Situcija nodarbintbas un bezdarba jom pasliktinjs ne tikai Latvij. Darba
tirg recesija turpinjs gan ES valsts, gan citur pasaul. Nodarbintba samazinjs
gan eirozonas valsts, gan ES-27 valsts. Piemram, 2008. gada otraj pusgad
t samazinjs eirozon attiecgi par 0,1 un 0,3% un ES kopum par 0,2 un
0,3%. Latvij aj period ir bijis lielkais nodarbintbas kritums ES. 2008. gada
4.ceturksn, saldzinot ar 3. ceturksni, tas krits par 2,8% jeb par 5,4%, saldzinot ar
iepriekj gada atbilstoo periodu [8, 13].
Bezdarba lmenis 2010. gada decembr eirozonas valsts sasniedza 10% un
ES-27 valsts 9,6%. Zemkais bezdarba lmenis 2009. gada decembr bija N
derland (4,3%), bet augstkais Spnij (20,2%) un Latvij un Lietuv (18,3%).
aj period ES-27 valsts bija 23,179 miljoni bezdarbnieku [9, 1].
Lai mazintu finanu krzes sekas, Eiropas Savienbas dalbvalstis steno dadus
pagaidu fiskl stimula paskumus nodarbintbas un ienkumu atbalstam.
28
Eiropas Komisijas aprini rda, ka kopjais sniegtais atbalsts iem mriem

Eiropas Savienb bija 0,4% no IKP 2009. gad un 0,2% no IKP 2010. gad.
Daudziem pagaidu paskumiem tika nordts ierobeots lietoanas periods. Savukrt
ilgstoi lietojamo paskumu apjoms ar ir nozmgs: 0,3% no IKP 2009. gad un
0,6% no IKP 2010. gad [8].
100
42
Nodarbintbas lmenis vecuma grup

15-64 gadi (kreis ass)
Ekonomisks aktivittes lmenis
vecuma grup 15-74 gadi (kreis ass)
Bezdarba lmenis vecuma grup 15-74
gadi (lab ass)
90
80
36
30
24
70
18
60
12
50
2007
2008
2009
IV
III
2010
II
IV
III
II
IV
III
II
IV
III
II
IV
II
40
III
2011
3. attls. Darba tirgus attstbas tendences Latvij [1, 78]

Labour Market Development Trends in Latvia
Ldz 2010.gada 3. ceturksnim atspoguoti faktiskie dati.
ES stenotos pagaidu fiskl stimula paskumus var sistematizt di [8]:

paskumi, kas atbalsta darba stundu samazinanu. Daas valstis
(Nderlande, Slovnija, Slovkija un ehija) ieviesa jaunas programmas
(shmas). Citas valstis (Austrija, Vcija, Itlija, Beija un Luksemburga)
pareizjs programms (shms) palielinja finansilo atbalstu un ilgumu;
bezdarba pabalstu lieluma un ilguma pagarinana. di paskumi tiek
lietoti darba tirgus politik, piemram, Spnij un Itlij;
aktvie darba tirgus paskumi, kas ietver ar subsdijas darba algm un
strdjoiem, k ar jaunu darbvietu radanu. dus paskumus bija
paredzts stenot ldz 2010. gada beigm. Mintie paskumi ir nozmgi
tds valsts k Bulgrija, Zviedrija, Slovkija, Somija, Lietuva, Francija un
Lielbritnija;
darba nodoku pagaidu samazinana. ie ir stermia paskumi, kas tiek
veikti, lai palielintu darbaspka pieprasjumu vai stimulu strdt. Uz krzes
laiku samazint darba nodokus ldz 2009. gada beigm bija nolmusi ehija,
29
Spnija, Francija un Portugle, bet ldz 2010. gada beigm Beija, Itlija,
Nderlande, Rumnija un Slovkija.
Eiropas Savienbas Ekonomisko un finanu jautjumu padomes 2010. gada
16. marta sanksm tika pieemts lmums, ka pagaidu darba tirgus fiskl stimula
atbalsta paskumi btu jprtrauc pakpeniski, kad ekonomikas atveseoans bs
stabilizjusies. ES kopum atveseoans notika 2010. gada vid, tau ir jem vr
laika nobde starp izaugsmes atskanos un darba tirgus situcijas uzlaboanos.
Mint padome uzskata, ka o atbalsta paskumu prtraukana bs atkarga no katras
valsts specifisks situcijas. Bezdarbnieku pabalsta izmaksas ilguma un prkljuma
paskumi pakpeniski jprtrauc saska ar nodarbintbas veicinanas mriem
[10; 11].
Apkopojot informciju par bezdarba pareizjo situciju Latvij, varam konstatt
das galvens tendences [5, 911]:
pasliktinoties ekonomiskajai situcijai, bezdarbnieku skaits strauji pieauga,
bet kop 2010. gada marta tas ir scis samazinties;
bezdarbs Latvij ir skris visu jomu darbiniekus. Galvenokrt tie ir iedz
votji ar zemku izgltbas lmeni: palgstrdnieki, stnieki, apkopjas u. c.;
palielins vidjais bezdarbnieku vecums;
lielk daa bezdarbnieku ir vecuma grup no 45 ldz 54 gadiem;
pieaug jaunieu bezdarbnieku patsvars;
reistrt bezdarba lmen un reistrto bezdarbnieku skaita attstb ir
novrojamas btiskas reionlas atirbas;
pc izgltbas lmea lielko bezdarbnieku patsvaru kopj bezdarbnieku
skait veido bezdarbnieki ar profesionlo izgltbu;
kop 2006. gada visvairk (par 2,2 procentpunktiem) palielinjies to
bezdarbnieku patsvars, kam iegta augstk izgltba, bet par 1,3 procent
punktiem samazinjies bezdarbnieku patsvars ar pamatizgltbu;
ar augstko, profesionlo un visprjo vidjo izgltbu lielko patsvaru
2008. gada beigs veidoja bezdarbnieki vecum no 45 ldz 54 gadiem, ar
pamatizgltbu lielk daa bezdarbnieku ir vecum no 25 ldz 34 gadiem, ar
izgltbu, kas zemka par pamatizgltbu no 15 ldz 24 gadiem;
no NVA reistrtajiem bezdarbniekiem daljum pa mra grupm lielko
patsvaru veido ilgstoie bezdarbnieki;
bezdarba tendences Latvij ir ldzgas k cits ES valsts.
Svargi ir zintniski pamatoti analizt situciju darba tirg ar darbaspka
pieprasjuma prognozanas metodoloiju, kura balsts uz rvalsts plai lietotm
darba tirgus prognozanas metodm. Izmantojot darbaspka nepiecieambas
metodoloiju, darbaspka pieprasjumu profesiju griezum prognoz dos posmos:
LR EM tiek sagatavotas nodarbinto skaita prognozes. Tiek emtas vr
iepriekjo gadu tendences, k ar visa rcb eso informcija par nkotn
sagaidmm izmaim rjos tirgos, tehnoloij u. c. izmaias, kas var btiski
ietekmt Latvijas tautsaimniecbas nozaru struktru;
30

pievienots vrtbas nozaru prognozes tiek izmantotas, lai prognoztu

nodarbinto skaitu nozaru griezum. Pievienots vrtbas un nodarbintbas
prognozes tiek saisttas ar raoanas funkcijas paldzbu, kur pievienots
vrtbas pieaugums asocijas ar pieaugumu raoanu faktoru (darbaspka un
kapitla) daudzum un tehnoloisko progresu.
Ttad darbaspka pieprasjuma pieaugumu profesiju griezum veido kopjs
nodarbintbas pieaugums; izmaias nodarbinto sadaljum pa nozarm (kas rodas
td, ka nozaru pievienoto vrtbu pieauguma tempi, kapitla pieauguma tempi un
tehnoloisk progresa tempi atiras un ar nodarbinto skaita struktra ar laiku
mains), kas atspoguo nozares patsvara efektu; izmaias profesiju patsvaros
nozars, kas atspoguo profesiju patsvara efektu. Abu efektu novrtanas metode
tiek aprakstta tlk. K tika mints iepriek, profesiju patsvara efektu nosaka
tehnoloiskais progress.
Darbaspka pieprasjuma prognozanas metodoloija shematiski pardta
4.attl [3, 56].
Vsturiskie dati:
nacionlo kontu dati,
iedzvotju skaita un struktras dati,
darba mju un darba devju
aptauju rezultti
Informcija par
tehnoloisko procesu attstbu,
nkotn sagaidmm izmaim
rjos tirgos
Ekspertu IKP un investciju

prognozes pa nozarm
Raoanas funkcijas novrtjumi
Darbaspka pieprasjuma
prognozes pa nozarm
Darbaspka
pieprasjuma
prognozes pa
profesijm
Nozaru un profesiju nodarbintbas matrica
4. attls. Darbaspka pieprasjuma prognozanas metodoloijas shma

Prognoses Methodology Schema of Labour Force Demand
Koba-Duglasa raoanas funkcija (turpmk K-D raoanas funkcija) ir oti

izplatta ekonomiskos ptjumos un prognozan, analizjot raoanas faktoru
(kapitla un darbaspka) atdevi, k ar novrtjot tehnoloisk procesa lmeni un
tendenci valst. Visprpieemts K-D raoanas funkcijas novrtanai izmantot
liners modelanas metodes. Raoanas funkcijas novrtanai visbiek lieto
standartu K-D raoanas funkciju ar konstantu atdevi no raoanas mroga (constant
returns of scale). T izskats di [3,57]:
Yt = AtKtLt1,
kur

31
(1)
Yt ir IKP saldzinmajs cens;

At kopjais faktoru ragums jeb tehnoloiskais progress;
Kt relais uzkrt kapitla apjoms;
Lt darbaspks ekonomik;
kapitla atdeve.
Ptjuma gait, testjot iegtos rezulttus un izmantojot Latvijas datus raoanas

funkciju noteikanai katram tautsaimniecbas sektoram, tika secints, ka Latvijas
gadjum K-D raoanas funkciju ar konstantu atdevi no raoanas mroga nevar
lietot. Vislabkos rezulttus dod K-D raoanas funkcija ar maingu atdevi no
mroga [3, 57]:
Yt = AtKtLt,
(2)
kur maingie paliek iepriekjie k K-D raoanas funkcijai;

kur kapitla elastba vai atdeve;

darbaspka elastba vai atdeve.
Detalizts Koba-Duglasa raoanas funkcijas lietojums ir apskatts ES
struktrfondu nacionls programmas Darba tirgus ptjumi projekt Detalizts
darbaspka un darba tirgus ptjums tautsaimniecbas sektoros [3, 5763].
Nacionls programmas Darba tirgus ptjumi projekt Labkljbas ministrijas
ptjumi (2007) iegto prognou analze pa 120 profesijm rda, ka strdjoo
nepietiekamba 2007. gad rads 82 no 120 profesijm un 2013. gad t gaidma
99 profesijs. Latvijas darba tirg gandrz 52% strdjoo nav nodarbinti profesijs
atbilstgi viu iegtajai izgltbai, par to liecina ptjuma Profesionls un augstks
izgltbas programmu atbilstba darba tirgus prasbm (2006) aptaujas rezultti.
Vidj termi paredzta darbaspka nepietiekambas vislielk palielinans
ds profesijs: inenieri, bvinenieri, elektroinenieri, citi fizikas un inenierzintu
specilisti, skaitoanas tehnikas operatori, rsti, zobrsti, vidjais medicniskais
personls, komercdarjumu specilisti. Prognou rezultti pa 37 profesiju grupm
vidj termi parda darbaspka nepietiekambas vislielko palielinanos ds
grups: komercdarjumu specilisti, civils drobas, aizsardzbas un citi specilisti,
lauksaimniecbas darbinieki.
Prognou rezulttu liels atirbas darbaspka pieprasjum un piedvjum pa
atsevim profesijm skaidrojamas ar diem faktoriem: atseviu profesiju zemais
prestis iedzvotju darba izvl, ko btiski ietekm zemais atalgojums un o profesiju
nozmguma vrtjums sabiedrb; strdjoo nodarbintba vairkos blakusdarbos,
ko pietiekami preczi neatspoguo statistiskie dati; tehnoloisk progresa attstbas
nepietiekamais novrtjums; uzmju nepietiekam aktivitte raoanas procesu
kapitalizcij, kas nkotn var uzturt nepamatoti augstu darbaspka pieprasjumu
atsevis profesijs.
32
Pc darba devju viedoka Latvij izir das darba tirgus problmas [3]:
darba devjam tiek izvirztas augstas prasbas un pienkumi, kas rada
negatvu uzmju attieksmi pret valsts un pavaldbu institcijm, jo
uzmju resursi tiek novirzti nebtiskm aktivittm un kontroljos
institcijas tiek uztvertas nevis k palgs, bet k traucklis;
darba mju tiesbu prlieka aizsardzba likumdoan, kas rada aploku
algas sistmu, grtbas atbrvoties no neprofesionli strdjoa darbinieka;
netiek aizsargts darba devju ieguldjums darba mj, tpc mazins darba
devju motivcija stt darbiniekus uz kvalifikcijas celanas kursiem.
Latvijas strauj ekonomikas izaugsme 2005.2007. gad pozitvi ietekmja
darba tirgu samazinjs bezdarba lmenis un pieauga nodarbintba. Ekonomikas
krze 2008. gad izraisja nodarbintbas lmea izmaias un palielinja bezdarbu
apmram divas reizes, savukrt 2009. gad pat vairk nek divas reizes. 2010.
gada beigs Latvij un Lietuv bija otrais austkais bezdarba lmenis ES. Turpmk
izaugsme vairk balstsies uz produktivittes pieaugumu un mazk uz nodarbintbas
palielinanos, un to noteiks augst konkurence preu un pakalpojumu tirgos.
Lai mazintu finanu krzes sekas, ES dalbvalstis steno vairkus pagaidu fiskl
stimula paskumus nodarbintbas un ienkumu atbalstam: atbalstu darba stundu
samazinanai, bezdarba pabalstu lieluma un ilguma pagarinanu, subsdijas darba
algm un strdjoiem, tieu jaunu darbvietu radanu un darba nodoku pagaidu
samazinanu.
Ar Latvij tiek stenoti pagaidu paskumi bezdarbnieku, darba mekltju un
bezdarbam pakauto personu atbalstam. Galvenie no tiem ir bezdarba pabalsta
izmaksas ilguma pagarinana, darba praktizana ar stipendiju, apmcbu
programmas bezdarba riskam pakautm nodarbintm personm, jaunieu darba
prakses ar stipendiju. Saldzinot pagaidu paskumus nodarbintbas un ienkumu
atbalstam, ko izmanto Latvij un ES dalbvalstis krzes seku mazinanai, jsecina,
ka Latvij to klsts un intensitte ir ievrojami mazka.
Izstrdjot valsts nodarbintbas politiku, ir jem vr, ka
pareizjos augsta bezdarba lmea apstkos btiskkais ir nodroint
ar iztikas ldzekiem un aktivizt tos bezdarbniekus, kas vairs nesaem
bezdarbnieka pabalstu;
pareizj situcija negatvi ietekm jaunieu izredzes atrast darbu. iem
jaunieiem btu svargi sniegt iespju turpint mcbas vai ar jrada iespjas
staties pie darba devja;
bezdarba pieauguma samazinanas un strdjoo darba iemau un prasmju
saglabanas nolk valstij btu jizstrd ar tdi paskumi, kas atbalsta
dadas nepilna darba laika formas;
uzlabojoties ekonomiskajai situcijai, arvien svargka nozme bs
bezdarbnieku, darba mekltju un nodarbinto personu apmcbu un
prkvalifikcijas paaugstinanas paskumiem;
t k vidja termia period izaugsme vairk balstsies uz produktivittes
pieaugumu un mazk uz nodarbintbas palielinanos, tad arvien lielka
33
nozme bs izgltbas sistmas kvalittei, sagatavoto specilistu kompetencei

un prasmm;
krasi pieaugoais darbaspka prpalikums un lnais uzlabojums rada
nepiecieambu veicint un atbalstt nodarbinto profesionlo mobilitti, k
ar pilnveidot mizgltbu un paplaint tlkizgltbas ieganas iespjas.
Raksturojot darba tirgus problmas, ir jem vr ar darbaspka migrcija.
Preczu ziu par darbaspka migrciju nav, bet, pc rlietu ministrijas novrtjuma,
2011. gad rpus Latvijas dzvo un strd vairk nek 300 000 Latvijas iedzvotju.
Ptjumi liecina par darbaspka migrcijas jautjumu saasinanos. Darba tirgus
sabalanstbas nodroinanai ilgk perspektv nepiecieama prdomta un
sabiedrbas atbalstta migrcijas politika, ko vartu izmantot par korijou elementu
darba tirgus attstbas prognozan nkotn.
Attieksme pret starptautisks darbaspka migrcijas pozitvajiem un negatvajiem
aspektiem nevar bt vienprtga t bs vai nu ieguvums, vai zaudjums atkarb
no socilekonomisks situcijas katr valst.
Valstij k darbaspka eksporttjai vartu bt das pozitvs sekas:
darbiniekiem ir iespjas iegt jaunu kvalifikciju;
iekj darba tirgus saspljums mazins;
raoanas strukturlie un tehnoloiskie prkrtojumi uzlabojas;
maksjumu bilances deficts mazins.
Savukrt valstij k darbaspka eksporttjai vartu bt das negatvs sekas, ar
kurm vajadzs rinties:
tiek zaudts kvalificts darbaspks un darba tirgus kvalitte pazemins;
palielins atkarba no rvalstu pieprasjuma ne tikai pc precm, bet ar pc
darbaspka;
kapitlieguldjumi tiek prorientti no raoanas resursiem uz patriu;
inflcijas pieaugums.
Turpret valstij k darbaspka importtjai ir di ieguvumi:
veidojas vietjo darbinieku mobilitte;
darbaspka kopjs izmaksas pazemins, jo strdjoo skaits samazins;
darbaspka kvalitte palielins, pateicoties jaunu, kvalifictu darbinieku
atlasei;
uzlabojas reionlo atpalicbu struktra;
cenu pieaugums samazins, pateicoties rvalstu strdjoo centieniem taupt
ldzekus.
Valstij k darbaspka importtjai ir iespjami di zaudjumi:
iekj darba tirgus saspljums palielins;
tiek bremzta darba aizsardzbas tehnoloiju ievieana;
palielins rvalstu bezdarbnieku un viu imeu uzturanas izdevumi.
Tomr starptautiskais darba tirgus pc savas struktras nav vienveidgs.
Analizjot skk, atkljas, ka tirg darbojas gan dadi darba prdevji, gan dadi
34
darba pircji, t. i., strdjoie atiras gan pc kvalifikcijas, gan izgltbas lmea.
Savukrt valstis, kas ir darba devjas, atiras pc attstbas lmea.
Lai nodrointu darbaspka pieprasjumu, Latvijas izgltbas sistmai jrada
bze vajadzgo profesiju specilistu sagatavoanai.
Darbaspka logaritmisk viendojuma koeficienti auj novrtt dadu faktoru
ietekmi uz darbaspka pieprasjuma izmaim. T inovatv kapitla palielinana
lauksaimniecb, zvejniecb, ieguves un apstrdes rpniecb, vairumtirdzniecb
un mazumtirdzniecb, transport un sakaros un finanu starpniecb dos iespju
samazint ajs nozars nodarbint darbaspka skaitu. Visvairk d nozm
moderna kapitla palielinana ietekms rpniecbas nozares.
5. attls. Darbaspka pieprasjuma un piedvjuma prognozes Latvij,

tkst. cilvku [1,78]
Forecasts of Labour Force Demand and Supply in Latvia, thousand people
Ldz 2009. gadam atspoguoti faktiskie gada dati.
Darba raguma paaugstinana ir visrelk iespja samazint nodarbinto

skaitu bvniecb, vairumtirdzniecb un mazumtirdzniecb, viesncu un restornu
nozar.
Ttad prognozto tautsaimniecbas attstbas tempu vars sasniegt, galvenokrt
palielinot nodarbinto skaitu ds nozars: elektroenerija, gzes un dens apgde,
datorpakalpojumi, zintne un citi komercpakalpojumi, izgltba, veselba un socil
aprpe, k ar sabiedriskie, socilie un individulie pakalpojumi.

Darba tirgus prognozes (5. att.) liecina, ka darbaspka prpalikums Latvij
saglabsies ar vidj termi. Ekonomikas ministrija prognoz, ka darba tirg
pozitvas tendences (nodarbintbas pieaugums) gaidmas nedaudz vlk nek
ekonomikas izaugsm, turklt nodarbinto skaita palielinjums bs krietni mrenks
nek izaugsme, jo izlaides pieaugums vairk balstsies uz darba intensittes
35
pieaugumu (darba raguma kpumu) un mazk skars darbinieku skaita palielinjumu.

Tautsaimniecbas attstbas prognozes paredz, ka darbaspka pieprasjums atsks
pieaugt 2011.gad, bet t pieaugums bs neliels. 2015.gad nodarbinto iedzvotju
skaits Latvij bs par aptuveni par 10% mazks nek 2008.gad.
Secinjumi un prieklikumi
1. Pasliktinoties ekonomiskajai situcijai Latvij, bezdarbnieku skaits strauji pieauga.
Pozitvas tendences darba tirg pardjs 2010. gad, jo neliels nodarbinto skaita
pieaugums bija gandrz viss nozars. Lai ar bezdarbs turpina samazinties,
tautsaimniecb saglabjas btisks darbaspka prpalikums. 2011. gada skum
reistrt bezdarba lmenis bija 14,3%, bet prognozes rda, ka 2015. gad
bezdarba lmenis vartu bt 8% un 2016. gad 78%.
2. Raoanas funkcijas aprini rda, ka bezdarba pieaugums negatvi ietekm IKP
lielumu un t pieauguma tempu (par to liecina ekonomikas lejupslde Latvij
no 2008. ldz 2010. gadam). Prognozes rda, ka 2011. gad jau varam sagaidt
pozitvu IKP pieaugumu, t. i., par 3,5% lielku IKP pieaugumu nek 2010. gad,
un ldz 2020. gadam ir sagaidma izaugsme 34% apmr.
3. Latvij nepiecieams organizt Nodarbinto reistru k perspektvko datu
avotu darba tirgus analz un prognozan, jo Nodarbinto reistrs var bt
vispreczkais darbaspka piedvjuma datu avots darbaspka pieprasjuma
noteikan un prognozan. Nodarbinto reistrs harmoniski iederas Latvijas
reistru sistm. T funkcionanas gadjum jnodroina sadarbba ar
Iedzvotju reistru, Audzku reistru, Bezdarbnieku uzskaites un reistrto
vakanu informcijas sistmu, Valsts socils apdroinanas aentras un Valsts
iemumu dienesta datubzm.
4. Veidojot darba tirgus politiku, izgltbas sistma jtuvina darba tirgus prasbm,
ievrojot darba pieprasjuma pa profesijm izmaias nkotn, un jattsta
mizgltbas sistma.
5. Lai uzlabotu darba tirgus attstbu, izstrdjot valsts nodarbintbas politiku, ir
jem vr, ka
pareizjos augsta bezdarba lmea apstkos btiskkais ir nodroint
ar iztikas ldzekiem un aktivizt tos bezdarbniekus, kas vairs nesaem
bezdarbnieka pabalstu. Tau Latvij vienlaikus vajadztu vairk izmantot
un izvrst paskumus, kas atbalsta dadas nepilna darba laika formas. Tas
autu saglabt strdjoiem darba iemaas un prasmes;
ilgstoiem bezdarbniekiem, kuru skaits turpina pieaugt, vienldz svargi
ir nodroint gan apmcbas un prkvalificanos, gan pietiekamu socilo
aizsardzbu;
pareizj situcija negatvi ietekm jaunieu izredzes atrast darbu. Btu
jrada iespja, lai ie jauniei vartu turpint mcbas vai ar staties pie
darba devja;
t k vidj termi, k to prognoz LR Ekonomikas ministrija, izaugsme
vairk balstsies uz produktivittes pieaugumu un mazk uz nodarbintbas
36
palielinanos, tad arvien lielka nozme bs izgltbas sistmas kvalittei,

sagatavoto specilistu kompetencei un prasmm.
6. LR Ekonomikas ministrijai, LR Labkljbas ministrijai un LR Izgltbas un
zintnes ministrijai jveido tda valsts darba tirgus politika, kas veicintu
darba mju interesi par profesijm, kurs ir lielkais darbaspka deficts. im
nolkam jizmanto atalgojuma faktors un jnosaka izgltbas sistmas priorittes,
paaugstinot pieprastko profesiju prestiu sabiedrb.
7. Ieteicams uzlabot koordinciju starp Labkljbas ministriju (pirmm krtm ts
padotb esoo Nodarbintbas valsts aentru), Izgltbas un zintnes ministriju,
Ekonomikas ministriju galvenajm darba tirgus pieprasjuma un piedvjuma
analzes un prognozanas rezulttu izmantotjm Latvij. Ts ir ar darba tirgus
atseviu aptauju, analzes un / vai prognozanas darbu veicjas valst.
LITERATRA
1. LR Ekonomikas ministrija. Ziojums par Latvijas tautsaimniecbas attstbu (2010.,
decembris). Pieejams: http://www.em.gov.lv (sk. 25.03.2011.)
2. LR Ekonomikas ministrija. Informatvais ziojums par makroekonomisko situciju valst
(2011. gada janvris). Pieejams: www.em.gov.lv (sk. 28.02.2011.)
3. Detalizts darbaspka un darba tirgus ptjums tautsaimniecbas sektoros. Projekts
Labkljbas ministrijas ptjumi. Rga: LU, 2007. 223 lpp.
4. Par 2009. gad stenotajiem aktvajiem nodarbintbas un preventvajiem bezdarba
samazinanas paskumiem. Informatvais ziojums. LR Labkljbas ministrija.
22.01.2010., 42 lpp. Pieejams: www.lm.gov.lv (sk. 26.03.2010.)
5. Ziojums par progresu Latvijas nacionl Lisabonas programmas stenoan. Rga: LR
Ekonomikas ministrija, 2008. 64 lpp.
6. Reinhart, M. C. The Economic and Financial Consequences of Financial Crises.
Development Outreach, Vol. 11, No. 3, December 2009, p. 812.
7. EIROPE 2020 A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. EUROPEAN
COMMISSION. 03.03.2010. COM(2010)-2020, 37 p. Pieejams: http://ec.europa.eu
(sk.20.01.2011.)
8. Exit strategies for the real economy: guiding principles for the withdrawal of temporary
crisis support measures in labour and product markets. EUROPEAN COMMISSION.
ECFIN-B-1/GM/EM/DS/ IJ/AA/FP D(2009), 16 p. Pieejams: http://ec.europa.eu
(sk.20.03.2011.)
9. News release. Euroindicators. EUROSTAT 18/2011, 1 February 2011, 4 p.
10. News realise. Euro indicators. EUROSTAT 16/2010, 29 January 2010, 4 p.
11. News realise. Euro indicators. EUROSTAT 46/2010, 31 March 2010, 4 p.
12. EEO: Quarterly Reports Executive Summary, December 2009, CEGE EI, 26 p.
13. Employment
News.
EUROSTAT.
Pieejams:
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat
(sk.20.03.2011.)
14. PRESS RELEASE 3003rd Council meeting. Economic and Financial Affairs. Brussels,
16 March 2010, 22 p.
37
15. Boswell, C., Stiller, S., Straubhaar, T. (2004) Forecasting Labour and Skills Shortages:
How Can Projections Better Inform Labour Migration Policies? Hamburg Institute of
International Economic (HWWA).
16. Ehrenberg, R. G., Smith, R. S. (2006) Modern Labor Economics. Addison Wesley.
17. Fuchs, J. and Tessaring, M. (1994) Medium and Long Term Forecasting of Employment
in Germany. In: Heijke, H. (Ed.) Forecasting the Labour Market by Occupation and
Education. Boston : Kluwer Academic.
Summary
The paper analyses trends of labour market in Latvia, finds main problems and
solutions for them. Social and methodological aspects of Latvian labour market
researches in todays economics and evaluation of Latvias labour market policies
implementation ensures steady socio-economic growth. The paper contains information
about strategic aspects of Latvias labour market improvement and labour market
forecasts methodology.
Keywords: social policy, labour market, migration, forecasts methodology.

38.46. lpp.
GDP Modelling Using Factor Model: Impact of Nested

Data on Forecasting Accuracy
IKP modelana ar faktoru modeli: hierarhiski strukturtu
datu ietekme uz prognou kvalitti
Andrejs Bessonovs
Latvijas Banka
K. Valdemra 2a, Rga, LV-1050
E-pasts: Bessonovs@gmail.com
Abstract
Uncertainty associated with an optimal number of macroeconomic variables to be used in
factor model is challenging since there is no criteria that states what kind of data should be
used, how many variables to employ, and whether disaggregated data improve factor models
forecasts.
The paper studies the impact of nested macroeconomic data on Latvian GDP forecasting
accuracy within factor modelling framework. Nested data means disaggregated data or
subcomponents of aggregated variables. We employ Stock-Watson factor model in order to
estimate factors and to make GDP projections two periods ahead. Root mean square error is
employed as the standard tool to measure forecasting accuracy. According to this empirical
study we conclude that additional information taken from disaggregated components of
macroeconomic variables could be used to enhance Latvian GDP forecasting accuracy. The
efficiency gain from improving forecasts is about 0.150.20 percentage points of yearonyear
quarterly growth for the forecasting period 1 quarter ahead but for 2 quarters ahead the
improvement is about half percentage point.
Keywords: Factor model, forecasting, nested data, RMSE.
1. Introduction
Seminal papers of Stock and Watson (1998, 2002a, 2002b), Forni and Reichlin
(1998), Forni, Lippi, Hallin and Reichlin (2001a) put forward factor modeling
framework as a powerful tool to predict macroeconomic variables. Unlike other
univariate and multivariate models, factor models incorporate much macroeconomic
data in the analysis. Stock and Watson (2002a) use 215 US macroeconomic variables
covering the most economic sectors, they may represent an economic activity
and potential driving forces of an economy. Forni and Reichlin (1998) use 450
disaggregated series to understand aggregate dynamics.
Factor analysis is easy to implement by adding additional data without any
difficulty. The dataset may include more information as more disaggregated time
series are available for any additional specific sector of an economy. Since the
A. Bessonovs. GDP Modelling Using Factor Model: Impact of Nested Data on ..
39
former statement it is logical to span the most sectors of the economy and to derive
much variability from macroeconomic variables, whereas the latter is more uncertain
and rises the question whether the additional nested data brings more information
to latent factors and hence enable to predict economic activity more accurately.
Thus the goal of paper is to study the problem of nested data and its contribution
to forecasting procedures. We collect a big panel of macroeconomic variables
and then extract subsample without nested data, further set up specification of the
factor model, and make out-of-sample forecasting procedures in order to compare
forecasting accuracy.
Literature is scarce on the issue of optimality conditions for the amount of
series to include in factor models. Usually authors assume to span whole sectors
of economy extracting appropriate time series as much as they are concerned and
judgmentally believe this is the exact right choice for their analyzed problem and
relevant economy.
The paper of Boivin and Ng (2006) addresses the issue of the size and the
composition of the data and its impact on factor estimates. They hold the question
whether it is possible to obtain less useful factor estimates by extracting them from
larger datasets and claim that it is possible.
The paper of Caggiano et al. (2009) provides a comprehensive investigation
on the factor modelling issues regarding the number of factors, specification of the
dynamics of the factors, combination of the factor-based forecasts, and the choice
of the dataset extracting the factors. Their empirical results point out that there
are benefits of pre-screening of variables before extracting factors. For the raw of
European countries pre-screening of the variables before estimating factors and then
applying forecasting techniques improve forecasts substantially over the AR model
benchmark. Caggianoetal. (2009) argue that the use of about one fifth of the original
variables may yield the best results in terms of forecasts accuracy.
This paper is organized as the following: in section 2 we describe the nature
of data we use, any transformation and complexities capturing it in a model. Then
section 3 provides the model description and assumptions. Section 4 proceeds with
obtained results and concludes the paper.
2. Data
We consider large dataset for Latvian economy with few additional time series
of neighbor countries of Estonia and Lithuania. The data are collected on the main
economic categories comprising business and consumer surveys of EU commission,
industrial production, retail sales, consumer price indices, producer price indices,
labor market, monetary sector, exchange rates, financial sector, foreign trade, fiscal
sector, and balance of payments (see Table 2). All the time series are with monthly
frequency. Additional time series of Estonia and Lithuania are also included to keep
dynamics of neighbor countries in common dataset when making domestic factor
estimates. These are real and nominal times series of industrial production, CPI
components, and confidence indicators of the main groups.
40
Most blocs of variables may contain data with high disaggregation degree.
Consider total industry sector as in Table 1. It contains 3 main subcomponents:
mining and quarrying, manufacturing and electricity, gas, steam, and air conditioning
supply. Moreover, manufacturing comprises manufacturing of food products,
beverages, textiles, etc. In turn, manufacturing of food products may contain even
more disaggregated components. Thus total industry represented by nests of some
disaggregated parts.
Table 1
Representation of nested data for industrial production

Kopjs rpniecbas hierarhiski strukturti dati
Total Industry (BCD)
Mining and quarrying (B)
Manufacturing (C)
Manufacture of food products
Processing and preserving of meat and production of meat products (10.1)
Processing and preserving of fish, crustaceans and molluscs (10.2)
Manufacture of other food products (10.8)

Manufacture of beverages (11)
Manufacture of textiles (13)
Repair and installation of machinery and equipment (33)

Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply (D)
Source: NACE rev.2.0
On one hand, all those parts might be considered in a factor model all together.
On the other hand, we can select any level of disaggregation and apply it further
in the analysis. The choice of level of disaggregation depends on researcher. The
question is whether the incorporation of more data is effective and gives additional
information to forecasting procedure in terms of forecasting accuracy.
In the present study we consider two types of databases. The first one (N1) is
the full database comprising about 250 variables including all the aggregates and
their subcomponents of all sublevels. The second one (N2) is reduced-form database
comprising mainly the first level aggregation. The nature of subcomponents time
series usually differs from those aggregates in the sense of volatility. Going deeper
in disaggregate order we may find that those time series are more volatile because
more specific sectors are more vulnerable to sector-specific shocks. Thus we leave
more aggregated variables in database and exclude subcomponents. Therefore
judgmentally we reduce the full database N1 to the database N2 with the sample of 54
variables. Schematically databases composition is shown in Table 2.
41
Table 2
Description of the databases and number of variables representing each sector

Datubzu un to maingo skaita raksturojums
Full Database (N1)
Number of Variables
Reduced Database (N2)
Number of
Variables
Confidence indicators
66
Confidence indicators
24
Industry
40
Industry
Retail trade
30
Retail trade
CPI
16
CPI
PPI
10
PPI
Labour market
Labour market
Monetary sector
12
Monetary sector
Exchange rates
Exchange rates
Financial sector
Financial sector
Foreign trade
40
Foreign trade
Fiscal sector
10
Fiscal sector
Balance of Payments
Balance of Payments
TOTAL
54
TOTAL
245
Therefore we would like to test inclusion of disaggregated and more noisy

series in forecasting procedure comparing two databases of different content and
size.
Time span of variables is January 1996 till December 2010. All the variables
are made stationary and normalized prior to factor estimation in order to neutralize
differences in scale of variables (see Johnson and Wichern, 2007). The most of
monthly series are subject to seasonal adjustment. Therefore all time series are
seasonally adjusted by X-12-ARIMA method with specifications set by default,
except interest rates and exchange rates, and those times series that already are
available in seasonally adjusted form.
Data on Latvian gross domestic product (GDP) is collected on quarterly
frequency. We compile real-time database in order to exclude methodology changes
and GDP revisions effects on forecasting procedure (for details see Bessonovs,
2010).
Additionally the paper deals with the problem of missing values and ragged
edges. Evidently, all the monthly variables are supplied by statistical offices and
respective officials with some delay or within individual schedule of publication as
current month passes by. Therefore inevitably at any moment of time we observe
ragged edge of data. The second problem arises as data is not always available for
the desired period of time, especially at the beginning of the sample. The third, it
might happen that few time series experience some breaks within the sample. These
obstacles prevent us from implementing factor estimation, because factor estimation
techniques do not allow missing values.
42
To tackle the problems above we apply expectation-maximization (EM)

mechanism introduced in Stock and Watson (2002a) in order to achieve balanced
panel of data. The basic idea behind the mechanism is an assumption about expected
value of missing values and iterative process of estimation of missing values by
means of principal components. So far a preliminary data transformation is made to
let time series become stationary and then we normalize them with zero mean and
standard deviation equals one. The expected values of missing observations are set to
zero, E(xik)=0, where k=1,T is any missing value for variable i. Further factors are
estimated using the balanced panel of data. Next, by exploiting factor estimates and
factors loadings, we recover times series. The missing values of original database
are replaced by the new estimates. The iterative process proceeds until the missing
value estimates changes are negligible. The procedure could be described in the
following 6 steps:
1. Get Xt dataset comprising original values from Xt and missing values that
are set to zero;
2. Estimate initial factors Ft(0) as the first r principal components of dataset Xt;
3. Recover Xt by means of Ft(0) and f(0): Xt = f(0) Ft(0);

4. Replace Xt(0) missing values by Xt estimates;
5. Estimate Ft(1) as the first K principal components of Xt(0);
6. Back to step 2 using Ft(1) instead of Ft(0);
By iterating and re-estimating process we obtain stable estimates of missing
values.
3. Model
Similarly as in the paper of Stock and Watson (2002a) we employ the factor
model. The general form of the model that we set in the paper is the following:
p
y(t+ht) = + i Ft,N +
y
j=1
j tj+1
+ et
(1)
Where y(t+ht) is scalar forecasting value for h periods ahead, Ft,N is a (r1) vector
of factor estimates using database of N series, ytj+1 is yt j-th lag variable, and i
coefficients.
Let the Xt = (X1t, , XNt) is the set of N variables at time t = 1,, T. Then the
factors estimates, in turn, admit the following structure:
Xit = i Ft + uit
(2)
Where Xit is i-th variable of database of N series (i=1,,N), Ft is a (r1) vector

of factors, i is (r1) a vector of factor loadings for variable i, uit is idiosyncratic
error.
Concerning forecasting equation specification, note that for (1) we do not
assume any dynamics in factors and thus (1) is a static representation of factor
43
model. In addition, to allow some dynamics of forecasting equation (1) we restrict

p=1, i.e. there is one lag of dependent variable. Further (2) can be easily estimated
by principal components and factors are then input for forecasting regression in(1).
As mentioned in section 2 the data frequency for monthly time series differs
from GDP data and (1) cannot be estimated. To overcome that shortcoming we use
(2) for monthly data, and then apply simple average function for monthly estimated
factors to justify frequency basis.
4. Results
In this section we compare the forecasting accuracy results between two
databases assumed in section 2. By means of root mean square error (RMSE) we
measure magnitude of forecasting error as following:
1
RMSE = T
(y
T
1
yt+h)2
(t+h|t)
where y(t+h|t) is forecasting value at time t for h periods ahead, yt+h is true value.
Forecasting values and true values stand for year-on-year growth rates. The number
T is set to be about 1/3 of available data sample size. Respectively 2/3 of actual
sample is exploited for estimation and 1/3 for outofsample forecasting.
Results in Table 3 compare two types of specification. First, it compares results
among specified factor models with different number of factors. Second, Table 3
shows results for both types of database specification. In addition, RMSE outcome
determined in terms of AR(2) model results. Thus a number below 1 assumes factor
models better performance over AR(2) model. Results suggest that on average a full
database tends to outperform a reduced database.
Table 3
Factor models RMSE results with respect to AR(2) model by type of database
Faktoru modea RMSE rezultti attiecb pret AR(2) modeli pa datubzm
Out-of-sample forecasting period: 2005Q4-2010Q3
DATABASE (N2)
Horizon / Model
SW1*
SW2
SW3
SW4
+1 quarter ahead
0.73
0.74
0.76
0.70
+2 quarters ahead
0.78
0.84
0.85
0.86
DATABASE (N1)
Horizon / Model
SW1
SW2
SW3
SW4
+1 quarter ahead
0.72
0.70
0.72
0.75
+2 quarters ahead
0.78
0.77
0.78
0.79
*Number denotes number of factors used in the model.
44
Table 4 shows outperformance of a full database over reduced one. Positive

number states by how much full database outperforms another in terms of average
percentage points of year-on-year growth rates, respectively, negative number states
deterioration.
Table 4
Comparison of RMSE of two databases by type of model

Divu datubzu RMSE saldzinjums pa modeu tipiem
forecasting period: 2005Q4-2010Q3
Improvement (+) / Deterioration (-)
SW1
SW2
SW3
SW4
+1 quarter ahead
0.03
0.16
0.14
-0.18
+2 quarters ahead
-0.05
0.53
0.50
0.48
According to the Table 4 forecasting 1 quarter ahead, the full database N1 may
outperform N2 on about 0.15 percentage points assuming more correct model is
chosen. In this case factor model with 2 factors behaves the best. Notably that for 2
quarters ahead improvement is more substantial. The model specified with 2 factors
accounts half percentage point of year-on-year growth rate.
We test ad hoc robustness check of the results by moving out-of-sample window
back. Table 5 describes and compares factor models improvement results through
the different out-of-sample periods.
Table 5
Forecasting improvement of factor models over the different out-of-sample periods

Faktoru modeu rezultti dadiem rpus izlases prognozes periodiem
Improvement (+) / Deterioration (-)
+ 1 quarter ahead
Out-of-sample period
SW1
SW2
SW3
+ 2 quarters ahead
SW4
SW1
SW2
SW3
SW4
2003Q4-2008Q3
-0.18
0.02
-0.03
0.04
-0.31
-0.04
-0.16
-0.05
2004Q1-2008Q4
-0.17
0.04
0.03
0.08
-0.29
-0.07
-0.12
-0.11
2004Q2-2009Q1
-0.18
0.15
0.12
0.04
-0.31
-0.03
0.00
-0.02
2004Q3-2009Q2
-0.22
0.14
0.14
0.05
-0.33
-0.01
0.02
0.02
2004Q4-2009Q3
-0.05
0.27
0.30
-0.10
-0.33
0.03
0.07
0.07
2005Q1-2009Q4
0.07
0.21
0.20
-0.16
-0.10
0.53
0.43
0.37
2005Q2-2010Q1
0.07
0.22
0.22
-0.16
0.01
0.61
0.59
0.49
2005Q3-2010Q2
0.02
0.15
0.12
-0.20
0.00
0.62
0.59
0.48
2005Q4-2010Q3
0.03
0.16
0.14
-0.18
-0.05
0.53
0.50
0.48
Starting with the out-of-sample time period of 2005Q4-2010Q3 we are rolling

back the fixed period window and count the outcome difference between database
45
N1 and N2 as previously. We find that by appropriately specifying the model, the

constant improvement is observed forecasting 1 quarter ahead. In turn, for two
quarters horizon results more ambiguous. In the early years N1 database is not
able to outperform N2 and the accuracy of forecasts is worse. On the other hand,
in the later years improvement appears to be more considerable. We note the fact
that improvement of out-of-sample periods coincide with the deep economic crisis
period that is challenging and might raise the hypothesis that more data still can
capture more economic dynamics therefore forecasting accuracy may improve.
According to this empirical study we conclude that additional information that is
contained in disaggregated components of macroeconomic variables could be used to
enhance Latvian GDP forecasting accuracy. The efficiency gain improving forecasts
is about 0.150.20 percentage points of yearonyear quarterly growth for the
forecasting horizon 1 quarter ahead, but for 2 quarters ahead it is about half percentage
point. Robustness check shows that improvement is not constant fordifferent models
and forecasting horizons. While one can find stable outperformance pattern of N1
over N2 for 1 quarter ahead forecasts, for 2 quarters ahead there is the evidence that
N1 unable to outperform N2 for any model in early out-of-sample periods.
5. Concluding remarks
First of all we conclude that factor models perform better than simple univariate
models. Secondly, we compare two types of database specification exploited in
forecasting procedure. We conclude that on average full database (N1) tends to
outperform manually reduced database (N2). Thirdly, the full database N1 outperforms
N2 on about 0.15 percentage points forecasting 1 period ahead, assuming more
correct model is chosen (model with 2 factors). Notably that for 2 periods ahead
improvement is more substantial. The model specified with 2 factors accounts half
percentage point of year-on-year growth rate. Fourthly, by means of ad hoc robustness
check we show that there is constant outperformance of full database over reduced
one along different out-of-sample forecasting periods with appropriately specifying
model.
Alternative way of research may be pursued towards finding schemes or criteria
of weighting data and/or even blocs of data in order to improve forecasting accuracy
by using potentially valuable disaggregated information.
Acknowledgement
This work has been supported by the European Social Fund within the project
Support for Doctoral Studies at University of Latvia.
46
References
Bessonovs, A. (2010). Agregta un dezagregta faktoru modea pieeja IKP prognou
precizittes mran. Scientific Papers University of Latvia, Volume 758. pp. 2233.
Boivin, J., and Ng, S. (2006). Are more data always better for factor analysis? Journal of
Econometrics, 132:169194.
Caggiano, G., Kapetanios., G., and Labhard, V., (2009). Are more data always better for factor
analysis? Results for the Euro Area, the six largest Euro Area countries and UK. ECB
Working Paper, No. 1051.
Forni, M. and Reichlin, L., (1998). Lets Get Real: a Factor-Analytic Approach to Disaggregated
Business Cycle Dynamics, Review of Economic Studies 65, 453473.
Forni, M., Hallin, M., Lippi, M. and Reichlin, L., (2001a). Coincident and Leading Indicators
for the Euro Area, Economic Journal 111, C8285.
Johnson, R.A., Wichern D.W. (2007). Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis. Sixth edition,
Pearson Prentice Hall.
Stock, J.H., Watson, M.W., (1998). Diffusion Indexes. NBER Working Paper No. 6702.
Stock, J.H., Watson, M.W., (2002a). Macroeconomic Forecasting Using Diffusion Indexes.
Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, vol. 20, No. 2.
Stock, J. H., Watson, M. W., (2002b). Forecasting Using Principal Components from a Large
Number of Predictors. Journal of American Statistical Association, Vol. 97, No. 460, pp.
1167-1179.
Kopsavilkums
Neskaidrba, kas ir saistta ar makroekonomisko maingo skaitu faktoru model, ir
problemtiska, jo nav atbilstoa kritrija, kur nordtu, kda veida datus un cik daudz
maingo vajadztu izmantot, un vai dezagregti jeb hierarhiski strukturti dati uzlabo
faktoru modeu prognozes.
ai rakst ptta hierarhiski strukturtu datu ietekme uz Latvijas IKP prognozanas
precizitti, izmantojot faktoru modeli, un lietots Stoka-Vatsona faktoru modelis, lai
novrttu faktorus un prognoztu IKP divus periodus uz prieku. Prognozanas
precizittes novrtanai lietota vidjs kvadrtisks kdas funkcija (RMSE). Atbilstoi
iegtiem rezulttiem secints, ka papildu informcija no hierarhiski strukturtiem datiem
vartu bt izmantota, lai paaugstintu prognozanas precizitti. Efektivittes ieguvums
vartu bt 0,150,2 procentpunkti gada pieauguma tempiem, prognozjot 1 periodu
uz prieku, un apmram puse procentpunkta gada pieauguma tempiem, prognozjot 2
periodus uz prieku.
Atslgvrdi: faktoru modelis, prognozana, hierarhiski strukturti dati, RMSE.

47.59. lpp.
Valsts loma ienkumu nevienldzbas regulan

The State Role in the Income Inequality Regulation
Inese Brante
Starptautisko ekonomisko attiecbu katedra
E-pasts: Inese.Brante@lu.lv
Viena no valsts funkcijm ir ienkumu sadales sistmas veidoana, kas iekauj sev nodoku
politiku un socils reformas. Ienkumu nevienldzbas regulana nav valsts primrais
uzdevums, tomr, pieemot lmumus par dadu socilekonomisku jautjumu risinanu,
biei vien redzama ietekme uz nevienldzgas ienkumu sadales apjomiem sabiedrb. pai
tas bija novrojams, kad globls finanu krzes d Latvij valdba bija spiesta realizt
plas sabiedrbas mass neatbalsttos paskumus. Valdbas stenotie paskumi, kas tika
veikti, lai samazintu krzes sekas un stabiliztu nacionlo ekonomiku, samazinja ienkumu
nevienldzbu Latvij. Nozmga ir darba samaksas apjomu izldzinans starp privto un
sabiedrisko sektoru. Pc autores domm, tas ir btisks faktors, kas Latvij veido ienkumu
nevienldzbu.
Ienkumu nevienldzba ir komplicta socilekonomiska pardba. Autore raksturo un analiz
faktorus, kas veido ienkumu nevienldzbu, ts radts sekas, k ar mina atspoguot valsts
lomu nevienldzbas regulan.
Atslgvrdi: ienkumu nevienldzba, nevienldzbas regulana, Latvija.
Ievads
Ienkumu nevienldzbas un ts regulanas svargumu nosaka s socileko
nomisks pardbas saretba un pastvana gan laika gait, gan teritoril zi.
Ziojum World of Work Report 2008: Income inequalities in the age of financial
globalization ir teikts: lai gan kop 20. gadsimta 90. gadu skuma ir notikusi visprj
ekonomisk attstba, kas radja jaunas darbvietas, tomr vairkum pasaules reionu
ienkumu nevienldzba turpinja palielinties, un globls finanu krzes iespaid
tas notiks ar turpmk [13].
Aktulas ir ekonomistu diskusijas par ienkumu nevienldzbas lomu socil
ekonomiskos procesos, un par to diskut ar sociologi, politologi, filozofi; nevien
ldzbu pta dadu nozaru prstvji, kas ir saistti ar medicnu, veselbas aprpi,
izgltbu, kriminoloiju, un citi specilisti. Turklt ienkumu nevienldzba ir ciei
saistta ar nabadzbu, un nabadzbas samazinana ir svargs uzdevums jebkur
valst, jo nabadzba samazina iedzvotju labkljbas lmeni un, k rda ptjumi,
kav ekonomisko attstbu. Ienkumu nevienldzbas radan ir iesaistta gan valsts
48
ekonomisk sistma, gan notiekoie vai bijuie kari, gan atirgs indivdu spjas
radt bagtbu un daudzi citi faktori.
Raksta mris ir izptt valsts lomu ienkumu nevienldzbas regulan. Mra
sasnieganai autore izvirzja dus uzdevumus: atspoguot ienkumu nevienldzbas
socilekonomisko dabu un izvrtt ts ierobeoanas nepiecieambu, raksturot valsts
atbalstmos paskumus nevienldzbas regulan un analizt Latvijas situciju.
Raksta metodoloisko pamatu veido zintnisk literatra, zintnisko ptjumu
publikcijas, Latvijas Republikas Centrls statistikas prvaldes un Eiropas Kopienu
Statistikas biroja Eurostat datubzes dati.
Par btisku ierobeojumu raksta pilnveidoan autore atzst datu novloto
publicanu, jo uz raksta sagatavoanas brdi vl nav pieejama liela daa datu par
nevienldzbas rdtjiem 2010. gad.
Pirm nodaa ir veltta ienkumu nevienldzbas raksturojumam. Autore kon
centrti apskata nevienldzbas clous un sekas, k ar analiz nevienldzbas mij
iedarbbu ar citiem makroekonomiskiem procesiem, atkljot ts komplicto dabu
un nepiecieambu regult ienkumu prdales mehnismus sabiedrb. Nkamaj
noda autore apraksta iespjamos valsts rcbas virzienus ienkumu nevienldzbas
ierobeoan. Treaj noda analizta ienkumu nevienldzba Latvij un valdbas
piedvtie risinjumi ts regulanai. Saldzinjumos izmantoti nevienldzbas
rdtji Lietuv un Igaunij, k ar vidjie rdtji Eiropas Savienb.
1. Ienkumu nevienldzba komplicta socilekonomiska

pardba
Ienkumu nevienldzba ir socilekonomiska pardba, kas raksturo sabiedrbas
socilpolitisko un ekonomisko vidi, valsts attstbas posmu un ts vietu pasaules
hierarhij, atspoguo kultrvsturisks tradcijas, normas un vrtbas. Ts dabai,
cloiem un sekm, k ar svargumam ir velttas plaas diskusijas un veikti ptjumi
dads zintnes joms.
Ienkumu nevienldzbu var skatt trs lmeos:1
zemkais lmenis ienkumu nevienldzba starp iedzvotjiem vai grupm
vien valst vai reion;
starptautisk nevienldzba nevienldzba starp valstm;
globl nevienldzba ienkumu nevienldzba starp visiem pasaules ie
dzvotjiem.
Pastv vairki iemesli, kas rada ienkumu nevienldzbu sabiedrb. ie iemesli
biei vien ir savstarpji saistti, nelineri un komplicti. Nevienldzbu ietekm di
vispratzti faktori: darba tirgus nepilnbas, ekonomiskie apstki, iedzimts spjas
(intelekts, talants), izgltba, rase, dzimums, kultra un tradcijas, indivda persong
priekrocba darbam vai atptai, dzves cikls (vecums), gatavba riskt, bagtbas
koncentrcija, attstbas modei, politisks sistmas, k ar valsts vsturisk gaita.
B. Milanovis piedv trs nevienldzbas koncepcijas [17].
I. Brante. Valsts loma ienkumu nevienldzbas regulan
49
Ienkumu nevienldzba starp atseviiem indivdiem vai socilm grupm

vislabk izmrma atsevi valst, jo atsevias valsts specifiskie faktori (tradcijas,
politisk sistma, valsts vsturisk gaita u. tml.) rada btiskus rus indivdu
ienkumu starpvalstu saldzinjumos. Rakst autore analiz iedzvotju ienkumu
nevienldzbu Latvij.
K mints iepriek, ienkumu nevienldzbu un ts ietekmi pta dadu nozaru
zintnieki un lielkoties ptjumu rezultti norda uz negatvm sekm. Vairki
zintnieki (Daly et al., 2001 [9]; Lederman, Fajnzylber et al., 2002 [15]; Neapolitan,
2001 [19]; Lee, Bankston, 1999 [16]) ir atkljui, ka vardarbba ir daudz izplattka
sabiedrbs ar lielkm ienkumu atirbm. R. Vilkinsons (R. G. Wilkinson) ir
konstatjis: ja ir lielka ienkumu nevienldzba, novrojama zemka veselbas
aprpes efektivitte [28]. Citu zintnieku ptjumos (Uslaner, Brown, 2005 [27];
Putman, 2000 [23]) ir konstatta saikne starp ienkumu nevienldzbu un socilo
vienldzbu (social cohesion). Vienldzgks sabiedrbs cilvki daudz vairk uzticas
cits citam, socil kapitla mrjumi uzrda lielku sabiedrbas ldzdalbu.
Ekonomikas zintn svarga ir mijiedarbba starp ienkumu nevienldzbu un
ekonomisko attstbu. Vairki zintnieki (Cornia, Court, 2001 [8]; Peach, 1987
[22]; Pagano, 2004 [21]; Myrdal, 1968 [18]; Nissanke, Thorbecke, 2006 [20])
savos ptjumos ir apstiprinjui, ka augstka ienkumu nevienldzba var kavt
ekonomisko attstbu.
Ameriku ekonomists S. Kuznets (Kuznets S., 19011985) konstatjis, ka sa
karba starp nevienldzbu un ekonomisko attstbu nav linera, jo ienkumu ne
vienldzba palielins ekonomisks attstbas skum, bet pc tam samazins, veidojot
apgrieztu U veida dinamikas lkni [14]. Nevienldzbas attstbas lkne var mainties
atkarb no konkrts valsts nodroinjuma ar dabas resursiem, vstures, agrks politikas attiecb uz fizisk un cilvkkapitla sadaljumu un citiem faktoriem [8].
2001. gad publictaj ptjum D. A. Kornijs (G. A. Cornia) un J. Korts
(J. Court) defin efektvas nevienldzbas diapazonu, kas Dini koeficienta
izteiksm svrsts no 25 ldz 40%. Efektvas nevienldzbas diapazona zemk
robea ir raksturga Ziemeeiropas valstm (2009. gad Dini koeficients Somij ir
25,9%; Zviedrij 24,8%; Norvij 23,7%; Dnij 27%), bet augstk robea
raksturga nai ar 47% un ASV ar 45% (2007. gad). Zintnieki norda, ka prk
augsta ienkumu nevienldzba izraisa socils vienotbas sairumu, socilo nemieru
skaita palielinanos, savukrt socilie konflikti btiski samazina ekonomisks
attstbas potencilu, bet zema nevienldzba samazina ekonomisko attstbu, veicinot
darbaspka ktrumu, k ar korupciju prdales sistm. Tpc valsts politikas
uzdevums ir iekauties t. s. efektvas nevienldzbas diapazon [8].
Dai zintnieki tomr neatzst ienkumu nevienldzbas negatvo ietekmi un
pat norda uz ts labvlgo dabu. Ekonomists A. Tarasovs (A. Tarasov) ptjum
par ienkumu sadales ietekmi uz tirgus struktru, cenm un uz atirgu patrtju
grupu ekonomisko labkljbu nonca pie sldziena, ka ienkumu nevienldzbas
samazinanai nav tik lielas nozmes k nabadzbas samazinanai, jo zemka
ienkumu nevienldzba nenozm neizbgamu trcgo iedzvotju labkljbas pie
augumu. Ptnieks norda, ka augstka ienkumu nevienldzba trcgajiem var
dot labumu ar pakpeniskas stimulanas efektu, kas darbojas, uzmumiem
50
ieejot tirg [25]. Bet M. Ravallions (M. Ravallion) sav ptjum parda, ka starp
ekonomisko attstbu (k rdtjs ir izmantots IKP uz vienu iedzvotju) un ienkumu
nevienldzbu (Dini koeficients) pastv maza korelcija vai ts vispr nav [24].
Neskatoties uz reizm pretrungiem ptjumu rezulttiem, ai noda apskattais
ienkumu nevienldzbas raksturojums norda uz to, ka nevienldzba ir komplicta
socilekonomiska pardba, kas ir ciei saistta ar citiem makroekonomiskiem
procesiem, un ts radts lielkoties negatvs sekas apliecina nevienldzbas
regulanas nepiecieambu. Nkamaj noda autore raksturo faktorus, kas veicina
ienkumu nevienldzbas ierobeoanu, galveno uzmanbu pievrot valsts lomai
makroekonomisko procesu vadan.
2. Ienkumu nevienldzbas regulana

Tirgus ekonomiku vienmr pavada sabiedrbas nosloans pc materil
dzves lmea. Ja sabiedrb valda socili orientta tirgus ekonomika, nosloanos
kontrol un tur zinms robes. Tad iespja izvirzties augstk labkljbas pakp
veicina cilvku aktivitti un iniciatvu. Turpret, ja sabiedrb izveidota liberli
nekontrolta saimniecisk vide, nosloans iegst polarizcijas raksturu. Td
gan valsts varai, gan sabiedrbai ar plasazias ldzeku paldzbu rpgi jseko
nosloans procesiem, lai tos regultu, bet, ja nosloans kst bstama, to
apturtu. Iedzvotju nosloans valst nenotiek vienmrgi, katram indivdam
sacenoties ar prjiem ldzcilvkiem. Valsts likumdoana un saimniecisk vide
nostda neviends starta pozcijs ne vien atsevius indivdus, bet veselas
teritorilas, socilas, demogrfiskas un etniskas grupas [3].
Pastv vairki faktori, kas var ierobeot ienkumu nevienldzbas apmrus
sabiedrb. Pc btbas tos var iedalt divs liels grups: 1) tie, kurus atbalsta valdba,
un 2) tie, kurus rada tirgus. Dedzgas diskusijas notiek par abu pieeju lietdergumu
un efektivitti. Valdbas atbalsta pieejas piekritji tic, ka ienkumu nevienldzbu
veido fundamentla netaisnba, un tas ir pareizi, un tas ir valsts pienkums labot o
netaisnbu. Valsts atbalsta paskumi ienkumu nevienldzbas regulan ietver
masu izgltbu t palielintu kvalificta darbaspka piedvjumu, kas
radtu spiedienu uz tirgu, tdjdi samazinot kvalificta darbaspka algas,
kas savukrt samazintu ienkumu nevienldzbu;
progresvo nodoku sistmu bagtiem ir vairk nodoku un / vai lielki
nodoki nek nabadzgiem, tdjdi tiek samazinta ienkumu nevienldzba
sabiedrb;
likumdoanu par minimlo algu lai palielintu nabadzgks strdnieku
daas ienkumus. Tau brv tirgus piekritji uzsver, ka tas var pilnb izslgt
viszemk kvalifictos strdniekus no darbaspka tirgus;
pirms nepiecieambas preu raotu un pakalpojumu sniedzju uzmumu
(prtika, veselbas aprpe, izgltba un dzvoku apgde) nacionalizcija un
subsidana tas samazintu ienkumu nevienldzbas apjomus sabiedrb,
ikvienam nodroinot ltkas un brvk pieejamas preces un pakalpojumus;
tdjdi valdba var palielint sabiedrbas nabadzgko loceku rcb esoo
ienkumu (disposable income).
51
Brv tirgus piekritji uzsver, ka ie paskumi parasti izraisa pretju efektu

valdba var radt priviletu iru (k nomenklatra Padomju Savienb), kas izmanto
savu stvokli valdb, lai gtu labumu no nevienldzgm resursu pieejambas
iespjm, tdjdi samazinot ekonomisko vienldzbu. Citi savukrt apgalvo, ka bez
iem paskumiem brvais tirgus auj priviletai klasei kontrolt valsts politisko
dzvi, k tas bija Brazlij, kas valsts militrs diktatras (19641985) ietekm kuva
par ekonomiski visnevienldzgko valsti Dienvidamerik.
Msdiens lielkoties ienkumu nevienldzbas regulan un nabadzbas sama
zinan iesaists gan valsts, gan ar darbojas ekonomikas pareguljo sistma.
Tlk autore analiz ienkumu nevienldzbas rdtjus Latvij, k ar izvrt valsts
atbalsttos paskumus nevienldzbas regulan.
3. Situcijas analze Latvij

Visbiek ienkumu nevienldzbas skaitliskam raksturojumam izmanto Dini
koeficientu.2 Ja ir absolta vienldzba, Dini koeficients ir viends ar nulli, bet,
jo lielks tas ir (tuvks 1 jeb 100, ja tas ir izteikts procentos), jo nevienldzgka
ir materilo labumu sadale. Dini koeficienta pieaugums liecina ar par to, ka var
bt raduies nosacjumi nabadzbas pieaugumam, sevii gadjumos, ja ienkumu
lmenis sabiedrb ir zems vai t izmaias trcgajs iedzvotju grups ir neadekv
tas ienkumu pieaugumam vidji valst. Ameriku ekonomists R. Dorfmens
(R. Dorfman, 19162002) norda, ka ienkumu nevienldzga pieauguma d tie
koncentrjas tajs mjsaimniecbs, kuru materils labkljbas lmenis ir augstks
par vidjo [10].
1. attl redzama Dini koeficienta dinamika Latvij no 1997. ldz 2010.gadam,
k ar rdtja dinamika Lietuv, Igaunij un vidji Eiropas Savienbas 27 dalbvalsts
(ES-27 valsts) attiecgi par LR Centrls statistikas prvaldes un Eiropas Kopienu
Statistikas biroja Eurostat datubz pieejamajiem laika posmiem.
Latvij Dini koeficientam ir vrojama izteikta pieauguma tendence, palielinoties
no 30% 1997. gad ldz augstkajam rdtjam 39,2% 2006. gad. Tomr ienkumu
nevienldzba pdjos divos gados ir samazinjusies un 2010. gad Dini koeficients
bija 36,1%. Pc autores domm, netiei ienkuma sadaljuma izldzinanos ir
sekmjui valdbas veiktie paskumi globls finanu krzes seku mazinanai
un nacionls ekonomikas stabilizanai, k ar atbalsts nabadzbas riska grups
iekautajiem iedzvotjiem.
Dini koeficienta tendences Lietuv un Igaunij bija saldzinoi atirgas
no situcijas Latvij. Pc iestans Eiropas Savienb ienkumu nevienldzba
Igaunij un Lietuv samazinjs, nevis pieauga, k tas notika Latvij. Igaunij Dini
koeficients samazinjs no 37,4% 2004. gad ldz 30,9% 2008. gad, bet Lietuv
no 36,3% 2005. gad ldz 34% 2008. gad. Savukrt 2009. gad gan Igaunij, gan
Lietuv Dini koeficients palielinjs attiecgi par 0,5 un 1,5 procentpunktiem.
2
Dini koeficientam ienkumu nevienldzbas raksturoan ir gan priekrocbas, gan zinmi trkumi.
Skk ar tiem var iepazties Ulubasoglu, 2004 [26]; Allison, 1978 [6]; Fossett, South, 1983 [12];
Conceio, Ferreira, 2000 [7] un citu zintnieku darbos.
52
Vidji ES-27 valsts 2009. gad Dini koeficients veidoja 30,5%, un saldzinjum
ar to Dini koeficients Latvij bija augstks par 7 procentpunktiem, Lietuv augstks
par 5,1 procentpunktu. Savukrt Igaunij is rdtjs bija tikai par 1 procentpunktu
augstks nek vidji ES-27 valsts.
1. attls. Dini koeficients, 19972010

Gini coefficient, 19972010
Avots: veidojusi autore pc CSP, Eurostat datiem [5; 2].
Source: developed by the author using the data from CSB, Eurostat.
2009. gad Latvij bija vislielk ienkumu nevienldzba (izteikta Dini

koeficient) no vism ES dalbvalstm, k ar veic, Norvij un sland. Pc
Latvijas augstkais ienkumu nevienldzbas lmenis bija Lietuv, Portugl un
Rumnij attiecgi 35,5, 35,4 un 34,9%. Savukrt visvienldzgk ienkumu sadale
bija Slovnij (22,7%), Norvij (23,7%), Ungrij (24,7%), Slovkij (24,8%),
Zviedrij (24,8%) un ehij (25,1%).
Vl viens biei izmantots nevienldzbas rdtjs ir S80/S20 ienkumu kvintiu
attiecbas indekss. T ir ienkumu attiecba starp 20% iedzvotju ar vislielkajiem
ienkumiem (5. kvintile) un 20% iedzvotju ar vismazkajiem ienkumiem (1.kvin
tile). Tas raksturo, cik reizes turgko iedzvotju ienkumi ir lielki par nabadzgo
iedzvotju ienkumiem.
Ienkumu kvintiu attiecbas indekss Latvij no 2005. ldz 2009. gadam palie
linjs attiecgi no 6,7 ldz 7,3, un tas ir visaugstkais rdtjs starp trs Baltijas
valstm, k ar btiski prsniedza ES veco dalbvalstu vidjo rdtju (4,9) (1. tab).
Indeksa samazinjums Latvij 2010. gad bija ldz 6,9.
S80/S20 ienkumu kvintiu attiecbas indekss 2009. gad Latvij bija
visaugstkais no ES-27 valstm, k ar veic, Norvij un sland. Pc Latvijas
ar augstu S80/S20 indeksu seko Rumnija (6,7), Lietuva (6,3) un Portugle (6).
Savukrt viszemk atirba starp turgko un nabadzgko iedzvotju ienkumiem
bija Slovnij (3,2), Norvij (3,4), ehij (3,5) un Ungrij (3,5). Gan ES-27
valsts, gan ES-15 valsts 2009. gad turgko iedzvotju ienkumi bija vidji 4,9
reizes lielki nek nabadzgo iedzvotju ienkumi.
53
1. tabula
S80/S20 ienkumu kvintiu attiecbas indekss, 20052010

S80/S20 income quintile share ratio, 20052010
EU-15
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
4,8
4,7
4,9
4,9
4,9
Igaunija
5,9
5,5
5,5
Latvija
6,7
7,9
6,3
7,3
7,3
6,9
Lietuva
6,9
6,3
5,9
5,9
6,3
Avots: Centrls statistikas prvalde, Eurostat [5; 2].

Piezme. Daudzpunkte () nozm, ka dati nav pieejami.
Source: Central Statistical Bureau, Eurostat.
2. attls. Rcb esoais ienkums vidji uz vienu mjsaimniecbas locekli mnes

kvintiu grups Latvij, 20042009, Ls
Disposable income per household member per month quintile groups in Latvia,
20042009, Ls
Avots: veidojusi autore pc Centrls statistikas prvaldes datiem [5].
Source: developed by the author using the data from Central Statistical Bureau.
2. attl redzams, ka Latvijas visturgko iedzvotju (5. kvintile) ienkumi

btiski prsniedz prjo iedzvotju ienkumus un tie palielinjs straujk, pai
2007. gad, kad s grupas iedzvotju ienkumi pieauga par 55,2% saldzinjum
ar iepriekjo gadu. Tomr no 2004. ldz 2009. gadam rcb esoais ienkums vidji
uz vienu mjsaimniecbas locekli mnes visvairk pieauga 4. kvintil vidji par
27,3%, tai sekoja 5. kvintiles ienkumi, kas pieauga vidji par 26,9%, 3. kvintil
par 25,9%, 1. kvintil par 24,1%, un vismazkais ienkumu pieaugums bija
2.kvintil 22,4%. 2009. gad visturgko iedzvotju ienkumi samazinjs straujk
nek iedzvotju ienkumi prjs kvintiu grups. 5. kvintil ienkumi samazinjs
par 18%, tdjdi samazinot ienkumu apjomu atirbas saldzinjum ar prjm
kvintiu grupm. Strauj ienkumu kritums 2009. gad saldzinjum ar iepriekjo
gadu notika ar 4. kvintil un 1. kvintil attiecgi par 14,2 un 12,6%. 3. kvintil
54
ienkumi samazinjs par 9,3%, bet vismazkais kritums bija 2. kvintil ienkumi
samazinjs par 1,3%. Var secint, ka no 2004. ldz 2009. gadam vismazks
ienkumu svrstbas bija 2. kvintil, kur vidjais rcb esoais ienkums uz vienu
mjsaimniecbas locekli 2009. gad bija Ls 141.
Straujkas izmaias visturgko iedzvotju ienkumos var bt k viens no
faktoriem, kas veido ienkumu nevienldzbas dinamiku Latvij (izteiktu Dini
koeficient).
Latvij oficili netiek stenotas programmas ienkumu nevienldzbas regul
an, bet uzmanba tiek vrsta uz nabadzbas samazinanu un iedzvotju socilo
iekauanu sabiedrb, un tas netiei veicina ar ienkumu sadales izldzinanos, jo
ienkumu nevienldzba un nabadzba ir savstarpji ciei saisttas pardbas.
2. tabul ir apkopoti dati par vidjo bruto darba samaksu mnes, minimlo
darba algu mnes un ts procentulo dau no vidjs bruto darba samaksas krtj
gad. Miniml darba alga 2009. gad palielinjs par 12,5%, kamr vidj darba
samaksa mnes samazinjs par 3,8%. 2010. gad miniml darba alga palika
nemainga saldzinjum ar iepriekjo gadu un veidoja Ls 180, bet vidj darba
samaksa mnes turpinja samazinties (3,5%).
2. tabula
Miniml mnea darba alga un darba samaksa Latvij, 20032010

The minimum monthly wage and salary in Latvia, 20032010
Gads
Miniml mnea
darba alga,
Ls
Strdjoo mnea vidj

bruto darba samaksa,
Ls
Miniml mnea darba alga

% no strdjoo mnea vidjs
bruto darba samaksas
2003
70
192
36,4
2004
80
211
37,9
2005
80
246
32,5
2006
90
302
29,8
2007
120
398
30,2
2008
160
479
33,4
2009
180
461
39,0
2010
180
445
40,4
Avots: aprinjusi autore pc Centrls statistikas prvaldes datiem [5].

Source: The data of Central Statistical Bureau; authors calculations.
Minimls algas procentul daa no vidjs bruto darba samaksas laik no

2003. ldz 2010. gadam nav vienmrga. 2004. gad un no 2007. ldz 2010. gadam t
palielinjs, sasniedzot 37,9% 2004. gad, 30,2% 2007. gad un 40,4% 2010. gad.
das proporcijas veidoanos, kad samazins starpba starp minimlo darba
algu3 un vidjo darba samaksu, autore uzskata par vienu no faktoriem, kas veicinja
3
Detaliztki minimls darba algas paaugstinanas pozitvie un negatvie aspekti ir izvrtti I. Brences
rakst Miniml darba alga un ts paaugstinanas iespjas Latvij [1].
55
ienkumu sadales izldzinanos un nevienldzbas samazinanos 2009. un

2010.gad.
3. attls. Strdjoo mnea vidj bruto darba samaksa sabiedriskaj un privtaj

sektor Latvij, 19952010, Ls
The average gross monthly wage in the public and private sectors in Latvia,
19952010, Ls
Vl viens faktors, kas rada ienkumu nevienldzbu, ir darba samaksas

nevienldzba starp sabiedriskaj un privtaj sektor strdjoiem iedzvotjiem
(darba samaksa ir viens no galvenajiem iedzvotju ienkumu avotiem, bet ne
viengais avots). 3. attl redzams, ka darba samaksa sabiedriskaj sektor ir
pieaugusi straujk nek privtaj sektor, 2007. un 2008. gad sasniedzot vislielko
darba samaksas atirbu (sabiedriskaj sektor attiecgi tie bija Ls 474 un 564,
privtaj sektor Ls 362 un 438). Darba samaksas pieaugums sabiedriskaj sektor
2007. gad saldzinjum ar iepriekjo gadu veidoja 35,4%, kamr privtaj sektor
darba samaksa palielinjs par 30,7%. Valdbas stenotie paskumi budeta deficta
samazinanai, taj skait darba samaksas samazinana sabiedriskaj sektor,
veicinja ienkumu izldzinanos starp sabiedrisko un privto sektoru. Darba
samaksa sabiedriskaj sektor 2009. un 2010. gad samazinjs attiecgi par 10,6 un
6,7%, bet privtaj sektor darba samaksu kritums bija saldzinoi neliels attiecgi
par 1,1 un 1,4%. Tdjdi 2010. gad atirba starp darba samaksu sabiedriskaj un
privtaj sektor samazinjs ldz Ls 43 mnes, sasniedzot 2002. gada lmeni.
Nozmgas ir atirbas starp pilstu un lauku iedzvotju ienkumiem (4. att.).
Pilstu un lauku iedzvotju ienkumu dinamika ir ldzga. 2007. gad pilstnieku
ienkumi palielinjs par 46,3% saldzinjum ar iepriekjo gadu, ar lauku
iedzvotju ienkumi palielinjs par 46,6% un bija attiecgi Ls 250 un 173 uz vienu
mjsaimniecbas locekli mnes. Savukrt 2009. gad saldzinjum ar 2008. gadu
pilstnieku ienkumi samazinjs par 15,6%, bet laukos par 15,4%. Tdjdi
nevienldzba starp pilstu un lauku iedzvotju ienkumiem (absolt izteiksm) no
2004. ldz 2008. gadam palielinjs, bet 2009. gad samazinjs.
56
4. attls. Rcb esoais ienkums vidji uz vienu mjsaimniecbas locekli mnes

pilsts un laukos Latvij, 20042009, Ls
Disposable income per household member per month in urban and rural areas in Latvia,
20042009, Ls
Ienkumu nevienldzba un teritorili nevienmrg demogrfisk situcija

ilgtermi var radt nopietnus rus vienldzgu iespju un izgltbas pieejambas
nodroinanai. Jau vairkus gadus vrojams skolnu atbirums skols, pai
pamatskols. Izgltbas procesu pametuie brni un jauniei nokst socil riska
grup un ar vlk nespj izmantot mizgltbas sniegts iespjas [4].
Situcijas analze Latvij apstiprina nevienldzbas komplicto dabu, k ar pa
rda nevienldzbu veidojoo faktoru daudzveidbu un valsts lomu ts regulan.
Autore uzsver, ka ir nepiecieams, lai rpgi tiktu izvrttas katra valdbas pieemt
lmuma gan ties, gan ar neties un nkotn iespjams sekas. Analzes rezultt
autore secina, ka Latvijas valdbas stenotie paskumi finanu krzes seku mazin
anai un nacionls ekonomikas stabilizanai ir veicinjui ienkumu sadales izldzinanos. Ekonomisks krzes situcij Latvij ir samazinjuies ienkumu ne
vienldzbas apjomi sabiedrb. Noteikta sabiedrbas daa ir nevis ieguvja krzes
apstkos, bet ts ienkumi ir samazinjuies straujk nek citu iedzvotju ienkumi.
aj rakst ir veikts dajs ieskats ienkumu nevienldzb, jo nav analizta
nevienldzba starp kvalificta un mazkvalificta darbaspka darba samaksu,
ienkumu nevienldzba starp iedzvotjiem, emot vr vecuma grupu, dzimumu,
un citi nevienldzbas faktori. Autore ar nav analizjusi tdu problmu k taisnguma
un efektivittes dilemma. Plaas diskusijas vartu izvrsties ar par to, vai ienkumu
nevienldzbas samazinans aj gadjum ir vrtjama pozitvi vai negatvi, vai tas
atsts labvlgu ietekmi uz tautsaimniecbu kopum vai tomr tas kav ekonomisks
attstbas tempus. os jautjumus vajadztu ptt un analizt dzik.
Valdba, stenojot nodoku politiku un pieemot lmumus ekonomisko un socilo
jautjumu risinan, netiei ietekm ienkumu nevienldzbas apjomus sabiedrb,
57
tpc btu lietdergi izvrtt, kds ir optimlais ienkumu nevienldzbas apjoms

(jeb efektvs ienkumu nevienldzbas diapazons) Latvij un kdas nevienldzbu
proporcijas ir optimlas atsevios ienkumu nevienldzbu veidojoajos faktoros:
kda ir nevienldzbas attiecba starp pilstu un lauku iedzvotju ienkumiem,
kda ir sabiedriskaj un privtaj sektor strdjoo darba samaksa, turgko un
nabadzgko iedzvotju ienkumi, minimls darba algas patsvars vidj darba
samaks u. c.
Nobeigum autore atzm Eurobarometer 2009. gada ptjuma Nabadzba un
socil atstumtba rezulttus, kas daudzjd zi ir saistti ar raksta tmu. Atbildot
uz jautjumu Kas ir primri atbildgs par nabadzbas samazinanu valst?, 77%
Latvijas iedzvotju nordja valdbu un tikai 13% uzskatja, ka par to ir atbildgi
pai iedzvotji (kamr vidji ES tie bija attiecgi 53 un 10%). Tai pa laik tikai
14% Latvijas iedzvotju izrdja uzticbu valdbai c pret nabadzbu, savukrt ES
valsts vidji valdbai uzticjs 36% [11].

Ienkumu nevienldzba ir sareta socilekonomiska pardba, kuras cloi un

sekas ir savstarpji saisttas un komplictas.
Ienkumu nevienldzbai lielkoties raksturga negatva ietekme uz socil
ekonomisko situciju valst. Augsta ienkumu nevienldzba var veicint socilos
nemierus un kavt ekonomisko attstbu. Savukrt zema nevienldzba var
kavt iedzvotjus iesaistties ekonomiskajs aktivitts un sekmt korupcijas
veidoanos prdales sistm. Tpc valdbai btu jseko ldzi ienkumu nevien
ldzbas rdtju izmaim un nepiecieambas gadjum ts jregul.
No Eiropas Savienbas valstm, k ar saldzinot ar veici, Norviju un slandi,
augstkie ienkumu nevienldzbas rdtji ir Latvij.
Latvij ienkumu nevienldzbas dinamiku veido di faktori:
o darba samaksas nevienldzba sabiedriskaj un privtaj sektor;
o btiskas atirbas iedzvotju ienkumos kvintiu grups, pai starp ien
kumiem 5. kvintil un prjm kvintilm;
o nevienldzba pilstu un lauku iedzvotju ienkumos;
o minimls darba algas patsvars vidj strdjoo darba samaks;
o citi faktori.
Latvij primri uzmanba tiek vrsta uz nabadzbas samazinanu, nevis ien
kumu nevienldzbas ierobeoanu. Neskatoties uz to, valdbas pieemtie lmu
mi socilekonomisko jautjumu risinan netiei ietekm ar ienkumu ne
vienldzbas dinamiku valst.
Valdbas stenotie paskumi finanu krzes seku mazinanai un nacionls
ekonomikas stabilizanai ir veicinjui ienkumu nevienldzbas samazinanos
Latvij. pai tas ir novrojams saistb ar darba samaksas samazinanu
sabiedriskaj sektor, kas izraisja darba samaksas izldzinanos starp sabiedris
ko un privto sektoru. Pc autores domm, tas ir viens no nozmgkajiem
faktoriem, kas veidoja ienkumu nevienldzbas dinamiku Latvij.
58

Turpmkajos ptjumos btu lietdergi izvrtt, kds optimlais ienkumu ne

vienldzbas apjoms (jeb efektvs ienkumu nevienldzbas diapazons) ir
Latvij un kdas nevienldzbu proporcijas ir optimlas atsevios ienkumu
nevienldzbu veidojoajos faktoros.
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Research, November 2005, Vol. 33, No. 6, p. 868894.
28. Wilkinson, R. G. The Impact of Inequality. Social Research: An International Quarterly,
2006, Vol. 73, No. 2, p. 711732.
Summary
One of the state functions is the income distribution system formation that includes tax
PoliOne of the states functions is the income distribution system formation that includes
tax policy and social reforms. The income inequality regulation is not the primary task
of the state; nevertheless making decisions on different socio-economic issues often have
apparent effect on unequal income distribution range in society. In particular, it was
observed when the global financial crisis forced the Latvian government to realize the
measures that were unsupported by the wide public masses. Government implemented
measures to mitigate the consequences of crisis and to stabilize the national economy led
to decrease of income inequality in Latvia.
Income inequality is complicated socio-economic phenomena. The author describes
and analyzes the income inequality factors, inequality effects and reflects the state role in
the income inequality regulation as well.
Keywords: income inequality, inequality regulation, Latvia.

60.73. lpp.
Pieprasjuma elastbas lietojums telekomunikcijas

uzmuma pieprasjuma prognozan
Demand Elasticity Analysis Application for
Telecommunication Enterprise Demand Forecasting
Laura Bicne
Aspazijas bulv. 5, Rga, Latvija, LV-1050
E-pasts: laura.-bicane@live.com
Rakst tiek analiztas un novrttas elastbas koeficientu lietoanas iespjas pakalpojumu
sniedzoa uzmuma pieprasjuma prognozan. Prognozjot pieprasjumu un izmantojot
elastbas koeficientus, iespjams iegt dadas prognozes atkarb no izmantot faktora
(emprisko elastbas koeficientu prognozes) un faktoru kombinanas (teortisko elastbas
koeficientu prognozes). Novrtjot iegtos prognou rezulttus, autore secina, ka, lietojot
empriskos elastbas koeficientus, pieprasjuma prognoze vairk atbilst pdjam zinmajam
neto apgrozjuma lielumam. Savukrt, izmantojot teortiskos elastbas koeficientus, pie
prasjuma prognoze balsts uz vairkiem faktoriem, kas vairk atbilst relajai situcijai
tirg. Pieprasjuma prognozan vispreczkos datus 2011. gada prognozm pa mneiem
nodroina modelis, kas iegts, diskontjot dinamikas rindas ar puslogaritmisko lknes modeli,
bet pa ceturkiem diskontanas metode, aprinot svaru koeficientu un lietojot liner
trenda funkciju.
Atslgvrdi: pieprasjuma elastba, empriskais un teortiskais elastbas koeficients, piepra
sjuma prognozana.
Pieprasjuma elastbas nozme pieprasjuma prognozan

Msdiens tirg pastv informcijas asimetrijas problma, kas norda, ka uz
mumam jplno, k tas darbosies ar nkotn, balstoties uz pamatotiem lmumiem.
Uzmumam ir svargi pieemt kvalitatvus mrketinga lmumus, kas veido past
vgu saikni starp uzmumu un tirgu.
Analizjot pieprasjuma elastbu un izmantojot to pieprasjuma prognozan,
uzmums var iegt oti svargu informciju, tirg veidojot dadas stratijas un
rcbas modeus. Novrtjot faktorus, kas ietekm pieprasjumu, iespjams paaugstint
konkurtspju, maksimizt peu, jo tiek adekvti veidota cenu politika, kas ir orientta
uz uzmuma mrtirgu. Novrtjot patrtjus, tiek atklti aspekti, kas nosaka to
uzvedbu tirg, turklt tiek noskaidrots, vai konkrta prece / pakalpojums ir vai nav
pieprasta. Pieprasjuma elastba ir svargs faktors, prognozjot pieprasjumu un t
izmaias nkotn. Ekonomikas pamatfunkcionanas principi liecina, ka tirg notiek
neprtraukta attstba. Tiek novroti ekonomikas attstbas cikli. Viens no pirmajiem,
kas atklja os ciklus, bija krievu zintnieks un ekonomists Nikolajs Kondratjevs,
L. Bicne. Pieprasjuma elastbas lietojums telekomunikcijas uzmuma prognozan
61
kur, ilgstoi ptot pasaules ekonomikas izmaias, 1925. gad paredzja 30. gadu
depresiju. Vi ptja divus noslgtus ekonomiskus ciklus un vienu toreiz pastvou
ciklu. Ekonomisk cikla vidjais ilgums bija 54 gadi, tau plaks robes tas ilgst
5072 gadus [5]. Ekonomiskie cikli un to teorija liecina, ka attstba ir prognozjama
un ka, balstoties uz m prognozm, var efektvk sasniegt izvirztos mrus.
Prognou izstrdanas procesa mris ir samazint nenoteiktbu lmumu pie
eman, sagatavot informciju lmumu pieemanai un analizt iespjams l
mumu stenoanas sekas [7, 9]. Pieprasjuma prognozan biei lieto regresijas
modeus [1, 150]. Viena no iespjm ir izmantot elastbas koeficientus k statistisko
prognozanas metodi, novrtjot empriskos un teortiskos elastbas koeficientus.
Teortiskie elastbas koeficienti tiek novrtti, lietojot regresijas modeus, piemram,
linero, pakpes, hiperbolas, parabolas u. c. Daudzfaktoru regresijas analzes
priekrocba ir t, ka var novrtt daudzdimensiju ietekmi uz ptto pardbu.
Pieprasjuma elastbas ptjumos ir btiski noteikt faktorus, kas tiei ietekm
elastbu, lai, pamatojoties uz tiem, sptu prognozt iespjams pieprasjuma izmaias,
plnot cenu politiku, mrketinga paskumus u. c.
Nosakot pieprasjuma elastbu, var prognozt ne tikai pieprasjumu, bet ar
patrtju izdevumu un raotju izdevumu / iemumu apjomu un t izmaias,
nodoku politiku (paaugstinot / samazinot nodoka likmes), preu cenu izmaias
tirg u. c.
Raksta mris analizt un novrtt elastbas koeficientu lietoanas iespjas
pakalpojumu sniedzoa uzmuma pieprasjuma prognozan. Lai sasniegtu
izvirzto mri, nepiecieams veikt dus uzdevumus:
1) noteikt emprisko un teortisko elastbas koeficientu;
2) prognozt pieprasjumu ar elastbas koeficientiem;
3) novrtt iegtos rezulttus.
Ptjuma objekts ir telekomunikcijas uzmuma neto apgrozjums un t
prognozes 2011. gadam. Ptjuma priekmets ir noteikta Latvijas tautsaimniecbas
objekta pieprasjumu raksturojoo rdtju pieprasjuma elastbas koeficienti un to
aprinos iegtie rezultti.
Darb izmantots datu grupanas, saldzinanas un apstrdes ptjumu
metodes:
1) emprisko elastbas koeficientu aprinu metodes, teortisko elastbas
koeficientu aprinu metodes;
2) regresijas analze, korelcijas analze;
3) prognozanas metodes;
4) rezulttu kvalittes paaugstinanas metodes savstarpji atkargu
dinamikas rindu prognozanas metode, diskontt prognozanas metode,
neraksturgo punktu ietekmes mazinanas metode.
Darb tiek izmantota visprj un specil literatra, elektroniskie inform
cijas avoti, ptm uzmuma nepublictie materili. Prognozes tiek veiktas par
2011.gadu, lietojot datus par 2007.2010. gadu.
62
Pieprasjuma elastbas koeficientu prognozanas metou

novrtjums
Pieprasjuma modelan un prognozan iespjams analizt un lietot divu
veidu elastbas koeficientus empriskos un teortiskos. Empriskie elastbas
koeficienti parasti tiek novrtti k vidjie lielumi maing lieluma izmaiu apgabal
un saukti par vidjiem elastbas koeficientiem. Elastbas koeficienti ir nodergi, jo
tiem netiek piesaistta mrvienba, t. i., to vrtbas nav atkargas no mrvienbm,
kurs tiek izteikti maingie lielumi. Piemram, liela elastbas vrtba norda, ka at
kargais maingais nozmgi rea uz maingo atkargo izmaim [1, 150151].
Novrtjot teortiskos elastbas koeficientus, nepiecieams izvlties regresijas
modea veidu, kas tiks izmantots ptjuma gait. Pakpes funkcij teortiskie
elastbas koeficienti vis funkcijas defincijas apgabal ir nemaingi un viendi ar
regresijas viendojumu parametru vrtbm. T ir liela priekrocba un viens no
apsvrumiem, kd funkcija statistiskaj analz un prognozan tiek plai
izmantota [6, 1213].
Teortiskie elastbas koeficienti tiek novrtti ptjum un izmantoti progno
zan, balstoties uz pakpes regresijas modeli:
= a x1tb1 x2tb2 ...xnbn,
(1)
kur neto apgrozjuma dinamikas rindas lmenis noteikt laika posm t;

a regresijas viendojuma brvais loceklis;
b1,b2, bn regresijas viendojuma koeficienti, t. i., analizto faktoru teor
tiskie elastbas koeficienti;
x1t, x2t, xnt faktoru dinamikas rindas lmenis noteikt laika posm t.
Izmantojot emprisko elastbas koeficientu, prognoz pieprasjuma pieauguma
tempu [7, 32]:
D = E x,
(2)
kur D produkta pieprasjuma rdtja pieauguma temps prognozjam pe

riod;
x faktora apjoma pieauguma temps prognozjam period;
E vidjais empriskais elastbas koeficients noteikt dinamikas rindas
apgabal.
Pieprasjuma modelan un prognozan k kritiskais moments tiek novrtts
datu apjoms, t pieejamba un datu kvalittes lmenis. Ptniekam ir jnovrt
pieejam informcija un jnosaka, kuri ir tie faktori, kam ir pietiekams informatvais
nodroinjums, kas atbilst ptjum nepiecieamajam laika posmam, apjomam un
citiem nosacjumiem. Piemram, pamatdatus par mjsaimniecbu prtikas patriu
sniedz Centrls statistikas prvaldes mjsaimniecbu budetu ptjums. Ptjumi tika
veikti jau Latvijas pirms neatkarbas laik, bet par neatkargu Latviju dati pieejami
kop 1989. gada. ie ptjumi, to apjoms un saturs dod iespju iegt pietiekami
63
reprezentatvus un laik saldzinmus datus [2, 6]. Lai novrttu tos faktorus, kuru
ietekme uz pieprasjumu ir vislielk, var izmantot ptnieka personisko profesionlo
pieredzi, analogus ptjumus, ekspertu viedokli un citas metodes. Viens no visbiek
lietotajiem koeficientiem ir cenu elastbas koeficients (telekomunikciju nozare
tiek novrtta k atkarga no valsts un ar reioniem) [3, 182], bet novrtt tikai
viena faktora ietekmi uz pieprasjumu ir par maz, jo nepiecieams novrtt ar citus
elastbas koeficientus (piemram, atkarb no ienkumu vai izdevumu lmea u. tml.)
un sniegt ar kopjo vrtjumu.
Elastbas koeficientu metodes pieejas praktisks novrtjums

pieprasjuma prognozan
Pieprasjuma elastbas koeficientu statistisks prognozanas, modelanas un
novrtanas process var tikt organizts di:
1) ptjuma mra un uzdevuma definana;
2) pieprasjuma rdtja nozmgko ietekmjoo faktoru atlase;
3) regresijas modea izvle teortisko elastbas koeficientu aprinanai;
4) regresijas modeu aprinana;
5) regresijas modea statistisks kvalittes novrtana;
6) dinamikas rindas kvalittes paaugstinana;
7) pieprasjuma prognozana, pamatojoties uz teortiskajiem elastbas koefi
cientiem;
8) emprisko elastbas koeficientu novrtana;
9) pieprasjuma prognozana, pamatojoties uz empriskajiem elastbas koefi
cientiem;
10) iegto prognou saldzinana, rezulttu novrtana.
Ptjum tiek modelts un prognozts telekomunikciju uzmuma pieprasjums,
pamatojoties uz diviem ties ietekmes faktoriem vidjo pakalpojumu cenu un
mrketinga / projektu izdevumiem. Tiek novrtts tiei telekomunikciju uzmums,
jo s jomas uzmuma pieprasjumam iespjamas tras izmaias (2005. gad
telekomunikcijas nozares apgrozjums bija aptuveni LVL 468 milj., 2008. gad
tas palielinjs ldz LVL 624 milj., 2010. gad provizatoriskie dati liecinja par
samazinjumu aptuveni ldz LVL 545 milj.) visas nozares un dadu tehnoloiju
straujs attstbas d [11; 9]. Telekomunikciju tehnoloiju attstba notiek strauji,
vienlaikus samazinot regulanas ietekmi uz iem pakalpojumiem un palielinoties
konkurencei tirg. Uzmumi darbojas vairkos tirgos vienlaikus (mjsaimniecbas
patri, industrilais patri, valsts patri) un par bzi savas darbbas attstbai
izmanto pieprasjuma prognozanu, lai novrttu nepiecieamo investciju apjomu
un virzienus, k ar nodrointu uzmuma darbbas kapacitti, kas bs nepiecieama
nkotn. Jauni tirgi skumstadij parasti attsts lni, patrtjs iepazstas ar produktu
vai pakalpojumu, maina savus patranas ieradumus, un, kad tas ir noticis, attstba
notiek straujk, bet tie uzmumi, kas nevar nodroint o jauno piedvjuma
kapacitti, var zaudt ievrojamu dau savu klientu [4, 489].
64
Mintie faktori tika izvlti, pamatojoties uz autores profesionlo pieredzi,

kas iegta studiju proces. ie faktori ir atkargi no uzmuma stenots cenu un
mrketinga politikas un ir iekjs vides faktori. Autore iesaka veidot pieprasjuma
prognozes, pamatojoties gan uz iekjs, gan rjs vides faktoriem, jo iekjs
un rjs vides analze ir viens no pirmajiem prognozanas uzdevumiem [7, 6].
Autore ptjum novrt konkrta uzmuma pieprasjumu un pieprasjuma elastbas
koeficientus pieprasjuma prognozan (novrt metodi).
Telekomunikcijas uzmuma pamatdarbbas veidi:
SMS maksjumi Latvij, Igaunij un Lietuv;
mobil mrketinga risinjumi Baltijas valsts;
mobilo aplikciju un sistmas izstrdes pakalpojumi [10].
Telekomunikcijas uzmuma neto apgrozjuma novrtan izmantotais
pakpes regresijas modelis:
= a x1tb1 x2tb2,
(3)
kur neto apgrozjuma dinamikas rindas lmenis noteikt laika posm t;

a regresijas viendojuma brvais loceklis;
b1 pakalpojumu vidjs cenas koeficients jeb teortiskais elastbas koefi
cients;
b2 mrketinga / projektu izmaksu koeficients jeb teortiskais elastbas koe
ficients;
x1t pakalpojumu vidjs cenas dinamikas rindas lmenis konkrt laika
posm t;
x2t mrketinga / projektu izdevumu dinamikas rindas lmenis konkrt lai
ka posm t.
Neto apgrozjuma prognozan tika izveidoti pakpes regresijas modei, iz
mantojot mneu datus:
NA = ~ 3.1001E 06 C5.188,
(4)
NA = ~ 3.971E 06 C4.331 MPI0.496,
(5)
kur NA neto apgrozjuma dinamikas rindas lmenis noteikt laika posm t;

C pakalpojumu vidjs cenas dinamikas rindas lmenis konkrt laika
posm t;
MPI mrketinga / projektu izdevumu dinamikas rindas lmenis konkrt
laika posm t.
4. modelis parda, k tiek prognozts neto apgrozjums, pamatojoties uz vienu
faktoru pakalpojumu vidjo cenu (C). 5. modelis parda, k tiek izmantoti divi
faktori pakalpojumu vidj cena (C) un mrketinga izmaksas / projektu izdevumi
(MPI). K redzams neto apgrozjuma prognozs 2011. gadam (1. att., 1.tab.), neto
apgrozjums pc vidjs cenas ir aptuveni LVL 344 184, bet pc vidjs cenas un
65
mrketinga izmaksm / projektu izdevumiem aptuveni LVL 381 898. Novrtjot

modea statistiskos rdtjus (2. tab.), autore secina, ka modelis ar divm faktorilm
pazmm rezultt dod ticamkas neto apgrozjuma prognozes.
1. attls. Neto apgrozjuma prognoze pa mneiem, LVL

Net turnover forecast per month, LVL
Avots: autores veidots attls.
Novrtjot neto apgrozjumu un t svrstbu, autore nolemj paaugstint

dinamikas rindas kvalitti, lai iegtu augstku prognou ticambas lmeni. Dinamikas
rindas kvalittes paaugstinanai tika izmantotas divas metodes dinamikas rindas
diskontana un neraksturgo punktu ietekmes mazinanas metode. Ar lietoto
metou paldzbu tika iegtas preczkas modea parametra vrtbas, t. sk. teortiskie
elastbas koeficienti.
Neraksturgo punktu ietekmes mazinanas aprinos tiek aprinti svaru
koeficienti. Aprinos tiek iegti di modei:
NA = ~ 2.6045E 06 C5.206,
(6)
NA = ~ 3.5089E 06 C4.354 MPI0.497.
(7)
Svaru koeficienti () neraksturgo punktu ietekmes mazinanas aprinos tika

iegti pc das izteiksmes [7, 84]:
=
(yt yTt)2
2
e S YT
(8)
kur yTt teortiskais neto apgrozjuma dinamikas rindas lmenis laika posm t,
novrtts ar regresijas modea paldzbu;
SyT2 standartnovirze.
66
Neto apgrozjuma prognozes 2011. gadam, izmantojot 6. modeli, ir aptuveni

LVL 313 414 un, lietojot 7. modeli, LVL 375 577. Statistiskie kvalittes rdtji
(2. tab.) norda uz modea tuvu atbilstbu skotnjiem datiem, bet modei neto
apgrozjuma pdjam zinmajam lmenim LVL 30 957 (2010. gada oktobr)
nepietuvins pietiekami tuvu tie aptuveni ir attiecgi LVL 17 301 un LVL 19 271.
1. tabula
2011. gada neto apgrozjuma prognozes pa mneiem (teortiskais elastbas koeficients)

2011 net turnover forecast per month (theoretical elasticity coefficient)
Gads
2011
t = a* x1b,
t = a*x1b1*x2b2 ,
x1 - C,
x2 - MPI
Mnesis
C (LVL)
MPI (LVL)
Janvris
80,11
1406,57
23332,62
Februris
80,68
1433,97
24212,02
26478,02
Marts
81,25
1461,37
25117,99
27560,12
x1 - C
25428,24
Aprlis
81,83
1488,76
26051,13
28675,25
Maijs
82,40
1516,16
27012,05
29824,15
Jnijs
82,97
1543,56
28001,38
31007,55
Jlijs
83,55
1570,96
29019,76
32226,21
Augusts
84,12
1598,35
30067,84
33480,88
Septembris
84,69
1625,75
31146,25
34772,33
Oktobris
85,27
1653,15
32255,68
36101,34
Novembris
85,84
1680,55
33396,79
37468,71
Decembris
Summa
86,41
1707,94
34570,27
38875,22
999,13
18687,08
344183,78
381898,04
Otra dinamikas rindas kvalittes paaugstinanas metode ir dinamikas rindas

diskontana, aprinot puslogaritmisko lknes modeli un iegstot dus modeus:
NA = ~ 1.910E 06 C5.312,
(8)
NA = ~ 3.3745E 06 C4.378 MPI0.497.
(9)
Svaru koeficienti () dinamikas rindas diskontanas metodes aprinos tika

iegti pc das izteiksmes [12, 56]:
(10)
= t ,
n
kur t dinamikas rindas laika lmenis;
n novrojumu skaits.
LVL 367 530 un, lietojot 9. modeli, LVL 402 367 (2. tab.). Ar iem modeiem
67
tiek prognoztas tuvkas vrtbas pdjam zinmajam neto apgrozjuma lmenim,

t.i., aptuveni attiecgi LVL 20 116 un LVL 20 603. Autore secina, ka, izmantojot o
modeli, ir iespjams prognozt (no aprinos izmantotajm metodm) vispreczks
neto apgrozjuma vrtbas 2011. gadam pa mneiem.
Neto apgrozjuma prognoze, lietojot katra mnea datus un aprinot empriskos
elastbas koeficientus, un izmantojot vidjo pakalpojumu cenu k ietekmjoo
faktoru, 2011. gadam kop ir aptuveni LVL 484 879. Aprinot o neto apgrozjuma
prognozi, tika izmantoti 10 elastbas koeficienti un divi tika izslgti, jo autore os
elastbas koeficientus uzskata par apriniem nedergiem (to vrtba bija 433,06
(2007. gada maijajnija elastbas koeficients) un 197,38 (2010. gada apramaija
elastbas koeficients)). Iegtais vidjais elastbas koeficients ajos aprinos bija
3,48, ttad vidj pakalpojumu cena ietekm neto apgrozjumu.
2. tabula
Regresijas modea novrtanas rdtji pa mneiem

Regression models estimation indicators, per month12345
EC1
Pakpes regresijas
modelis
NA
prognoze
(LVL)
SN3
(LVL)
R4
D5
Viens faktors
5,188
344184
6681,19
0,719
0,517
Divi faktori
4,331
0,496
381898
6538,93
0,734
0,539
5,206
313414
2803,90
0,957
0,916
4,354
0,497
375577
2844,86
0,955
0,912
Viens faktors
5,312
367530
5752,80
0,802
0,643
Divi faktori
4,378
0,497
402367
5552,49
0,817
0,667
Viens faktors
Pakpes regresijas
modelis ar nerakstu
Divi faktori
rgo punktu izslganu
Pakpes regresijas
modelis ar dinamikas
rindas diskontanu
EMPI2
Avots: autores veidota tabula.
Savukrt neto apgrozjuma prognoze 2011. gadam, k faktorilo pazmi izvloties

mrketinga izmaksas / projektu izdevumus, ir aptuveni LVL 507 557. Aprinos
tika izmantoti 45 elastbas koeficienti, divi tika izslgti, to vrtba bija 598,55
(2008. gada februramarta elastbas koeficients). Vidjais elastbas koeficients
ir 1,12, ar is faktors ietekm neto apgrozjumu, bet pakalpojumu vidj cena ir
nozmgka, jo ts elastbas koeficients ir trs reizes lielks.
Neto apgrozjuma prognozes 2011. gadam pa mneiem ir attlotas 2. attl.
1
2
3
4
5
EC teortiskais pieprasjuma cenas elastbas koeficients.

EMPI teortiskais pieprasjuma mrketinga / projektu izdevumu koeficients.
SN standartnovirze.
R korelcijas koeficients.
D determincijas koeficients.
68
2. attls. Neto apgrozjuma prognou saldzinjums pa mneiem, LVL

Net turnover forecasts comparison per month, LVL6
Neto apgrozjuma prognoze, izmantojot ceturku datus, tiek novrtta atbilstoi

diem modeiem:
NA = ~ 2.443E 08 C5.231,
(11)
NA = ~ 5.808E 08 C4.331 MPI0.496.
(12)
K redzams, neto apgrozjuma prognozes 2011. gadam (3. att., 3. tab.), izmantojot
11. modeli, pc vidjs cenas ir aptuveni LVL 373 840, bet, lietojot 12. modeli,
pc vidjs cenas un mrketinga izmaksm / projektu izdevumiem aptuveni LVL
414 133. Novrtjot modea statistiskos rdtjus (4. tab.), ar pc ceturku datiem
modelis ar divm faktorilm pazmm rezultt dod ticamkas neto apgrozjuma
prognozes.
3. attls. Neto apgrozjuma prognoze pa ceturkiem, LVL

Net turnover forecast per quarter, LVL
1 teortiskais elastbas koeficients, faktors cena (diskontanas metode); 2 teortiskais elastbas

koeficients, faktori cena un mrketinga / projektu izdevumi (diskontanas metode); 3 empriskais
elastbas koeficients, faktors cena; 4 empriskais elastbas koeficients, faktors mrketinga /
projektu izdevumi.
69
3. tabula
2011. gada neto apgrozjuma prognozes pa ceturkiem

(teortiskais elastbas koeficients7)
2011 net turnover forecast per quarter (theoretical elasticity coefficient)
Gads
2011
Ceturksnis
C (LVL)
MPI (LVL)
t = a * x1b,
x1 - C
t = a * x1b1*x2b2 ,
x1 - C, x2 - MPI
246,31
4551,54
78854,45
86298,92
II
251,54
4806,17
88019,80
97112,18
III
256,77
5060,80
98028,26
108923,67
IV
262,01
5315,43
108937,82
121798,92
Summa
1016,62
19733,94
373840,34
414133,68
Neraksturgo punktu ietekmes mazinanas metode pa ceturkiem un iegtie

regresijas modei:
NA = ~ 2.768E 08 C5.206,
(13)
NA = ~ 5.205E 08 C4.342 MPI0.497.
(14)
Neto apgrozjuma prognoze 2011. gadam ar 13. modeli bija aptuveni

LVL 370 272 un ar 14. modeli LVL 424 288 (4. tab.). Modei pdjam neto ap
grozjuma zinmajam lmenim LVL 95 637 (2010. gada 3. ceturksnis) nepietuvins
pietiekami tuvi un ir aptuveni attiecgi LVL 57 305 un LVL 65 832.
Ar diskontanas metodi, izmantojot liner trenda funkciju, tiek iegti di
regresijas modei:
NA = ~ 2.418E 08 P5.241 MPI0.496,
(15)
NA = ~ 4.643E 08 P4.378 MPC0.497.
(16)

LVL 392119 un, lietojot 16. modeli, LVL 433042 (4. tab.). Pdjai zinmajai neto
apgrozjuma vrtbai 2010. gada 3. ceturksn (ar iem modeiem tiek prognoztas
tuvkas vrtbas) aptuveni attiecgi LVL 60490 un LVL 67037. Autore secina,
ka, izmantojot o modeli, ir iespjams prognozt vispreczks neto apgrozjuma
vrtbas 2011. gadam pa ceturkiem.
Vidj pakalpojuma cena un mrketinga projektu izdevumi tika prognozti, izmantojot liner trenda
modeli.
70
4. tabula
Regresijas modea novrtanas rdtji pa ceturkiem

Regression models estimation indicators, per quarter
EC
EMPI
NA prognoze
(LVL)
SN
(LVL)
Pakpes regresijas Viens faktors

modelis
Divi faktori
5,231
373840
14732,10 0,807 0,651
4,331
0,496
414133
14178,73 0,823 0,677

modelis ar
Divi faktori
neraksturgo
punktu izslganu
5,206
370272
5165,33
0,975 0,951
4,342
0,497
424288
5611,07
0,974 0,949

modelis ar
Divi faktori
dinamikas rindas
diskontanu
5,241
392119
258,51
0,999 0,998
4,378
0,497
433042
271,73
0,999 0,998
Neto apgrozjuma prognoze, izmantojot ceturku datus un aprinot em

priskos elastbas koeficientus (faktors cena), 2011. gadam kop ir aptuveni
LVL194438. Tika lietoti 12 elastbas koeficienti un divi tika izslgti, to vrtba bija
221,11 (2010. gada 1.2. ceturka elastbas koeficients) un 149,01 (2010. gada
2.3. ceturka elastbas koeficients). Iegtais vidjais elastbas koeficients ajos
aprinos bija 6,74, ttad vidj pakalpojumu cena ietekm neto apgrozjumu.
Savukrt neto apgrozjuma prognoze 2011. gadam, par faktorilo pazmi
izvloties mrketinga izmaksas / projektu izdevumus, ir aptuveni LVL 313 113.
Aprinos tika izmantoti 13 elastbas koeficienti, viens tika izslgts t vrtba
bija 38,29 (2009. gada 3.4. ceturka elastbas koeficients). Vidjais elastbas
koeficients ir 1,29. 2010. gad neto apgrozjuma prognoze 4. ceturksnim ir aptuveni
LVL 262 201, bet 2011. gadam aptuveni LVL 194 438. Par faktorilo pazmi
izvloties mrketinga izmaksas / projektu izdevumus, neto apgrozjuma prognoze
2011. gadam ir lielka (aptuveni LVL 313113) nek neto apgrozjuma prognoze
2010. gada 4.ceturksnim (LVL 285 814).
Neto apgrozjuma prognozes 2011. gadam pa ceturkniem ir attlotas 4. attl.
Pieprasjuma prognozan, izmantojot elastbas koeficientus, aprinus
iespjams varit ar dadiem faktoriem, kas ietekm pieprasjumu, k ar paplaint
teortisko elastbas koeficientu modeli ldz trs un vairk faktorilm pazmm.
Lietdergi ir paauties uz ptnieka pieredzi un / vai ekspertu ieteikumiem vai citm
metodm un ierobeot faktoru daudzumu un nozmi, prognozjot pieprasjumu, lai
tiktu ievrots modeu vienkrbas princips mazks faktoru izmantojums aprinos
nodroina augstku iegto rezulttu ticambu.
Novrtjot iegtos prognou rezulttus un izmantojot empriskos elastbas
koeficientus, autore secina, ka pieprasjuma prognoze vairk atbilst pdjam
zinmajam neto apgrozjuma lielumam, kas izriet no aprinu metodikas. Savukrt,
lietojot teortiskos elastbas koeficientus, pieprasjuma prognoze balsts uz
vairkiem faktoriem, kas vairk atbilst relajai situcijai tirg, kur pieprasjumu oti
71
reti ietekm tikai viens faktors (da situcija iespjama monopoltirg). Teortiski
elastbas koeficienta prognou modeiem iespjams novrtt ar to statistiskos
modea kvalittes rdtjus, kas auj izdart secinjumus par modea iegto rezulttu
objektivitti un kvalitti.
4. attls. Neto apgrozjuma prognou saldzinjums pa ceturkiem, LVL

Net turnover forecasts comparison per quarter, LVL8
Dinamikas rindas kvalittes paaugstinanai var izmantot ar citas metodes,

piemram, doto datu neraksturgo punktu ietekmes izslganas metodi, nosakot, vai
mintajam dinamikas rindas lielumam tiek pieirts svaru koeficients 1 vai 0 atkarb
no t atbilstbas vai neatbilstbas kdai ptnieka izvltai funkcijai. Svaru koeficientu
iespjams aprint, lietojot ar citas funkcijas, piemram, loistisko lkni, PerlaRda lkni, norml sadaljuma integrlo funkciju un citas metodes [8, 85]. Metodes
izvli nosaka ptnieks, balstoties uz personisko pieredzi, k ar iespjams lietot
ekspertu vrtjumu un citas metodes.
Ptjuma gait tiek izdarti secinjumi par ptjuma gaitu un t norises laik
gtajm atzim un izteikti prieklikumi.
1. Pieprasjuma prognozan, izmantojot elastbas koeficientus, aprinus
iespjams varit ar dadiem faktoriem, kas ietekm pieprasjumu, k
ar paplaint teortisko elastbas koeficientu modeli ldz trs un vairk
faktorilm pazmm.
2. Lietojot empriskos elastbas koeficientus, pieprasjuma prognoze vairk
atbilst pdjam zinmajam neto apgrozjuma lielumam, kas izriet no
aprinu metodikas.
1 teortiskais elastbas koeficients, faktors cena (diskontanas metode); 2 teortiskais elastbas

koeficients, faktori cena un mrketinga / projektu izdevumi (diskontanas metode); 3 empriskais
elastbas koeficients, faktors cena; 4 empriskais elastbas koeficients, faktors mrketinga /
projektu izdevumi.
72
3. Izmantojot teortiskos elastbas koeficientus, pieprasjuma prognoze balsts

uz vairkiem faktoriem, kas tuvk atbilst relajai situcijai tirg, kur
pieprasjumu oti reti ietekm tikai viens faktors.
4. Teortisk elastbas koeficienta prognou modeiem iespjams novrtt ar
to statistiskos modea kvalittes rdtjus, kas auj izdart secinjumus par
modea iegto rezulttu objektivitti un kvalitti.
5. Prognozjot pieprasjumu, ir lietdergi paaugstint dinamikas rindas kvalitti.
Darb tas ar tika veikts, izmantojot diskontanas un neraksturgo punktu
ietekmes mazinanas metodi (var lietot ar citas metodes, piemram, PerlaRda lkni, norml sadaljuma integrlo funkciju u. c.).
6. Pieprasjuma prognozan vispreczkos datus 2011. gada prognozm pa
mneiem nodroina modelis, kas iegts, diskontjot dinamikas rindas ar
puslogaritmisko lknes modeli, bet pa ceturkiem diskontanas metode,
aprinot svaru koeficientu un izmantojot liner trenda funkciju.
LITERATRA
1. Charse, C. W. Demand-Driven Forecasting. A Structured Approach to Forecasting. USA,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2009. 270 p.
2. Ciemia, I., Krasti, O. Prtikas produktu patri Latvijas mjsaimniecbs. Statistikas
zintnisko ptjumu rezultti 2008. Zintniskie raksti. Rga: LR Centrl statistikas
prvalde, 2008, 5.15. lpp.
3. Das, P., Srinivasan, P. V. Demand for Telephone Usage in India. Information Economics
and Policy, No. 11, 1999, p. 177194.
4. Fildes, R., Kumar, V. Telecommunications Demand Forecasting a Review. International
Journal of Forecasting, No. 18, 2002, p. 489522.
5. Kondratjeva cikli (2010). Economypoint. Pieejams: http://www.economypoint.org/n/
nikolai-dmitrijewitsch-kondratjew.html (sk. 08.01.2011.)
6. Krasti, O. Elastbas koeficienti: Metodiska izstrdne. Rga: LVU, 1986, 25. lpp.
7. iltere, D. Pieprasjuma prognozana. Rga: Latvijas Universitte, 2001, 83. lpp.
8. iltere, D., Krasts, J. Metodiskie nordjumu laboratorijas darbu izpildei kurs
Pieprasjuma prognozana. Rga: SIA Izgltbas soi, 2005, 95. lpp.
9. Statistikas datubzes (2011). LR Centrls statistikas prvalde. Pieejams: http://data.csb.
gov.lv/DATABASE (sk. 25.03.2011.)
10. Telekomunikciju uzmuma nepublictie materili par neto apgrozjumu, produkta
cenm, mrketinga / projektu izdevumiem no 2007. ldz 2010. gadam.
11. Vancovis, V. ogad mobilo sakaru nozar gaidms 5%10% apgrozjuma kritums.
Biznesa portls nozare.lv, 2010. Pieejams: http://nozare.lv/nozares/telecom/item/201010
1808090902CAAD8897C4B8148A/?phase=ogad (sk. 25.03.2011.)
12. Vasermanis, E., iltere, D., Krasts, J. Prognozanas metodes. Rga: SIA Izgltbas
soi, 2004, 121. lpp.
73
Summary
The aim of the research is to analyse and estimate demand elasticity coefficient
usability for service enterprise demand forecasting. The research object is
telecommunication enterprise net turnover and its forecasts for year 2011. The research
focuses on modelling and forecasting of telecommunication enterprise demand with two
factors directly influencing demand an average service price and marketing/project
costs. By carrying out the research tasks the author can conclude that by using the
empirical elasticity coefficients, the forecast closer corresponds with the last known net
sales value but by using the theoretical elasticity coefficients, the forecasts are based
on several factors, that is closer to the realities of the market Research results with the
most accurate forecasts by months is gained using dynamic row improvement method
time series discounting semi-logarithmic curve method, and by quarter with time series
discounting weight ratio coefficient linear trend function calculation method.
Keywords: demand elasticity, empirical elasticity coefficient, theoretical elasticity
coefficient, demand forecasting.

74.89. lpp.
Demographic Characteristics of Tertiary Education

inLatvia
Augstks izgltbas demogrfiskais raksturojums Latvij
Zane Cunska
University of Latvia,
Baltic International Centre for Economic Policy Studies (BICEPS)
Strelnieku iela 4a, Riga, LV-1010, Latvia
E-mail: zanec@lu.lv
Abstract
This article describes education measures enrolment, progression and attainment to be
used for higher education research in Latvia from demographic perspective, analyses data
availability and illustrates education development in Latvia in last decades. The author
concludes that the statistical information available in Latvia is insufficient for comprehensive
higher education research and monitoring. She finds that overall education attainment in
Latvia has been constantly rising. Younger population is better educated than older, and
females are better educated than males. Further education attainment increase is projected,
especially among females.
Key words: tertiary education; enrolment; progression; attainment
Introduction
Year 2011 marks 20 years since Latvia regained its independence that brought
along changes in every single aspect of peoples lives, including education. The
most noticeable trend in higher education in Latvia in recent decades appears to
be its expansion, often referred to as the massification of higher education. This
definition is not precise though. Referring to the classical work of Martin Trow
back in 1974 (Trow, 1974:6365) and subsequent papers (Trow 2005), the higher
education system in Latvia along with others in Western Europe have developed
further to enter the phase of universal higher education1. Indeed, the enrolment
ratio is approaching the threshold of notational 50 percent of the age group, and by
other Trow criteria the system has reached the characteristics of universal higher
education: acquiring higher education is seen more and more as an obligation rather
than right; children discontinuing education after secondary school are increasingly
M.Trow describes development of higher education systems in three phases elite, mass, and universal
higher education system. The phases are defined by enrolment prevalence in young age groups, but
also by attitudes towards access, functions of higher education, curriculum and forms of instruction,
student career setups, as well as other institutional and political factors.
Z. Cunska. Demographic Characteristics of Tertiary Education inLatvia
75
viewed as backsliders, and more labour market positions tend to be reserved to

university graduates.
This article aims to illustrate higher education development in Latvia and assess
appropriateness of statistics for measuring education. The author undertakes three
main tasks presents measures of education available for use, shows data availability
in Latvia, and illustrates education development in Latvia in last decades. Literature
and statistics analysis and quantitative methods are used. The analysis is based on
Latvian statistical sources (Ministry of Education and Science statistical reports
and Latvian CSB databases) and Eurostat data, author refers to Latvian and foreign
research articles.
The paper is organized as follows: section one describes indicators and their
utility for measuring education; section two assesses statistics that can be used for
education research in Latvia in demographic context; section three empirically shows
developments, and section four concludes.
1. Measuring education
From the demographic point of view, education policy makers should be able to
follow the higher education system at least according to the three principal educational
characteristics (OHare et al, 2004) enrolment, progression, and attainment as
well as student socio-economic situation and labour market outcomes.
Enrolment population, especially at younger age, in schools is a key
indicator of a societys level of socioeconomic advancement. In developed countries
most young people are enrolled in schools and a high share of 1824 age group are
enrolled in universities/colleges. Often the distinction is made between enrolment
in public or private higher education institutions, full-time and part-time enrolment,
different levels of degrees (bachelor, master, doctoral), as well as by fields of studies,
source of financing, and often by gender and ethnicity.
There are various measures of school enrolment that are used depending on
the particular question of interest. The most general measures are total enrolment,
enrolment by age groups, and crude enrolment ratio, calculated as the total enrolment
over total population and expressed in percent. Because the crude enrolment ratio
measure is very general and sometimes irrelevant, it is more common in the
denominator to use population in ages at which persons are customary enrolled in
studies, i.e. to partly eliminate the population age structure effects that is age 534 for
all schools, or 1834 for higher education. In this case the measure is called general
enrolment ratio. To make more precise account of the population age distribution,
age-specific enrolment ratio is computed as enrolment at age a over total population
at age a, or level-specific enrolment ratio (enrolment at school level l over population
at age group a that corresponds to the respective schooling level). Sometimes these
measures are combined in age-level-specific enrolment ratio. For comparative
purposes (esp. between countries or over long periods of time) demographers often
standardize the above indicators obtaining age-standardized enrolment ratios. In this
work the author uses total enrolment and age specific enrolment ratio to characterize
the situation in Latvia.
76
Measures of educational progression reflect how students move though the

educational system (OHare et al, 2004). The progression can be measured between
transitions points like levels of education, or year by year through entire schooling.
The progression indicators are a useful source of information about education system
and about population subgroups if indicators are computed separately for groups. The
progression is measured by retention or by dropping-out leaving school without
graduation or without completing the programme of the respective school year.
The three obvious measures of education progression are crude dropout rate,
age-specific dropout rate, and cohort dropout rate. While the first measure describes
the proportion of all students who drop out with respect to the total population, the
second indicator measures the proportion of dropouts within a specific age range.
Because the age-specific dropout ratios can reveal the extent of the dropout problem
in the population, they can also be used to estimate the need for further education
and training. The Ministry of Education and Science recognizes that decreasing
dropouts is a very important issue from the resource saving point of view (IZM,
2009 report). The cohort dropout rate represents the relative number of dropouts
occurring to a cohort of students who started studies on the same year. This rate can
only be estimated from longitudinal observation of the respective group of students
and reveals how many students who started that level drop out over time and do
not graduate. This information is obtained from student registries in the institutions
or longitudinal surveys. In this article author reports the only computable indicator
available in Latvia the crude dropout rate.
Educational attainment is a critical measure of education, showing the output
of education system. The human capital of the country is also typically measured
by population formal education qualifications. As such, it provides a proxy for the
knowledge and skills available to national economy and society. Usually, educational
attainment is not measured by number of years a person has spent at school but
rather by the highest grade or degree he/she has been able to complete. In censuses
and surveys attained or completed level of education is the most common measure
of education.
The most common indicator of educational attainment is cumulative grade
attainment ratio, expressed as persons (at age a) who completed at least the level of
interest over population (at age a). One particular derivative of this indicator is the
high school completion ratio, which is applied to population, aged 18 to 24. Median
years of schooling and mean years of schooling are often used by UNESCO and
OECD in country comparisons and can be calculated where attainment is expressed
in years at school rather than degrees. These are population structure indicators and
they show how the knowledge is distributed in the human capital. This work uses
cumulative grade attainment measure to illustrate Latvian population education level
development over a period of forty years and projected development.
Socio-demographic characteristics like gender, age, ethnicity, social back
ground, parents occupation and education, origin, income group are very important
indicators for education. They go beyond the headline figures and describe how
education is distributed in the population, give indication about how equal and
fair access to education is. Correlation between individuals and parents education
77
or occupation represent the level of social mobility. Student population sociodemographic characteristics describe their demographic behaviour and determine
their life-course. These issues are all relevant in demographic context. The author
does not employ analysis of socio-demographic characteristics in this article but
refers to her dissertation work.
Finally, labour market outcomes or the career of graduates after finishing
education is the quality indicator of education. The author does not attempt to analyze
work career paths in here, but refers to recent dissertation of Jaunzeme (2011) that
studies higher education graduates early career performance in Latvia, as well as the
project report with authors contribution (Krumins et al, 2007) that studies higher
and vocational education institutions graduates professional performance three and
five years after graduation. These works clearly are complements to this study.
2. Data sources for tertiary education research in Latvia

The main data sources for demographic research are censuses, various population
registers and surveys (Zvidri, 2003:28). Table 1 represents data availability for the
above indicators.
Table 1
Summary of data availability on higher education in Latvia (available on regular basis)

Sources
Available measures and

level of details
Lacking
information
Enrolment
Student register data from

HE institutions transformed
into period reports to CSB
and Ministry of Education
and Science
Various stock data on

enrolment by institutions,
form of study, financing,
age, gender, field of
studies; various enrolment
ratios can be computed
easily
None
Progression
Student register data from

HE institutions transformed
into period reports to CSB
and Ministry of Education
and Science
Total dropout by
institutions, education
programmes and form of
studies
Age specific and

cohort dropout
rates, retention/
dropout indicators
by social groups
Attainment
Population censuses (10

year interval); surveys,
such as LFS or other
representative survey;
diploma register (not linked
with other information)
Education attainment,
typically by broad
education levels (i.e. levels
within tertiary education
are not distinguished),
age, gender. Surveys may
occasionally contain more
detailed information
Attainment by
levels of tertiary
education,
representative
information between
census years
Sociodemographic
profile
Institution databases
contain some information
on social support/stipend
recipients (very segregated
information)
Segregated pieces of
information
Overall
representative
information about
student socioeconomic situation
78
Education
results (labour
market
performance)
No representative sources
None
about all HEI. Some
institutions perform
occasional graduate surveys
(usually linked to data
needs for accreditation
purposes). Employment
state agency for the
unemployed.
Labour Force Survey.
Any indicators of
graduate career
Note: The information described here is the routine statistics available on regular basis and
exclude special once-off projects like Ministry of Welfare labour market studies and similar
or non-repeated research projects.
Source: authors table
Clearly, all forms of information for measuring enrolment on regular basis

are available from the Ministry of Education and Science and Central Statistical
Bureau of Latvia. The progression indicators are more problematic. While
education institutions maintain student databases, they are only obliged to report
period statistics. But progression can only be analyzed with appropriate individual
level data, which allow longitudinal analysis methods. Therefore the necessary
information in Latvia does exist, but is lost between the original sources and the
final users of statistics and policy makers. Proper dropout analysis currently can
only be done on institutional databases. For a substantial period of time there was
an effort to link all the higher education institutions in a unified database, called
Latvijas Augstskolu Informatv Sistma (LAIS, in English: Informative System
for Latvian Higher Education Institutions). It was developed in context of the more
general LIIS (Latvian Education Computerization System) program with the aim to
computerize all Latvian education system. LUIS and LAIS are essentially the same
software and were provided by programmers from the University of Latvia. One of
the values of the unified platform is the ease of obtaining and analyzing information,
and the possibility to follow the paths of students through higher education system
between institutions. In 2007 the financing for LAIS system ceased and since then the
database has not been maintained. The author believes that interruption of financing
and discontinuation of the programme was a mistake. No survey can fully replace
register information.
The most representative information about population education attainment is
available from population censuses. The problem with censuses though is that they
are nowadays only organized with frequency once in every ten years. Education is a
rapidly changing characteristic and ten-year period is too long. Education attainment
can be assessed with the help of regular surveys, such as Labour force survey, but
samples are rather small and sometimes education data by one-year age groups are
not available and not representative, these data also does not cover all population.
Another problem with both censuses and surveys is that education is not reported in
sufficient details no information is available by levels of higher education, tertiary
education stands as one group. When a country approaches a state of universal
79
higher education (Trow, 1974) and relatively big proportion of adult population
holds tertiary education, more detailed information is required.
No information is also available on regular basis on student and graduate sociodemographic situation. While some universities may hold account of students, who
receive social support, for instance, scholarships, of students who have children, and
of dropouts due to inability to pay study fees, the information is not unified and
overall monitoring is not possible. Very similar situation is with monitoring labour
market outcomes for the students. The State Employment Agency records information
about unemployed and can distinguish the levels of education and even the year
of graduating from higher education institution. This is though only minor share
of the graduates. No regular information is available about quality of employment
of working graduates. Occasionally institutions interview their graduates for their
employment status and career for programme accreditation purposes. This is a good
exercise but unfortunately information is very fragmented, rather irregular and does
not allow cross-institution comparisons. The Ministry of Welfare labour market
research project (Krumins et al., 2007) attempted to fill the gap of missing sociodemographic and career information by surveying two cohorts of graduates in 2006.
Even there, information about all higher education institution graduates could not
be collected, since some institutions refused to disclose graduates contact details.
Probably the reason is a fear of comparison and potential to reveal underperformance
by the institution compared to others. Unfortunately this was a one-off exercise and
is not repeated on regular basis.
Overall, the author reasons that the statistics information available in Latvia is
insufficient for research, analysis, and monitoring of higher education in demographic
context. Many of the indicators cannot be analyzed because they cannot be estimated
from existing statistics, which is very fragmented. The author thinks that a large
share of the necessary information (as described above) could be gathered without
large extra effort. Hence, in the following author uses the most important of the
available measures to illustrate the development of higher education in the recent
years.
3. Tertiary educational characteristics in Latvia

The four principal descriptive categories of education indicators are school
enrolment, educational progression, literacy, and educational attainment. To maintain
the focus of this study on higher education, this section will not feature literacy as
a characteristic because with the development of Latvia this indicator is losing its
relative importance. Instead, the author focuses on characteristics relevant for higher
education analysis enrolment, progression, and attainment.
3.1. Tertiary enrolment

The number of students enrolled in tertiary education (ISCED 5-6) in Latvia has
gradually increased by 40% from 1999/2000 to 2005/2006 (IZM, 2009), peaking
at 129316 and decreasing since that. In the 2009/2010 academic year the Latvian
higher education system for the first time experienced a significant fall in numbers of
80
students. Total enrolment decreased by 10%, with the number of first year bachelor
students down by 26% compared to the year before.
At the same time, the number of students enrolled in doctoral level education
programmes has gradually increased and doubled over the last decade, reaching 2152
students in 2009/2010 compared to 1003 in 1999/2000 (IZM, 2009). This effect is
largely attributable to the government programme and generous support to doctoral
students financed by European Structural funds and Latvian government.
According to statistics on number of students per 10 thousand inhabitants (492
in 2009/2010, see Figure 1), Latvia is still among world top performers together
with Finland, UK, and Canada. There were as many as 566 students per 10 thousand
inhabitants in 2006/2007, and this indicator had been increasing since 1993 when
the expansion of higher education started. In the period between 2003 and 2008 the
indicator was rather stable and fluctuated at around 550. Some decrease was seen in
the 2008/2009 school year, but a significant decline is clearly visible in 2009/2010
(IZM, 2009).
Source: LR Ministry of Education and Science (IZM, 2009)

Figure 1: Tertiary (ISCED 5-6) enrolment per 10 thousand population, Latvia, 19902010
The gender distribution in Latvian higher education system over the previous ten
years has been surprisingly stable (see Figure 2). The percentage of women enrolled
in tertiary education remained rather constant over the period 1999-2010 in the area
of 62-64 percent. Hence expansion of higher education has happened similarly for
both genders. In general, the majority of students in Europe are female, and similar
proportions of near two thirds of female in the entire student body are also in Sweden
and Slovenia (Eurostudent III, 2008 data). The rest of European countries recently
have joined this trend except for Slovakia, Germany, and Switzerland. Doctoral
studies are somewhat different. The percentage of women enrolled in post-graduate
studies has increased from 52% in 1999/2000 to about 60% in 2001/2002 (IZM,
2009) and stayed at this level till now.
81
Source: Latvian CSB databases

Figure 2: Number of tertiary students by gender in ISCED 5 and ISCED 6, Latvia,
1999-2010
In line with the observed trend of ageing student population in Western countries,
the students in Latvian higher education institutions become older too (see Figure 3).
The median age of tertiary students was 22.6 years in 2010. The median age jumped
for about a year between 1998 and 1999, and has been rather stable since that with a
small upward trend. The reason for this jump was expansion of education possibilities
and increasing demand for education by adult population. Latvian tertiary students
are about half a year older than on average in European Union, where the student
population has been growing older.
The tertiary student population age structure also informs that the biggest
changes in the education system have happened before 2000. After this year the age
structure has not changed significantly. The proportion of students aged less than 21
years old has decreased from 30 to around 23 percent in recent years. The proportion
of 2224 year-olds grew from 30 to 40 percent, and the 2528 year-old make up
constantly around 13 percent of all students. The number of older age students (29
plus) was increasing from 11 percent in 1998 to 30 percent in 2004, but shrank
slightly in recent years reaching 23 percent in 2009 (Eurostat databases (education
and training)).
This age structure is explained not only by structural changes but also by
demographic processes the recent years has been the period when 1980s babyboom cohort entered tertiary education. Following this, coming years in higher
82
education would be characterized by ageing and contraction of higher education of

the sector.
Note: Population left axis, median age right axis.

Source: Eurostat databases (education and training)
Figure 3: Age distribution and median age of tertiary education students, Latvia, 1998
2010
From age specific enrolment ratios, i.e. the ratio of students in the respective age
population group in Latvia, it is seen that naturally the highest proportion of students
is in the 1924 age cohorts2 (see Figure 4). The author estimates that starting from
age 23 and older, age specific enrolment rates gradually decrease with every older
cohort for the 2528 age cohorts it is in the 813% area, for 2939-year-olds the
ratio is 5%, but in the older age groups 40-plus slightly above 1%. The observed
expansion of higher education has happened in both the younger groups, and the
older groups. In particular, the 2939-age cohort that started as low as 1% in 1998
(there were virtually no adults above 30 in tertiary education) has grown to 5% in
2010. Additionally, the number of students over 40 has risen from 0.3% in 1998 to
slightly above 1% in 2010, but still very few students are over 40.
The changes in the 18-year-old enrolment rate are connected to structural changes in the secondary
education system and the transition from 11 to 12 years schooling (primary + secondary) starting in
1991. As a consequence, schooling before tertiary education takes longer, and the number of 18-yearold students has decreased.
83
Source: Ministry of Education and Science and Eurostat, authors calculations

Figure 4: Age-specific student ratios in LV (19982010)
In the years of 19982008, enrolment trends showed unambiguous stable growth

both in absolute and relative terms. In the 2009/2010 academic year the situation has
changed enrolment has fallen in all age groups. Naturally, this raises the question
of what developments to expect in the future.
3.2. Progression in tertiary education

Previous section found discrepancies in availability of statistics. It is impossible
therefore to compute any specific education progression measures such as agespecific and cohort dropout rates in Latvia on regular basis because appropriate data
do not exist. The only indicator available for Latvia is the crude dropout rate (see
Figure 5).
84
Source: Ministry of Education and Science, authors calculations

Figure 5: Crude dropout rates in Latvia 20022009
The number of students that drop studies is rather stable at around 20 thousand
a year in latest years. This is between 16 and 18 percent of students that discontinue
studies out of total enrolment. However, this is a very general indicator and does not
explain at what stage the studies are dropped, which programmes are discontinued
and where the people end up, i.e. if they continue studies somewhere else, re-enter
the same programme after a brake, or leave the education system for good.
3.3. Overall education attainment

There is a significant development in population education level since a decade
and two decades ago. Trends in attainment levels over time provide a complementary
picture of the progress of human capital available to the economy and society. As
the 1989 census showed, as much as 40 percent of population in Latvia aged 15 and
older had lower than secondary education (Latvian CSB), in 2000 the respective
proportion was 35 percent but in 2008 it was only 25 percent (Figure 6). The share of
population with secondary level education has remained relatively stable over years
at around 50 percent. In 2008, fewer than one-fourth of working age population
(24.5%) held only primary education or below as the highest education attained,
55% of the population had attained general or vocational secondary education
(25% and 30% respectively) and than one-fifth (21%) had attained a tertiary level
diploma or qualification. The growth of number of tertiary education graduates once
again illustrates the expansion of tertiary education sector with proportion of tertiary
education graduates rising almost twice over the twenty-year period 19892008.
Even though part of the development is related to the changes in population age
85
structure, it means that the Latvian labour force has become more educated, i.e., the
human capital embodies more skills that are available for the economy.
Note: 1989 and 2000: census data for population 15 and older, 2008: estimates based on
LFS for population 1574
Source: Latvian CSB, authors calculations
Figure 6: Distribution of population education attainment by levels (aged 15 and older)
in Latvia, years 1989, 2000 and 2008
As consequence of the rapid and significant changes in education globally and in

Latvia, significant attainment differences between ages exist. Figure 7 reveals labour
force education attainment by age. People in younger age groups appear, on average,
to be better qualified than those who are older. Similar to European countries the
proportion of population without at least a primary education qualification raises
with age. The very young adults (ages 1524) are typically in the education system
and their attained qualification at the moment of survey cannot be considered as
final since most of them have not yet finished the education cycle. The education of
population aged 35-50 is more dominated by vocational secondary qualification that
corresponds to the education policy at the time of their secondary education period
when vocational schools were popular.
86
Note: The data for population education attainment are estimated from 2008 labour force
survey. While methodologically representative, it is survey data and should be taken with
caution for each separate age, but rather used for overall picture. Hence, the volatility
between nearby ages should be ignored.
Source: Latvian CSB, author estimates based on LFS 2008
Figure 7: Labour force education attainment by age, Latvia, 2008
More apparent the education structural changes are if changes are observed over
a period of 30 years that roughly corresponds to a length of generation. Education
changes along cohort lines, and there has been a remarkable increase in the proportion
of qualified people from one generation to the next (first two graphs of Figure 8).
The cohort diagrams show that an important share of population in 1970, especially,
the old people, did not even have primary education, and a primary qualification was
a standard and dominated all age groups above 29 years. In 2000 the situation was
radically different only in 60+ age group there were some ten percent of people
without primary education, primary education was dominating only the older age
groups (and youngest group where education cycle was not yet completed), but
secondary education has become a norm among all but the oldest cohort in Latvia
as in almost all OECD countries (OECD, 2009). Similarly, the tertiary education
attainment has gained a greater importance in all age groups, including the older
people. Additionally, these figures must have changed quite dramatically over the
past ten years as a consequence of massive move of people to tertiary educational
levels. Comparable census data of 2011 would become available in 2012 as earliest,
but as seen above and from flows of graduates, the levels would be even higher.
87
Note: For 2030: projection of population distribution by gender, age and education level,
IIASA, GET scenario, assumes that a countrys educational expansion will converge on an
expansion trajectory based on the historical global trend (for details see Samir et al, 2008).
Source: author computations from Latvian CSB (1974), Latvian CSB (2002) and Samir et al
(Lutz) (2008) (respectively for figures)
Figure 8: Education attainment by age and gender, Latvia; 1970, 2000 and 2030
(projected)
The results of IIASA projections of population distribution by age and education

levels (for 120 countries, including Latvia (Samir et al, 2008)), suggest that in
the future in Latvia nearly all adult population would hold at least a secondary
qualification, and the tertiary education would expand even more (third graph of
Figure 8).
This population distribution reveals changing gender distribution in education
and reconfirms the global trend of rising female/male balance in higher education.
While in 1970 average education level in all but oldest age groups and proportional
distribution of education levels within age groups were similar for both genders (in
age groups above 50 males were on average higher educated), and in 2000 education
88
levels were also rather similar at all ages, the 2030 projections take account of the
higher female education participation and graduation rates and project that females
will, on average, have higher education attainment in all age groups.
4. Conclusions and discussion

It was observed that data availability restricts comprehensive analysis and
monitoring of higher education development in Latvia. Several standard indicators
for measuring education cannot be estimated from existing statistics, which is
very fragmented. The author has used the most important available indicators to
characterize tertiary education development in Latvia.
The overall education attainment in Latvia has been rising constantly for the
last fourty years. Younger population is better educated than older, and females are
better educated than males. Currently 21 percent of Latvian working age population
are possessing tertiary education degree or qualification. Primary education was
the most often held education level in 1970ies; but one generation later, in 2000,
secondary education was the most prevalent. Projections suggest that in 2030
proportion of people with primary or no education will be negligible, but 98 percent
of 15+ population will have secondary or higher education diploma. Females will be
on average better educated than males.
The growth of tertiary student numbers (ISCED5) that speeded up since
1993/1994 academic year stopped in 2009/2010 with a 10 percent fall against
previous year. Doctoral studies enrolment (ISCED6) has been steadily growing since
1999. In higher education programmes there is stable ratio of 3 female students per
2 male students. Number of graduates from higher education institutions has been
stable at around 25 thousand students a year, 70 percent of which were females.
Higher education system has unergone major changes in previous years, and
development would be challenged by negative demographic trends in the school-age
cohorts. If each single individual is valued ever higher, always closer attention will
be paid to how education develops.
References
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report/choice.jsp (accessed 22/09/2010).
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augstkaj izgltb Latvij. Doctoral dissertation, University of Latvia.
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Krmi J., Goa Z., Blia S., Leduskrasta Z., et al (together 29 co-authors) (2007). Augstko
un profesionlo mcbu iestu absolventu profesionl darbba pc mcbu beiganas.
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OHare, W.P., Pollard, K.M. & Ritualo, A.R. (2004). Educational and Economic Characteristics.
In Siegel JB, Swanson DA (eds.). The Methods and Materials of Demography, Elsevier
Academic Press, London, UK.
OECD (2009). Education at a Glance 2010, OECD Indicators, Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development.
Samir, K.C., Barakat, B., Goujon, A., Skirbekk, V. & Lutz, W. (2008). Projection of
Populations by Level of Educational Attainment, Age and Sex for 120 Countries for
20052050. IIASA Interim Report IR-08-038, International Institute for Applied System
Analysis (IIASA), Austria. Available at www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/ PUB/Documents/IR-08038.pdf (accessed March-May 2010).
Trow, M. (1974). Problems in the Transition from Elite to Mass Higher Education. In Policies
for Higher Education, from the General Report on the Conference on Future Structures
of Post- Secondary Education. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development, 55101.
Trow, M. (2005). Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access in
Modern Societies since WWII. International Handbook of Higher Education (2005).
Zvidri, P. (2003). Demogrfija. Mcbu ldzeklis. Rga: Latvijas Universitte.
Kopsavilkums
Raksta mris ir raksturot augstks izgltbas attstbu Latvij pdjs desmitgades
demogrfisk kontekst un novrtt informcijas pieejambu demogrfijas ptjumiem
izgltbas jom. Autore raksturo standarta izgltbas rdtjus studjoie, progress un
sasniegumi , kas tiek izmantoti augstks izgltbas ptjumam no demogrfisk viedoka,
analiz statistikas piemrotbu du rdtju aprinanai un ilustr izgltbas rdtjus
Latvij. Ptjuma rezultt autore secina, ka pieejam statistisk informcija Latvij
ir nepietiekama pilnvrtgiem izgltbas ptjumiem un monitoringam. Pamatojoties uz
pieejamiem rdtjiem, autore secina, ka iedzvotju visprjais iegts izgltbas lmenis
ir neprtraukti audzis, jaunkie iedzvotji ir labk izgltoti par veckajiem un sievietes
ir labk izgltotas par vrieiem. Ir paredzams, ka iedzvotju izgltbas lmenis turpins
palielinties.

90.99. lpp.
Riska kapitla efektivittes novrtjums un

uzmjdarbbas attstbas iespjas
Venture Capital Performance Estimation and Business
Development Possibilities
Konstantins eravskis
E-pasts: kon.cern@inbox.lv
Dzi finanu krze, kas skra ar Latviju, pdjos gados ir atstjusi ievrojamas negatvas
sekas un ietekmjusi gandrz visas saimniecisks darbbas jomas, tpc daudzi perspektvi
uzmumi prtrauca darbbu, oti daudz darbspjgo iedzvotju palika bez darba un
ienkumiem, pasliktinjs labkljba, un daudzi makroekonomiskie indikatori liecina par
ekonomikas lejupsldi. Ekonomisks situcijas uzlaboanai un finanu krzes seku novranai
ir nepiecieams ieviest jauninjumus un inovatvas tirgus attstbas metodes. Ir jpank
uzmjdarbbas aktivizcija pc iespjas viss saimniecisks darbbas joms, jnodroina
kapitla ieplde no rvalstm, jatrod un jattsta visperspektvks un pai konkurtspjgs
Latvijas biznesa idejas. T k katri biznesa idejai nepiecieams attiecgs finansjums ts
realizcijai, rakst ir aplkotas riska kapitla piesaistanas iespjas, k ar piemros ir
finansili novrtta riska kapitla izmantoana uzmuma izpirkanas gadjum ar turpmks
peas nodroinjumu.
Atslgvrdi: riska kapitls, riska kapitla investori, finanu ekspertze.
Ievads
Ekonomisko attstbu nosaka daudz dadu faktoru un, pirmkrt, uzmumu
darbbas rezultti, jo saimniecisks darbbas veicji nodroina sabiedrbai produktus,
pakalpojumus un citus labumus, k ar nodoku iemumus, kas nepiecieami
labkljbas uzlaboanai. Uzlabojoties ekonomiskai situcijai, rodas daudz dadu
biznesa iespju jauninjumu segment. Par svargko biznesa idejas ievieanas posmu
var uzskatt finansjuma avota piesaistanas procesu. Situcij, kad uzmjam ir
nepiecieami naudas ldzeki tieo investciju veikanai, viam jbt gatavam ar
biznesa plna aprinu rezulttu paldzbu prliecint investoru par to, ka projekt ir
vrts investt.
Latvijas jaunie uzmji atrodas grt situcij, jo viu biznesa ideju stenoa
nai nav iespjams piesaistt atbilstou finansjumu. Msdiens par alternatvo
kapitla avotu projektu menederi biei vien izmanto riska kapitlistu piedvtos
aizdevumus, jo kredtiestu piedvtie kredti prasa attiecgu nodroinjumu, kura
K. eravskis. Riska kapitla efektivittes novrtjums un uzmjdarbbas ..
91
jauno uzmju rcb nav. Pastv daudz dadu metou, k aprina projektu
efektivitti. Darba mris ir saldzint projekta efektivittes novrtanas metodes
gadjumos, kad ir iespjams piesaistt alternatvo finansjumu no riska kapitla
investoriem. Mra sasnieganai tiek izvirzti di uzdevumi:
analizt riska kapitla projektu novrtanas metodes, skot ar finanu
analzes koeficientiem un beidzot ar biznesa vrtbu;
novrtt Latvijas uzmumu attstbas iespjas un riska kapitla projektu
nepiecieambu un aktualitti;
piemros novrtt, vai iespjams tds bizness k viesncas uzmuma
izpirkana kredt, izmantojot bankas un riska kapitla investoru piedvto
finansjumu.
Ptjuma objekts ir riska kapitla iedarbbas process uz uzmuma vrtbas
palielinanu un to stratisko izaugsmi.
Rakst tiek lietotas das ptjumu metodes: problmu aprakstos literatras
prskats, statistisks izzias metodes, monogrfisk metode, grupjumu un
saldzinjumu metode.
Rakst autors secgi aplko das loiski saisttas problmas un to risinjumu
iespjas: uzmjdarbbas finansjuma piesaiste, riska kapitls, riska kapitla
investori, kapitla piesaistanas dinamika msdiens, riska darjuma novrtjuma
pamieni, biznesa vrtbas noteikanas algoritmi.
Riska kapitla darjumu novrtanas patnbas

Riska kapitls ir ieguldjumi nozars, reionos vai darbbas veidos, kuriem ir
raksturgs augsts riska lmenis, piemrm, jaunradto nozaru, jauno tehnoloiju,
zintnes progresa ptjumu vai inovatvo tirgus segmentu finansana [1; 7, 145].
Ar riska kapitla prvaldanu nodarbojas riska kapitla investori, ietekmgi
uzmji, kuri prstv specializtus uzmumus, finanu kompnijas vai bankas
un kuriem ir zinma reputcija. Vii peas ieganas nolk, pamatojoties uz pau
veikts projekta ekspertzes rezulttiem, var ne tikai pieirt aizdevumu, bet ar
sniegt atbalstu, galvojot kredtiestdm vai bankm finansjuma piesaistes iespjas
[7,124].
Projekta stenoanai ir ne tikai jizstrd stratija un jizvirza mris, bet ar tas
atbilstoi jnovrt. Finanu analzes koncepcijas, kuras ptjui tdi klasisks finanu
analzes zintnieki k V. Kovaovs, B. Dons, F. Modiljni un M. Millers, piedv
lietot koeficientu metodes un pamienus, lai noskaidrotu, kdi parametri ietekm
projekta efektivitti. Par btiskkiem aspektiem var uzskatt projekta rentabilitti
un naudas plsmas saemanas bieumu. Pelntspjas jeb rentabilittes rdtjs
atspoguo, cik daudz santmu projekts pelna no katra iemumu lata, ko izsaka ar
procentos. Ar rdtja paldzbu var tri un diezgan preczi noteikt projekta iekj
potencila spjas, tomr rdtjs neem vr rjs vides ietekmi, kuras izmaias ir
oti svargas msdiens [6, 141; 7, 166].
Naudas plsmas em vr, lai prvaldtu naudas ldzeku daudzumu, izvairtos
no naudas ldzeku deficta vai prpalikuma projekta stenoanas proces. R. Kaplans
92
un D. Nortons sav ceturtaj grmat Stratisk vienotba rdtju sabalanst

sistma [2] ar atzm naudas plsmu efektivittes prvaldes nepiecieambu, k
ar piedv rekomendtu finanu koeficientu kompleksu, kur katrs rdtjs atbilst
attiecgam biznesa procesam. Mintaj rdtju kompleks ietilpst aktvu un saistbu
aprites, struktras, rentabilittes, likvidittes un citi koeficienti, ar kuru paldzbu
autori piedv analizt biznesa procesu efektivitti. Savukrt biznesa procesu
efektivitte ir nepiecieama uzmuma akcionru vrtbas palielinanai, ko uzskata
par galamri. Par o faktu liecina ar grmatas 4. noda analizto organizciju
iekjo procesu saskaoana ar stratiskiem mriem [8, 187]. Analizjot stratisks
kartes, kuras ir tdiem uzmumiem k IBM, DuPoint Engineering Polymers,
Ingersoll-Rand un citiem pasaules ietekmgiem uzmumiem, var secint, ka tdas
menedmenta pamata kompetences k darbbas rdtju uzlaboana, darba resursu,
cilvkkapitla, ldera raksturojumu popularizcija ir vrstas uz uzmuma akcionru
vrtbas pieaugumu, ko nodroina efektivittes paaugstinana. Pc Ingersoll-Rand
prezidenta Herba Henkea vrdiem, kompnija nekad nav dzirdjusi par tdu preczu
formuljumu, kur btu minta tik svarg organizcijas palgfunkciju ietekme uz
biznesa vrtbu, k ar skaidri definta vrtbas instrumenta radana un izmantoana
darba resursu prvaldan [2, 191; 3, 216].
Ar analizjot pretkrzes finanu vadbas metodes, piemram zintnieku
E. eonova un R. Kopitova rakstus un literatru, var secint, ka visaptverokais
rdtjs ir biznesa vrtbas rdtjs, ar t aprina metodes ir atirgas projekta
novrtanai un uzmumiem, kas jau darbojas tirg. Biznesa vrtbas vadba
palaik ir jauns virziens Latvijas menedment, un ts aprinu iniciatva nk no
uzmumu paniekiem. Viiem biznesa vrtba ir viengais kritrijs, lai noteiktu
to finanu labkljbas lmeni, tpc ka t ir koprdtjs, bet apgrozjums, pea,
paizmaksa, likviditte, finanu stabilittes rdtjs ir uzmuma dadu aspektu
starpraksturotjs. Par vrtbas pamiena efektivitti liecina ar pasaules prakse
[9;7, 91]. Vrtbas palielinanas vadbas koncepciju rvalsts uzskata par inovatvu,
vairkums pasaules konkurtspjgo uzmumu par galveno vadbas lmuma
kvalittes prbaudes kritriju uzskata biznesa vrtbu [7; 8]. Svargkie faktori, kas
ietekm biznesa vrtbu, ir uzmuma aktvu tirgus vrtba un naudas plsmas, ko
uzmums ener, veicot saimniecisko darbbu. Ldz ar to vrtbas noteikanas
prasbm atbilst ienkumu pieeja, ko formaliz, saskaitot nkamo naudas plsmu
pareizj biznesa vrtb [7, 103].
Pc autora domm, novrtjot jebkuru projektu, kas saistts ar riska kapitla
izmantoanu pc t vrtbas noteikanas, ir nepiecieams preczi noteikt, vai visiem t
dalbniekiem bs attiecg interese, k ar novrtt visus kvantitatvos un kvalitatvos
riska faktorus, kuri var negatvi ietekmt projekta realizciju. Turklt projekta izpildes
gaita ir neprtraukti jkontrol, veicot monitoringa paskumus, lai laikus novrstu
jebkuras faktisk rezultta nobdes no plna. Lai darjums btu veiksmgs, visiem t
dalbniekiem ir jzina uzmuma vrtba, jo viiem, pamatojoties uz o informciju,
jpieem lmums par uzmuma prdoanu. Kreditoriem ir nepiecieamas garantijas
par to, ka veiksmgi tiks izpildtas visas saistbas, bet pircjiem ir nepiecieama
informcija, lai noteiktu darjuma robecenu.
93
Finansjuma avotu restrukturizcijas nepiecieamba Latvijas

uzmjdarbb
Analizjot LR Ekonomikas ministrijas informciju par finansjuma piesaisti
Latvij 2009.2010. gad, var secint, ka jauno ieguldjumu veikana nebija pai
populrs paskums, jo kopum divu gadu laik investciju apjomi ir samazinjuies
gandrz divas reizes, un 2009. gad tie bija 21,5% no IKP, kas ir par tredau
mazk nek 2007. gad. Investciju apjomu samazinjums ir vrojams ar cits
ES dalbvalsts. Divu gadu laik (20082009) investciju apjomi ES dalbvalsts
vidji ir samazinjuies par 12,1%, btiskks korekcijas ir notikuas 2009. gad
[5,18]. T k banku aizdevumi prasa uzreiz lielu nodroinjumu, vairkumam jauno
uzmju nav iespjas to saemt. Par samr augstm procentu likmm liecina ar
Centrls statistikas prvaldes dati: 2010. gad latos izsniegto ilgtermia kredtu
vidj svrt procentu likme veidoja 12,5% gad, rvalstu valt 4,2% gad.
2011. gad finansjuma izmaksu izmaiu tendences saglabjs un banku piedvt
finansjuma procentu likmes btiski nesamazinjs [13; 14]. Ldz ar to jsecina,
ka jaunie uzmji ir spiesti meklt citus finansjumu avotus, un viens no tiem
vartu bt riska kapitla investoru piedvtais kapitls. Neprprotami, ka o avota
piedvjumu tiei ietekm investciju klimats [7, 125] un attstbas tendences valst.
Negatv investciju dinamika saglabjs ar 2010. gad, kad 1. ceturksn investciju
apjomi bija gandrz uz pusi mazki nek iepriekj gada atbilsto period, bet,
saldzinot ar iepriekj gada 4. ceturksni, investciju apjomi samazinjs par
54,7%. Investciju samazinjumu lielkoties noteica privt sektora investciju plnu
korekcija nelabvlg investciju klimata d. K nozmgko faktoru, kas ierobeo
investcijas, Latvijas uzmumu vadtji min zemo pieprasjumu. Savukrt zema
jaudu noslodze (2009. gad rpniecb kopum 56%) liecina par to, ka raoanas
potencils btiski prsniedz pareiz izmantoto [5, 19].
Tas var bt saistts ne tikai ar to, ka nav tda nepiecieam finansjuma avota
piedvjuma, bet ar ar to, ka vairkums uzmju nekad neizmantoja tdas iespjas,
tpc viiem nav skaidra priekstata par iespjamo ienesgumu un iespjamo risku
novrtjumu [4, 215]. Specilie dati par riska kapitla piesaisti un darjumu apjomu
visprpieejamos resursos nav atrodami, tos nepublic ne Ekonomikas ministrija,
ne Centrl statistikas prvalde, td analizt o informciju apkopot veid nav
iespjams. Tau ir iespjams novrtt atsevius darjumus, kas reli tika veikti un
kam ir dads sasniegtais rezultts. Savstarpji saldzinot o darjumu ienesgumu
ar tirg esoo ienesguma lmeni, var iegt priekstatu par to, kdi finansjuma
avotu veidi ir vairk pieprasti [7, 121] Latvijas tirg, un uz to pamata var sniegt
rekomendcijas uzmjiem finansanas lmumu pieemanai.
Ldz ar to ir skaidri redzama nepiecieamba veikt ptjumus par alternatv
finansjuma piesaistanas darjumiem un to novrtanas pamieniem, lai attsttu
dus projektus un patrintu investanas tempus ekonomik valsts un sabiedrbas
labkljbas uzlaboanai [7, 125].
Ptjum autors izstrd tdu darjumu un projektu efektivittes novrtanas
mehnismu metodisko kompleksu, ar kura paldzbu uzmji vars novrtt pl
not darjuma finansjuma izmantoanu un paredzamo ienesgumu, saldzinot kla
sisks projekta analzes metodes un uz vrtbas pieejas prveidots informcijas
94
bzes iegtos rezulttus vadbas lmumu pieemanai un to izpildes kontroles no

droinanai.
Riska kapitla darjuma efektivittes novrtjums, pamatojoties

uz vrtbas noteikanas metodi
Latvij pastv uzmumi, kuri izmanto piedvts alternatv kapitla iespjas.
Tie parasti ir vidj termia projekti, kuri ilgst no 5 ldz 10 gadiem.
Darjums skar vienas Rgas viesncas attstbas iespju izmantoanu un notika
aizdevju starp, piedaloties gan bankas finansjumam, gan riska kapitla investoru
piedvtiem ldzekiem. Uzmuma vadba aprinja projekta ienkumu un izmaksu
prognozes, k ar novrtja projektu ar dadm analzes metodm, lietojot dadus
kritrijus [7, 117]. Turklt viena darjuma novrtan tika izmantoti gan uzmuma
darbbas novrtanas pamieni, gan projekta novrtanas algoritmi.
Uzmuma darbbas novrtanas prakse tiek balstta uz diem piemumiem.
Izmaksu pieeja objekta biznesa vrtbas novrtanas metou kopums,
kas balstts uz izmaksu noteikanu, kura nepiecieama vrtjam objekta
aizvietoanai vai atjaunoanai, emot vr nolietojuma apmru.
Saldzino pieeja biznesa vrtbas objektu saldzinana ar tdiem paiem
analoiskiem, jau prdotiem objektiem.
Ienkumu pieeja biznesa vrtbas novrtanas metou kopums, kas
balstts uz sagaidmiem ienkumiem no vrtjam objekta.
Novrtanas rezulttu pilngkas objektivittes nolk projekta analz tiek
lietotas visas trs pieejas, kas paldz preczk veikt novrtjumu [7; 16].
Izpildmais projekts tiek novrtts ar apgrozm kapitla prvaldanas laik
diskontto naudas plsmu analzi un uzmuma vrtbas noteikanas pamieniem.
Uzmums A
Uzmums B
agresors
8 gadi
X
C
Banka
X
C
Riska kapitla
investori
Menederi
1. attls. Darjuma shematiskais modelis

Schematic model of the transaction
95
ku tika plnots izmantot viesncai, un ts panieki piedvja to izpirkt

par Ls 300 000. Ir ar zinma naudas ldzeku nepiecieam summa projekta
uzskanai Ls 1 440 000. Darjumu plno finanst par kredtiestdes (bankas)
kredta ldzekiem Ls 1 100 000 (8% gad). Katru gadu tiek dzsta kredta
1/20daa, atlikums tiek dzsts uzmuma prdoanas brd. Riska kapitla investori
piedv Ls 540 000 lielu finansjumu, kas maks 6% gad, kad tirg ir noteikta
zinm ienesguma norma 12%, k ar tiem tiek solti varanti 30% apmr, kas
garant viiem akciju dau uzmuma prdoanas brd. Aizdevuma atmaksa notiek
uzmuma prdoanas brd. Atlikuie Ls 100 000, kurus iegulds kas panieki un
privtpersonas, prstvs dibinm uzmuma pau akciju kapitlu. Izpirkanas brd
ka, aprkojums un apgrozmie ldzeki ks par jaundibint uzmuma paumu.
Papildus ir zinms ekspertu viedoklis par to, ka vidj kapitla tirgus procenta likme
ieguldjumiem ar zemo risku veido 8,5% [12]. Par to liecina ar komercbankas
Citadele 12 ieguldjumu fondu vidjais vsturiskais ienesgums 2011. gad (tas
veido 8,34%) [15].
Projekta menederiem ir jbt prliecintiem, ka tie sps attstt uzmumu un
pc tam prdot to par izdevgu cenu. Turpmko pircju interess ir perspektva un
pelnoa uzmuma iegde. s shmas izdevgumu apliecina ar finanu analtii, kam
ir pieredze du projektu realizcij. Ar starptautisk konkurence orient uzmumus
uz kapitla restrukturizciju un uz riska kapitla investoru konkurtspjgu virzienu
izvli.
1. tabula
Projekta pamatdati
Projects input data
Skuma ieguldjumi
C0
Attiecg
aizdevuma likme
Vidjais ienesgums
Varanti
perioda beigs
Banka
1100000
8%
8%
Riska kapitla investori
540000
6%
12%
30%
Tirgus vidj kapitla

likme
Menederi
100000
dA = 17%
dD = 8,5%
Kop
1740000
Projekta ilgums (N)

gadi
Avots: tabulu veidojis autors.
Aizemt kapitla izmaksu noteikanai ir nepiecieams plnot atmaksjam

bankas kredta un riska kapitla investoru pieirt aizdevuma termius un aprint
to izcenojumus, emot vr lgumos noteiktos nosacjumus un procentu likmes.
Ir prognozti di ienkumi: pirmaj gad tiek rekonstruta ka, saimniecisk
darbba nenotiek, otraj gad ir prognozts 984 480 latu liels ienkums. Menederi
aprinja un ieplnoja turpmkos divos gados palielint apgrozjumu par 8%
katru gadu, bet pc pakalpojumu stabilizanas vars noturt to viendu ar normlo
inflcijas lmeni 25% gad.
96
Pirmreizjiem nolietojuma izdevumiem un ikgadjiem ieguldjumiem pamat

ldzekos ir jatbilst postenim Nolietojuma atskaitjumi, bet turpmkos gados tiem ir
jpieaug proporcionli sniegto pakalpojumu apjomam. Tdjdi, mainot nolietojuma
apjomu proporcionli apgrozjuma pieaugumam, iegst projekta izmaksas.
Darjuma shma paredz uzmuma privt rakstura saglabanu 8 gadu period.
Tas ir paredzts td, lai aj laika posm attsttu uzmumu un atmakstu lielko
dau pieirto aizdevumu. Darjuma galvenie augi tiek saemti brd, kad uzmums
tiek prdots. Apgrozmo ldzeku pieaugums ir proporcionls auganas tempam un
10% koeficientam. Ieguldjumi apgrozmajos ldzekos ir proporcionli nolietojuma
atskaitjumiem.
Lai novrttu izpirkanas plna izdevgumu, ir jizpta biznesa pareizj vrtba
un ldzeku nodoku ekonomija, ko veido aizdevumi, kurus pierusi banka un riska
kapitla investori. Plnotais ienesgums veido 17%.
Biznesa pareizjs vrtbas aprinam izmanto formulu [7, 95]
PV1 =
t=1
FVt
(1+dA)t
(1)
Nodoku vairoga efekts, kas nosaka nodoku ldzeku ekonomiju no saemtajiem

aizdevumiem, veido divas komponentes.
PVts = PVts_banka + PVts_riska_kapitlisti
(2)
Izmanto formulu [7]
PVts =
2
i=1 t=1
ts * d%i * dt1,i

(1+dDi)t
(3)
2. tabula
Biznesa pareizjs vrtbas aprins

The calculation of present value of business
Diskonta likme (dA) 0,17
No kredta
saistbm
brva
naudas
plsma
(FVt)
-39190 275112 318474 368399 381811 396646 403004 416794
Diskontanas
koeficients
1,17
Diskontta
naudas
plsma
(PVts)
-33496 200973
1,37
1,60
1,87
2,19
198846
196596
174148 154628
2,57
3,00
3,51
134279
118696
Biznesa
pa
reizj
vrtba
(PV1)
1144669
97
Papildus ir zinms, ka vidj kapitla tirgus procenta likme par kredtu veido
8,5% (dD). Uzmuma prdoanas pareizjs cenas noteikanai izmanto citu
diskonta likmi, jo uzmuma stabilizcijas period diskonta likme parasti ir mazka.
T diskonta likme ir dwacc, ko var atrast, izmantojot formulu (4).
dwacc = dA ts * L * dD *
(1 + dA)

(1 + dD)
(4)
Pau aktvu gala cena (nkotnes prdoanas cena) ir

(FVterm_k) =
(FV8 * (1 + g9)
(dwacc g9)
(5)
Tagad var noteikt prdoanas pareizjo cenu

(PVterm_k) = PV2 =
FVterm_K
(1 + dA)8
(6)
Lai noteiktu uzmuma gala cenu, izmanto formulu

PVL = PV1 + PV2 + PVts
(7)1
Bankas ienkumu aprins: banka saem 8%, kas pienkas saska ar lgumu
un ir viendi ar bankas aizdevuma IRR.
Novrtjam efektivitti pc diem kritrijiem:
1. 0 > C0 (ja 1,4 reizes, tad pieemami)
3043415 > 1740000 jeb lielks 1,75 reizes
Nosacjums izpildts.
2. PVL > C0 (ja 1,2 reizes, tad pieemami)
2158458 > 1 740000 jeb lielks 1,24 reizes
Nosacjums izpildts.
3. PVterm < C0
866711 < 1740000 jeb mazks 2 reizes
Nosacjums izpildts.
4. Riska kapitla investoru IRR > dD
Riska kapitla investoru IRR 14% > 12%
Nosacjums izpildts.
5. Menederu IRR > dA
Riska kapitla investoru IRR 95% > 17%
Nosacjums izpildts.
Darjums kopum bija izdevgs, novrtanas kritriju izpilde ir nodrointa.
Visi darjuma dalbnieki palika apmierinti, visvairk varja nopelnt projekta me
nederi Ls 950 000 no saviem ieguldtiem Ls 100 000.
1
17 formulas avots [7, 105116].
98
Ptjum izskatts biznesa projektu finansjuma iespjas, piedvtais riska
darjumu finanu novrtjuma modelis, k ar iegtie rezultti auj secint, ka
Latvijas ekonomisk situcija neliecina par investciju uzplaukumu [5], bankas
piedvtie kredti uzmjdarbbas veikanai prasa attiecgu nodroinjumu,
to procentu likmes ir samr augstas, tpc jauniem uzmjiem ir jmekl
alternatvie finansjuma avoti;
projektu stenoanai un jaundibinmo uzmumu atbalstam var paldzt riska
kapitla investori, kuri jau sk pardties Latvij [10, 13]. Tie ir ietekmgi
biznesa vides cilvki, kuri var ne tikai galvot kredtiestdm vai piedalties
bankas darjumos, bet ar izsniegt izdevgku finansjumu, samazinot kredta
slodzi uzmuma pirmajos funkcionanas gados;
riska investoru zem aktivitte Latvij [5] ir saistta lielkoties ar trim galveniem
iemesliem: tirgus nepietiekamo pievilcgumu, k ar informcijas objektivittes
trkumu, projektu ienesguma un riska sabalanstbas nepilngumu un uzmju
zemo kompetenci sareto riska darjumu novrtan;
saska ar iegtiem rel darjuma dalbnieku ienkumu aprina rezulttiem
var secint, ka riska kapitlisti visvairk risk un vismazk pelna. Iegt iekjs
peas norma projekta menederiem (95%) nav samrga ar riska kapitlistu
peas normu (14%) un bankas procentu likmi (8%). Saldzinot bankas un riska
kapitla investoru riska pakpes, var secint, ka izskattaj darjum ienkumi
tika sadalti neatbilstoi.
Pamatojoties uz veikt ptjuma rezulttiem, alternatv kapitla piesaistanas
iespju izmantoanai Latvijas uzmjdarbb autors piedv dus prieklikumus:
LR Valsts iemumu dienestam un Centrlai statistikas prvaldei izstrdt,
vadt un ar normatviem aktiem reglamentt veikto riska investanas darjumu
vsturiski informatvo datubzi, lai rvalstu riska fondu vadtjus nodrointu ar
informciju par Latvijas uzmumiem un tirgus ticamo situciju;
uzmjiem nepiecieams izstrdt un lietot praks vienotu riska kapitlistu
peas un ienesguma novrtanas metodiku, kurai ir jbalsts uz visu
lgumsldzju puu intereu apmierinanas, dinamisko risku novrtanas un
sabalansanas pieeju;
investoriem jau pirms projekta uzskanas nepiecieams LR Komerclikum
noteiktaj krtb notarili vienoties ar menederiem ne tikai par paredzam aiz
devuma procenta likmi, bet ar par sabalanstu variantu apjomu. Tas nodroins
riska kapitlistiem zinmu akciju skaitu uzmuma prdoanas brd. Td
gadjum vii pai pieems lmumu vai nu paturt tos, vai prdot par biznesa
vrtbas tirgus cenu, kas abos gadjumos ieness kapitlu Latvijas ekonomikai.
LITERATRA
1. Bryman, A. (2008) Social Research Methods, 3rd edit. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Kaplan, S. R., Norton, P. D. (2006) Alignment using the balanced Scoreland to create
corporate synergies. Boston, Massachusetts: Harward Business School Press.
99
3. Kaplan, S. R., Norton, P. D. (2005) Motivating Cross-Boundary Thinking at IngersollRand, Balanced Scoreland Report. Boston, Massachusetts: Harward Business School
Press.
4. Modigliani, F. and Miller, M. H. (1958) The Cost of Capital, Corporation Finance and the
Theory of Investment.
5. Ziojums par Latvijas tautsaimniecbas attstbu (2010). Rga: LR Ekonomikas
ministrija.
6. , . . (2003) : . :
.
7. , . . (2006) . :
.
8. , . . (2007) . : .
9. , . (2000) :
. : -.
10. , . (2010) , 34 (127). :
.
11. , . . (2003) . -: .
12. Akciju komercbanka Baltikums analties Kuzminas J. publikcija par Eiropas
tirgus riskiem un ienesguma prognozm. Pieejams: http://www.baltikums.eu/Analitiskie_
apskati/Eiropas_tirgus_risks_un_ienesigums_2011_gada_Evropejskij_rinok_risk_i_
dohodnostj_v_2011_godu/829/mid_501
13. Centrls statistikas prvaldes mjaslapa banku rdtji. Pieejams: http://www.csb.
gov.lv/statistikas-temas/banku-raditaji-galvenie-raditaji-30180.html
14. Centrls statistikas prvaldes mjaslapa galvenie rdtji. Pieejams: http://www.csb.
gov.lv/dati/galvenie-raditaji-30424.html
15. Komercbanka Citadele, ieguldjumu fondu cenas un ienesgums. Pieejams: http://www.
citadele.lv/lv/assets/trading/funds/all-funds/
16. . Pieejams: http://www.cfin.ru/
Summary
The deep economic crisis that has occurred in the word and Latvia over the last
years has left negative consequences affecting almost all spheres of economic activity.
Therefore the huge number of the perspective enterprises has stopped, many able-bodied
workers remained unemployed, well-being of nation to what various macroeconomic
indicators testify has worsened. In order to improve the economic situation and eliminate
the consequences of crisis, it is necessary to introduce innovations and methods of
innovative development. It is necessary to achieve activity in business whenever possible
in all branches, it is necessary to provide inflow of the foreign capital, it is necessary
to reveal and develop the most perspective and competitive business ideas. Because
each business idea demands financing for its realization, in this article possibilities of
attraction of the venture capital are considered, and also within the limits of an example
the estimation of venture transaction under the enterprise repayment on credit on the
security of the future profit is made.
Keywords: venture capital, venture investors, financial examination.

100.113. lpp.
Mobilization of Human Capital in Science and Technology

for Innovation Creation
Cilvkkapitla mibilizcija zintn un tehnoloijs, lai
radtu inovcijas
Ilona Dubra
Faculty of Economics and Management
AS LUXHOUSE
Kalngale, Rubeu Street 9, Latvia
E-mail: ilona.dubra@inbox.lv
Abstract
In the context of knowledge-based economy, human capital in science and technology was
placed in the first place of the policy development not only in European countries but also in
the whole world. As the matter of fact technological change is bringing about a demand for
skilled and educated labor force. Taking into account the continuation of economic downturn,
there is a special need for mobilization of human capital in science and technology with the
purpose of innovation and development. However, it must be admitted that there are some
barriers on the way that disturb to meet the increasing demand for skilled, qualified, educated,
experienced labor force in science and technology, for instance, poor share of university
graduates in science and technology, low participation of women in science and technology
education and employment, poor investments in R&D of catching-up countries. The purpose
of the article is to analyze theoretical aspect related to the impact of human capital in science
and technology on innovation creation. The main tasks are stated as following:
- To analyze the theoretical aspects of innovation paradigm
- To investigate the theoretical aspects of human capital concept
- To examine the key figures related to the science and technology resources and
innovation activities in European Union
In the context of the paper the following economic science quantitative and qualitative
research methods were applied: monographic, grouping, reference, generalization, graphical
analysis, and content analysis. The main findings of the paper reveal the nature of the human
capital impact on innovation activities as well as stated that innovation plays a central role in
creating value and sustaining competitive advantage for the firm and in the context of the state
innovation ensure economic growth and increase the competitiveness.
Keywords: human capital, science and technology, innovation, knowledge-based economy,
sustainable development.
I. Dubra. Mobilization of Human Capital in Science and Technology for Innovation ..
101
Introduction
In reality, the world is facing global economic and social challenges. The
continuation of economic downturn triggered off the decrease of potential output
growth, the incensement of unemployment and incensement of public debt. It is
extremely necessary to find out new and sustainable sources of growth. Actually,
it would come as no surprise that future growth should be based on the innovationinduced productivity growth. In that turn, innovation growth should arise from
development of human capital in science and technology.
Theoretical aspects of innovation paradigm

The focus of the paper is implicated in the innovation as one of the most
important aspects of knowledge creation (Collinson 2000, 217244). First of all it is
necessary to reveal some explicit definitions of innovation. Zahra and Covin stated
that innovation is widely considered as the life blood of corporate survival and
growth (Zahra and Covin, 1994, 183).
Innovation plays a central role in creating value and sustaining competitive
advantage ever since Schumpeter argued that companies should innovate in order
to renew the value of the companys assets (Schumpeter, 1950, 209). Bessant et
al. pointed out that Innovation represents the core renewal process in any firm
(Bessant, 2005, 1368).
In order to sustain and strengthen competitive position, companies and
economies should innovate and provide innovation. The facts are widely spread that
innovation is a key policy and strategic issue in a modern constantly changeable
socio-economic environment. In general, innovations are related to new products,
materials, new processes, new services, and new organizational forms (Ettlie, Reza,
1992, 798). Wong et al. stated Innovation can be defined as the effective application
of processes and product new to the organization and designed to benefit it and its
stakeholders (Wong, Tjosvold, Liu, 2008, 2).
To demonstrate the diversity of forms of innovation Kimberly proposed three
different stages of innovation: (Kimberly, 1981, 108)
1) Innovation as a process;
2) Innovation as a discrete item including, products, program or services;
3) Innovation as an attribute of organizations.
Actually, it is important to point out the sense of newness, for example, Van du
Ven et al. argued that as long as the idea is perceived as new to the people involved,
it is an innovation even though it may appear to others to be an imitation of
something that exists elsewhere (Van du Ven, 1986, 595).
In the knowledge management the main attention is concentrated on knowledge
as notable aspect for innovation creation, for instance, Plessis stated: Innovation
as a creation of new knowledge and ideas to facilitate new business outcomes,
aimed at improving internal business processes and structures, and to create market
driven products and services. Innovation encompasses both radical and incremental
innovation (Plessis, 2007, 21).
102
Dosi (1990, p. 299) announced: Innovation concerns processes of learning

and discovery about new products, new production processes, and new forms of
economic organization, about which, ex ante, economic actors often possess only
rather unstructured beliefs on some unexploited opportunities, and which, ex post,
are generally checked and selected in non centrally planned economies by some
competitive interactions of whatever form in product market.
Innovation
Process
Stages
Social
Means
Creation
Generation
Implementation
Development
Adoption
Organizations
Firms
Customers
Social systems
Employees
Developers
Technology
Ideas
Inventions
Creativity
Market
Aim
Type
Nature
Succeed
Difference
Compete
Product
Service
Process
Technical
New
Improve
Change
Fig. 1 A diagrammatic definition of innovation
Finally, summarizing up all just above mentioned it should be admitted that

innovation is a specified process by means of which firms put the ideas into practice,
for example, into new or improved products, services or processes to ensure better
position on the market.
Theoretical aspects of human capital concept

It is quite vital in the context of the paper to investigate the concept of human
capital and its impact on innovation activity. Human capital is implicated in
individuals knowledge and abilities that allow for changes in action and economic
growth (Coleman, 1988, 100). Florin and Schulze proposed a distinction between
different types of human capital (Florin and Schulze, 2000, 2).
Firm-specific human capital is related to the skills and knowledge that are
valuable only inside the firm; however, firm-specific skills ensure an advantage over
their competitors because these skills are rare and not transferable to other firms
(Grant, 1996, 110). Nevertheless, it should be admitted that this kind of firm
specific human capital only have a limited impact on the level of innovative activity
in a region or wide society (Sandberg, 1986, 202).
Industry-specific human capital is related to the knowledge derived from
experience in a specific industry (Kenney and Vo Burg, 1999, 70). Bianchi stated that
103
industry-specific human capital plays a notable role in the creation and development
of innovation activity within an industry due to high quality of knowledge exchange
among the main players in that particular industry (Bianchi, 2001, 125). In reality,
the presence of industry-specific know-how have a positive impact on innovation
creation when new product or process is proposed as a final result of the cooperation
between network partners and tacit know-how in particular technology (Siegel et al,
1993, 171). The tacit sense of industry-specific know-how makes it understandable
for industry specialists and that is why the need for patents may increase (David,
1975, 109).
Individualspecific human capital is related to the knowledge that is used in
a wide range of firms and also industries. Pennings et al. admitted that this kind
of human capital includes general managerial (Pennings et al., 1998, 430) and
entrepreneurial experience, the level of academic education and vocational training
(Kilkenny et al., 1999, 236). Summarizing all just above mentioned, the fact is clear
that human capital level has an impact on economic success not only at the business
level but also at the macro level.
Human capital in science and technology as the essence of

innovation
It is obvious that innovation creation is a powerful engine for sustainable
economic development and for addressing social and global challenges (OECD,
2010, 2). The idea is clear that people should be encouraged to innovate because
people are the basis of innovation. The main emphasis should be placed on people
who are eager to generate new ideas and provide knowledge that result in innovation.
They use knowledge and the latest technologies, products, and services in their
workplaces and also as consumers (OECD, 2010, 9). There would be no secret
revealed, stating that necessary conditions for innovation are implicated in a wide
range of skills, learned capacity, adaptation and retraining in constant supervision
of new products and processes. Not only broad and relevant education but also
development of wide range of skills, as a part of formal education, has a high impact
on innovation creation (OECD, 2010, 9). Human capital in science and technology
has a high impact on innovation creation and technology driven economic growth.
In the context of modern economy where knowledge is treated as a source of
wealth creation, the main attention should be converted to the human capital. First
of all, it must be admitted that investment in human capital is key to innovation
growth. Educated science and technology labour force not only use but also produce
knowledge and technology needed for innovation creation. Secondly, according to
the firm-level researchers, science and technology labour force have a high impact on
the creation of new products and processes. Science and technology personnel of the
firm apply appropriate knowledge in the context of specific researches and also solve
complicated technological problem, and rise learning capacity of the firm. Thirdly,
the mobility of the science and technology personnel throughout the sectors, firms
and national boarders develop innovative capacity. In this respect, cooperation in
science and technology sector takes lace through scientists, researchers and industry
experts (OECD, 2000, pp. 78).
104
Key figures of science and technology resources and innovation

activities in European Union
Fig. 2 Innovative enterprises as a percentage of all enterprises by main NACE group,

EU-27 and selected counties in 2006. (Eurostat, 2010, p.68).
105
First of all, taking into account overall situation, manufacturing innovative

enterprises prevailed over service innovative enterprises in 2006 (excluding Portugal,
Greece and Latvia).
Secondly, it should be announced that the highest share of innovative enterprises
as a percentage of all enterprises by main NACE group was recorded in Germany,
Belgium, France, Ireland, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Austria, Luxemburg, Sweden,
Cyprus, United Kingdom, Netherlands and in addition to this, the ratio of innovative
enterprises in above mentioned counties was above the average in EU-27 (35% of
services innovative enterprises and 43% of manufacturing innovative enterprises).
Thirdly, and regretfully it should be announced that Latvia, Hungary, Romania,
Poland, Bulgaria, and Lithuania were the counties with the poorest ratio of the
innovative enterprises in 2006.
In terms of student participation in tertiary education in total education
programs and in science and engineering (S&E) particularly through population
aged 2029 years, it should be admitted that in the year 2007 28.6% of the EU
young people were in tertiary education. The highest share of students aged 2029
in tertiary education was fixed in Finland (46.7%), in Slovenia (40.5%), in Lithuania
(40.1%). The average annual growth rate in the proportion stood at 4.5% in the time
period between 2002 and 2007, however, Luxemburg, Portugal, Austria, France and
Spain reported a decrease in share of students in tertiary education.
106
Table 3
Students participating in tertiary education, total and in science and engineering

(S&E), total and as a percentage of population aged 20-29 and average annual growth
rate (AAGR) 2002-2007, EU-27 and selected counties in 2007. (Eurostat, 2010, p.51).
At the same time, 4.6 million students aged 2029 years (or 7.0% of EU-27
population) were studying science and engineering in 2007. It should be admitted
that number of S&E students increased in time period between 2002 and 2007,
however, it must be pointed out that the same ratio exists in the total number of
students in tertiary education. The highest number of S&E students was fixed in
Finland (17%), Greece (12.2%), Lithuania (9.6%), Sweden (9.6%), Slovenia (9.0%),
Estonia (7.8%), Portugal (7.5%), Poland (7.4%), Spain (7.7%), Germany (7.2%),
Italy (7.1%), and Denmark (7.0%).
107
Fig. 4 Human resources in science and technology core as a percentage of total

employment, EU-27 and selected counties in 2008. (Eurostat, 2010, p.58)
Universities, colleges, vocational training centres as a main source of innovation

creation not only produce and attract the human capital but also establish the
connection between such agents as business, governments, and countries in the global
arena of innovation systems. It must be admitted that it is necessary to recognize the
notable role of universities in the innovation firms. In this respect, the focus should
be captured on competition spirit and flexibility in universities (OECD, 2010, 10).
There should be built an essential bridge between vocational education training
and world of work and lifelong learning needs. In other words, vocational education
and training helps firms to produce specific processes and adopt sophisticated
technologies in the context of increase of the overall innovative capacity.
108
In 2008 the figure of human resources in science and technology by education

and occupation stood at 19% of total employment in the EU-27. The highest
percentage was depicted in Norway (30.0%), Luxembourg (29.2%) and Denmark
(28.7%). The proportion of human resources in science and technology by education
and occupation in Turkey (9.2%), Czech Republic (12.4%), Portugal (12.6%),
Slovakia (12.9%) and Romania (13.0%) was the lowest one. In addition to the above
mentioned it should be highlighted that the proportion of human resources in science
and technology by education and occupation in 2008 in Baltic countries was not so
low in the context of European performance and stood at 18.0% for Latvia, 18.8%
for Estonia, and 21.2% for Lithuania.
Fig. 5 Human resources in science and technology core by age group, EU-27 and
selected counties in 2008. (Eurostat, 2010, p. 57).
109
In 2008, the percentage of human resources in science and technology by

education and occupation aged 2534 years stood at 32.7%, aged 3544 years
stood at 30.5%, aged 4564 stood at 36.8%. The overall tendency of aging society
especially in human resources in science and technology by education and occupation
was proved. The highest number of human resources in science and technology
by education and occupation aged 2534 was depicted in Turkey (52.4%), Malta
(55.0%) and Poland (47.1%).
However, the highest number of human resources in science and technology by
education and occupation aged 4564 was depicted the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia (48.0%), Croatia (47.9%), Germany (45.0%), and Bulgaria (45,0%), in
other words, the human resources in S&T in these countries were quite old.
Fig. 6 Share of female students in tertiary education, all fields of science and
engineering, EU-27 and selected countries in 2007. (Eurostat, 2010, p.52).
110
In the context of Baltic countries, the highest share of young specialists in science
and technology was depicted in Lithuania (35.4%) and the highest percentage of
older generation in science and technology was depicted in Estonia (41.9%) and
Latvia (41.8%).
There was depicted quite significant share of female students in tertiary education
in all fields in such countries as Iceland (64.1%), Latvia (63.9%), Estonia (61.1%),
Norway (60.2%), Lithuania (60.0%), Sweden (59.9), Slovakia (58.9%), Albania
(58.4%), Hungary (58.3%), and others. The average share of female students in
tertiary education in all fields in 2007 in EU-27 stood at 55.2%.
However, it must be highlighted that the share of female students in science
and engineering on tertiary education level is not so intense that the same in all
fields of tertiary education. The most significant share of female students in tertiary
education was fixed in Albania (47.0%), Lichtenstein (39.7%), Romania (38.6%),
Italia (36.9%), Iceland (34.7%), Bulgaria (34.1%), Sweden (33.1%). The average
share of female students in tertiary education in science and engineering in 2007 in
EU-27 stood at 30.0%.
In this respect, it should be pointed out the share of female students in tertiary
education in science and engineering was not as high as it should be in the context of
increase of innovation capacity of the enterprise and state innovative competitiveness
in the whole.
Conclusion
Innovation plays a central role in creating value and sustaining competitive
advantage of the firm. According to OECD Innovation Strategy 2010, formal
education is the basis of human capital creation, for that reason it is quite vital to
adopt learners to the changing innovation nature from the beginning.
Entrepreneurs have occupied one of the major and most important places in the
process of innovation creation, due to the fact that entrepreneurs are those who bring
and turn the ideas into commercial applications. That is why it is quite essential to
develop education and training policies that would foster an entrepreneurial creative
activities and increase innovation capacity. Universities, colleges, vocational training
centres are the main source of innovation creation.
Manufacturing innovative enterprises prevailed over service innovative
enterprises in 2006 excluding Portugal, Greece, and Latvia. The highest share of
innovative enterprises as a percentage of all enterprises by main NACE group in
2006 was recorded in Germany, Belgium, France, Ireland, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, Austria, Luxemburg, Sweden, Cyprus, United Kingdom, the Netherlands.
The highest number of Science & Engineering students in 2007 was fixed in Finland
(17%), Greece (12.2%), Lithuania (9.6%), Sweden (9.6%), Slovenia (9.0%), Estonia
(7.8%), Portugal (7.5%), Poland (7.4%), Spain (7.7%), Germany (7.2%), Italy
(7.1%), and Denmark (7.0%). In 2008 the highest percentage of human resources
in science and technology by education and occupation was depicted in Norway
(30.0%), Luxembourg (29.2%), and Denmark (28.7%).
111
In the context of innovation development it should be admitted that women

participation in innovation process should be lifted up. Actually, low participation of
women in innovation process negatively reflect on diversity of innovation creation,
so that is why the modern society should struggle with specific barriers which women
often face in the participation in innovation process, for example, non-transparent
hiring and promotion.
References
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ISSN 1830-75-4X
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ventures, presented at the Academy of Management Meetings, Toronto, August.
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dsti/sti/s_t/
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address global and social challenges, May 2010. Available at: www.oecd.org/innovation/
strategy
10. Kenney, M. and von Burg, U. 1999 Technology, entrepreneurship and path dependence:
industrial clustering in Silicon Valley and Route 128, Industrial and Corporate Change, 8:
67103.
11. Kimberly, J.R. (1981), Managerial innovation, in Nystrom, P.C. and Starbuck, W.H.
(Eds), Hand Book of Organization Design, Oxford University Press, Oxford. P.219.
12. Kilkenny, M., Nalbarte, L. and Besser, T. 1999 Reciprocated community support and small
town-small business success, Entrepreneurship & Regional Development: 231246.
13. Pennings, J. M., Lee, K. and van Witteloostuijn, A. 1998 Human capital, social capital,
and firm dissolution, Academy of Management Journal, 41: 425440.
14. Plessis, M. D. (2007), The role of knowledge management in innovation, Journal of
Knowledge Management, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 2039.
15. Sandberg, W. R. 1986 New Venture Performance: The Role of Strategy and Industry
Structure. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. p.314.
16. Schumpeter, J.A. (1950), Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, Harper & Row, New
York, NY. P. 407.
17. Siegel, R., Siegel., E. and MacMillan, I. C. 1993 Characteristics distinguishing highgrowth ventures, Journal of Business Venturing, 8: 169180.
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18. Van de Ven, A. (1986), Central problems in the management of innovation, Management
Science, Vol. 32 No. 5, pp. 590607.
19. Wong, A., Tjosvold, D. and Liu, C. (2008), Innovation by teams in Shanghai, China:
cooperative goals for group confidence and persistence, British Journal of Management,
available at: www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/120123993/HTMLSTART
20. Zahra, S.A., Covin, J.G. (1994), The financial implications of fit between competitive
strategy and innovation types and sources, The Journal of High Technology Management
Research, Vol. 5 No. 2, pp. 183211.
Kopsavilkums
Uz zinanm balstt ekonomik cilvkkapitls zintn un tehnoloij ir pirmaj
viet gan lielko pasaules valstu, gan Eiropas valstu attstbas politikas dokumentos. T
k tehnoloisks prmaias rada pieprasjumu pc kvalificta un izgltota darbaspka un
vl joprojm turpins ekonomisk lejupslde, ir nepiecieama cilvkkapitla mobilizcija
zintn un tehnoloijs, lai veidotu un attsttu inovcijas. Pastv dai ri, kuri
trauc paaugstint pieprasjumu pc kvalificta un izgltota darbaspka zintn un
tehnoloiju jom: zems absolventu skaits eksaktajs zintns, zema sievieu ldzdalba
eksakto zintu fakultts un saistt nodarbintb, zems investciju lmenis P & A
valsts lmen. Raksta mris analizt teortiskus aspektus, saisttus ar cilvkkapitla
ietekmi uz inovciju izveidi.
Galvenie uzdevumi:
- analizt teortiskus aspektus, saisttus ar inovcijas paradigmu;
- izptt teortiskus aspektus, saisttus ar cilvkkapitla konceptu;
- izptt galvenos datus par iesaisttiem resursiem zintn un tehnoloij;
- analizt datus, saisttus ar inovatvo darbbu Eiropas Savienb.
Rakst tiek izmantotas visprpieemts tautsaimniecbas zintnes ptjumu
kvantitatvs un kvalitatvs metodes, tai skait monogrfisk dokumentu analze,
grupana, saldzinana, visprinana, grafisk analze, kontentanalze.
Galvenie raksta secinjumi atklj cilvkkapitla ietekmes btbu uz inovatvo
aktivitu izveidi, k ar tiek uzsvrts, ka inovcijm ir galven nozme vrtbu izveidoan
un uzmuma ilgtermia konkurences priekrocbu izveid. Valsts lmen augsta inovciju
raotspja nodroina ekonomikas izaugsmi un paaugstina konkurtspju.
Atslgvrdi: cilvkkapitls, zintne un tehnoloija, inovcijas, uz zinanm balstta
ekonomika, ilgspjga attstba.
113
Abbreviations and symbols

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
Belgium
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Denmark
Germany
Estonia
Ireland
Greece
Spain
France
Italy
Cyprus
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Hungary
Malta
Netherlands
Austria
Poland
Portugal
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
Romania
Slovenia
Slovakia
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom
MK
HR
TR
LI
The Former Yugoslav Republic of

Macedonia
Croatia
Turkey
Lichtenstein
IS
NO
AL
Iceland
Norway
Albania
EU-27 European Union (27 Member

States)
OECD Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development
R&D research and development

114.125. lpp.
Darbinieku atdeves un gandarjuma materilo faktoru

analze telekomunikciju nozar Latvij
Analysis of Employees Performance and Motivation
Material Factors in Telecommunication Branch in Latvia
Laura Kerule
Latvijas Mobilais telefons
E-pasts: Laura.Kersule@lmt.lv
Biruta Sloka
E-pasts: Biruta.Sloka@lu.lv
Darbinieku profesionlai atdevei un gandarjumam (gan materilam, gan morlam) ir paa
nozme darbinieku motivcij, jo uzmumi ir ieinteresti profesionl personl, kuri strd
ar prieku un atdevi. Pasaul ptnieki o jautjumu ptjui dads detalizcijas pakps
un griezumos. aj rakst izmantotas kvantitatvs ptjumu metodes: darbinieku aptauja,
aptaujas rezulttu analzei lietota faktoru analze un centrls tendences jeb lokcijas rdtji
un varicijas rdtji, k ar grupana. kvantitatv ptjuma gait autores secinjuas,
ka ir etri galvenie kompleksie faktori, kas ietekm darbinieku motivciju: darba apstki,
atalgojums, darba radoums un laba sadarbba darba kolektv, k ar darba elastba. Skk
analizti kompleks atalgojuma faktoru veidojoo skotnjo faktoru raksturotji.
Atslgvrdi: darbinieku motivcija, tieie motivatori, personla vadba, faktoru analze,
kompleksie faktori.
Ievads
Darbinieku profesionlai atdevei un gandarjumam (gan materilam, gan mo
rlam) ir paa nozme darbinieku motivcij, jo uzmumi ir ieinteresti profesionl
personl, kas strd ar prieku un atdevi. Pasaul ptnieki o jautjumu ptjui
no dadiem aspektiem, dads detalizcijas pakps un griezumos. Darbinieku
motivcijas faktoriem ir paa nozme pastiprintas konkurences apstkos, kdos ir
telekomunikciju uzmumi, un ar ekonomisks krzes apstkos.
kvantitatv ptjuma mris ir noskaidrot darbinieku motivcijas materilo
aspektu novrtjumu darbinieku skatjum. Galvenie uzdevumi: izptt teorij analiztos viedokus par darbinieku motivcijas aspektiem; noskaidrot darbinieku motivcijas praktiskos viedokus un analizt tos, izmantojot darbinieku aptaujas rezulttus.
L. Kerule, B. Sloka. Darbinieku atdeves un gandarjuma materilo faktoru analze ..
115
Raksts strukturts di: pirm nodaa veltta teortiskam prskatam par motivcijas koncepciju, otr noda tiek analizti faktoru analzes ptjuma rezultti, noslgum analizti atsevio materils motivcijas faktoru statistiskie raksturotji un
sievieu un vrieu atbilu vrtjumi. Empriskaj ptjum izmantotas kvantitatvs
ptjumu metodes: darbinieku aptauja, aptaujas rezulttu analzei lietota faktoru analze un centrls tendences jeb lokcijas rdtji un varicijas rdtji, k ar grupana.
Motivcijas koncepcijas teortiskais apskats

Darbinieku motivcija ir plai ptta akadmiskajos ptjumos, jo is ir viens no
svargkajiem aspektiem, kas ietekm uzmuma veiksmgu darbbu un konkurtspju. Marcelles (Marcelle) ptjums [11] atklj faktorus, kas ietekm telekomunikciju uzmumu sekmgu inovciju, konkurtspjas un ekonomisks attstbas sasnieganu. T pamat ir tehnoloisko zinanu un spju attstana, kuru motiv lderis, uzmuma iekjie apstki, atldzba, izpratne par zinanu nepiecieambu, zinanu un informcijas plsma no rpuses, k ar darbinieku novrtana un uzraudzba. Vlans uzemties risku, izmantot sniegts iespjas un veiksme faktori,
kas ietekm uzmuma spju ne tikai prdzvot ekonomisko lejupsldi, bet ar kt
spcgkam ts iespaid. Darbinieku motivanai un iesaistanai noder motivatori,
kas neprasa lielus finansilos resursus: pienkumu deleana, mcbas un iespja
kontrolt darba laiku un vietu. Alas un Gao (Alas, Gao) ptjum [1] uzsvrts, ka
atkarb no t, k uzmuma vadba izvlas atbildt uz auganas iespjm, tas var
nostiprint savu pozciju tirg vai tikt novests ldz sabrukumam. Lielkais izaicinjums personlvadb ir atlast pareizo daudzumu darbinieku ar nepiecieamajm
prasmm, k ar iedalt uzdevumus atbilstoi katras personas kompetencei. Individulisms saldzinjum ar kolektvismu noved pie biekm krzm personlvadbas
jom, to pierda Igaunijas un nas saldzinoie dati. Tau s krzes situcijas Igaunijas vadtjiem ir iemcjuas labas vadbas un darbinieku motivanas nozmi. Kamr vadtji n piekopj autokrtisku vadbas stilu, Igaunij tas pamazm kst arvien demokrtiskks. Tortons un Gibons (Thornton, Gibbons) ptjum [15] analizjui novrtanas centru lietojumu personla atlas un nordjui uz to nozmi rj
atlas, kompetences apliecinan, paaugstinan un potencila identifican. Novrtanas mris ir noteikt kandidta spju atbilstbu darba uzdevumiem. Ts pamat ir organizcijas simulcijas, kurs kandidts tiek novrtts dimensijs, kuras
darba uzdevumu un kompetenu analz atztas par svargm. Bogarts un Vloebergs
(Bogaert, Vloeberghs) konstatjui [2], ka tdi faktori k konkurences priekrocbas
un sabiedrbas diversificans motiv darba devjus pieemt arvien dadkus darbiniekus. Diversificta personla vadan eksist etras pieejas. Deficta un diskrimincijas pieejas, kas kalpo darbinieku piesaistei, koncentrjas uz kvalifikcijas celanu un diskrimincijas samazinanu. Kulturalizcijas un individualizcijas pieejas,
kas sekm veicinoas vides raanos, koncentrjas uz rezultatvas sadarbbas un individulu vajadzbu nodroinanu. Beijas organizcijas, ideoloisku un ekonomisku
motvu vadtas, visbiek izmanto individualizcijas pieeju, lai nodrointu kreativitti un augstas kvalittes pakalpojumus. Testa (Testa) [14] uzsvris, ka globalizcijas
iespaid vadtjiem arvien biek jprvalda multikulturls personls. Ptjums rda,
ka kultru atbilstba starp vadtju un padoto rezultjas padot uzskat par ldera ieinterestbu darbinieka vajadzbs, labk attiecbu, k ar darba kvalitt. Gadjum,
116
kur vadtjs un padotais ir dadu kultru prstvji, lderim efektvi jvada padotais, lai nostiprintu savu pozciju un sekmtu attiecbu veidoanos. Frdrihs, Vessejs,
ulke, Ruarks un Mumfords (Friedrich, Vessey, Schuelke, Ruark, Mumford) secinjui [6], ka kolektv vadana ir process, kur, atbilstoi situcijai selektvi izraugoties iemaas un ekspertzi, tiek efektvi sadaltas lderbas lomas. Kolektvs vadanas pamatu veido ldera prasmes un spjas, komanda, ts strukturana un uzturana, misija. Pienkumu sadale starp lderi un komandu, komunikcija, ldera un komandas kontakti, emocionl atmosfra un komandas rdtji auj kolektvajai vadanai rasties. Frdriha, Vesseja, ulkes, Ruarka un Mumforda empriskie ptjumi [6]
atkljui, ka kolektva vadana pozitvi iespaido tltjo un ilgtermia komandas
sniegumu. Kleija, Pshuisa un rgena (Kleij, Paashuis, Schraagen) ptjums [9]
rda, ka cilvku grupai, kas regulri strd kop, sadarbojoties un izmantojot video
starpniecbu, ieguvums ir lielks nek skotnjie ierobeojumi. Lai gan is instruments auj dalbniekiem nesniegt pilnu uzmanbu, tiek samazints to faktoru daudzums, kas novr uzmanbu no veicam darba, tdjdi kompensjot iespjamo
frraidu. Lai palielintu da darba produktivitti, paa uzmanba ir jpievr instrumentiem, kas samazina frraida iespju, piemram, individuli veicamiem uzdevumiem. Kalamels, Defeliks, Piks un Retours (Calamel, Defelix, Picq, Retour) secinjui [4], ka sadarbbas projekti, kas veidojas tdu iemeslu d k resursu dadoana,
riska samazinana un kompetenu pievienoana, pulc dadu organizciju darbiniekus. Efektva sadarbba attsts pakpeniski. Lai to trk sasniegtu, var ieviest
tdus koordincijas paskumus k procedru standartizana, uzraudzba. Ir ieteicams lietot dadus personla vadbas rkus, kas nostiprina sadarbbu, piemram,
komandas, starpkulturls izpratnes veidoana, darba apstku un atalgojuma izldzinana. Ng (Ng) konstatjis [10], ka izcili vadtji gst sekmes, pateicoties devim
vadbas iemam. Labk pieredze rda vadtju spju saskatt lmumu ilgtermia
iespaidu, ne tikai stermia rezulttus, pievrst uzmanbu detam, paredzt un sagatavoties krzes situcijm, delet uzdevumus un attstt jaunus talantus. Tpat lieliskam vadtjam jbt vrgam, zintkram, tdam, kas stimul jaunu zinanu un
metou apganu, redzamam un atvrtam jaunm idejm. Kangemi, Lazarus, Makkuade, Ficderalds, Koners, Millers un Mrfrijs (Cangemi, Lazarus, McQuade,
Fitzgerald, Conner, Miller, Murphree) izptjui [4], ka veiksmgas lderbas nosacjumi ekonomisks krzes situcij ir vadtju spja uzemt informciju un uzklaust
spriedumus no dadiem avotiem, neatlikt nepopulru lmumu pieemanu, rast jaunas biznesa iespjas un palielint klientam sniegto vrtbu. Svarga ir komunikcija
starp vism uzmum iesaisttajm pusm, darbinieku iesaiste un to atzinga novrtana. Kazlauskaite un Buiniene (Kazlauskait, Buinien) konstatjuas [8], ka
personlvadba ir kuvusi ne tikai par neatemamu uzmuma sastvdau, bet ar par
stratisko partneri uzmuma vrtbas radan. Arvien biek tiek izmantotas apmcbas, profesionl attstana, informcijas izplatana visos uzmuma lmeos
un atldzbas individualizana. Tomr nelieli uzmumi joprojm kavjas efektvas
personlvadbas ieviean resursu un kompetences trkuma d. P. Masingams, Ngujens, R. Masingams (P. Massingham, Nguyen, R. Massingham) izptjui [12], ka
360 grdu kola novrtjums ir objektvs instruments personla spju, snieguma,
attstbas un nepiecieams apmcbas noteikanai. Darbinieku pavrtjums ir zemks nek kolu novrtjums, tau personbas tips uz novrtjumu neatstj btisku
iespaidu. Td jebkdas subjektivittes izslganai darbinieka novrtan tiek iz-
117
mantoti trs atskaites punkti: pavrtjums, kolu vrtjums un personbas novrtjums. Brougs, Donsons, Drumonds, Pennisi un Timms (Brough, Johnson, Drummond, Pennisi, Timms) secinjui [3], ka vecums nenosaka spju izzint, patstvgi
spriest un lietot uzkrts zinanas. Tpat gan vecki, gan jaunki darbinieki ldzgi
uztver socilo atbalstu, nododas darbam, izjt gandarjumu par izdarto un lkojas
uz iespjamo darbavietas maiu. Abs grups nodoans un apmierintba ar darbu
rezultjas zemk darbinieku mainb. Stegers, Lengs, Grogers (Steger, Lang, Groeger) atzmjui [13], ka starptautiska uzmuma personlvadbas prakses ievieana
rvalstu filil ir atkarga no daudziem faktoriem, tai skait delet vadtja. Atkarb no vadbas stila, kas vari no brva ldz stingram, personlvadbas prakse rvalstu filil var bt pilngi patstvga un balstta uz vietjm tradcijm, mantota no
starptautisk uzmuma vai jaukta. Lai novrstu starptautisk uzmuma un darbinieku nepiekpbu personlvadbas prakses ieviean, kas var novest pie neveiksmgas uzmjdarbbas, abm praksm jbt ldzsvar. Kagri, Munene un Ntaji (Kagaari, Munene, Ntayi) secinjui [7], ka informcijas un komunikcijas sistmu lietoana veicina un nostiprina informcijas apmaiu un sadarbbu starp uzmuma
darbiniekiem. Darba izpildes vadba virza un atbalsta efektvu un produktvu sniegumu. ie divi instrumenti ir nozmgi faktori veiksmgas uzmjdarbbas nodroinan.
Ptjum izmantots metodes

Kvantitatv ptjuma mris bija konstatt galvenos darbinieku motivcijas
faktorus un raksturot, k darbinieki jtas novrtti viu darbaviet. T k is ptjums
ir daa no apjomgka darba, kura mris ir noteikt sakarbas starp darbinieku
motivciju un produktivitti, ptjuma gait tika izvirzts uzdevums noteikt, kdi
faktori ietekm darbinieku motivciju, un noskaidrot to nozmbu, k ar darbinieku
sajtas par viu novrtjumu un darbinieku attieksmes vrtjumu dadbu vai,
tiei otrdi, vienprtbu nozmgko motivcijas materilo faktoru vrtjumos.
Kvantitatvais ptjums ir balstts uz darbinieku aptauju, pamat analizts viens no
jautjumiem: eit ir dots saraksts ar faktoriem, kas motiv darbiniekus strdt ar
atdevi un gandarjumu. Ldzu, novrtjiet, cik liel mr attiecgais faktors tiek
realizts / piemt Jsu pareizj darba viet. Savu vrtjumu sniedziet 7 punktu
skal, kur 1 nozm nemaz neesat apmierints, bet 7 esat apmierints piln
mr. Vrtjumam Js varat izmantot jebkuru ciparu no 1 ldz 7! Aptaujas rezultti
analizti ar vienu no daudzdimensiju analzes metodm faktoru analzi. Darbinieku
vrtjumi analizti ar ar centrls tendences jeb lokcijas rdtjiem (aritmtiskais
vidjais, moda, medina) un varicijas rdtjiem (varicijas apjoms, dispersija, vidj
kvadrtisk novirze un aritmtisk vidj standartkda), izmantota grupana.
Galvenie emprisk ptjuma rezultti

Uzmuma darbinieku aptauja tika veikta 2010. gada august un septembr.
Vrtjumi 17, kur 1 nepiekrtat ne mazk mr, 7 piekrtat vislielk mr.
Respondentu atbildes uz jautjumu par darbinieku strdanu ar atdevi tika analiztas
ar faktoru analzi, k rotcijas metodi autores izmantoja varimaksa metodi ar Kaizera
normalizciju. Faktoru analzes rezultti iegti rotcijas 6 itercijs. Faktoru analzes
galvenie rezultti apkopoti 1. tabul.
118
1. tabula
Faktoru analzes rezultti jautjumam Cik liel mr attiecgais faktors tiek realizts /
piemt Jsu pareizj darba viet?
Results of Factor Analysis for Question (In What Extent Respective Factor is Realised in
the Current Work Place? )
Kompleks faktora
komponente
Skotnjie faktori
Konkurtspjga alga
Piemaksas / prmijas par uzmuma, komandas sasniegumiem
Piemaksas / prmijas par individuliem sasniegumiem
Papildu socilie labumi (darba devja samaksta veselbas u.c.
apdroinana, ieguldjumi pensiju fondos u. c.)
Uzmumam ir nevainojama reputcija
Socil droba (samaksti visi nodoki)
Labi, komfortabli darba apstki (t. sk. biroja atraans vieta,
moderns aprkojums un metodoloijas darb)
Saprotami uzmuma iekjie noteikumi, regulas, procedras
un politika
Elastgs darba laiks
Brvba, autonomija darb
Respektabls darbs (iespja veikt nozmgu darbu)
Iespjas uzemties atbildbu
Iespjas tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas)
Iespjas mcties jaunas prasmes un iegt jaunas zinanas
(personisks attstbas iespjas)
Mana darba / rezulttu regulra kontrole
Patkami koli
Interesants darbs / darba dadba
Laba sadarbba kolektv
Augstas prasbas
Vadtja kompetence
Atzinba
Atgriezenisk saite par profesionlo sniegumu
Taisnga attieksme
Skaidri izvirzti mri
Laicga un atklta komunikcija
Vadtja atbalsts un priekzme
,279
,241
,222
,724
,839
,817
,154
,025
,061
,156
,088
,138
,153
,743
,061
-,185
,666
,349
,189
,099
,210
,138
,038
-,592
,456
,391
,327
,013
,672
,169
,285
,288
,442
,264
,355
,210
,295
,218
,348
,002
,666
,115
,205
,628
,646
,298
,591
,583
,142
,147
,087
,314
,371
,562
,164
,104
,710
,284
,719
,223
,698
,479
,512
,627
,562
,702
,699
,094
,080
,230
,189
-,052
,252
,459
,442
,404
,238
,322
,355
,579
,134
,642
,203
,685
,239
,360
,351
,202
,454
,246
,220
-,395
-,050
,221
-,043
-,243
,043
,178
,144
,185
,060
,135
,104
-,027
Komplekso faktoru ieganas metode: galveno komponentu analze.

Rotcijas metode: varimakss ar Kaizera normalizciju, rotcija veikta 6 itercijs.
Avots: autoru aprini, izmantota darbinieku 2010. gad veikt aptauja (n = 1098).
Complex factors are calculated using Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation: varimax with Kazer normalisation, rotation in 6 iterations.
Source: authors calculations, survey results of employees in 2010 are used (n = 1098).
Evaluations 17, where 1 do not agree; 7 agree in full extent.
119
Aprinu rezultt iegti etri kompleksie faktori, kurus autores nosaukuas

di:
1) darba profesionlie apstki;
2) materilais atalgojums;
3) darba radoums;
4) darba organizcijas elastba.
Cilvki ir dadi, tpc dada ir darbinieku attieksme pret materilajiem
faktoriem un novrtjums, k ie materilie faktori viu darba viet attiecas uz
viiem paiem, tpc autores skk analizja kompleksos faktorus, kas pc darbinie
ku vrtjuma ietekm viu atalgojumu.
2. tabula
Darbinieku atalgojuma aspektu vrtjumu galvenie statistiskie raksturotji

Main Statistical Indicators of Different Issues of Employees Salaries
Statistiskie raksturotji
Piemaksas/
Konku- prmijas par
rtspj- uzmuma,
ga alga komandas sasniegumiem
Piemaksas/
prmijas
par individuliem
sasniegumiem
Papildu socilie laIespjas

bumi (darba devja
tikt paaugsamaksta veselbas
stintam
u. c. apdroinana,
(karjeras
ieguldjumi pensiju
iespjas)
fondos u. c.)
N Dergi
1098
1098
1098
1098
1098
Trkst
4,03
3,28
3,23
3,43
3,82
0,062
0,068
0,069
0,068
0,062
4,00
3,00
2,00
3,00
4,00
Aritmtiskais
vidjais
Aritmtisk vidj standartkda
Medina
Vidj kvadrtisk novirze
Moda
2,061
2,243
2,274
2,251
2,062
Dispersija
4,246
5,029
5,171
5,069
4,250
Varicijas apjoms
Minimums
Maksimums
Ptjuma rezultti liecina, ka darbinieku vrtjumi ir oti dadi: no viszemk

ldz visaugstkajam. Aritmtiskais vidjais visiem ptmajiem aspektiem ir no
4,03 (konkurtspjga alga) ldz 3,23 (piemaksas / prmijas par individuliem
sasniegumiem) (1. att.). Lielk daa respondentu materili jtas nenovrtti, par to
liecina visu analizto faktoru modas (visbiek sastopamais respondentu vrtjums):
120
visiem 1 viszemkais vrtjums. Puse respondentu savu panovrtjumu attiecb

uz konkurtspjgu algu un uz izredzm tikt paaugstintam vrtjui ar mazk nek
4ballm, puse ar vairk nek 4 ballm (par to liecina medina).
Piemaksas / prmijas
par individuliem
sasniegumiem
3,23
Piemaksas / prmijas
par uzmuma,
komandas
sasniegumiem
3,28
Papildu
socilie labumi
3,43
Iespjas tikt
paaugstintam
(karjeras iespjas)
3,82
Konkurtspjga
alga
4,03
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
1. attls. Darbinieku atalgojuma aspektu vrtjumu aritmtiskie vidjie

Averages of Different Aspects of Employees Salaries
Vrtjumi 17, kur 1 nepiekrtat ne mazj mr, 7 piekrtat vislielk mr.
Darbinieku vrtjumu par konkurtspjgu algu sadaljums (dzimumu griezum)

apkopots 3. tabul.
3. tabulas dati liecina, ka viszemko novrtjumu par konkurtspjgu algu
devuo sievieu patsvars ir gandrz divas reizes lielks nek vrieu. Pilngu
apmierintbu ar darba algu paudui 15,9% respondentu, no tiem 15% sievieu un
17,4% vrieu. Darbinieku vrtjumu par konkurtspjgu algu sadaljums (nostrdto
gadu) profesij griezum apkopots 4. tabul.
Ptjums pierdja, ka ir liels darbinieku skaits ar profesij nostrdto laiku virs
13 gadiem ar viszemkajiem vrtjumiem par konkurtspjgu algu. ajos vrtjumos
vrojama tendence, ka, pieaugot nostrdtajam laikam profesij, pavrtjuma par
konkurtspjgu algu novrtjumu devuo darbinieku skaits palielins (4. tabulas
1.rinda). Darbinieku ar profesij nostrdto laiku virs 13 gadiem ar visaugstkajiem
vrtjumiem par konkurtspjgu algu vrtjumos vrojama tendence, ka, pieaugot
nostrdtajam laikam profesij, pavrtjuma par konkurtspjgu algu novrtjumu
devuo darbinieku skaits palielins (4. tabulas 7. rinda). Bez konkurtspjgas darba
algas svargs darba motivators ir iespjas tikt paaugstintam. Darbinieku vrtjumu
par iespjm tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas) sadaljums (dzimumu griezum)
apkopots 5. tabul.
121
3. tabula
Darbinieku vrtjumu par konkurtspjgu algu sadaljums (dzimumu griezum)

Distributions of Employees Evaluations by Sex on Competitive Salaries
Sieviete
Vrtjumi
Vrietis
Kop
Skaits
patsvars (%)
Skaits
patsvars (%)
Skaits
patsvars (%)
147
21,5
48
11,6
195
17,8
78
11,4
36
8,7
114
10,4
81
11,8
53
12,8
134
12,2
104
15,2
63
15,3
167
15,2
93
13,6
78
18,9
171
15,6
79
11,5
63
15,3
142
12,9
103
15,0
72
17,4
175
15,9
Kop
685
100
413
100
1098
100
4. tabula
Darbinieku vrtjumu par konkurtspjgu algu sadaljums (nostrdto gadu profesij

griezum)
Distributions of Employees Evaluations by Worked Age on Competitive Salaries
Cik gadus strdjat aj profesij
Vrtjumi
Ldz
2 gadiem
No 2 ldz
4 gadiem
No 4 ldz
7 gadiem
No 7 ldz
13 gadiem
Vairk nek
13 gadus
patsvars
(%)
Skaits
patsvars
(%)
Skaits
patsvars
(%)
Skaits
patsvars
(%)
Skaits
patsvars
(%)
Kop
Skaits
24
17,9
24
15,0
27
14,6
32
15,2
88
21,5
195
6,0
15
9,4
21
11,3
25
11,9
45
11,0
114
17
12,7
15
9,4
22
11,9
24
11,4
56
13,7
134
31
23,1
29
18,1
24
13,0
25
11,9
58
14,2
167
24
17,9
27
16,9
36
19,5
31
14,8
53
13,0
171
11
8,2
18
11,2
24
13,0
39
18,6
50
12,2
142
19
14,2
32
20,0
31
16,7
34
16,2
59
14,4
175
Kop
134
100
160
100
185
100
210
100
409
100
1098
5. tabulas dati liecina, ka viszemko novrtjumu devuo sievieu patsvars

par iespjm tikt paaugstintam gandrz divas reizes lielks nek vrieu. Pilngu
122
apmierintbu ar iespjm tikt paaugstintam paudui 12,1% respondentu, no

tiem 12% sievieu un 12,3% vrieu. Darbinieku vrtjumu par iespjm tikt
paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas) sadaljums (nostrdto gadu profesij griezum)
apkopots 6. tabul.
5. tabula
Darbinieku vrtjumu par iespjm tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas) sadaljums

(dzimumu griezum)
Distributions of Employees Evaluations by Sex on Possibilities to be Promoted
Vrtjumi
Sieviete
Vrietis
147
83
Kop
230
84
47
131
69
54
123
106
55
161
98
67
165
99
56
155
82
51
133
Kop
685
413
1098
6. tabula
Darbinieku vrtjumu par iespjm tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas) sadaljums

(nostrdto gadu profesij griezum)
Distributions of Employees Evaluations by Worked Age on Possibilities to be Promoted
Cik gadus strdjat aj profesij
Vrtjumi
Ldz 2 gadiem
No 2 ldz
4 gadiem
No 4 ldz
7 gadiem
No 7 ldz
13 gadiem
Vairk nek
13 gadus
patsvars
(%)
Skaits
patsvars
(%)
Skaits
patsvars
(%)
Skaits
patsvars
(%)
Skaits
patsvars
(%)
Kop
Skaits
29
21,6
30
18,7
38
20,5
47
22,4
86
21,0
230
16
12,0
22
13,7
18
9,7
24
11,4
51
12,5
131
12
9,0
20
13
16
8,7
23
11.0
52
12,7
123
20
14,9
25
15,6
33
17,8
32
15,2
51
12,5
161
22
16,4
23
14,4
28
15,1
26
12,4
66
16,1
165
17
12,7
19
11,9
29
15,7
32
15,2
58
14,2
155
18
13,4
21
13,1
23
12,5
26
12,4
45
11,0
133
Kop
134
100
160
100
185
100
210
100
409
100
1098
123
oti liels ir darbinieku skaits ar profesij nostrdto laiku virs 13 gadiem ar

viszemkajiem vrtjumiem par iespjm tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas).
ajos vrtjumos vrojama tendence, ka, pieaugot nostrdtajam laikam profesij,
pavrtjuma par iespjm tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas) novrtjumu devuo
darbinieku skaits palielins (6. tabulas 1. rinda). Darbinieku ar profesij nostrdto
laiku virs 13 gadiem ar visaugstkajiem vrtjumiem par iespjm tikt paaugstintam
(karjeras iespjas) vrtjumos vrojama tendence, ka, pieaugot nostrdtajam
laikam profesij, pavrtjuma par iespjm tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas)
visaugstko novrtjumu devuo darbinieku skaits palielins (6. tabulas 7. rinda).
Secinjumi
Darbinieku motivciju ietekm faktoru analzes rezultt iegtie kompleksie
faktori: darba profesionlie apstki, materilais atalgojums, darba radoums, darba
organizcijas elastba.
Darbinieku motivciju ietekmjoo materilo faktoru panovrtjums darbinieku
skatjum ir oti dads.
Lielk daa darbinieku materili jutuies nenovrtti, puse respondentu savu
panovrtjumu attiecb uz konkurtspjgu algu un uz izredzm tik paaugstintam
vrtjui ar 4 ballm vai vl mazku vrtjumu, puse ar vairk nek 4 ballm (17
ballu novrtjumu skal).
Viszemko novrtjumu par konkurtspjgu algu devuo sievieu patsvars
gandrz divas reizes lielks nek vrieu. Pilngu apmierintbu ar darba algu paudui
15,9% respondentu, no tiem 15% sievieu un 17,4% vrieu. Liels ir darbinieku
skaits ar profesij nostrdto laiku virs 13 gadiem ar viszemkajiem vrtjumiem
par konkurtspjgu algu.
Pieaugot nostrdtajam laikam profesij, pavrtjuma par konkurtspjgu algu
novrtjumu devuo darbinieku skaits palielins.
Darbinieku ar profesij nostrdto laiku virs 13 gadiem ar visaugstkajiem
vrtjumiem par konkurtspjgu algu vrtjumos vrojama tendence, ka, pieaugot
nostrdtajam laikam profesij, pavrtjuma par konkurtspjgu algu novrtjumu
devuo darbinieku skaits palielins.
Bez konkurtspjgas darba algas svargs darba motivators ir iespjas tikt
paaugstintam.
Viszemko novrtjumu devuo sievieu patsvars par iespjm tikt paaugstintam
gandrz divas reizes lielks nek vrieu. Pilngu apmierintbu ar iespjm tikt
paaugstintam paudui 12,1% respondentu, no tiem 12% sievieu un 12,3% vrieu.
oti liels ir darbinieku skaits ar profesij nostrdto laiku virs 13 gadiem ar
viszemkajiem vrtjumiem par iespjm tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas).
ajos vrtjumos vrojama tendence, ka, pieaugot nostrdtajam laikam profesij,
pavrtjuma par iespjm tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas) novrtjumu devuo
darbinieku skaits palielins.
124
Darbinieku ar profesij nostrdto laiku virs 13 gadiem ar visaugstkajiem

vrtjumiem par iespjm tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas) vrtjumos vrojama
tendence, ka, pieaugot nostrdtajam laikam profesij, pavrtjuma par iespjm
tikt paaugstintam (karjeras iespjas) visaugstko novrtjumu devuo darbinieku
skaits palielins.
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Summary
Employees professional return, both material and moral have a big impact on
personnel motivation as companies are interested in professional personnel that work
with delight and return. Many researches in academic research have paid attention to
different aspects of this issue in different prospects and degrees of detailed elaboration.
In this article the following quantitative research methods have been used: employee
survey, analysis of responses on questions of the survey are analysed with the help of
factor analysis, as well as indicators of central tendency or location and indicators of
variability. As a result of factor analysis authors have identified four complex factors
influencing employee motivation: work conditions, salary, creativity of work, and
good professional relations in employee collective, as well as work elasticity. Factors
influencing compensation for work are analysed in more detail.
Keywords: employee motivation, direct motivators, personnel management, factor
analysis, complex factors.

126.142. lpp.
Budget Process and Fiscal Discipline in Latvia: Analysis

of Past Progress and Possible Future Development
Budeta process un fiskl disciplna Latvij: pagtnes
progresa novrtjums un iespjam nkotnes attstba
Krlis Ketners
Riga Technical University

1/7 Mea street, Riga, Latvia, LV-1048
E-mail: Karlis.Ketners@rtu.lv
Ludmila Jevuka
Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Latvia

1 Smilsu street, Riga, Latvia, LV-1919
E-mail: Ludmila.Jevcuka@inbox.lv
The aim of this paper is to analyze existing fiscal discipline in Latvia through elements of fiscal
rules and medium term expenditure planning, its past development and future perspectives.
Examination of changes in respective legislation was performed and supported by theoretical
background. It is concluded, that there are no long term binding numerical fiscal rules, and
creation of such was initiated as a response to economic downturn. Development of medium
term framework was rather formal and informative, and can be viewed as a response to
international requirements for having such a framework. New proposals on respective issues
often appear to be modified proposals from the past, meaning that the progress in setting
up strict fiscal discipline was insignificant so far, and many sound proposals were left aside
leaving the situation unchanged in its concept. Regarding recent proposals on strengthening
fiscal discipline it is suggested to simplify the legislative frame and way of appliance of fiscal
targets, as well as to promote changes in political culture.
Keywords: fiscal policy, fiscal discipline, fiscal rules, budget process, medium term
expenditure framework, fiscal consolidation.
Introduction
Couple of years ago Latvia was the fastest developing country in the EU,
and now it is experiencing the deepest economic crisis since the restoration of its
independence, and occurred to be hit by this crisis more severely than other countries
in the region. Although the economic downturn of world scale would definitely have
an impact on small and open economy, still the experience of neighbor countries
show that policies implemented by national authorities, if wisely managed, can soften
the shock and can raise the country towards a new period of economic development.
Prudent fiscal policy is one of the tools on how to make a country if not immune,
than at least less sensitive towards economic downturn.
K. Ketners, L. Jevuka. Budget process and fiscal discipline in Latvia: Analysis ..
127
Current budgetary problems, drop in state revenues, several years of fiscal

consolidation, high uncertainty in a field of tax and social support systems illustrate
that Latvia was not prepared to meet global financial crisis. During the years of rapid
economic growth the government was performing pro-cyclical expenditure policy,
thus contributing to the overheating of the economy and not using the opportunity
to create sufficient reserves for case of economic emergency. Due to unavailability
of significant financial resources for solution of problems connected with financial
crisis government was forced to increase state borrowing. Till the end of 2009,
2293 million LVL of international financial assistance were received; 1 320 million
LVL from that were used to cover total financial needs and perform financial sector
stabilization measures. According to the agreement with creditors, the rest of the
received assistance in amount of 973 million LVL were reserved in the Treasurys
accounts in the Bank of Latvia to ensure budget execution and refinance government
debt liabilities (517 million LVL), as well as to finance potential financial sector
stabilization measures (456 million LVL) [1]. Aforementioned actions have increased
state external debt and also interest expenditures. Number of reforms are being
performed and planned to be performed in order to reduce expenditure in all possible
fields, such as social funds, health, education, public administration etc, but it is not
likely that reforms performed in a hurry will produce positive results for the economy
in the long run. It is not possible to change expansive pre-crisis expenditure policy
of the government but it is possible to analyze the mistakes of the past to enforce
strict fiscal discipline and to establish economy cycle adjusted policy, which would
show good results in protecting national economy during possible future crisis.
The aim of the paper is to analyze existing theoretical framework on such
methods of ensuring fiscal discipline as fiscal rules and medium term planning,
explore the past development of legislation and guidelines on budget management
and fiscal policy in Latvia, evaluate latest proposals of the governmental bodies
on improvement of fiscal discipline, and highlight potential drawbacks of the
aforementioned proposals.
To achieve the aim of the paper, the review of the appropriate literature was
performed and issues most relevant for the analysis were systematized. Respective
legislation, guidelines, and conceptual proposals of the Republic of Latvia were
analyzed, both changes in the past and proposals for future. Emphasis is put more on
the principle of the fiscal governance, rather than numerical data. Authors believe,
that for a comprehensive analysis it is necessary to view not only the results and
outcomes of existing legal requirements, but also to view interim proposals in its
development stage, which became (or did not become) incorporated into legislation,
thus understanding why several sound proposals failed to root and what were the
obstacles for that.
Creation of fiscal rules and medium term expenditure framework as a

precondition of prudent fiscal discipline
In a number of countries possibilities to influence changes in the economy by
monetary policy are limited, therefore fiscal policy instruments are used to stimulate
growth of the economy and to weaken shocks of external factors. Sustainability of
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the public finances and stable macroeconomic development are set as prior goals
of the economies in the Stability and Growth pact of the EU, in the convergence
programs of the countries, and in a number of national declarations and policy
guidelines. Implementation of countercyclical fiscal policy can help to achieve
the aforementioned goals, and fiscal policy regimes are increasingly adopted by
governments that aim at contributing to stabilize business cycles and make public
finances more resilient to political pressure [2]. It is important to ensure fiscal
discipline that contributes to price stability and is conducive to sustained economic
growth [3]. During the recent crisis, the perceived need for fiscal stabilization has
been unquestionably high: the resilience of national economies was impaired by the
depth and the global nature of the shock. Studies confirm the conventional wisdom
that a timely countercyclical response of fiscal policy to demand shocks is likely to
deliver appreciably lower output and consumption volatility [4].
The literature points out two main tools that can be considered as necessary
preconditions for implementation and maintenance of fiscal discipline, especially if
effectively used in conjunction with each other. These are creation of fiscal rules and
development of medium term expenditure framework.
Fiscal rule is a permanent (or lasting) constraint on fiscal policy expressed
through fiscal results indicators such as the fiscal deficit, the debt level or some
component of spending [3]. The key variables of the rules are:
A specific numerical target laid down by the rule (it must be clear, measurable
and as broad as possible);
The period over which the rule is to be applied (the longer the better);
Legal instruments used (of the highest status possible, ideally constitutional
level);
The level of government to which they apply (the wider the better);
Penalties for non-compliance (the harsher the better, ideally including
criminal liability for officials).
The rules usually include escape clauses as well, i.e., mechanisms that provide
flexibility in special circumstances to forestall undesirable pro-cyclical effects. Major
types of fiscal policy rules are balanced budget or deficit rules, borrowing rules, and
debt or reserve rules (for more information see [3]). While creating fiscal rules for
such indicators of fiscal performance as budget balance or government borrowing,
they must meet the following criteria [5]:
Operational simplicity the indicator must be amenable to monitoring and
control during budget execution;
Flexibility:
Criteria can be realized with carefully designed escape clauses that are
triggered objectively by exogenous shocks. For example, it would be
an indicator of cyclically adjusted balance that accommodates the effect
of automatic stabilizers around a trend GDP growth rate, allowing for
overall budget deficits during below-trend growth, but requiring surpluses
during above-trend growth;
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Another escape clause for mitigating the effect of exogenous shocks

consists of accumulation (dragdown) of reserves in (from) a contingency
fund in the event of an upturn (downturn) in activity. The least desirable
approach would be simply to leave to the authorities discretion to interpret
events, such as a national calamity or a threat to national security, for
invoking the escape clause;
Growth orientation seeks to avoid placing an undue burden of compliance
with the rule on cuts in government investment spending, which can be a
damaging outcome, given generally high expected social rates of returns on
infrastructure projects.
All these rules share at least one feature in common: they seek to confer
credibility on the conduct of macroeconomic policies by removing discretionary
intervention. Their goal is to achieve trust by guaranteeing that fundamentals will
remain predictable and robust regardless of the government in charge [5].
A critical feature of a fiscal rule is that regardless of the statutory instrument
(international treaty, constitutional amendment, legal provisions, or policy guideline)
it is intended for application on a permanent basis by successive governments in a
given country at the national or sub-national levels. For policy rule to be credible, it
must involve commitment over a reasonably long period of time. Thus, constraints
that when adopted were meant to apply indefinitely can be viewed as rules, even if
eventually they were abandoned or suspended [3].
A key issue to be addressed in a decentralized system is the application of fiscal
rules at the sub-national levels of government. The case for sub-national rules is
particularly strong when a country is confronted with a major fiscal adjustment task
that cannot be met by the central government alone. The smaller the share of the
central or supranational government, the greater is the need for applying sub-national
rules to counter the moral hazard that may arise among sub-national governments to
incur fiscal imbalances with repercussions on the borrowing costs of the rest of the
federal system [5].
Establishment of medium term expenditure framework is seen as an important
precondition for maintenance of fiscal discipline. Over the past decade, an increasing
number of countries, especially developed ones, have been preparing a multiyear macro-budgetary framework as a part of the annual budget exercise. Such a
medium term process is an important prerequisite for well-informed policy debate.
A rolling multi-year macro-budgetary process is an essential ingredient of effective
fiscal rules, since it alerts the authorities and financial markets alike as to the policy
adjustments or reform measures that may be necessary for compliance with the rule.
It also disciplines policymakers and ensures that they are accountable for adhering
to budget targets [5].
According to the views of national experts [6], execution of medium term
expenditure framework by the government can enable the following issues:
Formulation of fiscal policy goals in the medium term and proper
understanding on how the government is going to achieve these goals. State
budget in its essence is an instrument on implementation of government
strategy and political priorities, and it must be result oriented;
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Availability of more precise information about costs of realization of

certain policies in the medium term. It takes years to implement serious
policy changes, and it is essentially important to have good understanding
about possible future expenditures already before starting implementing a
particular policy;
Control over the policies implemented in the long run. Budget is usually
prepared in conditions of strict fiscal delimitations, therefore it is important
to ensure control over the expenditures and liabilities of the government,
not failing to meet Maastricht criteria and other EU economic policy
guidelines;
Greater possibilities to decide on changes in the policy implementation over
longer period of time than one year. The government has to take decisions
and to create a strategy over the medium term;
Understanding of how various political decisions, initiatives and activities
could influence the budget in the next following years, especially if the
most significant expenditures concerned with aforementioned activities
would arise in the next following years. This refers to multi-year investment
projects, budget programs that are started at the end of the year, programs
which proportion in the budget has tendency to increase, and new policy
initiatives that have no impact on current year budget, but will have financial
impact in the future;
Greater financial stability and possibility to plan future expenditure based
on realistic macroeconomics forecasts;
Therefore, the implementation of medium term expenditure framework and
compliance with carefully set fiscal rules contributes positively to the maintenance
of fiscal discipline, ensuring sustainability of public finances and credibility of the
government;
An institutionary framework has an important role in setting, designing,
and implementing fiscal rules system. Institutionary framework can take form of
independent fiscal authority or fiscal council [7]. The task of independent fiscal
authority would be to set long term objectives and appropriate targets (for example,
debt and deficit limits) in context of fiscal rules, adjust some predetermined tax
and expenditure packages, or could veto proposals at odds with a given fiscal rule.
Fiscal council usually has consultative function, performing objective analysis of
fiscal policies, providing independent budget forecasts, and providing normative
assessment and recommendations. The desirable form of fiscal agencies is country
specific. It would depend on the nature of the fiscal problem and on the countrys
political environment, including the constitutional setup, the legal tradition, and
policy-making customs. But institutions of whatever shape are not a panacea:
their effectiveness ultimately rests on a governments commitment to the mandate
assigned to them.
Empirical studies show, that likelihood of having a fiscal regime in place increases
significantly with the government balance, government stability, and GDP per-capita,
and declines with dependency ratio and expenditure pro-cyclicality. Not prepared
countries are less likely to adopt a fiscal regime, hence, previous fiscal reforms are
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needed for implementing successfully fiscal rules [2]. In countries with low fiscal
credibility and weak institutions, not only may rules prove completely ineffective
in fiscal terms but non-enforcement may further weaken the fragile institutional
environment that undermined their effectiveness in the first place [8]. Governments
with a strong reputation of fiscal prudence do not have to be constrained by rules [5].
However, in countries where such a reputation is lacking, fiscal rules can provide
a useful policy framework and over time contribute to stability and growth. To
enhance their usefulness, fiscal rules need to be well designed at national and subnational levels of government, combining simplicity, flexibility, and growth oriented
criteria. Finally, rules must be implemented in a transparent manner, with the support
of an appropriate institutional infrastructure, and following careful preparation and
convergence.
Existing legal framework on budget and financial management

Budget process and main guidelines of financial management in Latvia are
stipulated in Constitution, Law on Budget and Financial Management, State Budget
Law for the current year, and in a number of rules of the Cabinet of Ministers. State
budget is implemented by the central government, and consists of special budget
(social funds) and basic budget (all the rest). State consolidated budget is a sum
of state budget and budgets of local municipalities, extracting intro-budgetary
transfers.
The Constitution (Satversme) states that the Parliament (Saeima) every year
before the beginning of the next year is deciding on state revenue and expenditure
budget, proposal of which is prepared by the Cabinet of Ministers. If the Saeima
proposes any activities that are not foreseen in the budget project, it must also
indicate the revenues to be used for proposed activities. These norms are unchanged
in the Constitution since 1994. Available juridical interpretation of these norms
states, that Saeima must decide only on budget for one (following) year, but not on
the two-year or multiannual budgets.
State Budget Law is planned on annual cash basis. The law contains regulation
on revenue and expenditures of state basic and special budget and limitations on
increase of borrowing and issued guarantees of local governments (municipalities)
so providing budget deficit limitation for local governments (in total amounts).
In its essence, every institution (budget program) is assigned an appropriation of
the available resources, and the real expenditure can not exceed the appropriation
without amending the law. Since year 1994 planned limits for revenue, expenditure,
state debt and budget balance targets are outlined in the State Budget Law, besides
detailed classification of revenues, expenditure and explanations. State Budget Law
can be amended, outlining changes in planned revenues, expenditure, liabilities, and
debt structure of the government.
The Law on Budget and Financial Management (further LBFM) exists
since 1994 and it governs the process and procedures of preparation, approval and
implementation of the state budget and municipalities budgets, and clarifies the
responsibilities of the parties involved. The LBFM contains the most important issues
that can be viewed as fiscal rules or elements of medium term budget planning, and
historical development of these issues will be reflected below.
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In the very origin of the LBFM, it contained a norm, saying that borrowing
can not be made to cover current expenditure of the government, except the cases
when it is needed to ensure stable economic situation. However, already in 1998 this
requirement was changed, and it was stated that the minister of finance can take loans
only to finance the financial deficit of the budget or for state debt refinancing, as well
as for other goals that are outlined in the State Budget Law. The latter formulation
allows for much wider range of interpretation than the original one.
Regarding the special budgets, one requirement is in force since 1994, that the
planned expenditures of the special budget must not exceed the sum of revenues
(funds) received, the surplus of funds at the beginning of the financial year, and
borrowings from the state basic budget.
Funds for unforeseen events and for particularly significant measures at a national
level are determined in a separate budget program of the annual State Budget Law.
This reserve usually has not been large and was exploited in full during the year
to finance events of state importance or to cover losses of force majeure events.
Only in years 2009 and 2010 this reserve boosted till 80-90 millions LVL per year
(comparing to 2005 5millions LVL, in 2009 8 millions LVL), mostly to financeacute problems that arouse for several areas due to fiscal consolidation.
Elements of medium term budget planning persisted in budget preparation
process already from the very beginning. The explanations of the State Budget Law
had to include:
Information on state economic situation and macroeconomic forecasts that
served as a base for budget preparation (time period is not specified);
Request of the resources that will be needed in the following years for the
long term projects and initiatives that will be initiated in the budgeted year;
Explanations of the budget programs had to be supported by revenue and
expenditure data from previous, current, and two next years;
Explanations on loans and guarantees for current year and at least five years
ahead.
In year 2001 medium term state budget planning was defined in LBFM, as a
process in which accessible resources are specified for the medium term and the
use of such resources is ensured in conformity with the priorities specified by
government. Cabinet of Ministers had to accept expenditure ceilings in medium
term then for every central budget institution (ministry), as well as to submit to
the Saeima medium term macroeconomic development and fiscal policy framework
together with the project of the State Budget Law. Aforementioned frameworks did
not have status of the law, and could be interpreted as guidelines, that every year
could have been changed according to real situation.
In year 2003 the Concept (2003) [9] on unspent appropriations was developed,
which addressed an issue on possibilities of the line ministries to carry forward for
the next year unused budget appropriations from the previous year, thus reducing
tendency of budget institutions to spend potentially lost resources for whatever
needs at the end of the year. Among other issues, the Concept (2003) proposed
introduction of two-year budget planning on a rolling basis, thus allowing
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for planning expenditures smoothly in a two year period. The aforementioned

Concept (2003) was rejected and for a number of years this problem was not raised
repeatedly.
In year 2006 the Concept (2006) of strategic planning and medium term budget
planning implementation was developed [10]. The aim of it was to offer several
directions of possible development of medium term budget planning in Latvia,
ensuring effective distribution of resources according to governments set priorities,
sector strategy planning taking into account available resources, and result oriented
resource distribution. Alternatives for proposals for medium term expenditure
framework were:
State Budget Law for the next four years, on rolling basis, where
items would be detailed till level of programs and codes of economic
classification;
State Budget Law for the next four years, approved once in the planning
period, where items would be detailed till level of central budget
institutions;
State Budget Law for the next two years on rolling basis, and five year
expenditure framework;
State Budget Law for the next year, and three years expenditure framework
(on rolling basis).
First three solutions requested to amend the Constitution, which implicitly stated
that the Saeima accepts the State Budget Law only for one year. The last proposal did
not affect the Constitution, and after short debate it was accepted as a basis for further
action. Starting from 2007 LBFM was amended, stating that medium term budget
planning is not five years, but three years long. The budget preparation timetable
was also described in detail in a law, in order to ensure timely and qualitative budget
preparation. From 2009 the time frame was deleted from the LBFM.
The Concept (2006) underlined the importance to plan the State Budget Law
according to previously approved three year expenditure framework. It was proposed
that expenditure ceilings in the framework would be changed only in cases of acute
worsening of the economic situation. In case of positive economic development
expenditure ceilings in the framework could not be increased, but all extra revenues
had to be used for debt repayment, or to be accumulated in reserves for bad years.
However this conceptual idea has not been included into amendments of respective
legislation, therefore three year framework remained just a guideline, not a law.
The Concept of (2006) again brought to the light the problem of budget
institutions, which did not manage to use their appropriations till the end of the year,
proposing creation of an appropriation reserve in the next year budget, amounting to
approximate forecasted amount of unspent appropriations in current year. Proposal
was accepted and the respective changes in the legislation took place.
In year 2008 the Long-term stabilization reserve was introduced and Longterm Stabilization Reserve Law was accepted. Long-term stabilization reserve was
planned to be a fiscal policy instrument, which aims at reduction of economic risks;
ensuring availability of needed financing for long term investments and structural
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reforms (this norm was deleted after one year); escaping from socioeconomic crisis
or softening the impact of crisis; and ensuring availability of finances in cases
of force majeure. Resources for that reserve had to be gained from revenues of
privatization of state property and extra revenues, which appear to be larger than
ones initially accepted in State Budget Law, if there turns out to be a budget surplus
in state basic budget. However, in the nearest future (from July 2009 till the end of
2012) Long-term stabilization reserve will not be activated mainly due to lack of
available resources.
Evaluation of existing policies

Analyzing the existence and development of fiscal rules in Latvia as an instrument
of ensuring long term fiscal discipline, it can be stated that numerical rules, or to be
more precise forecasts, of debt and deficit levels have existed mainly in the annual
State Budget Law, and in the documents of international importance (Convergence
program, statistical documents submitted to Eurostat). As stated in the previous
researches on this topic [11], there are no long term numerical fiscal rules in Latvia,
however some medium term targets are stated on annual basis by government.
However, the targets set by the government can also be changed by the government,
therefore it can be claimed that there is no such clearly stated numerical rule that
would be absolutely binding for the government. As recognized in international
studies [12], Latvia has revenue rule (aforementioned social budget revenue rule,
where actual revenues must cover completely the special budget expenditure) and
debt rule (where debt ceiling in nominal terms for local municipalities budget is
set on annual basis), however those rules still are not comprehensive, long term
oriented, and are not supported by radical sanctions in case of incompliance.
Although balanced budget has been stated as a medium term goal in declaration
of almost every government, it seems that intention of the government to reduce
deficit was not hard enough, and was driven mostly by necessity to comply with
Maastricht criteria. Pre-crisis period with its impressive GDP growth (see Table 1)
was a great opportunity to implement counter-cyclical policy, thus reducing deficits
even harsher, but to opinion of the authors it was not used to full extend.
Initial intention outlined in LBFM not to borrow for financing current expenditure
was contributing to principles of prudent fiscal discipline, but it was amended in a
way giving wider opportunities of interpretation and possibilities to borrow almost
in all cases, which government decides to be important. This, in turn, indicates that
government is tended not only not to restrict itself by fiscal limitations, but also to
loosen existing ones.
Significant step towards improvement of budget process quality and discipline
of the politicians was made, when budget preparation timetable was outlined in
legislation. At least in theory, this would have helped to develop budget project in
reasonable time, and would give enough time for the budget institutions to prepare
qualitative budget requests, as well as would leave enough time for debates on
critical issues. However, the time constraints (to our opinion useful and realistic)
were removed, most probably because of inability to meet them due to lack of selfdiscipline and currently budget preparation timetable is accepted every year by the
135
Cabinet of Ministers. This is another bad example of changing the law instead of
compliance to the law, and the risk exists that this principle can be used in any other
case, also in cases of set fiscal rules.
Table 1
Development of general government budget balance and debt

Year
GDP growth rate as %

from GDP of previous
year
General government* budget

deficit (surplus) as % of GDP
General government
debt as % of GDP
2000
6.9
2.8
12.3
2001
8.0
2.1
14.0
2002
6.5
2.3
13.5
2003
7.2
1.6
14.6
2004
8.7
1.0
14.9
2005
10.6
0.4
12.4
2006
12.2
0.5
10.7
2007
10.0
0.3
9.0
2008
4.2
4.1
19.7
2009
18.0
10.2
36.6
2010
4. 0
8.5
55.1
2011
2. 0
6.0
59.1
2012
3.8
2.9
56.8
Source: Data for 20002009 (fact) according to databases of Central Statistical Bureau
of Latvia; Data for 2010-2012 (forecast) according to Latvian Convergence program
20092012
* General government according to ESA95 accounting
Elements of resource planning in medium term persisted in the budget

preparation process already since 1994, however medium term figures always have
been more informative than binding. It can be stated that medium term expenditure
planning in its development has experienced not only steps forward, but also steps
backward. One of the examples is moving from five year medium term planning
to three year medium term planning in 2006. The aim of this was to strengthen
forecasting capacity, and to make better forecasts for shorter period of time, rather
than less precise forecasts for longer period of time. In real situation, the medium
term planning period was shortened from five to three years, however there is no
evidence that forecasting capacity has improved. In addition, three year framework
still has remained as a guideline, not a law. The only really binding expenditure
ceilings were those for the next one year, for which the State Budget Law was
planned. However, also before year 2006 the Cabinet of Ministers was approving
one year expenditure ceilings for the budget institutions in their budget requests,
therefore the element of medium term expenditure planning is losing its content.
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Although other proposals of the Concept (2006) foresaw preparation of

the State Budget Law (law = high binding responsibility) for two or four years,
implementation of those proposals required amendments of the Constitution. In our
opinion, amendment of the Constitution is such a sensitive topic, that those proposals
did not have a chance to be carefully evaluated by the government, and consequently
did not have a chance to be chosen for implementation.
Creation of Long-term stabilization reserve can be viewed as a positive step
towards sustainability of public finances and less sensitivity against economic cycles,
however there are some implications. First of all, such a reserve should normally be
a standard component of the budget in countries, which recognize fluctuations in
GDP and budget revenue as a result of implemented policies and outside pressures.
However, this reserve was introduced only in 2008, when the economic downturn
was already in its active phase. Second, initially it was foreseen to use this reserve
not only to escape from socioeconomic crisis, softening the impact of crisis, or
reduce economic risks but also to ensure availability of financing for long term
investments and structural reforms, and availability of finances in cases of force
majeure (according to respective amendments in LBFM). The latter norm actually
duplicated the meaning of reserve for unforeseen events, which have existed already
for a long time. Initial intention to use Long-term stabilization reserve for long term
investments and structural reforms indicates, that understanding of the concept of
this reserve was misunderstood by the legislative authorities in the very beginning.
To our mind, such reserve must be used only in cases of acute crisis, to soften the
effect of the crisis on the national economy, but investments and reforms (even very
important ones) have to be financed from annually available resources and must be
planned in advance. Fortunately, the norm on investments and reforms was deleted
from the respective legislation. Finally, in a period of existence of stabilization
reserve there were almost no resources to move to the reserve, making it useless.
Till the end of 2012 the reserve will not be activated, therefore creating a feeling that
creation of the reserve was late response to economic problems.
Commenting on the development of elements of fiscal discipline, it can be noted,
that many proposals on situation improvement were actually borrowed from the
past. For example, proposal to create two year State Budget Law first appeared in
Concept (2003), but was rejected. Next, this proposal in the same principle, just in
a more detailed way, was described in the Concept (2006) using almost the same
phrases as in earlier proposals, and was rejected for the second time. The proposal
to create a State Budget Law for four years is formulated also in recent concepts on
fiscal discipline.
Implications of future perspectives of fiscal discipline enforcement and

suggestions for improvement
In order to improve fiscal discipline in Latvia, the Concept on Law on Fiscal
Discipline was introduced in 2010 [13] and presented to the Saeima and the Cabinet
of Ministers. Aim of the Concept (2010) is to propose the best possible fiscal
monitoring and discipline model, to ensure fiscal responsibility in the long run and
create a base for sustainable economic development. This is supposed to be done by
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defining budget balance as a function of expected GDP growth rate thus ensuring
countercyclical fiscal policy, and setting binding state budget expenditure ceilings.
Creation of Fiscal Discipline Law (FDL) is proposed, that would outline main
guidelines and principles of fiscal discipline. The second proposed law is Law
on Medium Term Macroeconomic Development and Fiscal Policy Framework
(Framework Law), which in essence is the same as current three year medium
term macroeconomic development and fiscal policy framework, but accepted at
parliamentarian level. The main idea of such a change is to make the framework and
its figures more binding to the government, because the past experience has proved
that framework accepted by the Cabinet of Ministers could be easily amended if
there was such a necessity, and medium term figures of this framework were just
informative. Detailed budgetary procedures would be outlined in LBFM. If following
the aforementioned plan, the budget process and fiscal requirements will be outlined
in four different laws: the annual State budget law, Law on Budget and Financial
management, Law on Fiscal Discipline, and Framework Law. In addition, at least
according to the Concept (2010), these laws will contain references to each other.
To the mind of authors, it is important to keep the system as simple as possible;
therefore it would be advisable to reduce the number of legal acts involved. The
proposal would be to include fiscal requirement of state debt and state consolidated
budget balance levels, as well as additional norms of compliance with medium term
framework and restrictions on State Budget Law amendments, into already existing
LBFM. The LBFM would then prescribe theoretical (interminable) framework for
budget process and fiscal discipline, Framework Law would contain medium term
figures (calculated based on LBFM, and binding for the State Budget Law), and State
Budget Law would deal with annual resource distribution. In addition, European
Commission states [14], that the cornerstone of successful implementation of fiscal
discipline is binding medium term framework and expenditure ceilings. These
issues are already regulated to some extend in LBFM, and it would be rationally
to improve already existing legislation instead of creating new one. In opinion of
authors, certain elements of fiscal discipline should be included in the Constitution,
but only after they have proved to be useful. For example, the Chilean public sector
was already meeting the structural fiscal surplus target of 1% of GDP several years
before this was announced as a rule [8].
An important issue is fiscal target that will be addressed by the rules and
Framework Law. It is planned to fix the state consolidated budget balance, however
it is questionable how the government will control the fulfillment of the objective,
and how it will enforce the compliance with the objectives to all parties involved
(central government and municipalities). On one hand, application of fiscal rule on
possibly broader audience is plausible, but on the other hand, there is a risk that
central government will have to strive on its own for compliance with the set targets.
Authors assume, that it would be reasonable to create a set of small fiscal rules that
would bind both central government and municipalities to compliance with certain
figures. Well designed approach to this problem would increase the probability that
general objectives would be met.
It must be noted here, that setting the budget balance objectives both in terms
of national methodology and EKS95 methodology (as decided by the Cabinet of
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Ministers) is rather risky. To knowledge of authors, every year a specially selected

working group is using a special methodology and calculating parameters of general
government budget according to EKS95, which differs from national methodology
mostly in different interpretation of range of general government. Setting the
budget balance objective in the Framework Law both in national and in EKS95
methodology would mean, that corrections are already preset for four years, but it
seems unrealistic to forecast changeable and to some extend uncontrollable values for
such a long time. In order to maintain the principle of operational simplicity, it would
be advisable to set the budget balance target according to national methodology, or,
if using both methodologies, to rethink mechanisms of control and compliance for
all variables involved (e.g., state owned enterprises).
Table 2 illustrates past impact of State Budget Law amendments on revenue,
expenditure and deficit on the central government. It is clearly seen, that initial GDP
and revenue forecasts till 2008 were quite pessimistic, which allowed during the
year to decide on distribution of extra revenues, which in reality were higher than
initially forecasted. Extra expenditure increased almost by the same percentage as
extra revenue till 2006. Extra revenues were hardly used to decrease the deficit. Year
2009 stood out with dramatic drop in revenues, and significant increase in budget
deficit. In 2010 the budget was not amended. In approximate calculations, if extra
revenues in 20042006 would be accumulated in reserves, it would be of great
assistance in handling revenue drop in 2008 and 2009, and would allow smaller debt
accumulation.
Returning back to the Concept (2006), it proposedto amend current State
Budget Law not increasing the level of expenditure that was previously set in the
medium term expenditure framework. In addition, to eliminate the impact of budget
amendments on the following years, it was proposed that budget amendments that
take place in the second half of the year must not contain any proposals that would
increase the expenditure in the budgets of following years. This norm was included
in draft of amendments of LBFM, but was not accepted. The new Concept (2010)
and draft FDL now propose even harsher norms, namely, whenever amendment to
the State Budget Law take place, they must not contain any proposals that would
lead to increase in the expenditure of the next year. To opinion of authors, bearing
in mind the past development of this issue, the final future version of the respective
legislation (when accepted by the Saeima), would it be LBFM or FDL, will not
contain these norms regarding amendments to State Budget Law.
The core motivation of every fiscal policy rule is to promote stable economic
growth through control of the accumulation of debt [15]. The authors do not
really see the point in constraining the state debt level to not more than 60% of
GDP. This criterion is already set in Stability and Growth pact, and re-setting it
in national legislation seems useless. The Concept (2010) states, that strength of
such an objective is ease to comply with and low risk to breach. However, the idea
behind setting fiscal rules is not to choose the easiest ones but the most useful ones.
Previously mentioned Table 1 clearly demonstrates that in pre-crisis period debt
level was fluctuating below 15% of GDP, and has increased till almost 60% due to
outstanding economic downturn.
139
Table 2
Impact of amendments on State Budget Law of central government

Year
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Initial budget (millions of LVL)

Revenues
1668.3 1929.6 2575.5
3237.6
4218.6
5499.2
5318.6
Expenditure
1827.4 2079.7 2709.9
3362.7
4396.4
5338.2
5565.6
First amendments, changes compared to initial budget

Revenues (mill. LVL)
+25.3
+108.8
+132.6
+159.6
+270.6
235.3
912.0
Rev. (%)
+1.5
+5.6
+5.2
+4.9
+6.4
4.3
17.2
Expenditure (mill.LVL)
+24.6
+120.0
+141.1
+167.9
+38.2
82.6
453.3
Exp. (%)
+1.4
+5.8
+5.2
+5.0
+0.9
1.6
8.1
Second amendments, changes compared to amended budget law

+8.5
+19.7
Rev. (%)
+0.5
+1.0
+26.7
+26.5
Exp. (%)
+1.4
+1.2
384.0
8.8
425.1
8.3
Total change after both amendments, compared to initial budget law

+33.8
+128.5
+132.6
+159.6
+270.6
235.3
1296.1
Rev. (%)
+2.0
+6.7
+5.2
+4.9
+6.4
4.3
24.4
+51.3
+146.5
+141.1
+167.9
+38.2
82.6
878.3
Exp. (%)
+2.8
+7.0
+5.2
+5.0
+1.0
1.6
15.8
Budget deficit () or surplus (+) as % of GDP

Initial budget
3.21
2.22
1.68
1.5
1.4
+1.0
1.5
First amendments
3.14
2.2
1.68
1.5
+0.4
+0.05
4.70
Second amendments
3.12
2.2
5.14*
GDP forecasts, millions LVL

Initial budget
5 536.8 6 167.5
7 994
9 439.1
First amendments
5 612.2 7 075.8
8 404
10 849.8 13 624.5 15 876.5 15 090.5
Second amendments
5 664
7 198.4
12 702.2 15 787.2 16 465.6
12 980.9
Source: State Budget Law (and Amendments on State Budget Law) on respective year, Annex 1
* This particular value was not indicated in State Budget Law, so the calculation was made
by authors.
It is planned that supervision of the compliance with the FDL and Framework
Law will be realized within existing institutional cooperation, namely, between
Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Economics, and the Bank of Latvia. However, none
of there institutions are empowered to restrict decisions of the Saeima (or theCabinet
140
of Ministers) which would be unfavorable for fiscal discipline. In the past the
cooperation of these institutions could contribute positively to budget preparation
process, but could not change any political decisions and enforce the implementation
of counter-cyclical policy in good years. As precisely stated in literature [16],
during pre-electoral contexts politicians tend to discount the future more heavily than
private sector agents. Differences of opinions among ruling coalition partners often
generate disagreements over the budget process and slow down fiscal consolidation.
Also, the very nature of Latvias fragmented political system and the collective
form of decision making on budget matters has tended to create the common pool
problem, that is, high spending or policy distortions reflecting the aggregation of
uncoordinated decisions made at the level of each ministerial department (as parties
in the ruling coalition sometimes ask for expenditures programs to satisfy their
constituencies without taking into account their implications for the budget).
However, no fiscal rule should be expected to do the impossible, and no fiscal
rule will achieve its desired budgetary results if and when the political will of policy
makers is to the contrary. A legislatures procedural rules can be changed or waived,
and restrictive laws can be amended or repealed.
Conclusion
Analysis of past development of fiscal discipline measures in Latvia, expressed
in terms of existence of fiscal rules and medium term expenditure planning, makes
it possible to conclude that legislative framework on these issues has existed more
for formal purposes than for real enforcement of fiscal discipline and creation of
realistic medium term prospects. The process of changes in respective legislation
often appeared to be a repetition of previously expressed proposals, which indicates
that theoretically these proposals were viable, but did not have a political support.
Recent creation of Long-term stability reserve and intention to create new Fiscal
Responsibility Law can be rather viewed as a late response to crisis, than timely
implementation of sound instruments of fiscal sustainability. However, at this point
of time, the development of fiscal discipline is on its peak, since it is the first intention
to express fiscal indicators as a function of economys growth rate.
In opinion of authors, the government of Latvia is not ready yet to comply
with strictly set fiscal constraints, especially in good times. The problem of Latvian
government is that it changes more often than the Saeima, therefore often creating the
situation where problems created by one government have to be solved by another
government, therefore often concentrating on short term solutions and leaving the
medium term solutions for the next government. It would be needed to change the
political culture and way of thinking in its core, and current crisis might be a good
lesson to learn from.
Regarding the future development of initiated policies in a field of fiscal
discipline, the authors hardly believe that number of instruments (stabilization
reserve, fiscal requirements on deficit, restrictions on amendments of budget law)
will start working to its full extend in the next five years. Some of those instruments
are stopped, and other are not yet developed. The forecast can be made, that the
141
proposal of fiscal discipline enforcement accepted in June 2010 will be changed

significantly, before it will finally appear in the legislation; and the future legislation
itself, if accepted, will be changed towards less strict requirements after first years
of its real appliance.
References
1. Latvian Convergence programm 20092012. Available at http://polsis.mk.gov.lv/view.
do?id=3284, accessed March 08, 2011.
2. Calderon, C., Schmidt-Hebbel, K. (2008) The choice of fiscal regimes in the world,
Central bank of Chile, Working paper No 497.
3. Kopits, G., Symansky, S. A. (1998). Fiscal Policy Rules, IMF Occasional Paper
No162.
4. Debrun, X., Kapoor, R. (2010) Fiscal Policy and Macroeconomic Stability: Automatic
Stabilizers Work, Always and Everywhere, IMF Working paper No 111.
5. Kopits, G. (2001). Fiscal Rules: Useful Policy Framework or Unnecessary Ornament?,
IMF Working Paper No. 01/145.
6. Ketners K., Zvidria S. (2007). Development of medium term state budget planning,
Problems of development of national economy and entrepreneurship: proceedings of
the international scientific conference: Riga, 2123 September 2006 / Riga Technical
University. Faculty of Engineering Economics. Riga: RTU Publishing house, 97107,
ISBN 9789984322985.
7. Debrun, X., Hauner, D., Kumar, M. S. (Paper completed in 2007). The Role for Fiscal
Agencies, European Economy Occasional papers 37 (2008) The Quality of Public
Finances: Finding of the Economic Policy Commitee Working Group 20042007,
129148.
8. Braun, M., Gadano N. (2007). What are fiscal rules for? A critical analysis of the
Argentine experience, CEPAL Review No. 91, 5365.
9. Concept on possibility to carry forward to the next year budget appropriated but unused
resources of the ministries, 2003, available at http://polsis.mk.gov.lv/view.do?id=940,
accessed January 5, 2011.
10. Concept on strategic planning and medium term budget planning implementation
in public administration, 2006, available at http://polsis.mk.gov.lv/view.do?id=2043,
accessed January 7, 2011.
11. Ketners K., Zvidria S. (2008). Implementation of fiscal rules for improvement of
fiscal discipline in Latvia, Economics and management-2008 International Scientific
conference proceeding. Kaunas: Technologija, 121127, ISSN 1822-6515.
12. European Commission. (Paper completed in 2006). National Numerical Fiscal Rules
for Sound Public Finances, European Economy Occasional papers 37 (2008) The
Quality of Public Finances: Finding of the Economic Policy Commitee Working Group
2004-2007, 91128.
13. Concept on Law on Fiscal Discipline, 2010, available at http://www.mk.gov.lv/lv/mk/tap
/?pid=40178520&mode=mk&date=2010-06-01, accessed January 10, 2010; and Fiscal
Discipline Law draft law version on October 2010, available at http://www.mk.gov.lv/
doc/2005/FMLik_121010_FDL.2773.doc, accessed March 8, 2011.
14. European Commission, (2009) A Law of Fiscal Responsibility for Latvia: A through
reform of the current fiscal framework, Commission Services Working document
NoECFIN/C2/D-963.
142
15. Anderson, B., Minarik, J. J. (Paper completed in 2006). Design Choices for Fiscal
Policy Rules, European Economy Occasional papers 37 (2008) The Quality of Public
Finances: Finding of the Economic Policy Commitee Working Group 20042007,
149178.
16. Monga, C. (2004). Latvias macroeconomic options in the medium term: fiscal and
monetary challenges of EU membership, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper
3307.
17. Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia. Database of policy planning documents.
Available at http://polsis.mk.gov.lv/news.do, accessed JanuaryApril 2011.
18. Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia. Databases. Available at http://www.csb.gov.lv/csp/
content/?lng=en&cat=355, accessed March 01, 2011.
19. Latvijas Vstnesis legislative acts portal. Annual State Budget Laws. Available at http://
www.likumi.lv/likumi.php?order=alpha&page=29, accessed February 21, 2011.
20. Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Latvia. Annual State Budget Laws. Available at
http://www.fm.gov.lv/?lat/valsts_budzets/Likums, accessed February 21, 2011.
Kopsavilkums
Raksta mris ir analizt Latvij pastvos fisklas disciplnas iezmes, to pagtnes
attstbu un nkotnes perspektvas, izmantojot fisklo nosacjumu un vidja termia
plnoanas elementus. im nolkam tika analiztas likumdoanas izmaias atbilstoi
izvltam teortiskam ietvaram. Tiek secints, ka Latvij nav ilgtermia saistou fisklo
nosacjumu un minjumi tdus izveidot ir rosinti k atbildes reakcija uz ekonomisko
lejupsldi. Vidj termia ietvara attstba ir bijusi samr formla un balstta uz
starptautiskm prasbm par vidj termia plnoanas attstbu. Jauni piedvjumi
atsevis joms biei vien tiek atkrtoti no viena plnoanas dokumenta otr, un tas
nozm, ka ldz im progress fiskls disciplnas ieviean bija samra niecgs. Daudzas
interesantas idejas netika akcepttas valdbas lmen, tdjdi biei vien atstjot situciju
bez redzamm izmaim. Attiecb uz jaunkiem piedvjumiem fiskls disciplnas
stiprinan tiek ieteikts vienkrot plnojamo likumdoanas ietvaru un fisklo mru
nosprauanu, k ar rosint izmaias politiskaj kultr.
Atslgvrdi: fiskl politika, fiskl disciplna, fisklie nosacjumi, budeta process,
vidj termia budeta ietvars, fiskl konsolidcija.

143.157. lpp.
Narkomnijas izplatba Latvij 21. gadsimta skum

Drug Prevalence in Latvia at the Beginning
of 21st Century
Silvija Kristapsone
E-pasts: silvija.kristapsone@lu.lv
Jau pagju gadsimta 90. gados Latvija kuva par narkotisko un psihotropo vielu (turpmk
narkotikas) tirdzniecbas tranztvalsti, k ar samjvalsti, kas veicinja un uzturja
saslimstbu ar narkotisko un psihotropo vielu atkarbu (turpmk narkomnija), saslimstbu
ar HIV/AIDS, vrushepattiem, prieklaicgas nves gadjumus, kriminogno situciju saistb
ar narkotiku tirdzniecbu un noziegumiem, kuru izdarana saistta ar narkotikm.
21. gadsimta skum apdraudjums, ko izraisa narkotisko un psihotropo vielu izplatba un
lietoanas sekas, iemis patstvgu vietu sabiedrbas dzv, un to novrt dadas institcijas
Latvij, Eirop un pasaul. 21. gadsimta pirms desmitgades pdjie divi trs gadi saistmi
ar ekonomisks krzes situciju, kam seko narkomnijas izplatbas un ts izraisto problmu
izmaias.
Atslgvrdi: narkotisks un psihotrops vielas, narkomnija.
Raksta mris ir novrtt narkomnijas izplatbas dinamiku Latvij 21. gadsimta

pirmaj desmitgad atbilstoi daai Eiropas Narkotiku un narkomnijas uzraudzbas
centra (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, turpmk
EMCDDA) noteikto indikatoru.
Mra sasnieganai izvirzti di uzdevumi:
1) raksturot narkotiku btiskks pabas un narkomnijas bstams sekas;
2) novrtt atseviu EMCDDA noteikto indikatoru dinamiku Latvij ptmaj
laika posm;
3) analizt narkomnijas izplatbu Latvij saldzinjum ar situciju citur Ei
rop.
Ptjum lietotas statistisks analzes metodes, izmantojot EMCDDA, Latvijas
Republikas Centrls statistikas prvaldes, Veselbas ekonomikas centra, Latvijas
Infektoloijas centra publikcijas un pieejams elektronisks datubzes, k ar citus
aktulus publictus materilus.
144
Galvenie normatvie akti un koordincijas mehnisms

narkotikujom
Pc neatkarbas atganas Latvijas Republika 1993. gada 11. maij ratificja
Apvienoto Nciju Organizcijas (ANO) 1961. gada 30. marta Vienoto konvenciju
par narkotiskajm vielm, 1971. gada 21. februra Konvenciju par psihotropajm
vielm un 1988. gada 20. decembra Konvenciju pret narkotisko un psihotropo vielu
neleglo apriti [10]. Stratiski plnota pieeja narkotiku un narkomnijas izplatbas
mazinanai Latvij tika uzskta 1998. gad, kad ar ANO Starptautisks narkotiku
kontroles programmas paldzbu tika izstrdta Latvijas narkotiku kontroles un
narkomnijas profilakses stratija 1999.2003. gadam, kas tika pieemta Ministru
kabinet (MK) 1999. gada 15. decembr [13].
Ldz ar Latvijas iestanos Eiropas Savienb (ES) politiski saistoi Latvijai
kuva ar ES politikas plnoanas dokumenti narkotiku un narkomnijas izplatbas
mazinanas jom. Narkotisko un psihotropo vielu atkarbas un izplatbas iero
beoanas un kontroles valsts programmu 2005.2008. gadam MK apstiprinja
2005.gada 17.august. Programm tika iekauti etri galvenie rcbas virzieni: 1)koor
dincija, 2) tiesisks bzes stiprinana un starptautisk sadarbba, 3) pieprasjuma
samazinana, piedvjuma samazinana, 4) informcijas apkopoana, izpte un
izvrtana [10]. 2008. gad, beidzoties programmas darbbas termiam, novrtjuma
ziojums (pieemts MK 2009. gada 25. august) tiei norda uz to, ka daudzas s
politikas jomas attstbai nepiecieams aktivittes netika ieviestas. Ir saglabjus
vairkas vecas problmas, kas ir raksturgas narkomnijai un narkotiku neleglai
izplatbai, un radus ar jaunas, un tiesbu akti un atbildgo institciju darbbas
kapacitte nav spjga ts atrisint bez noturgas un sistmiskas plnveida pieejas.
Palaik Latvijai ir saistoa spk eso Eiropas Savienbas Narkomnijas apkaroanas
stratija 2005.2012. gadam un tai pakrtotais Narkomnijas apkaroanas rcbas
plns 2009.2012. gadam [11].
2011. gada 3. janvr Ministru kabineta komitej (MKK) atbalsttas Ieklietu
ministrijas (IeM) izstrdts Narkotisko un psihotropo vielu un to atkarbas izplatbas
ierobeoanas un kontroles pamatnostdnes 2011.2017. gadam (pamatnostdnes),
kas stjs spk 2011. gada 14. mart [9].
Latvij obrd k EMCDDA nacionlais koordinators darbojas Veselbas
ekonomikas centrs (VEC). T mris ir apkopot, analizt, saldzint un izplatt
statistisko un analtisko informciju par narkotikm un narkomniju, garantjot s
informcijas kvalitti un atbilstbu Eiropas Savienbas noteiktajiem standartiem.
Narkotiku informcijas apkopoanas un analzes sistma valst balsts uz pieciem
epidemioloiskiem pamatrdtjiem jeb indikatoriem, kas ir saldzinmu datu
vkanas un analzes standartldzeki narkotiku jom ES dalbvalsts:
narkotisko vielu lietoanas izplatba iedzvotju vid,
problemtisk narkotisko vielu lietoana,
rstniecbas pieprasjuma indikators,
ar narkotisko vielu lietoanu saistts infekcijas slimbas,
ar narkotisko vielu lietoanu saisttie nves gadjumi un narkotiku lietotju
mirstba [17].
S. Kristapsone. Narkomnijas izplatba Latvij 21. gadsimta skum
145
EMCDDA ir viena no ES decentraliztajm aentrm, un ts mris ir nodroi

nt Eiropas Savienbai un ts dalbvalstm faktu izklstu par narkotiku problmm
Eirop un pamatotu pierdjumu bzi, lai atbalsttu debates par narkotikm. Patlaban centrs politikas veidotjiem piedv datus, kas tiem nepiecieami, lai izstrdtu
pamatotus tiesbu aktus un stratijas narkotiku apkaroan. Centrs ar paldz aj
jom strdjoajiem profesioniem un specilistiem noteikt paraugpraksi un jaunus
ptjumu virzienus.
Latvij par valsts paskumu koordinciju un prbaudi ir atbildga Narkotiku
kontroles un narkomnijas ierobeoanas koordincijas padome, kuras prieksdtjs
ir Ministru prezidents un kuru veido septii ministri un vairki valsts eksperti.
T uzrauga etras pas darba grupas, kas strd, lai samazintu piedvjumu un
pieprasjumu, leglo apgrozjumu un analiztu informciju. Veselbas ekonomikas
centrs, kur atrodas Narkotiku foklais punkts (Latvijas valsts koordincijas centrs),
koordin ikdienas uzraudzbas darbu un nodroina un vc informciju par neleglajm
un leglajm narkotikm [5].
Narkotisko un psihotropo vielu ss apskats

Vielas, kuru iedarbba izmaina veidu, k cilvks jtas, dom vai izturas, sauc
par psihoaktvm vielm. Ne visas psihoaktvs vielas izraisa atkarbu, un o psi
hoaktvo vielu, piemram, alkohola un tabakas, lietoana ir atauta, un ts Latvij var
iegdties no 18 gadu vecuma.
Augus, vielas un zles, kuras starptautiskajs konvencijs vai saska ar tm ir
klasifictas k narkotisks vai psihotrops vielas un zles vai kuras var izmantot o
vielu un zu neleglai izgatavoanai, k ar jebkurus citus augus, vielas un zles ar
ldzgu farmakoloisku iedarbbu, kuru aunprtga lietoana var apdraudt veselbu,
iekauj Latvij kontroljamo narkotisko vielu, psihotropo vielu un prekursoru
sarakstos. Atkarb no o augu, vielu un zu aunprtgas lietoanas bstambas
pakpes ts iekauj etros sarakstos, ko apstiprina Ministru kabinets pc Veselbas
ministrijas ieteikuma [1].
Psihoaktvs vielas pc to iedarbbas uz organismu var iedalt trs kategorijs:
1) stimulanti vielas, kas palielina centrls nervu sistmas (CNS) aktivitti
(piemram, kokans, kreks, ekstaz, amfetamni, nikotns, kofens);
2) depresanti vielas, kas nomc, kav vai pazemina CNS aktivitti (piemram,
alkohols, herons, inhalanti, trankvilizatori, anestezjoie ldzeki);
3) halucinogni vielas, kas izraisa izmaias uztver, doman un sajts,
izkropojot veidu, k lietotjs redz un dzird lietas (piemram, LSD, maisks
snes, marihuna liels devs). Halucinognu izraists prmaias atgdina
pazmes, kas novrojamas psihisku saslimanu gadjum [12].
Svargk visu atkarbas vielu btba ir to spja izraist slimgu tieksmi at
krtot atkarbas vielu lietoanu, kas atem cilvkam neatkarbu, brvbu, padara
cilvku atkargu, nomc via iepriekjs intereses, devalvdzves vrtbas, izmai
napersonbu, atem darbspjas.
146
Narkotisko un psihotropo vielu lietoanas izplatba un

problemtisk narkotiku lietoana
EMCDDA indikators par narkotiku lietoanu paredz starptautiski saldzinmus
ptjumus, lai noskaidrotu, cik izplatta ir narkotiku lietoana darbspjas vecum
(Latvij ptjumi veikti 2003. un 2007. gad), k ar jaunieu vecum (2007.gad
Latvijas skolu aptaujas projekts par alkoholu un citm narkotiskm vielm (LaSPAD)
jau ceturto reizi kop 1995. gada). Nkamie ptjumi mintajs grups plnoti
2011.gad [17].
Pc Sabiedrbas veselbas aentras (SVA) ptjuma Atkarbu izraisoo vielu
lietoanas izplatba iedzvotju vid datiem, kas publicti 2008. gad, jebkuras
nelegls narkotikas dzves laik paminjui 16,1% Latvijas iedzvotju vecum no
15 ldz 64 gadiem, tie aptuveni ir 248 000 cilvku. Pdj gada laik jebkuru neleglo
vielu ir lietojui 6,1% iedzvotju (apmram 92 000 cilvku), bet pdj mnea
laik 2,2% iedzvotju (apmram 33 000 cilvku). Saldzinjum ar 2003. gadu
narkotikas paminjuo iedzvotju daa pieaugusi par 3,8 procentpunktiem un
neseno lietotju daa par 1,5 procentpunktiem, pareizjo narkotiku lietotju skai
tam btiski nemainoties [2, 27].
2007. gad visbiek narkotikas paminjui un lietojui respondenti, kuri
dzvo Rg (27%), un atirba starp Rgu un citm pilstm (14%) un laukiem
(9%) ptmaj laika posm palielinjusies [2, 27]. Vrojamas statistiski nozmgas
atirbas starp dzimumiem vriei narkotikas paminjui divas reizes biek
(23%) nek sievietes (10%), bet 2007. gad narkotikas lietojui 9% vrieu un
3% sievieu, tomr, saldzinot ar 2003. gadu, s atirbas samazins. Visbiek
narkotikas paminjui un lietojui cilvki vecum no 15 ldz 34 gadiem:
paminjui 28% (vriei 38%, sievietes 18%), lietojui pdj gada laik 12%
(vriei 17%, sievietes 7%), pdj mnea laik 4%. Vecum 35 un vairk
gadu attiecgi 7,2 un 1%. Izplattk nelegl narkotika ir marihuna vai hais
(kaepes, ar kanabiss) to paminjui 12,1% iedzvotju, tlk seko ekstaz
4,7%, amfetamni 3,3%, kokans 2,3% un dadi opiodi (2,9%). LSD un citi
halucinogni ir maz izplatti to paminjui mazk nek 2% iedzvotju [2, 28].
Saldzinjum ar 2003. gadu Latvij narkotiku lietotju patsvars pieaudzis:
1) marihunas paminjuo (10,6% 2003. gad un 12,1% 2007. gad) un
neseno (3,8 un 4,9%) lietotju grup;
2) ekstaz paminjuo (2,4 un 4,7%), neseno (0,8 un 1,5%) un pareizjo
lietotju (0,3 un 0,4%) grup;
3) amfetamnu paminjuo grup (2,6 un 3,3%);
4) kokanu paminjuo (1,2 un 2,3%), neseno (0,2 un 0,5%) un pareizjo
lietotju (0,1 un 0,2%) grup. Lai ar kokans Latvij ir viena no drgkajm
narkotiskajm vielm, ts dadas pieredzes lietotju patsvars iedzvotjos
kop 2003. gada ir pieaudzis. Kokana injekcijas un t saucam kreka
lietoana ir saisttas ar vislielko apdraudjumu veselbai, tostarp sirds
asinsvadu un gargs veselbas problmm. Saldzinoi ar citm narkotikm
kokans ir drga narkotisk viela viens grams vidji maks no 50 ldz 70
eiro [4, 64].
147
Ldzgi k Eirop, ar Latvij kaepes ir viena no izplattkajm narkotikm,

un dzves laik vecum no 15 ldz 34 gadiem kaut reizi marihunu lietojis 21%
iedzvotju (tab.). Latvij marihuna vai hais ir saldzinoi viegli pieejama un lta.
Kaepes k iespjam izejviela tiek audzta ar Latvij [4, 4243]. Ir aprints,
ka Eirop vairk nek viena piektdaa jeb aptuveni 75,5 miljoni pieauguo vecum
no 15 ldz 64 gadiem vismaz reizi (ilgstoas lietoanas izplatba) ir paminjui
kaepes, bet pdj gada laik to lietojui 23 miljoni iedzvotju. Kaepju sveu
vidj cena ir 310 eiro par gramu ar tendenci cenai pieaugt [4, 44].
Kaepju preparti ir 1516 gadus vecu skolnu izplattks nelegls narkotikas.
Pc 2007. gada datiem, Latvij 22% aptaujto skolnu savas dzves laik ir vismaz
vienu reizi paminjui marihunu vai haiu, pdj gada laik marihunu vai
haiu lietojui 14% skolnu, savukrt pdj mnea laik 5% skolnu. 1719
gadus veco skolnu grup 1718% lietojui marihunu pdj gada laik un 57%
pdj mnea laik [7, 46].
Par kaepju prepartu lietoanu vismaz vienu reizi dzves laik 1999. gad
zioja 17% 1516 gadus vecu skolnu (22% znu un 12% meiteu), 2003. gad
16% (21un 13%) skolnu un 2007. gad 18% skolnu (24 un 13%). Tas norda uz
o vielu izplatbas stabilitti. Ldzgas tendences novrojamas ar par marihunas
vai haia lietoanu pdj gada (11% 1999. gad, 10% 2003. gad un 12% 2007.
gad) vai pdj mnea laik (6% 1999. gad, 4% 2003. gad un 6% 2007. gad)
[7, 63].
1516 gadus vecu pusaudu k kaepju lietotju grupa faktiski ir riska grupa, jo
tiem, kas agri sk lietot narkotikas, nkotn to patri kst problemtisks ilgstoas
kaepju smanas sekas var bt nopietnas patoloijas, piemram, psihozes, elpceu
slimbas. Pdjos gados Eirop palielinjusies izpratne par o narkotiku ilgtermia
lietoanas un liels izplatbas ietekmi uz sabiedrbas veselbu, tpc ir pieaudzis
rstniecbas pieprasjums [4, 42].
Latvijas iedzvotju narkotiku lietoanas izplatba saldzinjum ar Eiropas
vidjiem rdtjiem attlota 1. tabul.
Taj pa laik narkotiku tirgus piedv arvien jaunas izvles 2009. gad
Eiropas trs brdinanas sistm ziots par 24 jaunm sinttiskm psihoaktvm
vielm, t. sk. deviiem kanabinodiem, kas obrd jau iekauti Latvijas aizliegto
vielu sarakst [3; 4, 93].
No tabulas datiem izriet, ka Latvijas iedzvotji abs nodaltajs pieauguo
vecuma grups visos ptmajos lietoanas posmos saldzinoi retk nek citu ES
valstu iedzvotji lietojui kaepju izcelsmes narkotisks vielas un kokanu, bet
saldzinoi biek nek vidji Eirop lietojui amfetamnu un ekstaz.
Kokans Eirop ir otra izplattk nelegl narkotika absoltos skaitos, bet t ir
eogrfiski koncentrtka, ldz ar to daudzs valsts, ar Latvij, kokana lietoana
nav izplatta. Var uzskatt, ka amfetamni un ekstaz ir Eirop otras visvairk lietots
narkotisks vielas pc kaepm. Amfetamns joprojm tiek raots galvenokrt Eirop,
kur atrodas vairk nek 80% visu amfetamna laboratoriju. Vidj amfetamna cena
ir 920 eiro par gramu [4, 53].
148
Tabula
Narkotisko vielu lietoana iedzvotju vid Latvij un Eirop 2004.2008. gad, %

[4, 45, 56, 58, 64]
Drug abuse in Latvia and Europe, 20042008, in percentage
Latvija un
Eiropa
Vecuma
grupa
Kaepes
(kanabiss)
Kokans
Amfetamns
Ekstaz
LSD
Lietojui vismaz reizi dzves laik

Latvija
Eiropa
1564
12,1
2,3
3,3
4,7
1,4
1534
21,7
4,0
6,1
8,5
2,3
1564
22,5
4,1
3,7
3,3
5,2
1534
31,6
5,9
5,2
5,7
5,6
Lietojui pdj gada laik

Latvija
Eiropa
1564
4,9
0,5
0,9
1,5
0,2
1534
8,7
1,9
2,7
0,5
1564
6,8
1,3
0,6
0,8
...
1534
12,6
2,3
1,2
1,8
...
ehija 15,2
Spnija 3,1
ehija 1,8
ehija 3,7
Itlija 14,3
Apvienot
Dnija 1,2
Spnija 10,1
Karaliste 3,0
Apvienot
Karaliste 1,2
Apvienot
Karaliste 1,8
Slovkija 1,6
Norvija,
Latvija 1,5
1564
Francija 8,6
Itlija 2,5
Valstis ar
augstko
narkotisko
vielu
izplatbu
rija 1,7
ehija 28,2
Itlija 20,3
Spnija 18,8
1534
Francija 16,7
Apvienot
Karaliste 6,2
Spnija 5,5
Dnija 3,4
Igaunija 1,1
ehija 3,2
ehija (7,7)
Dnija 3,1
Apvienot
Karaliste 3,9
Igaunija 2,5
...
...
rija 3,1
Apvienot
Karaliste 2,3
Latvija (1,9)
Latvija,
Slovkija,
Nderlande (2,7)
Lietojui pdj mnea laik

Latvija
Eiropa
1564
1,8
0,2
0,2
0,4
1534
3,6
0,3
0,3
0,8
0,1
1564
3,7
0,5
...
...
...
1534
6,9
0,9
...
...
...
Piezme. Daudzpunkte (...) nozm, ka trkst informcijas.
149
Amfetamns, ekstaz un LSD (lizergnskbes dietilamds) ir sinttisks psihoaktvs vielas, kuras kop 1971. gada ietilpst ANO konvencijas kontroljamo vielu
sarakst k psihotrops vielas, un to neleglo izplatanu ierobeo kriminlkodekss.
Ekstaz grupas vielas ir sinttiski amfetamnu derivti, kuri tiek izgatavoti nelegls
laboratorijs galvenokrt Holand, Beij un Anglij. s grupas vielu popularitte
tiek saistta ar deju mzikas kultru, un augsts sinttisko narkotiku lietoanas izplatbas lmenis tiek saistts ar konkrtm kultras apakgrupm vai socilajiem sliem. Vienas ekstaz tabletes vidj cena ir 210 eiro, un dinamik tai ir tendence
samazinties [4, 55]. Lietojot amfetamnu, s laik var rasties nemiers, trauksme,
reiboi, bezmiegs, ilgk laik psihozes, depresija, sirds asinsvadu slimbas, saindans, infekciju slimbas, kas ir organisma misks saindans sekas [4, 93].
Analizjot datus par amfetamna lietoanu dzves laik, jsecina, ka Latvija
atrodas valstu grup ar augstko izplatbu Eirop 4. viet 1534 gadus vecu
iedzvotju grup (6,1%) un aiz Apvienots Karalistes (attiecgi 15,4%), Dnijas
(10,5%) un ehijas (7,8%) [4, 56].
Ja analiz datus par ekstaz lietoanu dzves laik, var secint, ka Latvija atrodas
Eirop 4. viet gan 1564 gadus vecu iedzvotju grup (4,7%), gan 1534 gadus
vecu iedzvotju grup (8,5%) un ir aiz ehijas (attiecgi 9,6 un 18,4%), Apvienots
Karalistes (8,6 un 13,6%) un rijas (5,4 un 9,0%) [4, 58].
Pc ekstaz lietotju patsvara Latvija ierindojas Eiropas valstu vid ar augstko
lietoanas izplatbu, pai pusaudu vid. Pc EMCDDA 2010. gada ziojuma
datiem, Latvij amfetamnu lieto 6% 1516 gadus vecu jaunieu (Eirop vidji
5%) un ekstaz 7% jaunieu (Eirop vidji 15%) [4, 55, 57]. Zinot iespjams
amfetamna lietoanas sekas, ds amfetamna lietotju patsvars var nordt uz
iespjamm jaunu cilvku saslimanm tuvk vai tlk nkotn.
Kopum Eiropas kontekst narkotiku lietoanas lmenis Latvij pc starptautiski
saldzinmu ptjumu rezulttiem ir nedaudz zemks nek vidji Eirop, un to var
izskaidrot ar narkotiku lietoanas saldzinoi so laika posmu (pdjie 2025 gadi),
iedzvotju saldzinoi zemkiem ienkumiem, tradicionlo tirgus situciju, kas
izveidojusies narkotiku izplatbas jom Latvij.
Herona un citu opiodu lietoanas izplatba pc EMCDDA defincijas atbilst
problemtiskai narkotiku lietoanai (Problem Drug Use PDU), kas raksturota
k intravenozu narkotiku lietoana (Intravenous Drug Use IDU) vai ilgstoa /
regulra opiodu, kokana un / vai amfetamnu lietoana [17].
Narkotiku injictjiem ir augsts risks iegt veselbas traucjumus, ko izraisa
narkotiku lietoana, saslimt ar infekcijas slimbm, kas tiek prnestas ar asinm,
vai mirt no narkotiku prdozanas. Eirop narkotiku injicanu saista galvenokrt
ar opiodu lietoanu, mazk ar amfetamna izmantoanu.
PDU indikators ietver narkotiku lietotju izplatbas rdtju aprinus, iz
mantojot dadas matemtisks metodes, piemram, reizintju metodes, capturerecapture metodi, vairku indikatoru metodi [17]. Lai veiktu kvalitatvus un preczus
aprinus, nepiecieama piekuve vairkiem savstarpji identificjamiem datu
avotiem par narkotiku lietotjiem, kuri gada laik vrsuies dads iestds pc
paldzbas. Latvij ie aprini ir veikti un aprakstti vairkos nacionlos ziojumos
(piemram, VEC, EMCDDA, Situcija narkomnijas problmas jom Latvij
150
2008. gad. Nacionlais ziojums) un iesniegti EMCDDA, k ar 2010. gada 1.

jnij prezentti Rg, konferenc Uz pierdjumiem balsttas valsts politikas
veidoana narkotiku lietoanas problmu mazinanai Latvij [19]. Tie atklja, ka,
pc 2006. gad aplsm, kas pamatotas ar rstanas koeficienta metodi, emot vr
rstanas ziojuma aptvrumu, Latvij ir 3,16,2 gadjumi uz 1000 iedzvotjiem
vecum no 15 ldz 64 gadiem jeb 47949588 narkotiku lietotju) [8].
Saldzinjum ar citm Eiropas valstm PDU izplatbas intensitte Latvij
vrtjama k vidja (1. att.).
1. attls. Problemtisko narkotiku lietotju skaits uz 1000 iedzvotjiem vecum

no15ldz 64 gadiem 2004.2008. gad [8, PDU, 1. tab.]
Estimates of prevalence of problemATIC drug use, rate per 1000 aged 1564, 20042008
Problemtiskas narkotiku lietoanas rdtjs Eirop ir 210 problemtiski

narkotiku lietotji uz 1000 iedzvotjiem vecum no 15 ldz 64 gadiem, savukrt
problemtiskas opiodu lietoanas aprini liecina par 18 opiodu lietotjiem
uz 1000 iedzvotjiem vecum no 15 ldz 64 gadiem. Tas, ka opiodi un herons
faktiski ir dominjos injicjams narkotisks vielas Eirop, liecina ar fakts, ka
opiodus k primro narkotiku 2008. gad minja 53% pacientu, kuri ska rstties
no narkomnijas, un heronu minja 48% no visiem pacientiem (Latvij 34%)
[4,75].
Atbilstoi apriniem 2008. gad herona un citu opiodu lietotju skaits Rg
bija 5912 (ar 95% ticambas robeu no 3913 ldz 10 164), bet, visprinot os
151
aprinus uz visiem problemtiskiem narkotiku lietotjiem, noskaidrots, ka Latvij

ir ne mazk k 18 000 problemtisko narkotiku lietotju, no tiem aptuveni 12 000 ir
herona lietotji [14, 31].
Aprinot o lietotju intensitti uz 1000 attiecg vecuma iedzvotjiem, vartu
bt pat 12,1 opiodu lietotjS un 8 herona lietotji uz 1000 iedzvotjiem vecum
no 15 ldz 64 gadiem, un tas liecina, ka 2010. gada skum Latvija herona un citu
opiodu lietotju skaita zi atrads vien no pirmajm vietm Eirop.
Herona cena atkarb no t trbas pakpes svrsts no 24 ldz pat 213 eiro
par gramu, tapc is atkarbas veids ir viens no drgkajiem un ekonomisks krzes
apstkos liek narkotiku lietotjiem meklt citas alternatvas vai rstties [4, 74].
rstniecbas pieprasjums
Atbilstoi EMCDDA indikatoriem, kas ir saldzinmu datu vkanas un analzes
standartldzeki narkotiku jom ES dalbvalsts, par narkomnijas sekm uzskatms
rstniecbas pieprasjuma indikators (Treatment Demand Indicator TDI)
informcija par rsttiem pacientiem atbilstoi 1999. gad izstrdtajam standarta
protokolam. rstniecbas pieprasjuma indikatora mris ir iegt savstarpji
saldzinmu, ticamu, anonmu informciju par to pacientu skaitu un galvenm
pazmm, kuriem ir narkotiku izraistas problmas [17]. Latvij TDI nepiecieam
informcija par narkoloiskm saslimanm kop 2009. gada tiek vkta VEC przi
esoaj, ar noteiktm slimbm slimojou pacientu reistr (Patient Register Data
PREDA, turpmk Reistrs), k ar Rgas Psihiatrijas un narkoloijas centra (RPNC)
prvaldb esoaj datubz par narkoloiskajos stacionros rsttiem pacientiem
[17]. Diagnozei psihoaktvo vielu lietoanas izraists atkarbas sindroms un
psihozes nodala divas atsevias diagnozes: psihoaktvo vielu atkarba un
psihoaktvo vielu intoksikcija un kaitjoi prmrga lietoana. Ar pirmreizji
reistrto pacientu skaitu, kuriem noteikta diagnoze, saprot saslimstbu, bet ar
uzskait esoiem pacientiem izplatbu. Preja uz vienotu informcijas datubzi un
EMCDDA prasbm atbilstou datu analzes un ziojumu izstrdi radjusi situciju,
ka ilgtermi dati biei vien nav saldzinmi un 2008.2009. gada dati analizjami
patstvgi.
Narkotiku atkarba ir sareta slimba, kas skas ar narkotiku lietoanu, radot
nopietnas un, iespjams, veselbai neatgriezeniskas sekas. Pc Latvijas Republikas
Centrls statistikas prvaldes sniegts informcijas un Reistra datiem, pdjo
20 gadu laik dinamik vrojama uzskait esoo psihoaktvo vielu atkarbas
pacientu (izplatbas) intensittes pieaugums (2. att.), 2009. gada beigs sasniedzot
3468pacientus jeb 154 pacientus uz 100000 iedzvotju, un tas ir augstkais lmenis
ptmaj period [16]. Krass ar narkotisko vai psihotropo vielu atkarbu uzskait
esoo (izplatbas) un ar narkotisko vai psihotropo vielu atkarbu pirmreizji rstto
pacientu (saslimstbas) pieaugums bija vrojams 1998.2000. gad, kam sekoja o
pacientu un personu stabilizcijas periods ldz pat 2004. gadam, 2005.2006. gad
uzskait esoo pacientu skaits pat samazinjs, tomr kop 2007. gada konstatts
uzskait esoo psihoaktvo vielu atkarbu pacientu pieaugums.
152
uz 100 000 iedzvotju
2. attls. Uzskait esoo un pirmreizji uzskait uzemto pacientu ar psihoaktvo vielu

atkarbu skaits uz 100000 iedzvotju 1990.2009. gad [16, 187]
Incidence and prevalence of dependence from psychoactive substances (newly registered
patients and registered patients), per 100000 populations at end of the year
2009. gad ar psihoaktvo vielu atkarbu pirmreizji uzskait uzemti

306 pacienti jeb 11,3 pacienti uz 100 000 iedzvotju, tas ir par 93 pacientiem jeb
6,3 gadjumiem uz 100 000 iedzvotju mazk nek 2008. gad [6, 34]. To vartu
skaidrot, iespjams, ar mazk bstamu (ar ltku) vielu lietoanas pieaugumu kopj
narkotisko vielu izplatb.
Lielkais uzskait esoo pacientu skaits 2009. gad novrots Rgas un
Piergas reion 70% no visiem pacientiem. Augstko intensitti uzrda Rga
(249,9 pacienti uz 100 000 iedzvotjiem) un Pierga (171,6 pacienti uz 100 000
iedzvotju), viszemk intensitte reistrta Vidzemes reion (23,6 pacienti uz
100 iedzvotjiem) [16]. Tas, iespjams, saistts ar atkarbas vielu pieprasjuma un
piedvjuma eogrfisko izplatbu jo pieejamkas, jo biek lietotas. Lielk daa
o pacientu ir vriei (2009. gad) 78%, sievietes 21%, brni vecum no 0 ldz
17 gadiem ieskaitot 1% [18].
2009. gada beigs uzskait esoo pacientu ar psihoaktvo vielu atkarbu un
pirmreizji reistrto pacientu ar psihoaktvo vielu atkarbu sadaljums pa vielu
grupm norda uz saldzinoi augstu opiodu (54%) un daudzu narkotisko un citu
vielu (28%) atkarbu sabiedrb. 92% no visiem uzskait esoiem pacientiem ir ar
opiodu un daudzu narkotisko un citu vielu, un amfetamna atkarbu. Kokana un
halucinognu atkarba ai gad netika kontatta [18].
2009. gad pirmreizji reistrtiem pacientiem ar psihoaktvo vielu atkarbu
biek konstatta amfetamna, kanabisa un sedatvo un miega ldzeku atkarba, bet
retk opiodu un inhalantu atkarba. Lai ar kanabisa lietoana ir visai izplatta,
rstniecbas pieprasjuma indikators norda, ka rstto pacientu patsvars ir attiecgi
2% (uzskait esoie) un 7% (pirmreizji reistrtie). Tas izskaidrojams ar to, ka
kanabisa atkarbas veidoans var bt ar pakpeniskka saldzinjum ar citm
vielm. Ptjumi liecina, ka puse atkargo kaepju lietotju, kas prtraukui izmantot
o narkotiku, spja to izdart bez rstanas [4, 47].
153
Eirop vidji 21% rstanas gadjumu kaepes ir primr narkotika pc he

rona. Bulgrij, Igaunij, Lietuv, Luksemburg, Slovnij to rstniecbas uzscju
patsvars, kuri nosauc kaepes k primro narkotiku, ir mazks par 5% [4,48].
Lielkaj da Eiropas valstu paziotais to narkotiku lietotju patsvars, kuru
primr narkotika ir amfetamns un kuri rstjas, ir mazks par 5%, bet Latvij tas
veido saldzinoi lielu kopjo pazioto narkotiku lietotju dau, kas rstjas, 15%
[4, 55].
Analizjot to pacientu skaita un intensittes sadaljumu pa reioniem (1445gada
beigs uzskait esoi pacienti un 193 pirmreizji reistrti pacienti), kam ir psihoaktvo
vielu intoksikcija un kas psihoaktvs vielas lieto kaitjoi prmrgi, jsecina, ka
lielk daa 859 jeb 54,9% ir reistrti Rgas, Piergas, Kurzemes un Zemgales
reion, ldzgi k uzskait esoo pacientu ar psihoaktvo vielu atkarbu sadaljum
pa reioniem. To var skaidrot ar jau pieminto piedvjuma un pieprasjuma
eogrfisko izplatbu. Psihoaktvo vielu intoksikcijas un to kaitjoi prmrgas
lietoanas pacientu skait pc dzimuma un vecuma lielks patsvars konstatts br
nu kontingent gan znu, gan meiteu grups attiecgi 11% (195personas) un 4%
(63 personas), saldzinot ar psihoaktvo vielu atkarbas pacientu patsvaru (znu
grup 1% un meiteu grup 0%). Savukrt sievieu skaits o pacietu vid sama
zins un ldzins 15% (247 personas), vrieu skaits 70% (1198 personas) [118].
Pirmreizji reistrto pacientu skaits (saslimstba ar psihoaktvo vielu lietoa
nu izraistu atkarbas sindromu un psihozm) 2009. gad ir samazinjies, saldzi
not ar pdjiem diviem gadiem (attiecgi 499 indivdi 2009. gad, 659 2008.gad
un 629 2007. gad), tomr prsniedz 2002.2006. gad reistrto pacientu skaitu
[6,3233; 18].
Sievieu patsvars pirmreizji rstto pacientu vid lcienveidgi vari no 19%
(2008. gad) ldz 25% (2004. gad), 2009. gad sasniedzot 21,8%. Pirmo reizi
uzskot rstanos, sievietes ir nedaudz jaunkas par vrieiem. 2008. gad sievietm
vidjais vecums bija 22,5 gadi, savukrt vrieiem 23,4 gadi [6, 33].
Novrtjot to pirmreizji reistrto pacientu skaitu (saslimstbu), kam 2000.
2008. gad bija ar psihoaktvo vielu lietoanu izraists atkarbas sindroms un
psihozes, pdjos divos gados situcija ir visai ldzga: 1519, 2024, 2529 gadu
vecu pacientu grupas veido nedaudz virs 20%, dinamik samazinoties 1519 gadus
vecu pacientu patsvaram (no 37% 2004. gad ldz 22% 2008. gad) un attiecgi
pieaugot 2024 gadus vecu (no 16% 2003. gad ldz 25% 2008. gad) un 2529
gadus vecu pacientu patsvaram (no 8% 2003. gad ldz 21% 2008. gad) [6, 34].
Dinamik vrojams ar to pacientu patsvara samazinjums, kuri ir jaunki par
15 gadiem 2008. gad is samazinjums sasniedza zemko lmeni 12%, kas
norda uz s vecumgrupas narkotiku lietotju skaita iespjamo kopjo samazinanos
(kas gan ir pretrun ar LASPAD veikto aptauju), k ar uz to, ka aj vecumgrup
narkotiku lietoanas paradumi (piemram, kaepju, ekstaz lietoana) vl nav radjui
tik btiskus veselbas traucjumus, lai vajadztu meklt medicnisko paldzbu, un
ka lietoanas pieredze parasti ir visai niecga.
Kop 2000. gada vrojama to pirmreizji reistrto pacientu patsvara stabils
pieaugums, kuriem primri lietot narkotisk viela ir amfetamns, un is pieaugums
2008. gad bija sasniedzis 26% no visiem gadjumiem. Marihunas pacientu pat
154
svars no 2003. ldz 2006. gadam samazinjies divas reizes (2008. gad sasniedzot
14%). Herona pacientu patsvars krasi saruka 2000.2003. gad, tomr 2008.gad
kopjais pacientu skaits, kas lieto o narkotiku k primro, sasniedza 34%, saglabjot
dominjos narkotisks vielas statusu to pirmreizji reistrto pacientu patsvar,
kam psihoaktvo vielu lietoana izraisjusi atkarbas sindromu un psihozes pc
primri lietots vielas [6, 34].
Brnu un pusaudu grup 2009. gad krasi samazinjies uzskait uzemto un
uzskait esoo brnu skaits, kam ir psihoaktvo vielu intoksikcija un kas kaitjoi
prmrgi lieto s vielas. o brnu skaits ir sasniedzis zemko lmeni 12 gadu laik.
Pc Reistra datiem secinms, ka psihotropo vielu atkarbas diagnozes izplatba
brnu vid pdjs desmitgades laik ir samazinjusies 4,5 reizes, tomr ptjumi
par brnu un jaunieu narkomniju (Koroova u. c. ESPAD 2007. Atkarbu izraisoo
vielu lietoanas paradumi un tendences skolnu vid. Rga: SVA, 2007) liecina, ka
saldzinjum ar 2003. gadu jebkuru neleglu vielu lietoanas izplatba brnu vid
dzves laik pieaugusi no 5 ldz 11%. Informcijas nesakritbas iemesli: pirmkrt,
brni, kuri nonkui slimncs, ne vienmr nonk narkologu rcb, tpc trkst ziu
par diem gadjumiem, otrkrt, ne katram lietotjam nepiecieama medicnisk
paldzba.
Saska ar 2008. gada datiem pirmreizji reistrtie brni 32,5% gadjumos
narkotikas ir smjui, 23,5% aukui, 14,5% dui vai dzrui, 12,8%
inhaljui, 10% injicjui, 6,7% gadjumu narkotiku lietoanas veids nav zinms
[15, 78]. 49% brnu, kam ir narkotisko un psihotropo vielu atkarba un intoksikcija,
lietojui vairkas narkotikas un psihotrops vielas, bet 19% inhalantus, 13%
narkotisks vielas lietojui intravenozi, tpc pastv augsts risks inficties ar HIV/
AIDS un B (HBV) un C (HCV) hepattu [15, 80]. Pdjo piecu gadu laik vrojams
atkarbas intensittes pieaugums uzskait uzemto un gada laik uzskait esoo brnu
(017 gadi) grup. iem brniem ir das diagnozes: psihoaktvo vielu intoksikcija,
kaitjoi prmrga lietoana un psihoaktvo vielu atkarba. Atkarbas intensittes
pieaugums ir sasniedzis 11,1% uz 100000 iedzvotju (tie ir 43 brni) un atgriezies
2005.2006. gada lmen.
Jebkuras nelegls narkotisks vielas Eirop paminjui vidji 20%
1516 gadus vecu skolnu. Visaugstkais izplatbas rdtjs ir ehij (46%), kam
seko Spnija, Menas sala, veice, Francija un Slovkija, kur jebkuras narkotikas
paminjui vairk nek 30% skolnu. No Baltijas valstm visaugstkais jebkuras
narkotiskas vielas izplatbas lmenis ir Igaunij (28%), savukrt Latvij (22%)
un Lietuv (20%) tas ir aptuveni vidj ESPAD dalbvalstu lmen. Viszemkais
jebkuru narkotisko vielu lietotju patsvars ir Norvij, Rumnij un Armnij.
ESPAD dalbvalstu jauniei visbiek lieto marihunu un haiu, un biek to dara
zni, nevis meitenes. Latvij saldzinjum ar citm Eiropas valstm ir augsts citu
vielu (ekstaz, amfetamna, kokana, halucinognu, herona, izemot marihunu vai
haiu) lietotju patsvars. Visaugstkais citu vielu (izemot marihunu vai haiu)
lietotju patsvars ir Menas sal (16%), savukrt Austrij, Francij, Latvij, rij,
Monako un Dnij lietotju patsvars ir lielks nek 10% [16, 8283].
Kaut ar pdj laik Latvij ir samazinjies tdu reistrto pacientu skaits,
kuri ir atkargi no narkotiskm vai psihotropm vielm, tomr gan Latvij, gan
155
rvalsts ds samazinjums parasti tiek vrtts kritiski, jo narkotiku tirdzniecbas un

narkomnijas izteikti slpts norises d nav iespjams statistiski apkopot informciju
par visiem narkotiku lietotjiem.
Secinjumi
1. Sabiedrbas veselbas aentras ptjuma dati, kas publicti 2008. gad, liecina,
ka
saldzinjum ar 2003. gadu pieaug to personu skaits, kas dzves laik
paminjui jebkuras nelegls narkotikas;
visbiek narkotikas paminjui un lieto respondenti, kuri dzvo Rg,
Pierg un Vidzem; vriei narkotikas paminjui divas reizes biek
un lieto trs reizes biek nek sievietes, pdjos gados s atirbas sa
mazins;
visbiek narkotikas paminjui un lietojui cilvki vecum no 15 ldz
34gadiem;
izplattks nelegls narkotisks vielas ir marihuna un hais (kaepes),
tlk seko ekstaz, amfetamni, kokans un dadi opiodi;
skolnu vid izplattks nelegls narkotikas ir kaepju preparti.
2. Saldzinjum ar 2003. gadu Latvij pieaudzis to narkotiku lietotju patsvars,
kuri paminjui amfetamnu; paminjui un nesen lietotjui marihunu,
ekstaz, kokanu; pareiz lieto ekstaz un kokanu.
3. Latvijas iedzvotji saldzinoi mazk nek citu ES valstu iedzvotji visos
ptmajos lietoanas posmos izmantojui kaepju izcelsmes narkotisks vielas
un kokanu, bet biek amfetamnu un ekstaz.
Latviju var pieskaitt pie tm valstm, kur ir visplak izplatta amfetamna
lietoana Eirop dzves laik 1534 gadus vecu personu grup un ekstaz
lietoana dzves laik 1564 gadus vecu personu grup, k ar 1534 gadus
vecu personu grup. Plaka amfetamna un ekstaz izplatba nek vidji Eirop
konstatta 1516 gadus vecu jaunieu grup.
4. Latvij kaepes ir viena no izplattkajm narkotikm.
5. Narkotiku lietoanas lmenis Latvij ir nedaudz zemks nek vidji Eirop, un
to var izskaidrot ar narkotiku lietoanas saldzinoi so laika posmu (pdjie
2025 gadi), iedzvotju saldzinoi zemkiem ienkumiem un tradicionlo
tirgus situciju, kas izveidojusies narkotiku izplatbas jom Latvij.
6. 2008. gad herona un citu opitu lietotju skaits Latvij ir 4,6 lietotji uz
1000 iedzvotjiem vecum no 15 ldz 64 gadiem, un saldzinjum ar citm
Eiropas valstm tas ir vrtjams k vidjs. Latvij heronu k primro narkotiku
2008.gad minja 34% pacientu, kuri ska rstties no narkomnijas.
7. Pdjo 20 gadu laik dinamik vrojams to pacientu pieaugums, kuriem ir
psihoaktvo vielu atkarba un kuri atrodas uzskait. 2009. gada beigs
is pieaugums bija sasniedzis 154 pacientus uz 100 000 iedzvotju tas ir
augstkais rdtjs ptmaj period. 2009. gada beigs uzskait esoo pacientu
un pirmreizji reistrto pacientu, kam ir psihoaktvo vielu atkarba, sadaljums
156
pa vielu grupm norda uz saldzinoi augstu opiodu, daudzu narkotisko un

citu vielu atkarbu, k ar amfetamnu atkarbu ar tendenci pirmreizji uzskait
uzemto pacientu grup pieaugt kanabinodu vielu patsvaram.
8. Saldzinot ar 2011. un 2010. gadu, 2009. gad ir samazinjies to pirmreizji
reistrto pacientu skaits, kam psihoaktvo vielu lietoana ir izraisjusi atkarbas
sindromu un psihozes.
LITERATRA
1. 19.06.2003. likums Grozjumi likum Par narkotisko un psihotropo vielu un zu
likumgs aprites krtbu (LV, 101 (2866), 08.07.2003.) Stjas spk 22.07.2003.
Pieejams: http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=76988&from=off (sk. 03.01.2011.)
2. Atkarbu izraisoo vielu lietoanas izplatba iedzvotju vid: Ptjuma rezultti.
I.Koroeva, I. Mieria, M. Goldmanis u. c. Rga: SPI, SVA, LU FSI, 2008. 100 lpp.
3. Dzrve, L. Eirop kokans vairs nav tikai bagto izklaide. Diena, 15.11.2010, 4.5. lpp.
4. Eiropas Narkotiku un narkomnijas uzraudzbas centrs. 2010. gada ziojums: Situcija
narkomnijas problmas jom Eirop. Luksemburga: Eiropas Narkotiku un narkomnijas
uzraudzbas centrs, 2010. 108 lpp.
5. Eiropas Narkotiku un narkomnijas uzraudzbas centrs. Prskats par valsti: Latvija.
Pieejams: http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index114434LV.html (sk. 12.01.2011.)
6. Eiropas Narkotiku un narkomnijas uzraudzbas centrs, Veselbas ekonomikas centrs.
Situcija narkomnijas problmas jom Latvij 2008. gad. Nacionlais ziojums. Rga:
VEC, 2009. 88 lpp.
7. Espad 2007: Atkarbu izraisoo vielu lietoanas paradumi un tendences skolnu vid.
Rga: LASPAD, SVA, LR VM, 2008. 112 lpp.
8. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Statistics and contry data.
Pieejams: http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/stats10/pdu (sk. 20.01.2011.)
9. Ministru kabineta rkojums Nr. 98. Rg 2011. gada 14. mart (prot. Nr. 14, 19..) Par
Narkotisko un psihotropo vielu un to atkarbas izplatbas ierobeoanas un kontroles
pamatnostdnm 2011.2017. gadam. Pieejams: http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=227190
(sk. 20.03.2011.)
10. Narkotisko un psihotropo vielu atkarbas un izplatbas ierobeoanas un kontroles valsts
programma 2005.2008. gadam. Pieejams: http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.
cfm/att_35485_LV_Latvia%20Programme%202005-2008%20Latvian.pdf (sk. 07.01.2011.)
11. Narkotisko un psihotropo vielu un to atkarbas izplatbas ierobeoanas un kontroles
pamatnostdnes 2010.2016. gadam (informatv daa). Pieejams: http://www.iem.gov.lv/
lat/ (sk. 12.01.2011.)
12. Narkotisks un psihotrops vielas. Valsts policijas mjaslapa skolniem par drobas
un prevencijas paskumiem. Pieejams: http://www.sargi-sevi.lv/index.php?id=150 (sk.
12.01.2011.)
13. Rjabcevs, A. Narkomnijas apkaroanai prn trti 4,2 miljoni latu. Pieejams: http://
www.iem.gov.lv/lat/aktualitates/informacija_medijiem/?doc=17222 (sk. 08.01.2011.)
14. Sle, L. Agrn brdinjuma sistma par jaunajm psihoaktvajm vielm Latvij: jaunk
informcija. Pieejams: www.vec.gov.lv/docs/new2010/Sile.Trapencieris.06012010koference_
narkotikas (sk. 09.01.2011.)
157
15. Veselbas ekonomikas centrs. Atkarbu izraisoo vielu lietoanas izplatba un sekas.
17.izd. Rga: VEC, 2009. 109 lpp.
16. Veselbas ekonomikas centrs. Latvijas Veselbas aprpes statistikas gadagrmata 2009.
Pieejams:
http://www.vec.gov.lv/docs/new2010/3-Sabiedribas%20veseliba.pdf)
(sk.
09.01.2011.)
17. Veselbas ekonomikas centrs. Narkotisko un psihotropo vielu izplatba Latvij 2009.gad:
Aktula informcija par atkarbas problmm. AIPAP e-urnls 1/2010. Pieejams:
http://www.vec.gov.lv/docs/new2010/e-zurnals_AIPAP_Nr.1-2010_v08052010.pdf
(sk.
15.01.2011.)
18. Veselbas ekonomikas centrs. Psihiskie un uzvedbas traucjumi psihoaktvo vielu
lietoanas d. Statistikas dati par slimnieku skaitu sadaljum pa reioniem, diagnou
grupm, vecuma grupm, dzimumu 2009. gad. Pieejams: http://vec.gov.lv/docs/new2010/
Psihoaktivas_vielas.pdf (sk. 03.01.2011.)
19. Veselbas ekonomikas centrs. Sabiedrisko attiecbu daa. Informcija plasazias
ldzekiem, 01.06.2010. Pieejams: http://vec.gov.lv/lv/informacija-medijiem/13-notikskonference-par-narkotiku-lietosanas-problemu-mazinasanu-latvija (sk. 13.01.2011.)
Summary
Early 21st century threats caused by drug and psychotropic substance use
prevalence and consequences as well as its place in society. This paper tries to assess
drug distribution dynamics in the first decade of the 21st Century in Latvia as a part of
indicators of the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction.
Keywords: narcotic and psychotropic substances, drugs.

158.172. lpp.
Life Expectancy and Mortality Changes in Latvia,

Lithuania and Estonia Since 1990: Comparative Overview
Ma ilguma un mirstbas izmaias Latvij, Lietuv un
Igaunij kop 1990. gada: saldzinos apskats
Juris Krumins
Raina Blv.19, Riga LV-1586
E-mail: juris.krumins@lu.lv
Natalja Dubkova
Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia

Lpla Street 1, Riga LV-1301
E-mail: natalja.dubkova@csb.gov.lv
The purpose of this study is to give a comparative overview about diverse trends in life
expectancy, age and cause-specific mortality and selected health indicators in the three Baltic
countries Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, compared with Poland, Finland, Sweden, Belarus,
and Russia. Healthy life expectancy, changes in mortality by main categories of causes of
death and inequalities in the face of death are analysed over the last twenty years.
Keywords: mortality, life expectancy, health, Baltic Sea region countries.
Current diversity in mortality trends across the Europe has been determined, to a
considerable extent, by diverse patterns of health and mortality since mid 1960-s and
with a considerable clear-cut division along pre-1990 political borders (Mesl, 2004;
Nolte et al., 2005). Since collapse of the former USSR restoration of independence
and market-based development, health indicators have undergone diverse patterns
between neighbouring countries of the Baltic Sea region and even between the three
Baltic countries (Katus and Puur, 2003).
Life expectancy trends

From the mid 1960s life expectancy stagnated or even declined in the Baltic
countries (Krumins, 1994). In 1990 life expectancy constituted in Estonia 69.9, in
Latvia 69.5, and in Lithuania 71.6 years and was only on the level of mid-1970s.
Fast transition to market economy, worsening of the macroeconomic situation and
decline in living standard caused life expectancy decrease in many post-communist
space countries at the beginning of 1990s. Baltic countries and all other republics of
the former USSR faced particularly sharp decline. During 19901995 life expectancy
for both sexes fell by 2.2 years in Estonia, 2.4 years in Lithuania and 3.2 years in
Latvia. Psychosocial stress was found as the most plausible explanation for health
J. Krumins, N. Dubkova. Life Expectancy and Mortality Changes in Latvia ..
159
crisis in Latvia at the beginning of transition to market economy. Also unemployment

appeared to be an important source of stress, particularly because its highly unequal
distribution across age groups, gender, regions, levels of education, and other sociodemographic characteristics (Krumins and Usackis, 2000).
In the following years situation improved significantly decline was replaced
by increase. Life expectancy value of the year 1990 was surpassed in Estonia in
1996, in Latvia in 1998, but in Lithuania in 1999. Situation continued to improve at
the beginning of 21st century, but not so fast as it was expected. A total growth of life
expectancy during the last twenty years among the three Baltic countries was highest
in Estonia, followed by Latvia and Lithuania (Table 1 and 2).
Table 1
Life expectancy at birth (Eo), Male

Countries
Eo, years
Changes 19902009
1990
2009
years
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
Poland
Finland
Sweden
Belarus
Russia
64.68
64.18
66.52
66.57
71.02
74.93
66.26
63.79
69.84
68.31
67.51
71.34*
76.74
79.29*
64.61**
60.47***
5.16
4.13
0.99
4.77
5.72
4.36
-1.65
-3.32
8.0
6.4
1.5
7.2
8.1
5.8
-2.5
-5.2
EU members before May2004

New EU members after 2004
CIS
73.04
66.76
64.75
77.97
70.99
62.77*
4.93
4.23
-1.98
6.7
6.3
-3.1
Table 2
Life expectancy at birth (Eo), Female

Countries
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
Poland
Finland
Sweden
Belarus
Russia
EU members before 2004
New EU members after 2004
CIS
Eo, years
Changes 19902009
1990
2009
years
74.97
74.63
76.36
75.63
79.07
80.65
75.84
74.42
79.79
74.92
74.33
80.07
78.09
78.56
80.11*
83.56
83.36*
76.25**
73.27***
83.47
79.12
73.63*
5.10
3.46
2.20
4.48
4.49
2.71
0.41
-1.15
3.68
4.20
-0.70
6.8
4.6
2.9
5.9
5.7
3.4
0.5
-1.5
4.6
5.6
-0.9
Note: * 2008, ** 2007, *** 2006

Calculated using European Health for All Database (HFA-DB). WHO Europe; National
Statistical Bureaus last available data.
160
Life expectancy increase for men and women in Estonia was even higher than
an average increase in new and old EU member states. Lithuania lost the leading
position among Baltic countries due to limited improvement during the last twenty
years and had the lowest life expectancy among Baltic countries in 2009. Latvia
remained in-between two neighbours. The least improvement was achieved in male
life expectancy. Male life expectancy in the Baltic countries presently is substantially
lower (by 810 years) than in the old EU member states and lagging behind by
13years of the new EU member states, which joined EU in 2004 and later.
Absolute and relative growth of male life expectancy during 19902009 exceeds
growth of female life expectancy (see Table 1 and 2). This is a general trend both for
old and new EU member states, excluding Lithuania. Life expectancy increase for
men in the Baltic countries during the last twenty years match up a middle trajectory
between the most successful East and Central European countries (Slovenia, Czech
Republic, Poland) and laggards Belarus, Russian Federation, Ukraine and Moldova.
Womens life expectancy increase in the Baltic countries is more favourable,
approaching the average level of the new EU member states. Estonia has surpassed a
mean of female life expectancy of new EU member states already since 2003.
Changes of mortality by age

Trends in aggregate indicators like life expectancy should be supplemented by
age-specific mortality rates demonstrating diverse changes in mortality for different
age groups. Nowadays traditionally higher impact of infant and child mortality on
life expectancy has been replaced by the growing role of mortality in the working
ages.
Since mid 1990s infant mortality in all three Baltic countries demonstrate
continuous downward trend. Also under five year mortality rate during 19902008
has declined in Estonia 2.6 times and in Latvia and Lithuania 1.9 times. However
its level still exceeds 23 times value of under-five mortality rate in Finland and
Sweden, although it is lower than in Belarus and Russia (Table 3).
Table 3
Under-five mortality rate (probability of dying by age 5 per 1000 live births)
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
Poland
Finland
Sweden
Belarus
Russia
WHO European region
Global
1990
2000
2008
16
17
13
18
7
7
24
21
32
90
11
13
11
9
4
4
17
20
22
78
6
9
7
7
3
3
13
11
14
65
2008/1990, %
38
53
54
39
43
43
54
52
44
72
Calculated using World Health Statistics 2010. Geneva: WHO, 2010. Pp. 49, 51, 53, 55, 57.
161
Significant impact on life expectancy changes in all transition countries has

been determined by age-specific mortality changes in the working ages (Vallin et
al., 2001). Three Baltic countries are not exception, but there are some peculiarities
among them. In Estonia, both for men and women, probability of dying in working
ages has declined, like in Poland, Finland and Sweden. In Latvia the slight decline
is observed only for women (Table 4). Lithuania, on the contrary, demonstrates
increase of mortality in working ages both for men and women similar to Belarus
and Russia.
Table 4
Probability of dying between 15 and 60 years per 1000 population

Female
Male
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
Poland
Finland
Sweden
Belarus
Russia
WHO European
region
Global
1990
2000
2008
2008/1990,%
1990
2000
2008
2008/1990,%
301
311
287
263
183
114
282
318
215
318
320
293
216
143
87
354
445
229
249
311
314
205
129
76
330
396
208
83
100
109
78
70
67
117
125
97
107
118
107
102
70
66
107
117
97
120
117
103
86
63
56
125
161
98
84
115
114
77
57
48
111
147
90
79
97
107
75
81
73
104
126
93
246
236
213
87
173
163
146
84
Calculated using World Health Statistics 2010. Geneva: WHO, 2010. Pp. 49, 51, 53, 55, 57.
Impact of recent mortality pattern on life expectancy can be characterized by

reduction of life expectancy through deaths before age of 65 (in years).Countries
according to the descending order of that indicator are as follows Russia 12.3,
Belarus 9.3, Latvia 8.5, Lithuania 8.2, Estonia 7.5, Poland 6.6, Finland 4.6,
Sweden 3.3. These figures reflex inequality to face death among different national
populations and indirectly demonstrate how achievable can lower indexes of
mortality be due to progress in reduction of avoidable mortality. More favourable
socio-economic growth plays noteworthy role in it.
Healthy life expectancy

From the point of quality of life it is important to take into account not only fatal
but also non-fatal health outcomes (Sakkeus and Karelson, 2010). Such integrated
measure of health and mortality is disability-adjusted life expectancy (also called
healthy life expectancy), which his based on the life tables for each country, surveys
assessing physical and cognitive disability and general health status, and detailed
information on the epidemiology of major disabling conditions in each country.
The last available indicator of healthy life expectancy in the three Baltic
countries was below the average of new EU member states by 14 years, but
162
difference with the old EU member states is remarkable 710 years in 2007.
Healthy life expectancies demonstrate almost the same sequence as for conventional
life expectancies in respective year. Value of female and male healthy life expectancy
in 2007 is higher in Estonia than in Lithuania and Latvia and lower than in Finland
or Sweden (Table5).
Table 5
Healthy life expectancy (years), 2007

Male
Female
Female over male
Both sexes
Estonia
61.3
70.6
9.3
65.9
Latvia
59.2
68.4
9.2
63.8
Lithuania
58.3
67.8
9.5
63.0
Poland
64.1
70.2
6.1
67.1
Finland
69.6
74.7
5.1
72.1
Sweden
72.3
74.9
2.6
73.6
Belarus
58.3
66.1
7.8
62.2
Russia
54.6
65.5
10.9
60.1
EU members before May 2004
...
...
...
73,0
EU members since 2004 or 2007
...
...
...
66.7
CIS
...
...
...
59.7
WHO European region
64
70
67
Global
58
61
59
Source: European Health for All Database, National Statistical Bureaus last available data.
World Health Statistics 2010. Geneva: WHO, 2010. Pp. 48, 50, 52, 54, 56. Estimates take
into account the Global Burden of Disease estimates for the year 2004.
Female healthy life expectancy in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania exceeds

significantly more than 9 years healthy life expectancy than men. In Sweden this
difference is 2.6 years, but in Russia almost 11 years.
Proportion of healthy life from the total life expectancy in 2007 for Baltic
countries ranged from 8891%. For men that share was12 per cent points higher
than for women. It gives us argument to conclude that mens self assessed life is
little bit healthier than womens.
Spread of tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus:

riseand reduction
Compared with the situation in the 1990s, the epidemiological situation for
most of communicable diseases in the Baltic countries has improved. Never the less
spread of tuberculosis and HIV still represent important public health challenge.
Tuberculosis incidence in the Baltic countries, Belarus, and Russia roses harply
during the 1990s (Figure 1). Among determinants of such rise were economic
recession, malnutrition, poor living conditions, and overcrowding in prisons.
163
Shortages of drugs and laboratory supplies also contributed to inadequate tuberculosis

control. Tuberculosis prevails among people with a low socio-economic standard
(Blystad etal., 2002). In contrast to other communicable diseases, the incidence of
tuberculosis has remained relatively high.
Tuberculosis incidence per 100000 population
Figure 1 Tuberculosis incidence per 100000 population units in selected EU countries,

Belarus and Russian Federation. Source: European Health for All Database.
During the first half of 1990s Baltic countries have experienced relatively low
figures of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) incidence. Among these countries,
highest incidence rates were found in Sweden. Rapid HIV increase started in Estonia
and Latvia since 1999, while in Lithuania it remained at relative low level. In 2001
number of diagnosed HIV cases per 100000 peaked in Estonia and HIV epidemic
was declared. It was caused by expanding injecting drug use and transmitted mainly
through the sharing of contaminated needles and syringes. HIV infection prevailed
among people less than 25 years of age, and proportion of women among newly
infected persons had been increasing (Kutsar and Epshtein, 2009). Despite the
significant improvements, Estonia still has the highest HIV incidence among the
Baltic countries.
164
Mortality by causes of death

Three main groups of causes of death determine majority of overall changes in
mortality and life expectancy diseases of circulatory system, cancer and external
causes of death. More than 4/5 of all deceased are attributed to those three groups
of causes.
Death because of circulatory system illness peaked up in the mid 1990 in all
Baltic countries (Krumins, 2003). From the mid-1990s a renewed general downward
trend of mortality from the diseases of circulatory system both for men and women
(Figure 2) revealed in all three Baltic countries. Only in Lithuania traditionally
lower levels of mortality from circulatory system, started to increase once again with
the turn to 21st century, and demonstrate decline only since 2006. Baltic countries
are holding medium position in terms of circulatory system deaths between Russia
and Belarus with rather high mortality and EU old member states, demonstrating
continuing sustainable linear decline of cardiovascular mortality.
Situation is much more multistage in the group of malignant neoplasm (Figure3).
Male mortality from mentioned cause of death is high and rather stable in all three
Baltic countries, exceeding average mortality level of the EU new member states
and demonstrating increasing gap with the EU old member states. For women in
the Baltic countries mortality trends from malignant neoplasm are more favourable,
especially in Estonia. Achieved levels of female mortality are below the new and old
EU member states.
The most significant differences between Baltic countries and the new and old
EU member states exist in mortality from external causes of death injuries, traffic
accidents, suicides, homicides, and others (see Figure 4). Traditionally males are
more prone to this mortality type (Mesl and Hertrich, 1999). Once again a peak
of deaths from external causes was very typical for the mid 1990ies in all Baltic
countries. From the mid 1990s both men and women mortality from external causes
of death demonstrate decline in all three Baltic countries, which ceased in Lithuania
with the turn to new century. Baltic countries are again holding medium position
between Russias high violent mortality and EU new member states. It could take
long time and efforts for Baltic countries to reach mortality level of external causes
of death in the EU old member states, especially for male population.
165
SDR, diseases of circulatory system, all ages per 100000, male
SDR, diseases of circulatory system, all ages per 100000, female
Figure 2 Standardized death rates for diseases of the circulatory system in selected EU
countries, Belarus, and Russian Federation.
Source: European Health for All Database.
166
SDR, malignant neoplasms, all ages per 100000, male
SDR, malignant neoplasms, all ages per 100000, female
Figure 3 Standardized death rates for malignant neoplasm in selected EU countries,

Belarus, and Russian Federation.
167
SDR, external cause injury and poison, all ages per 100000, male
SDR, external cause injury and poison, all ages per 100000, female
Figure 4 Standardized death rates for external cause injury and poison in selected EU
countries, Belarus, and Russian Federation.
168
Inequalities in the face of death

Inequalities in the face of death still continue to exist among population subgroups. Some inequalities are rather stable, some of them are changing in different
ways (Stankuniene et al., 1999; Monden, 2004). One of the most analyzed and
discussed phenomenon is the gap between male and female life expectancy.
Moderate male excess mortality decline since mid 1990s in the Baltic countries
is still a serious health and socio-economic issue affecting reduction of femalemale life expectancy gap, which is slowly approaching the new EU member states
average, overrunning it by 1.72.9 years. In the old EU member states female life
expectancy excess is systematically declining during the last twenty years from
6.8 years in 1990 to 5.5 years in 2009. In the new EU member states mentioned
excess diminished insignificantly from 8.2 till 8.1 years during the same period.
Three Baltic countries are among European countries with the highest men-women
life expectancy gap. This gap has practically not changed (10.2 years) in Estonia, in
Latvia it has decreased from 10.5 to 9.8 years but in Lithuania it has increased from
9.9 to 11.1 years over the last twenty years. In Iceland, which is European country
with the highest life expectancy (81.9 years in 2009), female-male life expectancy
gap has reached 3.9 years, while in Russia (European country with the lowest life
expectancy) during 19902006 it has increased from 10.6 to 12.8 years.
Inherited from the soviet period, urban-rural differences continue to be apparent
in welfare, health, and mortality. Rural excess mortality results in urban-rural life
expectancy gap, which in Latvia is rather stable: 2.0 years in 1990, 2.4 years in
2000 and 2.2 years in 2008 (CSB, 2009). Urban life expectancy gap is higher among
men (1.83.0 years) in comparison with women (0.91.3 years) in Latvia. Urban
life advantage is observed also in Lithuania, where gap between urban and rural
life expectancy in 2000 was 3.3 years, but in 2009 3.1 years (Statistics Lithuania,
2011). In Estonia life table calculations separately for urban and rural population
recently are not performed. In 1989 urban-rural life expectancy gap for men in
Estonia was 2.1 year, but for women 1.7 years.
Urban-rural differences in mortality are mainly determined by the higher level of
premature mortality due to external causes of death among rural males. For females
differences are caused by the higher mortality in older ages due to cardiovascular
diseases in rural areas (Jasilionis, 2003). Differences are determined mainly by
higher level of education of urban population and lower effectiveness of health care
services and health policy measures in rural areas.
Educational inequalities are important factor when explaining mortality
changes and differences in general and by particular groups of causes of death (see
Shkolnikov et al., 2006; Ezendam et al., 2008; Leinsalu et al., 2009; Stirbu et al.,
2010). Large differences by education in mortality and life expectancy are witnessed
in all three Baltic countries during the last twenty years. On the onset of transition to
market economy the gap between higher educational level and primary education or
lesswere 12.6 years for Latvian males at age 25 and for females of same age 7.1 years
(Krumins, 1993). During the 1990s the declining mortality of the higher educated
and the rising mortality of the lower educated resulted in an enormous mortality gap
in Estonia. In 2000 male graduates aged 25, could expect to live 13.1 years longer
169
than corresponding men with lowest education; among women the difference was
8.6 years (Leinsalu et al., 2003). In Lithuania on the doorstep of 21st century life
expectancy at age 30 differed by 11.3 years between men with the highest and those
with the lowest educational levels, mainly due to the excess mortality of the latter
between 40 and 60 years of age (Jasilionis et al., 2007).
Socio-economic and political transformation has affected ethnic differences in
mortality and life expectancy in multi-ethnic societies, including the Baltic countries.
Standardized life expectancy (by place of residence) of Latvians over passed the
indicator for the largest minority group, Russians, in Latvia at the end of 1970s and
1980s by 1.7 years. Mortality gap between Latvians and Russians, measured with
age-standardized death rates, from 1988 till 1995 has increased from 10 to 17 per
cent for men, and from 13 to 14 per cent for women (Krumins and Usackis, 2000).
Increasing ethnic differences are also typical for Estonia. In the period of 19892000,
Estonians advantage in life expectancy increased from 0.4 to 6.1 years among men
and from 0.6 to 3.5 years among women (Leinsalu et al., 2004). In Lithuania, with
more ethnically homogeneous population, difference in life expectancy at age 30
among Lithuanians and Russians is 1.82 and among Lithuanians and Poles 3.15years
(Jasilionis et al., 2007). Ethnic differences in mortality are attributed partially to
differences in educational level and urban-rural place of residence. Differences in
life expectancy are generated mostly by cardiovascular diseases and external causes
of death.
Differences between the most and the least favourable groups are huge. For
example in 20012004, life expectancy gap at age 30 composed more than twenty
years for men with higher education, married, Lithuanian an living in urban
areas(47.7 years) compared with men with lower than secondary education, nonmarried, non-Lithuanian, urban (27.3 years), and more than 15 years for women if
women with higher education, married, non-Lithuanian, urban (55.8) is compared
with women with lower than secondary education, non-married, non-Lithuanian,
rural (40.0 years) (Jasilionis et al., 2007).
Concluding remarks
We have reached a frontier, when many of us find answers to questions: How
successful was the advancement of the three Baltic countries during the last twenty
years in terms of human development, improvement of health, and rise of life
expectancy? Have we achieved more in comparison with the first decennials of
independence during the 1920s and 1930s? Are the recent trends in mortality showing
break up with soviet type excess mortality pattern and stagnating life expectancy?
What are the underlying factors behind observed changes and policy implications?
In search of comprehensive answers to these issues scholars from different fields
and countries are conducting intensive research. It is clear that one can find many
explanations to such cumulative process like changes in mortality and peoples
health during preceding decennials. Soviet health care system and social policy
together with echoes from wars and post-war Stalinist repressions hindered decline
of mortality. Finland with comparable level of pre-war life expectancy significantly
outpaced Baltic countries during the post war period.
170
Renewal of independence and following period of marked-led reforms and

societal transformations resulted in all three Baltic countries to further decline
mortality. Exception was the beginning of transition, when due to psycho-social
stress factors life expectancy declined. Successive economic growth accompanied
by growing social inequality predetermined lasting or even growing socio-economic
and demographic differentiation of mortality.
Life expectancy change in the three Baltic countries during the last twenty
years match up a middle trajectory between the most successful East and Central
European countries (Slovenia, Czech Republic, Poland) and laggards (Belarus and
Russian Federation). Estonia became a leader among the Baltic countries in terms
of life expectancy in recent years and Lithuania lag behind Estonia and Latvia.
Cardiovascular diseases and violent deaths still are playing considerable role in
excess mortality especially for men.
Despite the growing life expectancy, it would probably take long time and
efforts for Baltic countries to narrow mortality and life expectancy gap with more
advanced European countries especially for male population. It is challenge for next
decennials.
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172
Kopsavilkums
Neatkarbas atjaunoana, prejas periods uz tirgus ekonomiku un socils izmaias
Latvij, Lietuv un Igaunij ir radjuas prieknoteikumus iedzvotju ma ilguma
pieaugumam un izraisjuas to. Izmums bija pagju gadsimta 90. gadu skums, kad
psihosocil stresa ietekm ma ilgums strauji samazinjs. Iedzvotju nosloans
turpmk noteica mirstbas sociliekonomisks un demogrfisks diferencicijas sagla
banos vai pat pieaugumu. Mirstbas un ma ilguma izmaias trs Baltijas valsts
pdjos divdesmit gados atbilst vidjai trajektorijai starp aj zi sekmgkajm
Austrumeiropas un Centrleiropas valstm (Slovniju, ehiju, Poliju) un atpalicjm
(Baltkrieviju un Krievijas Federciju). Igaunija aj period ir izvirzjusies par lderi
ma ilguma zi, bet Lietuva skusi atpalikt no Latvijas un Igaunijas. Mirstbai no
asinsrites sistmas slimbm un nelaimes gadjumiem joprojm ir galven nozme, sevii
vrieiem.
Acknowledgements: Authors are thankful to reviewers and discussants of

the paper Health and challenges for further socio-demographic development:
Similarities and diferences between Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and other CEE
countries delivered to the Panel Populationand Health in Eastern Europeand PostSoviet Space of the VIII World Congress organized by International Council for
Central and Eastern European Studies, Stockholm (Sweden) 2631 July 2010. We
express sincere thanks for an idea to include main outcomes from the analysis to the
Estonian Human Development Review 2011 and comments given by Mare Ainsaar.

173.183. lpp.
Izlietot iepakojuma savkanas depozta sistmas

ievieanas iespjas valst
The Opportunities of the Implementation of the Used
Packaging Deposit System in Latvia
Natlija Kulakova
Rgas Banku augstskola

K. Valdemra iela 161, Rga, LV-1013
E-pasts: natalija.kulakova@inbox.lv
Krlis Krzs
Attstbas un plnoanas departaments
Bazncas iela 5, Rga, LV-1010
E-pasts: k.kruzs@inbox.lv
is zintniskais raksts ir veltts izlietot iepakojuma savkanas depozta sistmas ievieanas
iespju analzei Latvij. Izlietot iepakojuma apsaimniekoana tiek skatta k viens no
ilgtspjgas attstbas nosacjumiem, kas nodroina veselgu vidi un dabas resursu saglabanu.
Pieaugot IKP, iedzvotju ienkumiem un pirktspjai, pieaug izlietot iepakojuma apjoms.
Ptjum tiek izskatts jautjums par izlietot iepakojuma apsaimniekoanas nozmi un
regulanu Latvij un Eiropas Savienb, k ar izptts jautjums par iepakojuma savkanas
depozta sistmu ievieanu Latvij k nozmgu izlietot iepakojuma apsaimniekoanas
sastvdau, nordti galvenie ri, kas kav depozta sistmas ievieanu.
Atslgvrdi: ilgtspjga attstba, atkritumi, iepakojums, apsaimniekoana, depozta sistma.
Ievads
Atkritumu apsaimniekoana tiek atzta par vienu no ilgtspjgas attstbas
faktoriem, jo atkritumi no raoanas, izplatanas un patria ietekm augsni,
deni, gaisu, klimatu. Atkritumu apsaimniekoanas nozare ir ciei saistta ar citm
nozarm, piemram, ar dabas resursu aizsardzbu un taupanu, dens kvalitti,
dabas aizsardzbu, trismu utt. No vienas puses, saska ar 1975. gada ES Padomes
direktvu par atkritumiem (75/442/EK) atkritumi ir Jebkura viela vai priekmets, no
kura to panieks atbrvojas vai no kura viam ir jatbrvojas [2]. No otras puses,
daa atkritumu ir otrreizj izejviela, no kuras tiek raoti jauni izstrdjumi.
Arvien lielku patsvaru sadzves atkritumos iegst papra, kartona, plastmasas,
stikla un metla iepakojums. Rpjoties par vides kvalitti, izlietot iepakojuma
apsaimniekoanas jom Eiropas Savienb ir pieemta Eiropas Parlamenta un
Padomes direktva 94/62/EK Par iepakojumu un izlietoto iepakojumu, kura nosaka
minimlos iepakojuma atkritumu reenercijas (prstrdes un enerijas ieganas)
174
un prstrdes apjomus. Ja t netiks izpildta, Latvijai k ES dalbvalstij var tikt

piemrotas soda sankcijas. Iepakojuma depozta sistmas ievieana Latvij vartu
uzlabot reenercijas un prstrdes rdtjus, veicint ES direktvas prasbu izpildi,
k ar samazint atkritumu daudzumu, kas noncis poligonos.
ptjuma mris ir izptt izlietot iepakojuma savkanas depozta sistmas
ievieanas iespjas Latvij un atklt pozitvos aspektus un trkumus, k ar izstrdt
prieklikumus depozta sistmas ievieanas optimizanai Latvij.
Lai sasniegtu izvirzto mri, tiek paredzts veikt dus uzdevumus: noteikt
izlietot iepakojuma apsaimniekoanas nozmi; izvrtt Eiropas Savienbas, ttad ar
Latvijas normatvos aktus, kas regul izlietot iepakojuma apsaimniekoanu, pau
uzmanbu pievrot tiesu aktiem, kas regul iepakojuma depozta sistmu ievieanu
un stenoanu; izvrtt izmaksas, kas ir saisttas ar iepakojuma depozta sistmas
ievieanu Latvija, k ar, pamatojoties uz veikto ptjumu, izdart secinjumus un
izstrdt prieklikumus depozta sistmas ievieanas optimizanai Latvij.
Darba gait autori ir lietojui ekonomisks un statistisks analzes ptjumu
metodes. Ptjum ir izmantoti literatra un avoti, kas ir saistti ar iepakojuma de
pozta sistmas ievieanas problmm.
Izlietot iepakojuma apsaimniekoanas nozme

Msdiens viens no pieprastkajiem iesaiojuma materiliem ir plastmasa.
Tautsaimniecb kopum nemitgi palielins no plastmasm izgatavoto izstrdjumu
patsvars. Tau im vieglajam un izturgajam materilam ir viens btiskais trkums
no fosilajm izejvielm raot plastmasa dab praktiski nesadals un vid saglabjas
oti ilgi, tpc ir nepiecieama plastmasas prstrdana. Izlietot plastmasas iepakojuma otrreizj prstrde ietaupa dabas resursus, jo plastmasas var uzskatt par iekonservtu naftas produktu un eneriju. Vairks valsts izlietot plastmasas iepakojuma prstrd tiek izmantotas divas metodes: otrreizj prstrde jaun produkcij
un termisk prstrde sadedzinot. Sadedzinot 1t plastmasas, iegst tikpat daudz kaloriju, k sadedzinot 1 t naftas. Tomr izlietoto plastmasas iepakojumu ir ieteicams
sadedzint tikai tad, ja to nav iespjams prstrdt jaun produkcij [13,65].
Pdjos gados izlietot plastmasas iepakojuma prstrdes jom ir vrojami
btiski uzlabojumi. Rpnca PET Baltija, kas darbojas kop 2004. gada un ir mo
dernk rpnca Baltij, no PET pudelm iegst augstks kvalittes PET prslas,
kuras izmantojamas ne tikai dadu rpniecbas preu, bet ar prtikas iepakojuma
un plastmasas glzu raoan. Uzmums atrodas Jelgav, un t prstrdes jauda
ir aptuveni 18 000 tonnu PET pudeu gad. ES fondu ldzfinansjums veicinja
uzmuma darbbas jaudas palielinanu.
Otrais nozmgais uzmums, kas darbojas izlietots plastmasas prstrdes
jom, ir Olaines uzmums Nordic Plast, kas kop ar dau polimru industriju
ir lielkie izlietots plves prstrdtji Latvij. Nordic Plast vismaz 85% izejvielas
(prstrdjams plves) savc Latvij, un prstrdes rezultt top granulas. Dau no
tm Nordic Plast eksport uz Lietuvu, Igauniju, Beiju un Angliju, bet dau izmanto
polietilna atkritumu maisu un ruu plves gatavoanai. Salaspils uzmums
SIA PSG tehnoloijas raotn polimrus iestrd bruakmeos. Ar izlietots
plastmasas apsaimniekoanu nodarbojas ar SIA Eko Reverss, SIA RORK, SIA
N. Kulakova, K. Krzs. Izlietot iepakojuma savkanas depozta sistmas ievieanas ..
175
European Plastic Industries. No Latvijas izved un apsaimnieko izlietoto plastmasas

iepakojumu Lietuvas uzmums UAB Monmarkas (Via) un Igaunijas uzmumi
OU Tehnoplast, OU Uniplast, OU Nores Plastic un OU Ekolink Eesti (atrodas
Tallin) [12].
Dabas resursu saglabanai svarga ir papra un kartona prstrde. Lai nodro
intu msdiens nepiecieamo papra daudzumu, ik gadu tiek nocirsti miljoniem
koku. Ir aprints, ka 1 t makulatras ietaupa vidji gandrz 4 m3 koksnes jeb
1214 pieauguos kokus. Nepiecieami gadu desmiti, kamr koks izaug. Izlietot
papra un kartona jeb makulatras izlietojums papra un kartona raoanai attstts
Rietumvalsts vidji sasniedz 50%, bet, izgatavojot iesaiojuma papru un kartonu,
makulatras saturs izejviel prsniedz 80%. Vairku laikrakstu iespieanai izmanto
papru, kura sastv ir ldz 70% makulatras. du papru lieto dadu bukletu,
bloknotu, rakstmpapra, aploku, bieu un kvu izgatavoanai. Makulatru
prstrdjos rpncas ir ekoloiski trkas un auj ietaupt deni un elektroeneriju.
Piemram, makulatras izmantoana papra un kartona raoan auj ietaupt vismaz
50% elektroenerijas, saldzinot ar celulozes prstrdanu, un 70% elektroenerijas,
saldzinot ar koksnes masas prstrdanu. Makulatru prstrdjos raotnes
piesro notekdeus par 50% mazk nek koksnes prstrdjos rpncas un pat
ldz 90% mazk nek celulozes raotnes. Svaig dens patri papra un kartona
raoan, izmantojot makulatru, ir par 80% mazks, nek prstrdjot celulozi.
Makulatras prstrde samazina atkritumu izgztuvm nepiecieamo teritoriju, jo
sark noglabjamo atkritumu daudzums [9, 100].
Lielkie uzmumi papra un kartona prstrd ir SIA Lgatnes paprfabrika
un uzmums V.L.T. Valmier. Uzmum V.L.T. izgatavo olu paliktus un
iepakojumu. SIA Lgatnes paprfabrika no papra un kartona top biroja un akvareu
paprs, k ar papra aulas. Ar izlietot papra un kartona savkanu, prstrdi un
eksportu Latvij nodarbojas ar SIA RORK, SIA Eko Reverss, SIA Juglas
paprs, SIA Gofre Baltija. Liela daa no izlietot papra un kartona tiek eksportta uz
citm valstm, jo Latvij izlietot papra un kartona prstrdes jaudas nav pietiekamas.
Izlietotais paprs un kartons no Latvijas tiek nostts tlkai prstrdei uz Lietuvu,
un to apsaimnieko UAB Klaipdas Kartonas (Klaipda) un UAB Eiropopapierus
(Via), k ar uz Ukrainu (Rubeanski kartono tarnij kombinat) [12].
Ldzga situcija ir ar stikla prstrdes jom, t. i., stikla prstrdes nozare Latvij
nav attstta, stiklu pamat izved prstrdei rpus Latvijas uz Lietuvu un Ukrainu,
kur no pudeu stikla lauskm top jaunas pudeles, bet Latvij paliekoais izlietotais
stikla iepakojums tiek izmantots gan hidrobvju celtniecb, gan bruakmens
raoan [12].
Stikls ir materils, kas ar lieliski pakaujas prstrdei. Stikla lauskas un dadi
nolietoti stikla izstrdjumi jaunaj stikla produkcijas raoan auj ietaupt ievrojamu daudzumu augsts kvalittes kvarca smilu, kalcinto sodu, elektroeneriju
un kurinmo. Piemram, 1 t stikla lausku auj ietaupt 1 t kvarca smilu un 250 kg
kalcints sodas. Aprints, ka ik 10% stikla atkritumu pievienoana pirmreizj
stikla izejvielm samazina enerijas patriu par 2,5%. Stikla lausku prstrde var
pagarint kausanas kru kalpoanas laiku vidji par 1520%, jo kausanas procesu var veikt zemks temperatrs. Prdodot izlietot stikla iepakojumu, var iegt
peu. Rpnieciski attsttajs Rietumvalsts stikla lausku piedeva, izgatavojot gais
176
pudeles, veido ldz 60%, bet, raojot tums krsas pudeles, prsniedz 80%. Lielu
enertisko resursu, izejvielu un kapitlieguldjumu ietaupjumu nodroina stikla taras atkrtota (pat ldz 50 reiu) izmantoana. Lai savktais stikls btu augstvrtgs
un izmantojams atkrtoti, tam jbt tram, t. i., stikls nedrkst saturt citu materilu
piemaisjumus un tam jbt sairotam pa krsm [9, 99].
Latvijas izlietoto stikla iepakojumu noprk un prstrd ar Igaunijas uzmums
a/s Jervekandi Klaas un Lietuvas uzmums UAB Panevio stiklas.
Melnie metli tiek prstrdti a/s Liepjas metalurgs, k ar daudzos man
bves uzmumos, kuros ir lietuves cehi. Ar izlietot metla savkanu Latvij
nodarbojas tdas firmas, k SIA Konti, SIA RORK, SIA Tvertne, SIA
Liarte, a/s Krsainie ljumi, SIA Tranzta terminls, a/s Kuusakoski. Dada
veida krsainos metlus, minerleas un eas filtrus Rg prstrd a/s Latvijas
krsmetli [12].
Izlietot iepakojuma apsaimniekoanas regulana Latvij un

citur Eiropas Savienb
Pieaugot labkljbai un dzves kvalittei, strauji pieaug radtais sadzves
atkritumu daudzums. Latvij ik gadu rodas vidji 600000700 000 tonnu sadzves
atkritumu, un 2008. gad izlietotais iepakojums veidoja 21% no sadzves atkritumu
apjoma [10, 2]. Latvij raksturgs saldzinoi liels plastmasas dzrienu iepakojuma
patsvars saldzinjum ar citm Eiropas valstm. Plastmasa atirb no papra
sadals dab oti ilgi, bet obrd ltks ir tiei plastmasas iepakojums.
Rpjoties par vides kvalitti iepakojuma atkritumu apsaimniekoanas jom,
Eiropas Savienb ir pieemta Eiropas Parlamenta un Padomes direktva 94/62/EK
Par iepakojumu un izlietoto iepakojumu, kas nosaka minimlos iepakojuma atkritumu reenercijas (prstrdes un enerijas atganas) un prstrdes apjomus, kuri
ir atspoguoti 1. tabul. Ja tie netiek izpildti, dalbvalstm tiek piemrotas soda san
kcijas [1].
1. tabula
Reenercijas un prstrdes apjomi, kas ir sasniedzami 2015. gad; prstrdes un

reenercijas normu izpilde Latvij 2009. gad [1; 11]
Amount of the packaging waste that has to be recovered and recycled in 2015 and has
been recovered and recycled in 2009 in Latvia [1; 11]
Iepakojuma
materils
Reenercijas
Reenercijas
Prstrdes
sasniedzamie rdtji normu izpilde sasniedzamie rdtji
2015. gad Latvij
2009. gad
2015. gad Latvij
saska ar ES direktvu Latvij, %
saska ar ES
94/62/EK, %
direktvu 94/62/EK, %
Prstrdes
normu
izpilde
2009. gad
Latvij, %
Stikls
45,1
60
45,1
Polimri
33,2
22,5
20,3
Metls
45,5
50
41,8
Paprs, kartons
78
60
41,5
Koksne
45,8
15
22,4
Kop
60
53,5
55
34,3
177
Analizjot 1. tabulas datus, autori secina, ka 2009. gad Latvij reenert izlietot
iepakojuma patsvars tikai nedaudz atpaliek no 2015. gada mra, un tas ir pozitvi
vrtjams, savukrt stikla un papra, kartona prstrdes apjomi btiski atpaliek no
2015. gada prstrdes normm. Pdjo gadu dati liecina, ka s normas kst arvien
grtk stenot, tas saistts ar izlietot iepakojuma savkanu un atbilstoas kvalittes
otrreizjo izejvielu sagatavoanu. Iepakojuma depozta sistmas ievieana Latvij
vartu uzlabot reenercijas un prstrdes rdtjus, veicint ES direktvas prasbas
izpildi, k ar samazint atkritumu poligonos nonkuo atkritumu daudzumu.
Iepakojuma apsaimniekoanu Latvij reglament Iepakojuma likums. Saska
ar Iepakojuma likuma 18. pantu preces raotjs, kas izmanto atkrtoti lietojamo
iepakojumu, veido brvprtgo iepakojuma depozta sistmu. Patrtjs, prkot
preci iepakojum, kuram ir piemrota depozta sistma, samaks noteiktu naudas
summu depozta maksu. Saemot atpaka o iepakojumu no patrtja, prdevjs
atmaks viam depozta maksu Ministru kabineta noteiktaj krtb un apmr.
Savukrt prdevjam, kas prdod preci iepakojum, kam piemrota depozta sistma,
ir pienkums pieemt atpaka no patrtja attiecgo iepakojumu, kuram ir piemrota
depozta sistma [3].
MK noteikumi Nr. 414 (22.07.2003.) Noteikumi par depozta sistmas piem
roanu atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam nosaka tos iepakojuma veidus, kuriem
piemro depozta sistmu, kritrijus un krtbu, kd tiek veidota un piemrota
depozta sistma, k ar t iepakojuma uzskaites, prskata un kontroles krtbu, kuram
ir piemrota depozta sistma. Saska ar MK noteikumiem depozta sistmu ska
piemrot ar 2004. gada 1. janvri [4]. ajos MK noteikumos tiek noteikts depozta
maksas apmrs, kas ir redzams 2. tabul.
2. tabula
Atkrtoti lietojam iepakojuma veidi, kuriem piemro depozta sistmu, un depozta

maksas apmrs [4]
Type of the reusable packaging to which the deposit system is applied, payment of the
deposit [4]
Nr.
p. k.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Iepakojuma veids
Stikla pudeles ar tilpumu

0,33 litri, bezkrsas
0,33 litri, bezkrsas
0,33 litri, brnas
0,5 litri, brnas
Plastmasas pudeu kastes, zaas
(ietilpba 20 pudeles ar tilpumu 0,5 litri)
Plastmasas pudeu kastes, zilas (ietilpba
24 pudeles ar tilpumu 0,33 litri)
Preu grupa
Depozta maksa (latos)
Minerldens
0,06
Alus
0,06
Alus
0,05
Alus
0,05
Alus
1,72
Alus un
minerldens
2,00
Analizjot LR MK noteikumus attiecb uz depozta sistmu, juzsver, ka

iepakojuma depozta sistma Latvij joprojm nedarbojas, jo ir papildu izmaksas
178
tirgotjiem un dzrienu iepakotjiem. Tirgotji un dzrienu iepakotji (preu raotji)

nevar vienoties par samaksu dzrienu iepakotjiem (raotjiem) btu jmaks
dzrienu tirgotjiem depozta sistmas nodroinanai, t. i., taras pieemanai
atpaka no patrtjiem, ts uzglabanai, k ar atpaka pieemta atkrtoti lietojam
iepakojuma uzskaites sistmas izveidoanai. Tirgotji k vl vienu iemeslu, kpc
nav gatavi pilnb iesaistties aj sistm, min daudzu veikalu mazs tirdzniecbas
platbas un stingrs sanitrs prasbas.
Pasaules praks eksist divu veidu iepakojuma depozta sistmas: depozta
sistma atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam un depozta sistma vienreizlietojamam
iepakojumam. Saldzinot ar atkrtoti lietojam iepakojuma depozta sistmu,
vienreizlietojam iepakojuma depozta sistmas gadjum pc t pieemanas no
patrtjiem tas tiek nogdts pirmapstrdes un presanas centros, no kurienes
tas tiek tlk nostts vietjs prstrdes rpncm vai eksportts uz rzemm t
prstrdei vai reenercijai.
Kaimivalst Igaunij depoztu sistma veiksmgi darbojas jau vairkus gadus
un ldz prstrdei nonk ldz 90% pudeu, un tas pierda sistmas efektivitti. L
dzga sistma jau sen darbojas Austrij, Vcij, Somij, Zviedrij, Norvij un
daudzs cits valsts. Igaunij stenot depozta sistma dzrienu stikla un PET
pudelm un skrdenm darbojas veiksmgi un ir sevi attaisnojusi. Lai ar skotnji
lielie raotji, ldzgi k tas palaik notiek Latvij, iebilda pret depozta sistmas
ievieanu iepakojumam, ogad ar vii atzst, ka sistma ir sevi pilnb attaisnojusi.
Galvenais ieguvums no iepakojuma depozta sistmas ievieanas Igaunij ir iespjas
izsekot gan stikla, gan PET pudeu apritei [10].
Pdj laik stipri aktivizjusies dadu nevalstiskos organizciju un iedzvotju
interese par to, kpc Latvij nav ieviesta sistma, kas auj iedzvotjiem atdot atpaka
nopirkts stikla un plastmasas pudeles, k ar citus iepakojuma veidus, saemot par
o iepakojumu visur viendu depozta maksu.
Sabiedrb pastv dadi viedoki par iepakojuma depozta sistmas ievieanu,
piemram, Latvijas Za punkta valdes prieksdtjs Mris Simanovis uzskata,
ka depoztu sistmas ievieana ir drga un ar to zuds dalt atkritumu savkanas
jga, k ar t nav izdevga raotjiem, kam bs juzemas papildu izmaksas:
Vairku gadu statistika rda, ka gadu no gada ir augusi sabiedrbas interese PET
pudeles atdalt no citiem atkritumiem. Varbt lielka uzmanba btu jpievr jau
esoajai dalts atkritumu vkanas sistmai. Toties a/s Latvijas valsts mei
komunikcijas daas vadtjs Tomass Kotovis stingri nostjs par depozta sistmas
ievieanu Latvij, bet izteica raizes, ka, protams, prk augsta depozta maksa vartu
veicint atkritumu iroanu, bet, no otras puses, taj brd piesrotji vairk vartu
skt izgzt atkritumus dab, td jnodroina vietas, kur os atkritumus var aizvest
un novietot bez maksas. Valstij izdevgk btu subsidt das vietas, jo atkritumu
savkana un izveana no meiem un cemalm iznk daudz drgk [14].
Lai atrisintu jautjumu par iepakojuma depozta sistmas ievieanu Latvij,
Vides aizsardzbas un reionls attstbas ministrija (turpmk VARAM) ir
izstrdjusi koncepcijas projektu par depozta sistmas piemroanu dzrienu
iepakojumam.
179
Koncepcija par depozta sistmas piemroanu dzrienu

iepakojumam
VARAM izstrdt koncepcija paredz etrus variantus, k sistmu ieviest Latvij.
Tie atiras ar to, vai depozta sistma atkrtoti lietojamam un vienreizlietojamam
dzrienu iepakojumam tiek ieviesta un piemrota vienlaikus vai pakpeniski, k ar
ar ievieanas termiiem.
Koncepcija paredz, ka ir jveic grozjumi Iepakojuma likum, Dabas resursu
nodoka likum un jizstrd Depozta sistmas piemroanas noteikumi atkrtoti
lietojamam iepakojumam. Ievieot depozta sistmu, koncepcij paredzts sasniegt
vairkus mrus, piemram, ldz minimumam samazint meu, denstilpju apkrtnes
un cemalu piesroanu ar dzrienu iepakojumu. Tpat ministrija cer, ka koncepcij
plnotie paskumi aus ietaupt dabas resursus, novirzot prstrdei k otrreizjs
izejvielas plastmasas, stikla un metla iepakojumu [10].
Valsts sekretru sanksm jau vairkas reizes tika skatts jautjums par iepriek
minto tiesbu aktu projektiem, bet katru reizi jautjums par lmuma pieemanu
tiek prcelts uz nkamajm sdm. Saska ar valsts sekretru 2011. gada 10. marta
sanksmes protokolu jautjuma izskatana tika prcelta uz 2011. gada 1. septembri
[5].
Saska ar koncepciju dzrienu iepakojuma depozta sistmas ievieanas
rezultt ir plnots sasniegt 3. tabulas rdtjus.
3. tabula
Dzrienu iepakojuma depozta sistmas ievieanas rezultatvie rdtji [10]

Result indicators of the implementation of the deposit system for the beverage
packaging[10]
Rdtjs
Pirmaj gad
Treaj gad
No patrtjam prdot atkrtoti lietojam dzrienu iepako

juma tiek savkts atpaka
80%
90%
No atpaka savkt vienreizlietojam dzrienu iepakojuma

tiek prstrdts vai reenerts
60%
70%
Iedzvotji ir apmierinti ar iespjm nodot iztukotu

dzrienu atkrtoti lietojamo iepakojumu, saemot atpaka
par to samaksto depozta maksu (tiek izvrtta iedzvotju
apmierintba 05 punktu skal)
Iedzvotji ir apmierinti ar iespjm nodot iztukotu

dzrienu vienreizlietojamo iepakojumu, saemot atpaka
par to samaksto depozta maksu (tiek izvrtta iedzvotju
apmierintba 05 punktu skal)
Iedzvotjiem ir pieejams pakalpojums (iedzvotju iespjas

nodot iztukotu dzrienu iepakojumu)
50%
100%
Ievieot obligtu depozta sistmu atkrtoti lietojamam dzrienu iepakojumam,

o dzrienu cenas nepieaugs, emot vr, ka preces cen jau ir iekauta pudeles
vrtba, kas bs ldzvrtga depozta maksai. Savukrt, ievieot likumprojekta
prasbas attiecb uz depozta sistmas piemroanu vienreizlietojamam dzrienu
180
iepakojumam, o dzrienu cenas pieaugs, jo preces cen papildus tiks iekauta ar

depozta maksa [10].
Par depozta sistmas piemroanu dzrienu iepakojumam bijuas asas debates
un atirgi viedoki: tirgotji atbalsta vienlaicgu depozta sistmas ievieanu
vienreiz un atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam (atbilstoi Igaunijas un Skandinvijas
valstu pieredzei); prjs puses ierosinjuas ieviest depozta sistmas pakpeniski
skum atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam un pc 1,52 gadiem vienreizlietojamam
iepakojumam. Pc autoru domm, attiecinot depozta sistmu uz abiem iepakojuma
veidiem vienlaikus, t. i., uz atkrtoti lietojamo un vienreizlietojamo iepakojumu,
samazinsies sistmas ievieanas izmaksas, savukrt dabas resursa nodoka izmaias
var stimult raotjus un importtjus izmantot atkrtoti lietojamo iepakojumu.
PricewaterhouseCoopers ptjum ir veikti aprini, kas parda, ka skotnjs
investcijas pirmo divu gadu laik bs 7,3 miljoni latu, no tiem 5,7 miljonus latu
bs nepiecieams investt tirgotjiem un 1,6 miljonus latu sistmas operatoram.
Papildus tam operatoram bs nepiecieama zeme un kas 2 miljonu latu vrtb, un
ts tiks iegdtas, izmantojot finanu lzingu. Aptuven skotnj pakalpojuma maksa,
kdu iepakotji makss sistmas operatoram, bs 0,5 santmi par vienu vienbu PET,
0,4 santmi par vienu vienbu metla un 0,7 santmi par vienu stikla iepakojuma
vienbu. pakalpojuma maksa atspoguo sistmas darbbas pilns izmaksas
iepakotjiem un ietver sev ar uz konkrto periodu (gadu) attiecinms skotnjs
investcijas. Operatora makst atldzba tirgotjiem par katru manuli pieemto
iepakojuma vienbu neatkargi no iepakojuma materila veida bs 2,0 santmi un
par katru automtiski pieemto iepakojuma vienbu 2,8 santmi. Sagaidms, ka
depozta sistma padars caurskatmu ar izlietot iepakojuma uzskaiti [8, 61].
Vienlaikus pastv baas, ka, ievieot depozta sistmu tikai atkrtoti lietojamam
iepakojumam Latvij, pircjs bez zaas domanas izvlsies nevis preci atkrtoti
lietojam iepakojum, kuram bs piemrota depozta sistma, bet vienreizlietojam
iepakojum. Tam par iemeslu var bt vairki faktori. Pirmkrt, jatzm, ka ar
depozta sistmas piemroanu preces cena kop ar iepakojumu, kuram ir pie
mrota depozta maksa, parasti ir lielka nek pirms s sistmas ievieanas, jo ir
nepiecieami papildu naudas ldzeki sistmas uzturanai. Atdodot iepakojumu
atpaka tirgotjam, patrtjs var saemt atpaka depozta maksu par iepakojumu.
Ttad kopum patrtjam ir izdevga depozta sistmas ievieana un, ievieot
depozta sistmu atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam, Latvij var palielinties kopj
ts preces cena, kuras iepakojumam bs piemrota depozta maksa, tdjdi pastv
drauds, ka patrtjs izvlsies preci vienreizlietojam iepakojum. Otrais faktors,
kpc patrtjs pc depozta sistmas ievieanas atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam
var izvlties preci vienreizlietojam iepakojum, ir patrtja nevlans nest
izlietoto iepakojumu atpaka tirgotjam. No vides viedoka da attstba ir negatva,
jo atkrtoti lietojam iepakojuma apsaimniekoana, saldzinot ar vienreizlietojamo
iepakojuma apsaimniekoanu, rada mazku slodzi uz apkrtjo vidi.
da videi nelabvlga situcija bija vrojama Vcij pc depozta sistmas
ievieanas atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam. Ar 1991. gadu Vcij im iepakoju
mam tika piemrota depozta sistma, tpc da iepakojuma patsvars dzrienu ie
pakojuma apjom samazinjs. Attiecgi, samazinoties atkrtoti lietojam iepakojuma
181
patsvaram, pastvgi palielinjs vienreizlietojam iepakojuma patsvars kopj

iepakojuma apjom. Protams, no vides viedoka t ir nelabvlga tendence, jo
vienreizlietojamais iepakojums, saldzinot ar atkrtoti lietojamo iepakojumu, rada
vairk atkritumu, raoanas un prstrdes proces patr vairk enerijas un veicina
siltumncas efekta raanos.
Ttad pc depozta sistmas ievieanas atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam
Vcij t patsvars kopj iepakojuma apjom samazinjs. Daji da situcija
ir izskaidrojama ar to, ka pc depozta sistmas ievieanas atkrtoti lietojamam
iepakojumam Vcijas patrtjiem rads iespaids, ka dzrieni d iepakojum ir
drgki nek dzrieni vienreizlietojam iepakojum, jo kopj cena, t. i., preces un
depozta cena atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam nedaudz palielinjs, lai nodroi
ntu depozta sistmas funkcionanu. Tau patrtjam rads iespja nodot atkrtoti
lietojamo iepakojumu atpaka jebkur tirdzniecbas viet, saemot atpaka depozta
maksu. Ttad gala rezultt patrtjam bija izdevgk iegdties preci atkrtoti
lietojam iepakojum, kuram bija piemrota depozta sistma. Tau augstkas cenas
un citu faktoru d (nevlans trt laiku izlietot iepakojuma atpaka nogdanai
tirgotjam) atkrtoti lietojam iepakojuma patsvars kopj iepakojuma apjom
samazinjs.
Vcijas valdba atrisinja o problmu, 2003. gada 1. janvr ievieot depozta
sistmu ar vienreizlietojamam iepakojumam. Juzsver, ka ar depozta sistmas
ievieanu vienreizlietojamam iepakojumam tika pankts Vcijas valdbas mris
palielint atkrtoti lietojam iepakojuma patsvaru kopj iepakojuma apjom.
Ttad kop depozta sistmas ievieanas vienreizlietojamam iepakojumam ie
vrojami palielinjs to preu prdoanas apjomi, kurm bija atkrtoti izmantoja
mais iepakojums, turpret btiski samazinjs vienreizlietojam iepakojum esoo
preu prdoanas apjomi. Vairki uzmumi, piemram, prtikas veikals Aldi un
DeutscheBahn, izma no sava sortimenta preces krbs.
Pc autoru domm, Latvijai ir jem vr pozitv Vcijas un citu Eiropas
valstu pieredze iepakojuma depozta sistmas ieviean. Latvijas iedzvotji vairk ir
jinform par iepakojuma depozta sistmas priekrocbm un ts ievieanas gaitu.
Secinjumi
1. Latvijas Iepakojuma likums, kas tika pieemts 2001. gad, noteic, ka preces
raotjs, kur izmanto atkrtoti lietojamo iepakojumu, veido brvprtgo
iepakojuma depozta sistmu, tomr joprojm iepakojuma depozta sistma
Latvij nedarbojas, un tas ir saistts ar dzrienu tirgotju un iepakotju
papildu izdevumiem. Vairku Eiropas valstu pieredze liecina, ka iepakojuma
depozta sistmas ievieana ir nepiecieama un veicina izlietot iepakojuma
apsaimniekoanu, piemram, Igaunij stenot depozta sistma skrdenm,
dzrienu stikla un PET pudelm darbojs veiksmgi vairkus gadus un ir sevi
attaisnojusi.
2. Saska ar SIA PricewaterhouseCoopers veikto ptjumu aptuven skotnj
pakalpojuma maksa, kdu iepakotji makss sistmas operatoram, bs 0,5 san
tmi par vienu vienbu PET, 0,4 santmi par vienu vienbu metla un 0,7 santmi
par vienu stikla iepakojuma vienbu. pakalpojuma maksa atspoguo sistmas
182
darbbas pilns izmaksas iepakotjiem un ietver ar uz konkrto periodu (gadu)

attiecinms skotnjs investcijas. Operatora makst atldzba tirgotjiem par
katru manuli pieemto iepakojuma vienbu neatkargi no iepakojuma materila
veida bs 2,0 santmi un par katru automtiski pieemto iepakojuma vienbu
2,8 santmi.
3. VARAM ir izstrdjusi koncepciju par depozta sistmas piemroanu Latvij
dzrienu iepakojumam. T paredz etrus variantus, k sistmu ieviest Latvij. Tie
atiras ar to, vai depozta sistma atkrtoti lietojamam un vienreizlietojamam
dzrienu iepakojumam tiek ieviesta un piemrota vienlaikus vai pakpeniski, k
ar ar ievieanas termiiem.
4. Saska ar koncepciju par depozta sistmas piemroanu ir jveic grozjumi
Iepakojuma likum, Dabas resursu nodoka likum un ir jizstrd Depozta
sistmas piemroanas noteikumi atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam. Valsts
sekretru sanksm jau vairkas reizes (2010. gada 25. februr, 2010. gada
12. august un 2011. gada 10. mart) tika skatts jautjums par iepriek minto
tiesbu aktu projektiem, bet katru reizi jautjums par lmuma pieemanu tika
prcelts uz nkamm sdm. Pc autoru domm, tas ir saistts ar tiesbu aktu
izstrd iesaistto ministriju nespju vienoties par tiesbu aktu koncepciju.
5. Pc autoru domm, Latvijas iedzvotji nav pietiekami informti (televzij,
avzs) par iepakojuma depozta sistmas nozmi, k ar par ts ievieanas
procesa problmm Latvij.
Prieklikumi
1. VARAM, LR valsts sekretriem valsts sekretru sanksm un LR Ministru
kabinetam jpatrina jautjuma par iepakojuma depozta sistmas ievieanu
Latvij izskatana un pc iespjas trk jvienojas par depozta sistmas
ievieanas termiiem Latvij.
2. LR valsts sekretru sanksmei un LR Ministru kabinetam jatbalsta vienlaicga
depozta sistmas ievieana vienreiz un atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam
(atbilstoi Igaunijas un Skandinvijas valstu pieredzei), tas samazintu depozta
sistmas ievieanas izmaksas.
3. VARAM sadarbb ar dzrienu (kam ir paredzts piemrot iepakojuma depozta
sistmu) tirgotjiem un iepakotjiem jveic informcijas kampaa Latvijas
iedzvotjiem par depozta sistmas nozmi un ts ievieanas procesa problmm
Latvij.
LITERATRA
1. Eiropas Parlamenta un Padomes Direktva 94/62/EK (1994. gada 20. decembris) par
iepakojumu un izlietoto iepakojumu. Pieejams: http://www.vidm.gov.lv/lat/es_vides_
informacija/es_normativie_akti/atkritumsaimnieciba_un_attirisanas_tehnika/?doc=2234
(sk. 05.02.2011.)
2. ES Padomes direktva par atkritumiem 75/442/EK. Pieejams: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31975L0442:LV:HTML (sk. 05.02.2011.)
183
3. Iepakojuma likums: LR likums. Pieejams: http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=57207 (sk.

25.01.2011.)
4. Noteikumi par depozta sistmas piemroanu atkrtoti lietojamam iepakojumam: LR MK
noteikumi. Pieejams: http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=77734&version_date=02.08.2003
(sk. 29.01.2011.)
5. Valsts sekretru sanksmes 2011. gada 10. marta protokols. Pieejams: http://mk.gov.lv/
mk/vsssanaksmes/saraksts/protokols/?print&protokols=2011-03-10 (sk.20.03.2011.)
6. Atkritumu apsaimniekoanas politika Latvij. Pieejams: http://www.vidm.gov.lv/lat/
darbibas_veidi/apsaimniekosana/info/?doc=6789 (sk. 08.02.2011.)
7. Atkritumu saimniecba. Rga: Latvijas atkritumu saimniecbas organizcija, 2007.
133lpp.
8. Izlietot dzrienu iepakojuma apsaimniekoana atkritumu dalts vkanas (kontei
neru) sistmas saldzinjums ar dzrienu iepakojuma depozta sistmu. SIA Pricewater
houseCoopers veiktais ptjums pieejams: http://www.vidm.gov.lv/lat/darbibas_veidi/
iepakojums/files/text/Prese/Depozitu_sistemas_alternativas_FINAL_nodevums.pdf (sk.
05.02.2011.)
9. Krzs, K. Dabas un otrreizjo resursu izmantoana. Rga: SIA Izgltbas soi, 2003. 131
lpp.
10. Koncepcija par depozta sistmas piemroanu dzrienu iepakojumam. Pieejams: http://
www.mk.gov.lv/mk/tap/?pid=40185861 (sk. 08.02.2011.)
11. Latvijas Vides, eoloijas un meteoroloijas centra prskati par izlietoto iepakojumu
Latvij. Pieejams: http://www.meteo.lv/public/28759.html (sk. 10.02.2011.)
12. Latvjas Za punkta gada prskats 2009. gad. Pieejams: http://www.zalais.lv/lv/
sabiedribai/biblioteka/LZP_Gada_parskats (sk. 07.02.2011.)
13. Ldzsvarota attstba un atkritumu saimniecba pavaldbs. Rga: Latvijas Atkritumu
saimniecbas asocicija, 2001. 141 lpp.
14. Par prioritti jkst dabai. Pieejams: http://www.lv.lv/index.php?menu=doc&id=163555
(sk. 04.02.2011.)
15. Vl vairki soi ldz iepakojuma depozta sistmas ievieanai. Pieejams: http://
lv.lv/?menu=doc&id=218532 (sk. 29.01.2011.)
Summary
This paper is dedicated to the research of the opportunities of implementation of
used packaging deposit system in Latvia. The packaging deposit system is a part of used
packaging management considered as a term of sustainable development, which provides
a secure environment and conservation of natural resources. The growth of GDP,
income, and purchasing power of population contributes to the growth of used packaging
amount, negatively affecting environment. In this research the legislative acts of the
European Union and Latvia which regulate the used packaging management as well
as packaging deposit system implementation are analyzed and the main obstacles for
the implementation of the packaging deposit system in Latvia are evaluated. As a result
the authors conclude that it is necessary to implement the packaging deposit system in
Latvia as soon as possible taking into account the positive experience of such European
countries as Estonia, Germany, Sweden, Finland, and Austria.
Keywords: sustainable development, waste, packaging, management, deposit
system.

184.195. lpp.
Medikamentu mazumtirdzniecbas cenu pilnveidoanas

iespjas Latvij saldzinjum ar citm Eiropas valstm
Perfection Possibilities for Medicaments Retail Pricing in
Latvia with Comparision to European Countries
Eva Liepia
E-pasts: eliepina@e-apollo.lv
raksta mris ir izzint un izanalizt Latvijas iedzvotju medikamentu iegdes iespjas
atkarb no cenas un informtbas par ltkiem nepatenttiem medikamentiem. Rakst apskatts
teortiskais materils par medikamentu cenu veidoanas mehnismiem Eiropas valsts, k ar
atspoguoti autores ptjuma rezultti par zu kompenscijas nepiecieambu, medikamentu
iegdes situciju un attieksmi pret nepatentto medikamentu lietoanu Latvijas iedzvotjiem.
Pamatojoties uz iegtajiem rezulttiem, izstrdti ieteikumi medikamentu mazumtirdzniecbas
cenu pilnveidoanai Latvij.
Atslgvrdi: medikamentu izmaksu ierobeoana, medikamentu izrakstanas politika, refe
rences cenu pilnveidoana, enriskie medikamenti.
Ievads
Latvij veselbas jom pastv nevienldzba un btisks apstklis ir nabadzba,
jo finanu ldzeku trkums ir oti nozmgs faktors, kas ierobeo veselbas
aprpes pakalpojumu pieejambu. Dzve nabadzb biek ir saistta ar t. s. riska
uzvedbu paaugstintu psihoaktvo vielu (tabakas, alkohola) vai neatautu psi
hotropo medikamentu lietoanu, depresiju [5]. Latvij ir nevienldzba veselbas
jom lauku iedzvotju paredzamais ma ilgums ir par 2 gadiem sks nek
pilstniekiem, vrieu paredzamais ma ilgums ir par 9,8 gadiem sks nek
sievietm. Latvij nevienldzbu veselbas jom rada ar socilekonomiskie faktori.
Latvijas iedzvotju veselbas stvoklis ir pasliktinjies. urnls Healthcare veicis
ptjumus par iedzvotju veselbu 35 Eiropas valsts, un pc tiem var secint, ka
Latvija atrodas 34. viet. Sliktka tautas veselba ir tikai Krievij. Par veselgkajiem
atzti Zviedrijas, Somijas un Norvijas iedzvotji [2]. ANO Pasaules Veselbas
organizcija ir piemusi dus galvenos kritrijus, kas tiek izmantoti veselbas
novrtanai: iedzvotju dabiskais pieaugums, iedzvotju dzimstba un mirstba
uz 1000 iedzvotjiem, zdaiu mirstba uz 1000 dzimuajiem, jaundzimuo
sagaidmais dzves ilgums. Healtcare veiktajos ptjumos tautas veselbas stvoklis
novrtts pc 14 rdtjiem pc visiem iepriek mintajiem, k ar pc infekcijas
slimbu izplatbas, saslimstbas ar AIDS, mirstbas no infekcijas slimbm un sirds
un elpoanas ceu slimbm, iedzvotju imunizcijas, tabakas patria u. c.
E. Liepia. Medikamentu mazumtirdzniecbas cenu pilnveidoanas iespjas Latvij ..
185
Autoresprt, veselbas aprpes pakalpojumu pieejambas uzlaboanai Latvij

nepiecieams informt sabiedrbu par racionlu zu lietoanu, veselbas profilaktisko
nozmi un cilvka ieradumu maiu veselbas veicinan un slimbu rstan.
Racionlku veselbas aprpes budeta finansilo resursu izlietoan sevii aktuli
ir pankt, ka veselbas aprpes specilisti inform sabiedrbu par ltku medikamentu
lietoanas iespju. Sabiedrbas kvalitatva ma nodroinanai ir nepiecieams
attstt ambulatoro un farmaceitisko aprpi, informt iedzvotjus par veselbas
profilaktiskajiem paskumiem, k ar veicint rstu un farmaceitu sadarbbu, kas
iedzvotjiem atvieglotu medikamentu pieejambu. Sabiedrbas veselbu un dzves
kvalittes paaugstinanos nosaka ambulators aprpes efektivitte un veselbas
profilakse, kas attlina vai pat novr slimbas.
Rakst autore apkopo un analiz ptjuma rezulttus, kas skaidro medikamentu
iegdes un zu kompenscijas nepiecieambu Latvij. Ptjuma problma:
pareiz Latvij medikamentu iegde ir ierobeota nepietiekams kompenscijas
mehnisma d, iedzvotju un valsts finansilo ldzeku trkuma d iedzvotjiem
netiek pilnvrtgi nodrointa kvalitatva un pieejama veselbas aprpe, tpc ak
tuls ir jautjums, k, pilnveidojot zu kompenscijas mehnismu, vartu sekmt
iedzvotju labkljbas izaugsmi un kdi vartu bt uzdevumi medikamentu cenu
politikas pilnveidoanai.
Mra sasnieganai risinmie uzdevumi:
1) izptt medikamentu iegdes situciju un zu kompenscijas nepiecieambu
Latvij, izmantojot Latvijas iedzvotju aptaujas rezulttu izvrtanas me
todi un statistisks analzes metodi;
2) noskaidrot, vai Latvijas iedzvotji ir pietiekami informti par ltkm
medikamentozs rstans iespjm;
3) izptt Eiropas valstu medikamentu cenu regulanas virzienus un, pama
tojoties uz iegtajiem rezulttiem, piedvt ieteikumus medikamentu ma
zumtirdzniecbas cenu pilnveidoanai Latvij.
Ptjuma objekts: medikamentu iegdes, zu kompenscijas sistmas iero
beojumi Latvij.
Ptjuma priekmets: zu kompenscijas sistmas pilnveidoana 21. gadsimt,
stenojot medikamentu iegdes izmaksu pieauguma ierobeoanas paskumus.
Izlases apjoms: 1003 respondenti. Izmantota nejaus izlases metode, kura
tika veidota, pamatojoties uz LR PMLP Iedzvotju reistra datiem par Latvijas
Republikas iedzvotjiem.
Anketana tika veikta tieo interviju veid respondentu dzvesviets Rgas,
Piergas, Vidzemes, Kurzemes, Zemgales un Latgales reion. Ties intervijas re
spondentu dzvesviets veica Tirgus un sabiedrisks domas ptjumu centrs SKDS.
Interviju veikanas periods: no 26.11.2010. ldz 05.12.2010.
No 1003 respondentiem 47,0% bija vriei un 53,0% sievietes. 14,4% iedzvotju
bija vecum no 18 ldz 24 gadiem, 19,5% no 25 ldz 34 gadiem, 18,4% no 35
ldz 44 gadiem, 19,2% no 45 ldz 54 gadiem, bet 28,5% no 55 ldz 74 gadiem.
Raksta metodoloiskais pamats ir autores praktisk ptjuma rezultti, rvalstu
zintnisks literatras analze par medikamentu cenu veidoanu un regulciju.
186
Medikamentu cenu regulanas virzieni Eirop

Ptjum autore apskata medikamentu cenu veidoanas metodes Eirop attiecb
uz zu kompensciju un medikamentu izmaksu kontroli, piemram, tieo un netieo
cenu regulanas sistmas, k ar modeus, kas nepiecieami o sistmu efektivittes
sasnieganai (piemram, Norvijas pakpju cenu sistmas modeli attiecb uz
nepatenttiem medikamentiem, ar kura paldzbu var atklt zu kompenscijas
sistmas ekonomisko efektivitti). Ptjum zu kompenscijas sistmas ekonomisk
efektivitte tika atklta, analizjot citus (Norvijas Zu valsts aentras, Zviedrijas
Zu valsts aentras, Kurta R. Brekes (Kurt R. Brekke)) veiktos ptjumus aj
jom. Tie atklja du faktu: jo biek valstis lieto starptautisks references cenas
k medikamentu maksimlo cenu regulanas metodi, jo lielka ir medikamentu
iegdes izmaksu efektivitte [6].
Izmaksu efektivittes analzi var apkopot d izteiksm:
(IzmaksasA IzmaksasB) / (EfektivitteA EfektivitteB) = ICER
(1)
Izmaksu atirbas dalot ar efektivittes atirbm, iegstam papildu efek

tivitti.
vrtba tiek saukta par izmaksu efektivittes nosacjumu (ICER). Lai vartu
izlemt par konkrts rstanas metodes efektivitti plak kontekst, nepiecieams
noteikt pacientu makstvlmi. Ja ICER = < makstvlme, tad lmuma noteikums
ir pieemt pozitvu lmumu par cenu un kompensciju. Ekonomisk analze, kur
mina aprint izmaksu efektivitti (saldzinot alternatvo medicnisko metou
izmaksas un efektivitti), var bt nozmga vrtba, nosakot prioritro medicnisko
metodi, kuru vajadztu izvlties dads situcijs. Lai izlemtu par medikamen
tozs rstans izmaksu efektivitti, ir nepiecieami dati par klniskm studijm,
piemram, par efektivitti, riskiem, blakuspardbm, komplikcijm, izdzvoanu
un dzves kvalitti.
Pamatojoties uz Eiropas valstu medikamentu cenu regulanas politiku sa
ldzinjumu, autore secina, ka izmaksu ierobeoana farmaceitiskaj sektor ir pr
valdma, izmantojot dadas kompenscijas sistmas un kontroljot medikamen
tu izrakstanu un cenas. Medikamentu cenu regulcij darbojas papildizdevumu
aprinu metode, peas griestu noteikanas metode un saldzinmo cenu metode.
Lai nodrointu medicnisko efektivitti, vairks valsts tiek veicinta ltku ne
patentto medikamentu izrakstana un izsniegana aptieks.
Papildizdevumu aprina metode paredz komplictus aprinus, emot vr
individul produkta raoanas izmaksas un nosakot noteiktas peas robeas. Td
veid tiek pankta pamatota cena im produktam. Lietojot peas griestu noteikanas
metodi, regulators nosaka griestus kapitla apgrozjumam (atsevios gadjumos
prdoanas apjomam) kompnijai kopum. Saldzinmo cenu sistm tdu identisku
vai ldzgu produktu cenas, kuri tiek izplatti vietj tirg, tiek saldzintas ar
attiecgo produktu cenm cits valsts. Vairks valsts kompnijm, kas ievie
jaunus produktus tirg, pieprasa nodroint informciju par attiecgo produktu cenm
noteikts valsts. Vispusgks modelis paredz saldzint visu to produktu cenas,
kuru iegde tiek kompensta no valsts budeta ldzekiem, ar identisku vai ldzgu
produktu cenm cits valsts. Vairums Eiropas valstu medikamentu cenu noteikan
187
lieto rjo references cenu veidoanas metodi starptautiskos cenu saldzinjumus,

saldzinot vienldzgu produktu cenas cits valsts, lai radtu savu cenu veidoanas
politiku un zu kompenscijas sistmu [1]. Saldzinmo valstu izvles kritriji ir
eogrfisk situcija (kaimiu valstis, vsturisks saites) un cenu lmenis (ts var bt
gan augsto, gan zemo cenu valstis vai tikai zemo cenu valstis), un tm ir jbt vismaz
piecm septim valstm. Iekjo metodi lieto ekvivalentiem (piem., enriiem), lai
saldzintu ldzgu medikamentu cenas konkrt valst, pievrot uzmanbu raotja
cenai [4].
MEDIKAMENTU CENU
REGULANAS METODES
PAPILDIZDEVUMU APRINA
METODE
PEAS GRIESTU
NOTEIKANAS METODE
SALDZINMO CENU METODE
1. attls. Medikamentu cenu regulanas metou shematisks attlojums

Interpretation of the pharmaceutical price regulation methods
Avots: attlu veidojusi autore pc Eiropas valstu medikamentu cenu veidoanas metodoloisks
analzes rezulttiem.
Medikamentu mazumtirdzniecbas cenas tiek regultas vis Eirop ar likuma

bzi un noteiktiem medikamentu mazumtirdzniecbas uzcenojumiem. Atsevias
valstis (piem., Lietuva, Polija) izmanto medikamentu izplattju uzcenojumus
tikai kompensjamiem medikamentiem jeb tikai recepu medikamentiem (piem.,
Bulgrija, Portugle). Das valsts (piem., Itlij, Francij) medikamentu cenas tiek
noteiktas, vienojoties raotjam (jeb vairumtirgotjam) ar valdbas instanci.
Jsecina, ka Norvij farmaceitisks aprpes darbbas efektivittes nodro
inanai un iedzvotju labkljbas lmea uzlaboanai pai tiek strdts zu
kompenscijas mehnisma pilnveidoanas jom, galvenokrt izmantojot starp
tautiskos saldzinjumus, nosakot medikamentiem ltks cenas un stenojot dadus
mazumtirdzniecbas cenu samazinanas paskumus. Tpc, autoresprt, Norvija
medikamentu cenu regulcij ir uzskatma par vienu no sekmgkm valstm, kas
iedzvotjiem nodroina dzves kvalitti. T k Norvijas aptieks aptieku des
nebija ievrojuas cenu regulanas noteikumus un nebija motivjuas farmaceitus
piedvt pacientiem iegdties nepatenttos medikamentus par ltkm cenm,
Norvijas Zu valsts aentra ieviesa jaunu medikamentu cenu regulanas
politiku, lai ar noteiktu pakpju cenu sistmas mehnismu samazintu enrisko
medikamentu references cenas un nodrointu, ka aptieks katr aizvietojamo
medikamentu grup ir pieejams vismaz viens ltks enriskais medikaments, bet
medikamentu apgrozjums sasniegtu noteiktu apjomu. Ldz ar to tika veicinta
enrisko medikamentu cenu konkurence un Norvijas iedzvotjiem pareiz ir
lielkas izvles iespjas iegdties enriskos kompenscijas medikamentus par
zemkm cenm, ietaupot iedzvotju un valsts finanu ldzekus.
188
Interviju analze
2010. gad autores kvantitatvaj ptjum tika uzdots jautjums: kuru slimbu
rstanai iedzvotjiem ir nepiecieams regulri lietot valsts pilngi vai daji
kompenstos medikamentus. Respondenti atbildja, ka medikamentu kompenscija
ir nepiecieama lielkoties sirds un asinsvadu sistmas slimbu rstanai, kaulu un
muskuu sistmas, k ar nervu sistmas slimbu rstanai (2. att.)
2. attls. To kompensjamo medikamentu iedaljums pa slimbu grupm, kurus

respondentiem ir nepiecieamba lietot regulri
Divission of respondents by the necessity of reimbursable medicaments for regular use
Bze: visi respondenti, n = 1003.
Avots: autores aptaujas dati.
Anketu turpmkais jautjums (Vai rsts Jums pdjo 3 gadu laik ir atteicies
izrakstt kdas zles, ko pilngi vai daji kompens valsts, paskaidrojot, ka
viam/-ai ir beigus kvotas kompensjamo medikamentu finanu limita d? Ja j,
tad kdas zles?) atklja, ka ierobeoto finanu resursu d rsts pdjo trs gadu
laik kompensjamos medikamentus iedzvotjiem nav izrakstjis, un tas palielina
hroniski slimo pacientu skaitu valst (3. att.).
Farmaceitisks aprpes situcija ierobeotas medikamentu iegdes jom un
finansil situcija veselbas aprpes jom ir savstarpji saisttas. Autoresprt, ie
robeota makstspja par medikamentiem, ierobeots valsts ldzfinansjums kompen
sjamo medikamentu samaksai un neefektvi zu kompenscijas sistmas mehnismi
rada situcijas, kad medikamentoz terapija netiek uzskta laikus. Medikamentu
iegdi apgrtina tas, ka rsti mdz izrakstt drgas zles un farmaceitisks firmas ir
ieinterestas prdot drgkus medikamentus.
189
3. attls. Respondentu iedaljums pc kompensjamo medikamentu nepieejambas

pdjo trs gadu laik ierobeoto kvotu d
Divission of respondents by the inaccessibility of reimbursable medicaments due to the
limitedness of financial resouces
Svargs secinjums bija par medikamentu iegdes iespjm atkarb no me

dikamentu cenas. Nkamais jautjums (Vai pdj gada laik Jums ir gadjies, ka Js
neesat varjis nopirkt zles, ko ir izrakstjis rsts un kas Jums ir noteikti jlieto tikai
tpc, ka ts Jums ir par drgu?) pardja, ka 22,3% respondentu medikamentus nav
varjui iegdties to drdzbas d (4. att.).
4. attls. Respondentu iedaljums pc medikamentu nepieejambas medikamentu

drdzbas d
Divission of respondents by the inaccessibility of medicaments due
to the expensiveness of medicaments
190
Viens no aptaujas mriem bija noskaidrot iedzvotju informtbu par l

tkiem nepatenttiem medikamentiem. Uz nkamo jautjumu par enriskajiem
medikamentiem (K zinms, tikko izgudrotas zles kdu laiku aizsarg patents. Kad
patenta laiks beidzas, zles ar tdu pau sastvu var raot citi, un parasti to cena
ir daudzkrt zemka. das zles sauc par enriskajiem medikamentiem. Sakiet,
ldzu, vai Js esat informts par diem enriskajiem medikamentiem?) 69,5%
aptaujto respondentu atbildja, ka vii par tiem neko nezina (5. att.).
5. attls. Respondentu zinanas un informtba par enriskajiem medikamentiem

Divission of respondents by the information about generics
Autore secina, ka, ldzgi k cits Eiropas valsts, ar Latvij nepatenttiem

medikamentiem ir jbt pieejamiem par ievrojami zemku cenu (par 2080%
ltk) nek oriinliem produktiem, tas palielintu zu pieejambu. enrisko
medikamentu kvalitte, efektivitte un droba ir pierdta un atbilst zu oriin
liem, turklt tie veicina zu izgudroanas un uzlaboanas procesu, jo konkur ar
oriinliem produktiem. Plaka nepatentto analogu izplatba veselbas aprp auj
ietaupt, tpc nepiecieambas gadjum var izmantot ar drgkas zles. Daudzs
valsts enriskie medikamenti ir laba alternatva, ko lieto btiskai izdevumu
samazinanai veselbas aprp, vienlaikus saglabjot augstus kvalittes standartus.
Raojot enrisks zles, nav nepiecieami ieguldjumi klniskaj izpt. Kop ar
191
lieliem raoanas apjomiem tiek garanttas konkurtspjgas cenas, nezaudjot

kvalitti. ie nosacjumi auj samazint pacientu ldzmaksjumu, rsti var izrakstt
vairk zu k kompensjamos medikamentus. Tdjdi samazins valsts kopjie
izdevumi veselbas aprpei.
Uz jautjumu, kda sabiedrb ir attieksme pret enrisko medikamentu lie
toanu, lielk daa respondentu atbild, ka labprtk lietotu ltkus nepatenttos
medikamentus. Fakts, ka lielai daai respondentu nebija viedoka par nepatenttiem
medikamentiem, norda uz zinanu un informtbas trkumu sabiedrb.
Autoresprt, ja iedzvotji btu pieteikami informti par enriskajiem medi
kamentiem, tas veicintu ltku medikamentu pieejambu un sabiedrba tik oti
neslimotu ar hroniskm slimbm k pareiz. Svargi, lai rsts jau laikus inform
pacientu par dadm iespjm un iesaka tam vispiemrotks un pieejamks
zles.
Atbildot uz jautjumu par enriskajm zlm (Vai Jums kdreiz ir piedvts
iegdties enriskos medikamentus, jo tie ir ltki?), respondenti minja, ka
farmaceiti ir piedvjui iegdties enriskos medikamentus un vii ir iegdjuies
valsts nekompensts zles, ko izrakstjis rsts (15,5% gadjumu), un valsts daji
kompensts zles (4,9% gadjumu) (6. att.). 4,4% gadjumu rsts ir piedvjis
iegdties enriskos medikamentus k pilngi vai daji kompenstos medikamen
tus un 3,4% gadjumu izrakstjis nekompenstos medikametus. Autoresprt, t k
rsti un farmaceiti pacientiem ir reti piedvjui iegdties ltkus nepatenttos
medikamentus (6. att.), viu darbba medikamentozs rstans jom uzskatma
par nepietiekamu. Ierobeotu finansilo resursu d sabiedrbai jnosaka, kuras
rstniecbas metodes un medikamenti, ko kompens valsts, ir prioritri. aj gadjum
ir svargi emt vr medikamentu izmaksu efektivitti un pacientu makstvlmi.
6. attls. Situcijas, kad respondents ir samis rsta un farmaceita piedvjumu lietot

enriskos medikamentus
Divission of respondents by the offer to use generics received from the side of doctor and
pharmacist
192
Atbildot uz citu jautjumu (Visprgi runjot, kda ir Jsu attieksme pret

enrisko medikamentu lietoanu?), liela daa respondentu izteics, ka labprtk
lietotu enriskos medikamentus, bet lielkai daai bija grti atbildt uz o jautjumu
(7. att.).
7. attls. Respondentu attieksme pret enrisko medikamentu lietoanu

Divission of respondents by the attitude towards using generics
Autore secina, ka iedzvotju zinanas par enrisko medikamentu lietoanas

iespjm ir nepilngas un vjas, jo 45,9% respondentu nordjui, ka ir grti paust
attieksmi par enrisko medikamentu lietoanu. Autores veiktais ptjums apliecina
Latvijas iedzvotju nezinanu par ltkiem nepatenttiem medikamentiem un viu
vlmi lietot enriskos medikamentus.
Autoresprt, interviju rezultti norda uz nepilnbm veselbas aprp. Pt
jums liecina, ka medikamentozs rstanas izmaksu efektivittes veicinanai rsti
un farmaceiti pievr prk maz uzmanbas. Pareiz farmaceitisk aprpe nesekm
pacientu veselbas saglabanu ilgtermi, jo profilaktiskiem paskumiem iedzvotjiem trkst ldzeku. T k rsti un farmaceiti nav ieinteresti piedvt iedzvotjiem
ltku medikamentozo rstniecbu, pieaug nepiecieamba pc kompensjamiem
medikamentiem un veselbas aprpes finansilo resursu patri.
Medikamentu cenu pilnveidoanas virzieni Latvij, pamatojoties

uz citu Eiropas valstu pieredzi
Lai Latvij vartu atrisint medikamentozs rstanas un kompensjamo
medikamentu pieejambas efektivittes problmas, autore, modernizjot cenu
aprinanas mehnismu un emot vr Norvijas praksi pacientu ldzmaksjuma
samazinan, piedv modifictu references cenu sistmas turpmks attstbas
modeli. Norvij pakpju cenu sistm, ja pacienti lieto enriskos medikamentus,
valsts socils apdroinanas budet nonk 75% ietaupjumu, bet pacienta
ietaupjumi veido 25% [3]. enrisk aizvietoana un pakpju cena nozm, ka gan
veselbas apdroinanas iestdes, gan pacienti var novirzt finanu ldzekus citiem
nepiecieamiem veselbas aprpes izdevumiem.
193
T k Latvij ir viszemk patentbrvo medikamentu lietojamba, jo trkst

atbilstoas recepu izrakstanas politikas, btu ieteicams emt vr citu Eiropas
valstu pieredzi medikamentu cenu regulcij un izvlties Latvijai piemrotus zu
cenu veidoanas metou pamienus. pai ieteicams emt vr Norvijas pieredzi
cenu regulcij, jo aj valst medikamentu cenu regulcij ir ierobeots medikamentu
iegdes izmaksu pieaugums. Pamatojoties uz veikt ptjuma analzes rezulttiem,
autore piedv ieviest Latvij pakpju cenu sistmu ar noteiktu cenu samazinanas
mehnismu k vienu no references cenu sistmas pilnveidoanas veidiem (8. att.).
8. attls. enrisko medikamentu references cenu sistmas pilnveidoanas modelis Latvij

Model of perfection of medicaments reference price system in Latvia
Avots: veidojusi autore, izmantojot Norvijas pieredzi un pakpju cenu sistmas modeli.
Latvij pareizj references cenu sistm kompensjamo zu references cenas

aprinanai netiek emts vr medikamenta apgrozjums. Pakpju cenu sistmas
model btu nepiecieams samazint to enrisko medikamentu mazumtirdzniecbas
cenas, kuru patri ir vislielkais. is modelis darbosies tikai ar nosacjumu, ka
tiek emts vr medikamentu apgrozjums pdj gada laik pirms enrisks kon
kurences iestans un is cenu aprinanas veids darbosies papildus visprjam
un individulajam zu kompensanas mehnismam. Ldz ar to tiks ieviests tre
ais zu kompensanas mehnisms, kas nodroins pacientus ar ltkiem un vis
pieprastkiem enriskajiem medikamentiem.
Autoresprt, lai veicintu iedzvotjiem nepiecieamo zu pieejambu (ar to
saprot ne tikai efektvu, drou un kvalitatvu zu pastvgu esambu tirg, bet ar
to izmaksu samrojambu ar patrtja pirktspju), Latvij ir jsekm enrisko
zu parakstana un lietoana. Tdjdi vartu nodroint kvalitatvu rstanu,
par to neprmaksjot, un racionlku veselbas aprpes budeta finansilo re
sursu izlietoanu. Ierobeoto resursu d sabiedrbai jbt informtai par ltku
valsts kompensts medikamentozs terapijas iespju un jem vr ar pacientu
makstvlme. Svargi ir ar maksimli zemkm rstanas izmaksm sasniegt
vlamo rezulttu un attstt references cenu veidoanas mehnismu, kas nodroina
efektvku zu kompenscijas sistmas mehnisma funkcionanu.
194
References cenu sistmas pilnveidoana nosaka dus zu iegdes kompenscijas

sistmas metodikas veidoanas sous:
- jveicina enrisko medikamentu izrakstana, recept nordot zu starp
tautisko nepatentto nosaukumu, nevis kdu konkrtu paraksttu medika
mentu;
- jsaldzina enrisko medikamentu cenas ar o medikamentu cenm kai
mivalsts un Skandinvijas valsts;
- references cenu sistmas attstanai ieteicams emt vr Norvijas pakp
ju cenu sistmas modeli;
- pieprastko enriu references cenu samazinanas jom jievie jauns
zu kompensanas mehnisms references cenai pieldzint pakpju
cena, kura btu aprinma di:
KMRC = KMAC KS,
(2)
kur KMRC kompensjamo medikamentu references cena latos;

KMAC kompensjamo medikamentu aptiekas cena latos;

KS kompenscijas summa latos.
Pamatojoties uz veikto ptjumu par medikamentu pieejambu un zu kom
penscijas nepiecieambu Latvijas iedzvotjiem, un medikamentu cenu regulanas
mehnismiem Eiropas valsts, var izdart dus secinjumus.
Latvijas iedzvotju zinanas par ltkiem nepatenttiem medikamen
tiem ir nepietiekamas un vjas, tpc viu rstana tiek kavta, pieaug
hroniskislimo iedzvotju skaits un zu kompenscijai ir nepiecieami vl
lielki finanu ldzeki. Ierobeota finansilo resursu pieejamba negatvi
ietekm drgu zu izrakstanu.
T k pieaug zu kompenscijas sistm iesaistto lieltirgotju un aptie
ku apgrozjums, kas izraisa katras zu vienbas prdoanas izmaksu sama
zinanos un lieltirgotavu un aptieku peas pieaugumu, tas var bt iemesls
noteiktu lieltirgotavu uzcenojumu un aptiekas cenu korekcijas koeficientu
prskatanai un zu iegdes kompenscijas sistmas mehnisma pilnvei
doanai.
Latvij ir jpank, lai rsti un farmaceiti biek pacientiem piedvtu ltkus
nepatenttos (enriskos) medikamentus.
Autore ierosina pilnveidot medikamentu cenu kontroles modeli aptieks un
lietot dadu izmaksu zles.
Analizjot Eiropas valstu medikamentu cenu regulanas mehnismus, tiek
secints, ka Norvij darbojas viens no efektvkajiem zu kompenscijas
sistmas mehnismiem, kas nodroina ltkas enrisko medikamentu
references cenas nek cits Eiropas valsts.
195
References cenu ietvaros Latvij tiek ierosints uzlabot zu kompenscijas

sistmas mehnismu ar Norvijas pakpju cenu modea paldzbu tas
nodrointu efektvku zu iegdes kompenscijas sistmu un ltkas
enrisko medikamentu cenas.
LITERATRA
1. Apotekforeningen. Priser og okonomi. Prisfastsettelse. Pieejams: http://www.apotek.no/
fakta-og-tall/priser-og-%C3%B8konomi.aspx
2. Latvijas iedzvotju veselba saldzinjum ar citm Eiropas valstm. Pieejams: www.liis.
lv/vid_ves/latv_eir.htm/ (sk. 29.11.2008.). urnla Healthcare dati.
3. 2,5 milliarder kroner spares rlig gjennom ordningen med trinnpris og generisk bytte.
Pieejams: http://www.legemiddelverket.no/templates/InterPage____80412.aspx
4. Pharmaceutical Pricing and Reimbursement Information. Pieejams: http://ppri.goeg.at/
Downloads/Publications/PPRI_Report_final.pdf/2008
5. Sabiedrbas veselbas pamatnostdnes 2011.2017. gadam. LR Veselbas ministrija.
Pieejams: http://www.vm.gov.lv/index.php?top=121&id=798/
6. TLV:S uppdrag angende omregleringen av apoteksmarknaden. Utveckling av
prissttningssystemet fr lkemedel kan spara miljardbelopp. Pieejams: http://www.tlv.se/
Global/TLVDokument/TLV-slutrapport-omreglering-apoteksmarknad-100413.pdf
Summary
The aim of this paper is to clarify and analyse the situation of pharmaceutical
purchasing power of Latvian inhabitants depending on the price and the information
level to use the cheaper medicaments. The article presents the results of medicaments
retail pricing mechanisms working in European Countries and reflects the interview
results of Latvian inhabitants characterizing the necessity of reimbursable drugs, the
situation of medicaments availability and the attitude towards the use of the generics.
Based on analysis of the surveys of Latvian inhabitants and the theoretical material
of pharmaceutical price regulation, the author gives recommendations to introduce
reference pricing regulation model to perform the access to the cheaper generic reference
prices at the pharmacy level in Latvia.
Keywords: pharmaceutical costs control, medicaments prescription policy, reference
price perfection, generic drugs.

196.211. lpp.
Country`s Capability in Export of Financial Services

Valsts potencils finanu pakalpojumu eksport
Marija Lindemane
AS Eesti Krediidipank
E-mail: mlindemane@netscape.net.
Ilmars Purins
Banku augstskola
E-mail: ilmars.purins@gmail.com
Toms Reizins
SIA Latvijas Energoceltnieks

E-mail: toms.reizins@gmail.com
The objective of our research is to study export of financial services and its framework
throughout the world. To achieve our main goal, the following tasks have been set: (1) to
reveal the main factors, which have significant impact on the ratio of the total amount of
financial services export to the amount of total commercial services export and other
indicators; (2) to define the standard for evaluating the capability of financial services export
through the given research. The following studies were carried out: literature review and
analysis of advanced researches in the field of financial services; multivariate analyses were
used for data processing: factor analysis, regression, and correlation analysis. The results of
our research point out the main factors, which influence and increase the potential of financial
services export.
Keywords: export of financial services, factors of financial services export growth.
Introduction
The formation of geographical division of finance proved to be a rather long
process, but nowadays geography of money has become a firmly established
subdiscipline (Martin 1999). According to contemporary scientist Sokol (2007),
understanding of the nature and dynamics of the structure of localization of
financial services is of great importance for regional economic development and it
requires a profound study. The growing mass of literature definitely devoted to the
geography of financial services (see Lindemane 2010, Corbridge, Martin, and Thrift
1994; Laulajainen 2003; Leyshon and Thirft 1997; Martin 1999) concentrates its
main accents on several key themes including global financial centres, geography
of retail banking, as well as financial exclusions (unnecessary customers). In most
part of literature on the established global financial centres author tried either to
form a general spatial agglomeration of financial activity (e.g., Porteous 1999) or
M. Lindemane, I. Purins, T. Reizins. Country`s Capability in Export of Financial ..
197
describe financial centres in the context of a certain example, for instance London
(e.g., Pryke 1991; Taylor et al. 2003; Budd 1999; Clark 2005; Thrift 1994). The
reasons for concentration of high level financial services in a small quantity of large
global cities were also researched by Sassen (2001).
However, despite a rather substantial volume of literature on the geography of
financial services, up to now this subject has been insufficiently studied from the
point of view of the export of financial services. Export of financial services can be
defined as process of providing financial services (according to WTO definition) by
financial and payment institutions (banks, broker companies, payment systems, etc.)
which are registered in one country to clients from other countries. The total amount
of the received income from providing financial services is reflected in countrys
trade balance, raising its positive side (definition is created by authors).
The geographic division of financial centres can differ from the geographic
division of exporters of financial services due to the fact that the former are defined
by the total financial activity whereas the latter are defined by their real income
gained as a result of the export of financial services. Insufficient research of financial
services export can be explained by the fact that it is a relatively new kind of export,
the volumes of which have only been fully recorded by international organizations
(WTO, OECD, UN) since the beginning of year 2000. At present it is only known
that all countries in the world export (and import) financial services to a greater
or smaller extent. For most countries the export of financial services is not their
specialization, its earnings add up to a collateral part of their main economical
activities and they make up an insignificant share in their overall trade. On the other
hand, there is a small group of countries, for which export of financial services could
be not the main although a rather substantial source of their income. Over time due
to the development of the sphere of financial services this group tends to expand.
More and more countries aspire to secure this niche realizing the power of finance,
an intangible scale of financial market and waging a struggle for any possibility of
export under the influence of local and global economic crisis. However, whether it
is worth including the countrys export of financial services in one of strategic trends
of its activities, one can define by evaluating the countrys capability in this sphere.
Proceeding from the above mentioned, the aim of the given research proved
to be the study of financial services export and its structure throughout the world
by defining general factors for all countries which exert an influence on the given
kind of export and suggesting a standard of assessment of the countrys capability
in export of financial services. To achieve this aim the following tasks have been
set: (1) to define factors influencing export of financial services by help of factor
analysis; (2) to find out the factors exerting the most influence on export of financial
services by help of multiple regression analysis; (3) to estimate capability of
countries in export of financial services based on the ascertained factors. To achieve
the set goals, such methods of research as factor analysis, regression analysis and the
analysis of modern researches in the sphere of financial services were used. United
Nations Service Trade database, Global Competitiveness Report, Index of Economic
Freedom, as well as other statistical sources served as the basis for the use of the
mentioned methods of research.
198
Research results
Following the first aim of the research, i.e. the definition of factors, which
influence the export of financial services, one made a close study of advanced
researches in the given sphere (Skinner 2009; Birjukov 2007; Hazins 2010; Clemes,
Gan, Zhang 2010). As a result it was found out that different kinds of economical,
technological, political, legislative, geographical, linguistic, and labor aspects are of
great importance for the export of financial services.
Taking into account the given aspects of financial services export, in order to
reveal concrete factors, which can exert a potential influence on the given kind of
export, one used qualitative and quantitative assessments of countries according to
different criteria presented in such international reports as Global Competitiveness
Report, Index of Economic Freedom, Financial Development Report, World Data
Bank, Doing Business, etc. All reports were dated for the year 2008 implying that
the real assessments of the countries had been carried out in 2007, the last year prior
to the beginning of the global economic crisis. At the beginning 77 countries were
chosen to carry out the analysis proceeding from 2 criteria: (1) the availability of
statistic data on all the chosen factors; (2) non-alignment with offshore zone (more
details in the part Key factors of financial services export).
The authors found out the following factors, which can have an impact on
export of financial services: (1) financing through local equity market; (2) financial
market sophistication; (3) restriction on capital flows; (4) financial freedom;
(5)soundness of banks; (6) regulation of securities exchanges; (7) ease of access to
loans; (8) strength of investor protection; investment freedom; (9) macroeconomic
stability; (10) monetary freedom; (11) total tax rate; (12) tax rate (percent of profit);
(13) fiscal freedom; (14) business sophistication; (15) business freedom; (16) trade
freedom; (17) institutions; (18) wastefulness of government spending; (19) property
rights; (20) ethical behavior of firms; (21) freedom from corruption; (22) higher
education and training; (23) quality of math and science education; (24) quality of
management schools; (25) goods market efficiency; (26) labor market efficiency;
(27) labor freedom; (28) infrastructure; (29) innovation; (30) technological
readiness; (31) availability of latest technologies; (32) internet users; (33) market
size; (34)foreign market size index.
In order to define the correlations between the factors chosen from the ones
mentioned above as well as classify and divide them into subject groups, factor
analysis was used. Factor analysis is widely used multivariate analysis method to
find complex factors from many variables included in analysis (Tabachnick, Fidell
2001, Hair, Anderson, Tatham and Black 2006, Johnson, Wichern 2007). Factor
analysis is often used as the appropriate software packages (SPSS, SAS, etc) have
been developed to make possible use of this kind of multivariate analysis.
Factor analysis was carried out with the help of SPSS. As a result of 11varimax
rotation according to the chosen factors of financial services export, the variables
were loaded into 5 complex factors (Table 1 Factor analysis).
199
Table 1
Factor analysis
Rotated Component Matrix
Component
1
Institutions
Ethical behavior of firms
Wastefulness of government spending
Availability of latest technologies
Innovation
0.89
0.86
0.86
0.80
0.79
0.32
0.36
0.03
0.36
0.29
0.15
0.18
0.03
0.34
0.35
0.09
0.10
0.20
0.04
0.19
0.14
0.10
0.15
0.01
0.20
Infrastructure
Goods market efficiency
Business sophistication
Freedom From Corruption
Technological readiness
Higher education and training
Property Rights
Quality of management schools
Financial market sophistication
Regulation of securities exchanges
Ease of access to loans
Internet users (hard data)
Business Freedom
Fiscal Freedom
Quality of math and science education
Financial Freedom
Investment Freedom
Trade Freedom
Restriction on capital flows
Monetary Freedom
Soundness of banks
Market size
Foreign market size index (hard data)
Financing through local equity market
Strength of investor protection (hard data)
Tax rate (% of profit)
Total tax rate (hard data)
Labor market efficiency
Labor Freedom
Macroeconomic stability
0.79
0.76
0.72
0.75
0.70
0.68
0.70
0.62
0.65
0.61
0.66
0.53
0.59
0.52
0.51
0.15
0.26
0.21
0.34
0.25
0.52
0.26
0.32
0.53
0.08
0.01
0.07
0.05
0.39
0.41
0.34
0.37
0.32
0.58
0.56
0.50
0.58
0.36
0.43
0.41
0.40
0.58
0.59
0.31
0.29
0.85
0.83
0.64
0.61
0.60
0.56
0.08
0.02
0.13
0.22
0.00
0.00
0.14
0.26
0.21
0.29
0.40
0.52
0.17
0.32
0.28
0.19
0.37
0.53
0.52
0.28
0.25
0.14
0.27
0.10
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.02
0.19
0.33
0.83
0.82
0.68
0.59
0.12
0.07
0.16
0.01
0.33
0.05
0.04
0.15
0.01
0.11
0.25
0.05
0.13
0.09
0.12
0.16
0.17
0.04
0.22
0.37
0.06
0.03
0.10
0.19
0.07
0.24
0.37
0.32
0.17
0.29
0.90
0.92
0.16
0.25
0.35
0.11
0.19
0.07
0.11
0.17
0.24
0.05
0.10
0.05
0.17
0.26
0.25
0.17
0.30
0.34
0.14
0.04
0.18
0.02
0.08
0.15
0.08
0.14
0.04
0.37
0.21
0.13
0.68
0.71
0.19
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
Rotation converged in 11 iterations.
Source: Authors calculations, data sources: Global Competitiveness Report 20082009,
Index of Economic Freedom 2008, Doing Business 2008.
200
The analysis of the division of financial services export factors indicated that
the distribution was not casual. The complex factors are summarized into groups
according the results of factor analysis by using principal component analysis with
the varimax rotation method with Kaiser normalization, rotation converged in 11
iterations. The authors suggest the following complex factors from variables included
in the factor analysis stated in table 2.
Table 2
Building of complex factors from variables as result of factor analysis

Complex factors
Variables contributing to complex factors
Business conditions
Institutions; ethical behavior of firms; availability of latest technologies;

innovation; infrastructure; goods market efficiency; business sophistication;
freedom from corruption; technological readiness; higher education and
training; property rights; quality of management schools; financial market
sophistication; regulation of securities exchanges; ease of access to loans;
internet users; business freedom; fiscal freedom; quality of math and
science education.
Economic freedom
Financial freedom; investment freedom; trade freedom; restriction on
capital flows; monetary freedom; soundness of banks.
Volume of investment Market size; foreign market size index; financing through local equity
market
market; strength of investor protection.
Tax load
Tax rate (% of profit); total tax rate (hard data).
Personnel
Labor market efficiency; labor freedom.
Source: created by the authors based on the results of the factor analysis.
Hence, we can state that the chosen factors of financial services export are diverse
and they embrace 5 disconnected elements of influence at the same time. Moreover,
the regression analysis carried out in part 2 of this article revealing key factors of
financial services export shows that 10 key factors are distributed between four
factor groups. This fact proves the completeness of covering the chosen factors.
Key factors of financial services export

After choosing and analyzing the factors that can hypothetically exert an
influence on financial services export, the next important step proved to be revealing
those factors that have the most influence on export of financial services on a global
scale. Eliciting the data of key factors can provide the possibility for every world
country (out of the 72 considered) to evaluate its potential in export of financial
services and define which of the factors ought to be improved for achieving growth
in the given kind of export.
In order to reveal the key factors of financial services export regression analysis
was carried out in program SPSS.
The choice of multiple linear regression analysis model is substantiated that we
can indicate dependent variable and independent variables influencing dependent
variable. Multiple regression analysis is often used method of multivariate analysis
to examine the relationship among the dependent variable and independent variables
(Tabachnick, Fidell 2001, Hair, Anderson, Tatham and Black 2006).
201
Data included in multiple regression analysis:

- The dependent variable the proportion of financial services export in total
exports of state services, average over the period from 20062009 multiplied
by 1000 for graphic demonstration of the result [3 year average FSE/SE *
1000]. The data source used was UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics.
- 34 factors of financial services export are indicated above.
Conditions and restrictions of the regression analysis:
- Statistical data on 72 world countries were reviewed. From the list of
210 countries excluded were (1) countries with insufficient or incomplete
statistical information; (2) countries that had been classified as countries
with low taxation (Rules for low-tax or zero tax countries and territories,
reduction of 2010), understated demands on financial accounts and excessive
confidentiality (Switzerland) as, according to experts opinion, those very
characteristics provide the lions share of increase in export of financial
services; (3) countries possessing extreme parameters on proportion of
financial services export in total services exports [3 year average FSE/SE *
1000]: with extremely low values of this parameter Honduras, Azerbaijan,
and Argentina and with extremely high values of this parameter United
States and United Kingdom. Such transformation allowed the distribution
of representatives to be in better compliance with normal distribution of
representatives.
- As the Dependent Variable the proportion of financial services export exactly
in export of services (and not in total exports of the country) was used,
therefore, not understating the potential of industrial countries in export of
financial services;
- Statistics on factors of financial services export was chosen only for the year
2008;
- One neither excluded nor united factors having higher correlation coefficients
as the aim of the given research is not the regression model in itself but
bringing out the factors, which exert most influence on financial services
export.
Primary regression analysis indicated that the coefficient of determination R2 =
0.823 proved to be sufficiently high, and it means that the share of the dispersion of
the dependent variable is explained by the influence of the chosen factors of financial
services export. However, the significance level of most factors Sig. exceeds 10%,
i.e. one can accept the zero hypothesis (there are no grounds for its rejection). In
connection with this, regression analysis was carried out in stages, excluding factors
with the highest Sig. level at every stage, until significance level model Sig. became
less than 0.1 for all the remaining factors. As a result of the given research process
the factors which exert most influence on export of financial services on a global
scale were defined (Table 3 Results of multiple regression analysis of financial
services export). For all this, determination coefficient R2 = 0.343 remained on a
moderate level, and that points out significance of the given factors in determining
the growth of financial services export. Verification of the hypothesis regarding
202
the determination coefficient showed its statistical significance. All regression

coefficients are statistically significant with high probability.
Table 3
The results of the multiple regression analysis of financial services export
Source: Authors calculations, data sources: United Nations Service Trade database, Global
Competitiveness Report, Index of Economic Freedom
203
According to the results of multiple regression analysis, the revealed factors in

the basic model can be logically explained and they do not contradict the essence
of financial services export. Characteristics of the revealed key factors of financial
services export are ordered below according to the degree of their importance:
1. Freedom from Corruption [FFC]: source of information Index of Economic
Freedom 2008. The score for this component is derived primarily from
Transparency Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) for 2009 that
measures the level of corruption in 180 countries. The CPI is based on a 10-point
scale, in which a score of 10 indicates very little corruption and a score of 0
indicates a very corrupt government. In scoring freedom from corruption, the
Index converts the raw CPI data to a scale of 0 to 100 by multiplying the CPI
score by 10.
2. Institutions [I]: source of information Global Competitiveness Report 2008
2009. The given parameter consists of the following positions assessed by
experts: intellectual property protection, diversion of public funds, public trust
of politicians, judicial independence, favoritism in decisions of government
officials, burden of government regulation, efficiency of legal framework,
transparency of government policymaking, business costs of terrorism, business
costs of crime and violence, organized crime reliability of police services,
ethical behavior of firms, strength of auditing and reporting standards, efficacy
of corporate boards, protection of minority shareholders interests.
3. Property Rights [PR]: source of information Index of Economic Freedom 2008.
The property rights component is an assessment of the ability of individuals
to accumulate private property, secured by clear laws that are fully enforced
by the state. It measures the degree to which a countrys laws protect private
property rights and the degree to which its government enforces those laws.
It also assesses the likelihood that private property will be expropriated and
analyzes the independence of the judiciary, the existence of corruption within
the judiciary, and the ability of individuals and businesses to enforce contracts.
The more certain the legal protection of property, the higher the countrys score;
similarly, the greater the chances of government expropriation of property, the
lower the countrys score.
4. Financial market sophistication [FMS]: source of information Global
Competitiveness Report 2008-2009. The given factor was assessed by experts
according to a 7-point scale proceeding from their answers to the question:
The level of sophistication of financial markets in your country is poor by
international standards (1) or excellent by international standards (7).
5. Wastefulness of government spending [WGS]: source of information Global
Competitiveness Report 20082009. The given factor was assessed by experts
according to a 7-point scale proceeding from their answers to the question: The
composition of public spending in your country is wasteful (1), or efficiently
provides necessary goods and services not provided by the market (7).
6. Investment Freedom [IF]: source of information Index of Economic Freedom
2008. The Index evaluates a variety of restrictions typically imposed on
investment. Points are deducted from the ideal score of 100 for each of the
204
restrictions found in a countrys investment regime. Investment Freedom is

calculated proceeding from such parameters as: national treatment of foreign
investment; foreign investment code; restrictions on land ownership; sectoral
investment restrictions; expropriation of investments without fair compensation;
foreign exchange controls; capital controls.
7. Financing through local equity market [FEM]: source of information Global
Competitiveness Report 20082009. The given factor was assessed by experts
according to a 7-point scale proceeding from their answers to the question:
Raising money by issuing shares on the stock market in your country is
impossible (1) or very easy (7).
8. Financial Freedom [FF]: source of information Index of Economic Freedom
2008. Financial freedom is a measure of banking efficiency as well as a measure
of independence from government control and interference in the financial sector.
State ownership of banks and other financial institutions such as insurers and
capital markets reduces competition and generally lowers the level of available
services. In an ideal banking and financing environment where a minimum level
of government interference exists, independent central bank supervision and
regulation of financial institutions are limited to enforcing contractual obligations
and preventing fraud. Credit is allocated on market terms and the government
does not own financial institutions. Financial institutions provide various types of
financial services to individuals and companies. Banks are free to extend credit,
accept deposits, and conduct operations in foreign currencies. Foreign financial
institutions operate freely and are treated the same as domestic institutions. The
Index scores an economys financial freedom by looking into the following five
broad areas: (1) the extent of government regulation of financial services, (2) the
degree of state intervention in banks and other financial firms through direct and
indirect ownership, (3) the extent of financial and capital market development,
(4) government influence on the allocation of credit, and (5) openness to foreign
competition.
9. Restriction on capital flows [RCF]: source of information Global Competitiveness
Report 20082009. The respective factor was assessed by experts according to
a 7-point scale proceeding from their answers to the question: The inflow and
outflow of capital into and from your country is highly restricted by law (1) or
not restricted by law (7).
10. Total tax rate (% of profit) [TTR]: source of information Doing Business
project. Total tax rate is the total amount of taxes payable by businesses (except
for labor taxes) after accounting for deductions and exemptions as a percentage
of profit.
Based on the factors revealed in the multiple regression analysis authors have
prepared model for theoretical calculation of proportion of financial services export
in total exports of all services of the country, independent variables are stated above
(formula 1.):
205
(1),
where the numbers before the respective variables are coefficients of multiple
regression.
When calculating the given formula for every state and comparing it with the
real rate of proportion of financial services export in total exports of all services, one
can see that the modeled theoretical value defines the real situation rather precisely
(Standard Error of the Estimate = 17,35). It is visually demonstrated in a convincing
way in the diagram Figure 1 The proportion of financial services export in total
exports of services: real statistical data and the result of multiple linear regression
analysis on the basis of the revealed factors. Thus one can make a conclusion that
the revealed key factors of financial services export can be used for the definition of
the countrys potential in the given kind of export.
Figure 1 Proportion of financial services export in total exports of services: real

statistical data and the result of multiple linear regression analysis on the basis of the
revealed factors (in % for each of 75 states included in analysis).
Source: compiled by the authors.
Countrys capability in export of financial services

Having defined the key factors, which influence the export of financial services
on a global scale, it is suggested to use them when defining the countrys capability
in the given kind of export. In order to do it one has to compare 10 key factors of
the country under consideration with the top-countries average value of 10 key
factors of three states with the highest rate of proportion of financial services export
in total services exports of the country. The top countries are The United States,
Great Britain, and Ireland.
206
The authors selected 5 countries from the European region, after the example
of which the value of their capability in export of financial services is described:
Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, and Finland.
In the case of Latvia (Figure 2 [Latvia]) one can consider its current capability in
export of financial services to be exhausted. During the last 8 years the proportion of
financial services export in total exports of the country increased at an average annual
of 8%. Taking into account the fact that the proportion of financial services export in
total services exports of most countries is within the range of 14%, Latvias result
of 6.73% for the year 2008 can be assessed as high. However, one can state that
at present the given parameters have reached their current maximums so far as the
assessment of key factors of Latvias financial services export is substantially lower in
comparison with the top countries. In order to revive the growth of Latvias financial
services export it is necessary to improve the situation in all 10 key factors.
Latvia:
FSE = 732 million USD
FSE / SE = 6.73 %
FSE / TE = 2.08 %
8 y. annual average growth of FSE/TE = 8%
Lithuania:
FSE / SE = 0.97 %
FSE / TE = 0.18 %
Figure 2 Parameters for the assessment of the countrys capability in financial services
export: Latvia, Lithuania.1
Source: created by the authors, data sources: UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics, World
Databank.
The situation is similar in Lithuania (Figure 2 [Lithuania]) and Poland (Figure

3 [Poland]). Despite the fact that there is an essential difference in absolute volumes
of financial services export in these countries, to introduce additional growth in
the given export it is necessary to improve parameters in all key factors in both
countries.
FSE Financial services export; SE services export; TE total export.
Poland:
FSE = 1 549 million USD
FSE / SE = 1.36 %
FSE / TE = 0.22 %
8 y. annual average growth of FSE/TE = 1.3%
207
Estonia:
FSE / SE = 2.05 %
FSE / TE = 0.60 %
Finland:
FSE / SE = 1.57 %
FSE / TE = 0.34 %
Figure 3 Parameters for the assessment of the countrys capability in export of financial
services: Poland, Estonia, and Finland.
Source: created by the authors, data sources: UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics, World
Databank.
As for Estonia (Figure 3 [Estonia]) and Finland (Figure 3 [Finland]), these

countries capability is far from being exhausted, and that is indicated by substantial
annual growth rates of financial services export in total exports of the countries 18%
and 23% correspondingly. Moreover, these countries possess necessary conditions
for the growth of financial services export because the diagram shows practically
complete match of their key factors with those of the top countries. For all that, it
could be comparatively easier for Estonia to increase its export of financial services
than for Finland as the absolute value of the export of financial services in Estonia
208
only amounts to USD 360 million. It is possible that a restraining factor for export is
a relatively small amount of financial institutions in the territory of Estonia, as well
as the fact that the given financial institutions actually almost completely belong to
foreign capital (Frut beta, 2010).
Luxembourg:
FSE / SE = 62.87 %
FSE / TE = 46.32 %
8 y. annual average growth of FSE/TE = 0 %
Panama:
FSE / SE = 8.43%
FSE / TE = 2.8 %
Figure 4 Parameters for the assessment of the countrys capability in export of financial
services: Luxemburg, Panama.
Source: created by the authors, data sources: UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics, World Databank.
Offshore zones demand separate analysis. They were not examined when the
key factors of financial services export were revealed. The reason lies in the fact
that the tax haven is a dominating factor for the growth of both the absolute and
proportional values of financial services export. It is also graphically confirmed in
Figure 4. Luxemburg, being an offshore zone (with lower taxation see Figure 4)
and having the rest of the financial services exports key factors at the level of the
top countries, achieved unprecedented results, which are not to be found in any other
country of the world. The proportion of financial services export in total exports of
the country makes up more than 46% (!) and in export of services about 63% (!)
correspondingly. For all that, it is important to note that Luxemburg had brought
into use all its capability (even as an offshore), which is also proved by the fact that
during the period of 8 years, beginning with the year 2000, the average growth of
financial services export in its total exports was 0 %. That is, there is no possibility
for its growth anymore. The tax factor also draws Panama that is another wellknown world offshore zone. In Panama, as oppose to Luxemburg, 5 factors are lower
than in the top countries. Despite that fact, the state is among the leaders in export
of financial services if compared to both its export (2.8%) and export of services
(8.43%). Taking into account the offshore factor, one can state with high confidence
that Panamas capability is not yet exhausted. Summarizing the aforesaid, it should
be noted that the capability of offshore zones in export of financial services ought to
be analyzed in a different way than of the countries without tax haven.
209
Conclusions
More and more countries, realizing the power of finance, an intangible scale
of financial market and waging a struggle for any possibility of export under the
influence of economic crisis aspire to secure the niche of financial services export.
However, by evaluating the countrys capability in this sphere, one can determine
whether it is worth the countrys while to include export of financial services in the
strategic trends of its activities.
The authors suggest that one should assess countrys capability in export of
financial services proceeding from: (1) the key factors of financial services export
(2), the combination of the analysis of such data as: proportion of financial services
export in total exports of the country and/or in total exports of the countrys services;
absolute value of financial services export; average annual growth of financial
services export in total exports of the country.
As a result of the given research, one revealed the following 10 key factors
of financial services export (ordered according to the degree of their importance):
freedom from corruption, institutions, property rights, financial market sophistication,
wastefulness of government spending, investment freedom, financing through local
equity market, financial freedom, restriction on capital flows, total tax rate (% of
profit).
The revealing of the given key factors was based on the statistical data from
Global Competitiveness Report, Index of Economic Freedom, Doing Business
and it was carried out with the help of factor and regression analysis. The factor
analysis showed that the factors of financial services export are diverse and they
are distributed between 4 groups, which confirm completeness of their scope. The
regression analysis of the model that contained 10 factors (R2 = 0.343, Std. Error of
Estimate = 17.3, Sig. = 0.02) confirmed the importance of the given factors when
defining the proportion of financial services export in total services exports of the
country.
In order to demonstrate the way of defining countrys capability in export of
financial services several countries were selected. With the help of the devised
method of analysis it was defined that the potential of Estonia and Finland had not
been exhausted. However, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland ought to improve parameters
in practically all 10 factors in order to revive their capability in export of financial
services. Besides, it was ascertained that one should consider the countries belonging
to offshore zones in a different way due to the fact that tax haven is a dominating
factor for the growth of both absolute and proportional values of financial services
export.
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Kopsavilkums
Praktiski visas pasaules valstis ir iesaisttas starptautiskaj finanu pakalpojumu
tirdzniecb. Valstu lielkai daai finanu pakalpojumu eksports ir tikai to darbbas blakus
rezultts. Tomr pastv daas valstis, kuras specializjas tiei uz finanu pakalpojumu
eksportu k galveno ienkumu ganas veidu. raksta mris ir atklt galvenos faktorus,
kas ietekm jebkuras valsts finanu pakalpojumu eksportu, un noteikt valsts potencila
novrtanas iespjas aj eksporta jom. Ptjum tika izmantotas tdas metodes k
literatras izpte, faktoru, regresijas un korelcijas analze. Ptjuma rezultt tika izteikts
prieklikums novrtt valsts potencilu finanu pakalpojumu eksport, pamatojoties uz
(1) atkltajiem pamatfaktoriem; (2) rdtju kombinciju: finanu pakalpojumu eksporta
patsvaru valsts pakalpojumu eksport vai kopj eksport; absolto finanu pakalpojumu
eksporta apjomu; gada vidj finanu pakalpojumu eksporta patsvara valsts kopj
eksport pieaugumu. Pie atkltajiem finanu pakalpojumu eksporta pamatfaktoriem
pieder investciju brvba, finanu tirgus attstba, kapitla kustbas brvba, nodoku
slogs, brvba no korupcijas u. c.

212.224. lpp.
Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu k mikrofinansanas institciju

potencils un attstbas iespjas Latvij
Potential and Development Opportunities of Credit Unions
as Microfinance Institutions in Latvia
Tatjana Mavrenko
Banku augstskola, Finanu katedra

Valdemra iela 161, Rga, LV-1013,
E-pasts: tatjana.mavrenko@ba.lv
Mikrofionansana vis pasaul ir atzta par attstbas darba instrumentu cai pret nabadzbu
un socilo atstumtbu. Pirms daiem gadiem nabadzba un ienkumu nevienldzba bija
prsvar saisttas ar attstbas valstm, bet pareiz, it pai pc pasaules finanu krzes,
gandrz katr pasaules valst socils problmas saasins. Ar Eiropas valstis nav izmums.
2010. gads Eiropas Savienb tika pasludints par gadu cai ar nabadzbu un socilo
atstumtbu, bet mikrofinansanas attstba Eiropas valsts tika piedvta k socilo problmu
risinjums. Eiropas Investciju fonds kop ar Eiropas Attstbas banku nodroina ldzekus
mikrofinansanas attstbai Eiropas Savienbas valsts. Latvij mikrofinansana vl nav
plai izplatta, trkst informcijas par ts iespjm, k ar nav skaidrs, kuras institcijas
sniedz mikrofinanssanas pakalpojumus. aj rakst autore analiz krjaizdevu sabiedrbas
k mikrofinansanas pakalpojumu institcijas. Aptaujjot krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedrus,
autore ir konstatjusi daudz pabu, kas auj uzskatt krjaizdevu sabiedrbas par mikro
finansanas institcijm, k ar daudz problmu, kuras btu jrisina tuvkaj laik, lai Latvij
panktu veiksmgu krjaizdevu sabiedrbu attstbu. Autore liek uzsvaru uz finanu kooperatvu
k mikrofinansanas pakalpojumu sniedzju darbbu.
Atslgvrdi: mikrofinansana, krjaizdevu sabiedrba, finanu kooperatvs, nabadzba,
ienkumu nevienldzba, socil atstumtba.
Ievads
Mikrofinansana attstbas valsts ir aprobtais attstbas darba instruments,
kas darbojas pasaul jau kop pagju gadsimta 70. gadiem un ir pierdjis
savu dzvotspju. Pasaul mikrofinansanas pakalpojumus var sniegt oti daudz
institciju, skot ar nevalstiskm organizcijm un savstarpjs paldzbas or
ganizcijm un beidzot ar bankm. Ir oti svargi pankt, lai mikrofinansanas
organizcija btu spjga pati finanst savu darbbu, segt visas savas izmaksas un
taj pa laik piedvtu pakalpojumus par samrgu cenu. Pc autores domm,
nevalstisks organizcijas ir oti atkargas no valsts un donoru ldzekiem, bankas
ir prk orienttas uz peu, tpc s organizcijas nevar uzskatt par idelu
struktru mikrofinansanas pakalpojumu snieganai. Krjaizdevu sabiedrbas ir
finanu kooperatvi, kas pieder pie savstarpjs paldzbas organizcijm. Ts paas
finans savu darbbu, un pea nav du organizciju prioritte. Finanu kooperatvi
T. Mavrenko. Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu k mikrofinansanas institciju potencils ..
213
tiek veidoti, lai apmierintu savu biedru vajadzbas pc finanu pakalpojumiem,

tpc krjaizdevu sabiedrbas var uzskatt par pilnvrtgm mikrofinansanas pa
kalpojumu sniedzjm.
oriinlraksta mris ir izptt krjaizdevu sabiedrbu potencilu un attstbas
iespjas mikrofinansanas pakalpojumu sniegan Latvij. Lai sasniegtu nosprausto
mri, autore izvirza dus uzdevumus: 1) izptt mikrofinansanas btbu un
darbbas principus, 2) izanalizt krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbbu Latvij, 3) sniegt
prieklikumus krjaizdevu sabiedrbu k mikrofinansanas institciju attstbai
Latvij. Darb ir izmantota monogrfisk, statistisk, socil un grafisk ptjuma
metode. Autore ir aptaujjusi krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedrus Latvij, lai noskaidrotu
krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbbas pozitvs un negatvs puses. Aptauj piedaljs
241 krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedrs. Ptjuma objekts ir krjaizdevu sabiedrbas k
mikrofinansanas institcijas Latvij. Ptjuma periods: 1995.2010. gads.
Mikrofinansanas btba un darbbas principi

Mikrofinansanas institcijas ir darbojus vis pasaul jau kop pagju
gadsimta 70. gadiem. Attstoties mikrofinansanas sektoram, laika gait mainjs ar
mikrofinansanas defincijas, bet kopum ts atspoguo vienu un to pau principu
atbalstt iedzvotjus, kam ir zemi ienkumi, un par samrgu cenu apmierint
viu pieprasjumu pc droiem finanu pakalpojumiem. Prof. Sundaresans uzskata,
ka mjsaimniecbu spja veidot uzkrjumus, piekt vajadzgam kapitlam,
nodrointies pret vairkiem riskiem, kas saistti ar dzvbu, paumu un veselbu,
izmantojot apdroinanas pakalpojumus, ir svargs mjsaimniecbu ekonomisks
un socils attstbas prieknoteikums. Piekana pamata finanu pakalpojumiem
kredtiem, noguldjumiem un apdroinanai auj nabadzgiem cilvkiem attstt
uzmjdarbbas spjas, skt savu biznesu, attstt riska vadbas spjas [14, 1].
Tradicionli mikrofinansanu sauc par procesu, kur ekonomiski aktviem
nabadzgiem iedzvotjiem ar vairku konkurjoo, finansili patstvgo institciju
starpniecbu tiek sniegts daudz mazo finanu pakalpojumu primru aizdevumu un
noguldjumu. Par ekonomiski aktviem iedzvotjiem uzskata cilvkus, kas ir iesaistti
lauksaimniecb, zvejniecb, lopkopb, mazajos uzmumos un mikrouzmumos
[13, 2, 9]. Pasaules Bankas ptnieki akcent ne tikai finanu pakalpojumu svargumu
mjsaimniecbm ar zemiem ienkumiem, bet ar nepiecieambu pc socils
starpniecbas pakalpojumiem, proti, nepiecieambu pc domubiedru grupu
veidoanas, apmcbm un konsultcijm, pc paldzbas uzmumu dibinan un
attstb. D. Ledervda (J. Ledgerwood) defin mikrofinansanu k finanu un
socils starpniecbas pakalpojumu snieganu klientiem, kam ir zemi ienkumi, tai
skait panodarbintiem [10, 1]. Khandakar Qudrat-I Elahi un M. Lutfor Rahman
ar defin mikrofinansanu k attstbas pieeju finanu un socils starpniecbas
nodroinanai. Finanu starpniecba pamat ietver sev noguldjumu pieemanu,
aizdevumu izsnieganu un apdroinanu. Socil starpniecba paredz cilvku
apvienoanos, lai kopgi risintu savas problmas un ietekmtu politikas veidotjus
[4, 477]. Ir pierdts, ka mjsaimniecbas, kam ir zemi ienkumi, oti aktvi veido
uzkrjumus (8, 36, 38). Dzvojot smagos ekonomiskos apstkos, ie cilvki ir
spiesti domt par izdzvoanu un cenas neiztrt savus ienkumus pilnb, pastvgi
214
uzkrjot nelielas summas. P. K. Rao (P. K. Rao) savukrt nesaskata atirbu starp
mikrofinansanu un mikrokreditanu, raksturojot mikrofinansanu k mazo
summu aizdevumu nodroinanu individulm personm, mjsaimniecbm un
citiem ekonomiskiem subjektiem, kas citur kvalificjas k zemstandarta aizmji
[12]. Silvija Viivska (S. Wisniwski) defin mikrofinansanu k finanu sektora
dau, kas sniedz finanu pakalpojumus mjsaimniecbm un uzmumiem, kam
di pakalpojumi vispr nav pieejami vai daji ir pieejami no citm formlm
finanu institcijm [15, 1]. N. Felder-Kuzu akcent mjsaimniecbu tieo saistbu
ar mikrouzmumiem un defin mikrofinansanu k nelielu finanu pakalpojumu
nodroinanu mikrouzmumiem uz komercdarbbas pamata. Par mikrouzmumu
tiek uzskatta mjsaimniecba, kam ir zemi ienkumi, bet kas var nodarboties ar
mikrouzmjdarbbu [6, 18]. No vism mikrofinansanas defincijm izriet, ka
mjsaimniecbas, kam ir zemi ienkumi, pc savas btbas ir mikrouzmumi un
ka savas labkljbas nodroinanai ts ir ieinterestas iesaistties aktivitts, kas
nodroina ienkumus. oti svargi, lai mikrokredti tiktu izmantoti tiei ienkumu
radanai, nevis iztrti prtikai vai citm primrm vajadzbm. Cilvkiem, kurus
ir skrusi oti dzia nabadzba, btu nepiecieams humanitrais atbalsts un labdarba.
Mikrokreditana un mikrofinansana btu jau nkamais solis pc dzias nabadzbas
problmas atrisinanas [5, 5]. Apkopojot visas sniegts defincijas, var secint,
ka par mikrofinansanu tiek uzskatta pamata finanu pakalpojumu aizdevumu,
noguldjumu un apdroinanas sniegana mazs summs privtpersonm, kam
ir zemi ienkumi, un mikrouzmumiem par saprtgu cenu ar formlo pafinan
sjoo institciju starpniecbu. Mikrofinansanas institciju atirbu no prjm
kredtiestdm un finanu institcijm atklj atbildes uz jautjumiem kas?, ko?,
kam?, k?. Ttad galvens vrdkopas mikrofinansanas defincij ir formls
pafinansjos institcijas (kas?), pamata finanu pakalpojumus (ko?),
iedzvotjiem ar zemiem ienkumiem un mikrouzmumiem (kam?) un
mazs summs par saprtgu cenu (k?). Lai saprastu, vai noteiktais pakal
pojumu sniedzjs ir mikrofinansanas institcija, jatbild uz iepriek mintiem
jautjumiem. Piemram, kredta kompnija izsniedz mikrokredtus iedzvotjiem,
kam ir zemi ienkumi, par 300% gad. Vai o kompniju var uzskatt par mikro
finansanas institciju? Saska ar definciju nevar, jo no finanu un kapitla tirgus
viedoka kompnija ir pusformla nav vajadzga specil licence, jo nepiesaista
noguldjumus, k ar pakalpojums nav sniegts par saprtgu cenu 300% ir oti
augsta cena par resursu.
Vai Latvij ir nabadzba un nepiecieamba pc

mikrofinansanas?
Eiropas Savienbas apkopot statistika par dzves apstkiem dalbvalsts
2009. gad norda, ka Latvijas nabadzbas un ienkumu nevienldzbas rdtji ir
visaugstkie Eirop. Nabadzbas riska indekss Latvij sasniedza 25,7%, bet vidjais
Eirop (ES-27) ir 16,3%. Tas nozm, ka katrs ceturtais Latvijas iedzvotjs ir
pakauts nabadzbas riskam. Latvij pastv ar vislielk ienkumu nevienldzba
starp Eiropas Savienbas valstm, S80/S20 rdtjs 2009. gad sasniedza 7,3, bet
vidjais Eirop (ES-27) ir 5. Tas nozm, ka 20% iedzvotju ar augstkajiem
215
ienkumiem uz ekvivalentu iedzvotju saem 7,3 reizes vairk nek 20%

iedzvotju ar viszemkajiem ienkumiem uz ekvivalentu iedzvotju.1 Vl viens
rdtjs, kur no vism Eiropas Savienbas valstm Latvijai ir vissliktkais rezultts,
ir iedzvotju (kas ir 65 gadus veci un vecki) ienkumu patsvars saldzinjum ar
prjo iedzvotju vidjo ienkumu. 2009. gad is rdtjs Latvij bija 58%, Eiro
pas Savienb vidji 86%. Tas nozm, ka veco cilvku ienkumi ir tikai puse no
prjo iedzvotju kategoriju vidj ienkuma un ka, iestjoties pensijas vecumam,
iedzvotju dzves kvalitte stipri pasliktins. Nabadzbas dziums Latvij jeb tas,
cik nabadzgi ir nabadzgie iedzvotji, tiek novrtts k starpba starp iedzvotju,
kas atrodas zem nabadzbas slieka, ienkumu uz ekvivalentu iedzvotju medinu
un nabadzbas slieka lmeni. 2009. gad Latvij is rdtjs sasniedza 28,9%,
kas nozm, ka nabadzgo personu medinas ienkums ir par 28,9% zemks nek
nabadzbas slieksnis, kas savukrt veido 60% no neto ienkuma pc sociliem
transfertiem, prrinta uz ekvivalentu iedzvotju medinu. Latvijas rdtjs ir
otrais augstkais Eiropas Savienb pc Rumnijas, kurai is rdtjs ir 32%, vidji
Eiropas Savienb 22,4%. 2009. gad 40% Latvijas iedzvotju tika konstatta
materil deprivcija, 22% spcga materil deprivcija jeb nespja atauties visus
nepiecieamos labumus.2 No statistikas datiem var secint, ka nabadzbas un socils
nevienldzbas problma Latvij ir oti aktula un to nepiecieams steidzgi risint
situcijas uzlaboanai. Plaka mikrofinansana valst vartu bt mints problmas
potencils risinjums.
Krjaizdevu sabiedrbas k mikrofinansanas institcijas

Krjaizdevu sabiedrbas pc savas darbbas formas ir kooperatvas sabiedrbas,
kas darbojas finanu tirg. Par msdienu krjaizdevu sabiedrbu vsturiskiem
prototipiem var uzskatt kredtkooperatvus, kas darbojs Vcij 20. gadsimta pirmaj
desmitgad, bet vlk izplatjs vis Eirop. ie kooperatvi veiksmgi darbojs resursu
mobilizcij un kredtu pakalpojumu sniegan lauksaimniekiem, amatniekiem un
mazajiem tirgotjiem [2, 155]. Pasaules krjaizdevu sabiedrbu padome raksturo
krjaizdevu sabiedrbu k cilvku grupu, kas apvienojas, lai ieguldtu savus uzkrtos
ldzekus un izsniegtu cits citam kredtus pret izdevgm procentu likmm [9, 1].
Vl preczk krjaizdevu sabiedrbu var raksturot k biedriem piederou un biedru
prvaldtu finanu kooperatvu, ko veido cilvki, kurus vieno kaut kas kopgs
dzvesvieta, darbavieta vai piederba kdai organizcijai. ie cilvki apvienojuies,
lai izveidotu oficilu organizciju, kur dro viet uzglabt savus naudas ldzekus,
un pret mreniem procentiem cits citam pieirtu aizdevumus [11, 1]. Latvijas
Kooperatvo krjaizdevu sabiedrbu savienba raksturo krjaizdevu sabiedrbu k
finanu kooperatvu, kuru dibina un prvalda ts biedri, ievrojot demokrtijas
pamatprincipus, lai veicintu naudas ldzeku uzkranu un izlietotu os ldzekus,
aizdodot naudu saviem biedriem ar pieemamm un ekonomiski pamatotm procentu
Community Statistics on Income and Life Conditions, 2009. Pieejams: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.

eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Living_conditions_statistics (sk. 15.03.2011.)
Turpat.
216
likmm, k ar lai sniegtu tiem citus nepiecieamos pakalpojumus.3 LR Krjaizdevu

sabiedrbu likum, kas tika pieemts, lai sekmtu finanu resursu pieejambu un
reionlo attstbu un veicintu indivdu ldzdarboanos tautsaimniecb, definta
krjaizdevu sabiedrba k kooperatva sabiedrba ar maingu biedru skaitu un
kapitlu, kas saska ar Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu likumu un saviem stattiem sniedz
s sabiedrbas biedriem tdus finanu pakalpojumus k noguldjumu piesaiste,
kreditana, skaidras un bezskaidras naudas maksjumi, tirdzniecba ar finanu
instrumentiem un valtu, galvojumu izsniegana un vrtbu glabana.4 Krjaizdevu
sabiedrbas galvenais uzdevums ir attstt savos biedros spju darboties kopgi,
lai uz savstarpjas paldzbas un paprvaldes principu pamata, veicinot taupbu,
veidotu kredtresursus biedru personisko, k ar saimniecisko un sadzves vajadzbu
apmierinanai, tdjdi sekmjot viu labkljbu.5 Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedru
loks ir noteikts pc piederbas noteiktai teritorijai, darba devjam vai vienojoai
organizcijai.6 Lai nodibintu krjaizdevu sabiedrbu Latvij, biedru skaitam jbt
ne mazk k 20 personm un minimlam pamatkapitlam LVL 2000.7
No krjaizdevu sabiedrbu defincijm izriet, ka ts ir pilnvrtgas mikrofinan
sanas institcijas. Krjaizdevu sabiedrbas ne tikai kredit, bet ar pieem biedru
noguldjumus. Tas dado pakalpojumu klstu un auj krjaizdevu sabiedrbm
pam finanst savu darbbu ar biedru pajm un noguldjumiem. Krjaizdevu sabied
rbas apkalpo prsvar mjsaimniecbas, kurm ir zemi ienkumi un kuras kaut kdu
iemeslu d nevar saemt finanu pakalpojumus citur. Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedru
loks ir ierobeots, tpc mjsaimniecbu problmas var risint noteikt reion vai
cilvku lok un pakalpojumu summas ir samr mazas. Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu
biedri vienlaikus ir sava kooperatva panieki, klienti un prvaldnieki un pai ar
nosaka pakalpojumu klstu un izcenojumus. T k kooperatva mris ir nevis
pea, bet pakalpojumu sniegana biedriem, tas piedv tiem labkus un izdevgkus
pakalpojumu nosacjumus nek citi tirgus dalbnieki. Ttad krjaizdevu sabiedrba
ir formla pafinansjoa institcija, kas sniedz pamata finanu pakalpojumus
mjsaimniecbm, kam ir zemi ienkumi, mazs summs par saprtgu cenu atbilstoi
mikrofinansanas institcijas defincijai.
Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbba Latvij

Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbba tika atjaunota Latvij pc valsts neatkarbas
atganas. 1. attl redzama Latvijas krjaizdevu sabiedrbu attstba no 1995. ldz
2010. gadam.
5
6
7
Kas ir krjaizdevu sabiedrba. Mcbu ldzeklis krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbiniekiem un vltm

amatpersonm. LKKSS nepublictie materili krjaizdevu sabiedrbu apmcbai, 2000.
LR likums Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu likums. Latvijas Vstnesis, 60 (2447), 18.04.2001., Ziotjs, 10,
17.05.2001., iesk. grozjumus 23.09.2010., 2.1. pants.
Turpat, 2.2. pants.
Turpat, 4.5. pants.
Turpat, 15. pants.
217
26,00
14,00
12,00
25,00
10,00
24,00
8,00
23,00
6,00
22,00
4,00
21,00
2,00
20,00
0,00
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Dec.05
Dec.06
Dec.07
Dec.08
Dec.09
Dec.10
Aktvi milj. Ls
6,39
7,40
8,40
9,30
9,90
11,68
Kredti milj. Ls
5,53
6,50
7,40
8,30
8,50
8,59
Noguldjumi milj. Ls
4,25
4,80
5,60
5,90
6,50
8,00
Pajas milj. Ls
1,12
1,40
1,40
1,70
1,60
1,70
Biedri tkst. cilv.
22,01
22,60
24,09
24,73
25,19
25,52
1. attls. Latvijas kooperatvo krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbba 2005.2010. gad

Operation of Credit Unions in Latvia in 2005-20108
Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu skaits Latvij 2005.2010. gad bija samra nemaings

34 kooperatvs krjaizdevu sabiedrbas, 2006.2008. gad darbojs 35 krjaizdevu
sabiedrbas, bet 2010. gada beigs atkal 34. Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu kopjie aktvi
jau tradicionli veido tikai 0,05% no banku kopjiem aktviem. Tiei is rdtjs
oti biei izraisa finanu specilistu skepsi. JKrjaizdevu sabiedrbu kopjie aktvi
nav sasniegui pat 1% no banku aktviem, tpc rodas jautjums, vai par dm
organizcijm vispr btu jrun. Bet, pc autores domm, is ir tas gadjums, kad
pieprasjums nosaka piedvjumu. Krjaizdevu sabiedrbas darbojas pc atirgiem
principiem, papildina finanu sektoru ar banku alternatvu un piesaista cilvkus, kuri
kdu iemeslu d negrib vai nevar sadarboties ar bankm. Citiem vrdiem, ja nebtu
krjaizdevu sabiedrbu, 25 tkstoi cilvku vartu palikt rpus finanu sektora
pakalpojumiem, LVL 9,7 miljoni, kas ir piesaistti pajs un noguldjumos, vartu
nebt vispr aktivizti un paliktu rpus ekonomiskiem procesiem, LVL 11,68 miljoni
aktvos nestrdtu valsts ekonomikas lab, jo krjaizdevu sabiedrbas apkalpo tikai
vietjos Latvijas iedzvotjus un nauda paliek Latvijas teritorij. 1. attl redzams, ka
piecu gadu laik aktvu un noguldjumu kopsummas ir gandrz dubultojus, izsniegtie
kredti pieaugui par 3 miljoniem, bet biedru skaits pieaudzis par 3,5 tkstoiem.
Apskattaj period krjaizdevu sabiedrbu attstba notika mren temp, nebija
ne kreditanas buma ekonomikas prkaranas period, ne kreditanas straujas
Izveidojusi autore pc FKTK statistikas datiem par krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbbu

2005.2010. gada 4ceturkiem (pieejams: www.fktk.lv) un LKKSS statistikas datiem par KKS biedru
skaitu 2005. 2010. gad (pieejams: www.lkkss.lv).
218
samazinans krzes laik. Tas liecina par krjaizdevu sabiedrbu konservatvu

darbbas politiku noturot zemu riska lmeni, ts var nodroint drous ilgtspjgus
pakalpojumus saviem biedriem neatkargi no ekonomisks situcijas valst.
Ldz im bija pieejama tikai ierobeota statistika par krjaizdevu sabiedrbu
darbbas finanu rezulttiem, bet nebija ptta krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbbas
kvalitte. Ptjum autore ir aptaujjusi krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedrus, lai
noskaidrotu krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbbas stiprs un vjs puses. Aptaujas
uzdevums bija pc brvas izvles piedvt aizpildt anketu krjaizdevu sabiedrbu
biedriem dads krjaizdevu sabiedrbs dados Latvijas reionos, lai izprastu
krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedru viedokus par krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbbu un ts
uzlaboanu. Aptauja tika veikta no 2010. gada jlija ldz decembrim, uz aptaujas
jautjumiem kopum atbildja 241 biedrs no 7 krjaizdevu sabiedrbm. Aptaujas
rezultti iegti par visu Latvijas reionu krjaizdevu sabiedrbm gan par lauku,
gan pilstu lielm un mazm, vecm un jaunm krjaizdevu sabiedrbm.
No aptaujas rezulttiem izriet, ka 47% respondentu krjaizdevu sabiedrbu
biedru dzvo persongaj dzvokl, 20% persongaj mj, 8% respondentu
r dzvokli vai mju. Tas liecina par to, ka mjoka uzturana un uzlaboana ir
svarga krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedriem. Pusei krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedru ir
lielas imenes 54% respondentu imenes loceku skaits ir trs un vairk cilvku.
Citiem vrdiem, krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedri paralli savu persongo vajadzbu
apmierinanai vl rpjas par citu imenes loceku interesm un vajadzbm.
11% respondentu dzvo vientui, un tas automtiski palielina nabadzbas risku, jo
das mjsaimniecbas var paauties tikai uz sevi. 33% respondentu imeni veido
divi cilvki, 30% mjsaimniecbu trs cilvki, 17% 4 cilvki, 5% 5 cilvki,
2% 6cilvki. 3% respondentu ir brni vecum ldz diviem gadiem, 29% no 2 ldz
17 gadiem, 11% respondentu ir pensionri, 47% strdjoie, 4% citi apgdjamie.
ir oti svarga informcija krjaizdevu sabiedrbm, plnojot krjaizdevu sa
biedrbu produktus un to attstbu. Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedri prsvar ir socili
jtgi iedzvotji, jo tikai puse imeu ir strdjoie, kuriem jrpjas par prjiem
imenes locekiem. Tas padara krjaizdevu sabiedrbas biedrus atkargus no
neparedztiem rjiem riskiem un okiem.
Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedru (respondentu) ienkumu analze pardja, ka 28%
biedru dzvo ar ienkumiem ldz LVL 160 mnes uz vienu imenes locekli jeb zem
iztikas minimuma (2009. gad LVL 168), 29% ar ienkumiem LVL 161250
mnes uz vienu imenes locekli, un tas faktiski ir tuvu iztikas minimumam. 42%
respondentu savs atbilds nordja ienkumus virs LVL 251 LVL mnes uz vienu
imenes locekli. Latvijas krjaizdevu sabiedrbas tiem apkalpo iedzvotjus, kam
ir zemi ienkumi (vius var uzskatt pat par nabadzgiem iedzvotjiem, kas dzvo
uz iztikas minimuma robeas), un ekonomiski aktvos nabadzgos iedzvotjus,
kuri ir spjgi strdt algotu darbu vai gt ienkumus ar savm biznesa aktivittm.
Krjaizdevu sabiedrba 14% respondentu asocijas ar iespju aizemties, 2% re
spondentu uztver krjaizdevu sabiedrbu k vietu, kur noguldt savus ldzekus,
22% k tro paldzbu grt brd, kad nepiecieams krjaizdevu sabiedrbas
biedru atbalsts un drobas sajta. 17% respondentu uztver krjaizdevu sabiedrbu k
vietu, kur var aizemties un noguldt, 10% respondentu uzskata par savu banku,
tdjdi uzsverot piederbu ai bankai, krjaizdevu sabiedrbas nozmi un paceot to
219
ldz bankas statusam. 7% respondentu saskata sav krjaizdevu sabiedrb biedru

organizciju, kur pakalpojumi tiek sniegti savjiem jeb organizcijas biedriem. 1%
respondentu emocionli atbildja, ka krjaizdevu sabiedrba ir uz cilvku orientta
sabiedrba, atkal pasvtrojot krjaizdevu sabiedrbu socilo nozmi konkrt reion
vai organizcij. Taj pa laik 27% respondentu neatbildja uz o jautjumu, un tas
var liecint par to, ka iem biedriem sti nav skaidrs, kas ir krjaizdevu sabiedrba,
kur vii saem pakalpojumus, vai ar viiem nav vlmes paust savu viedokli.
6% respondentu k galveno krjaizdevu sabiedrbu atirbu no citiem finanu
pakalpojumu sniedzjiem uzskata tiei finanu paldzbu, nevis vienkri finanu
pakalpojumu snieganu, 7% biedru organizcijas darbbas principu k galveno at
irbu. Savukrt 4% respondentu krjaizdevu sabiedrba nozm samr ierobeotu
finanu pakalpojumu klstu kredtu izsnieganu un uzkrjumu pasarganu.
Vl 4% respondentu par krjaizdevu sabiedrbu atirbu un vienlaikus ar par
priekrocbu nosaukui krjaizdevu sabiedrbu tuvumu savam biedru lokam.
9% respondentu par krjaizdevu sabiedrbu atirbu ir nosaukui krjaizdevu sa
biedrbu pieejambu, pretimnkanu un patkamu apkalpoanu. Taj pa laik
32% no visiem respondentiem neatbildja uz o jautjumu. Pc autores domm,
aptaujas gait iegt informcija dod krjaizdevu sabiedrbm lielisku iespju izprast
savu btbu pc biedru skatjuma. emot vr respondentu biek doto kvalitatvo
novrtjumu un emocionls atbildes (biedru atbildes ietekmja viu pasajta,
vii lietoja vrdus rti, paldzba, pasargana, pretimnkana, patkama
apkalpoana), var secint, ka vius interes ne tikai finanu pakalpojumi, bet ar
pozitvas emocijas, ko dod krjaizdevu sabiedrba ar savu uniklo statusu finanu
kooperatvs, mikrofinansanas institcija un socilais uzmums vien person.
Biedriem ir nepiecieama paa sajta, ka vii ir savjie un pieder ai organizcijai,
pai lemj par savas naudas izlietoanu, viu nauda atrodas dro viet, vii ir vienmr
gaidti krjaizdevu sabiedrb un vars saemt paldzbu grt brd.
Taj pa laik bija interesanti uzzint, ka krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedri nezina,
cik krjaizdevu sabiedrbu ir Latvij, neviens respondents neatbildja pareizi uz o
jautjumu. T ir informcija prdomm krjaizdevu sabiedrbm vai sabiedrba ir
labi informta par viu darbbu.
2. attl ir atspoguotas respondentu atbildes uz jautjumu, kpc vii ir
iestjuies krjaizdevu sabiedrb.
66% respondentu iestjuies krjaizdevu sabiedrb tpc, ka t dod iespju
aizemties, 64% respondentu bija nepiecieams patria kredts, 1% attiecgi gribjui
uzskt vai turpint uzmjdarbbu, 9% respondentu vljuies veidot uzkrjumus,
8% gribjui bt sabiedriski aktvi, vl 8% vienkri ticjui koopercijas vrtbm,
1% respondentu vljuies savu algu saemt tiei sav krjaizdevu sabiedrb,
4% respondentu bijis cits iemesls, vl 4% nav atbildjui uz o jautjumu. Tdas
atbildes k zemkas procentu likmes un ticba, ka kaut kas tds var izveidoties
laukos nav btiski ietekmjuas kopjos rezulttus, jo to patsvars kopj atbilu
skait ir mazks par 1. Pc autores domm, Latvijas krjaizdevu sabiedrbas sav
darbb atspoguo mikrofinansanas evolciju, jo lielk daa biedru ir iestjuies
krjaizdevu sabiedrbs tiei tpc, ka vii var aizemties, bet pakpeniski ir skusies
noguldjumu piesaistana, ko mikrofinansanas institcijm iesaka izmantot k
220
kapitlu kredtu izsnieganai. 3. attl dots respondentu pamatojums, kpc vii ir

izvljuies tiei krjaizdevu sabiedrbu, nevis kdu citu organizciju.
8%
0%
1% 0% 4%
4%
8%
9%
64%
1%1%
Vajadzba pc patria aizmuma

Vajadzba pc aizmuma uzmjdarbbas uzskanai
Vajadzba pc aizmuma uzmjdarbbas turpinanai
Vlme veidot uzkrjumus
Vlme bt sabiedriski aktvam
Ticba koopercijas vrtbm
Zemkas % likmes aizmumiem
Algas saemana
Ticba, ka kaut kas tds var izveidoties laukos
Cits
Nav atbildes
2. attls. Iemesli, kpc respondenti iestjuies krjaizdevu sabiedrb

Reasons Why Members Have Joined Credit Union
6%
1%
0% 0%
5%
3%
26%
4%
18%
12%
25%
Neuzticba bankm
Es pazstu KS darbiniekus un amatpersonas
Izdevgi pakalpojumu noteikumi % likmes
Droba
KS ideja ir unikla
Nav atbildes
KS atrodas tuvu manai mjai / darbam

KS biedru iespja paiem lemt par KS darbbu
rti, tri, izdevgi
Esmu biedrs
Cits
3. attls. Krjaizdevu sabiedrbas izvles pamatojums

Reasons of Credit Union Preference
221
26% respondentu izvljuies krjaizdevu sabiedrbu, jo vii neuzticas bankm.

Ttad, ja viiem nebtu das alternatvas, viu ieguldjumi vartu palikt rpus
ekonomiskiem procesiem. 12% respondentu pamudinjis izvlties krjaizdevu
sabiedrbu tiei tas, ka t atrodas tuvu klientam, proti, tuvu dzvesvietai vai darbavietai.
25% respondentu augsti novrtjui to, ka vii persongi pazst krjaizdevu
sabiedrbas darbiniekus un amatpersonas, 18% respondentu patk tiei tas, ka viiem
paiem ir iespja lemt par savas krjaizdevu sabiedrbas darbbu, 4% respondentu
krjaizdevu sabiedrbu pakalpojumi iet izdevgki nek citur. 6% respondentu
uzskata, ka apkalpoana krjaizdevu sabiedrb ir rtka, trka un izdevgka nek
citur. 1% respondentu izmanto krjaizdevu sabiedrbas pakalpojumus, acmredzot ir
aktvs ts biedrs lieto sava finanu kooperatva, nevis citu institciju pakalpojumus.
5% nordja citu iemeslu, 3% neatbildja, bet parjs atbildes rezulttus btiski
neietekmja.
86% respondentu imen ir vl viens krjaizdevu sabiedrbas biedrs, 6% res
pondentu divi, 4% respondentu pat 3 krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedri.
88% respondentu ir pilnb apmierinti ar kreditanas pakalpojumiem sav krj
aizdevu sabiedrb. Ar noguldjumu iespjm krjaizdevu sabiedrbs ir apmierinti
64% respondentu, neapmierinto faktiski nav, 26% respondentu ldz im kaut kdu
iemeslu d nav varjui izmantot noguldjumu pakalpojumu.
4. attl atspoguoti krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedru mri, kuru stenoanai ir ne
piecieams aizemties vai uzkrt.
9%
1%
6%
0% 2%0%0% 0%3%
10%
3%
8%
19%
9%
3%
12%
1%
6%
raoana
mesaimniecba / meizstrde
tirdzniecba
mjas, dzvoka maia / iegde
komunlie pakalpojumi
sadzves tehnikas iegde
automanas iegde
mcbas
imenes paskumi (kzas, izlaidumi, brnu piedzimana) / bres
nav vajadzbas
8%
1%
lauksaimniecba
mikro / maz uzmuma dibinana
bvniecba
mjas / dzvoka remonts
mbeles iegde
raoanas ldzeku, tehnikas iegde
datortehnikas iegde
ceojumi
medicnas pakalpojumi
nav atbildes
4. attls. Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedru vajadzbas, kurm bs nepiecieami finanu

pakalpojumi tuvkaj laik
Needs of Credit Union Members to Be Satisfied by Financial Services in Near Future
222
4. attl redzams, ka tuvkaj laik nauda lauksaimniecbas vajadzbm bs

nepiecieama 2% respondentu, bvniecbai 3%, mjas vai dzvoka iegdei 10%,
sava mjoka remontam 19%, komunlo pakalpojumu samaksai 1%, mbeu
iegdei 8%, sadzves tehnikas iegdei 6%, raoanas ldzeku un tehnikas ie
gdei 1%, automanas pirkumam 12%, datora iegdei 3%, medicnas pakal
pojumiem 9%, ceojumiem 8%, imenes paskumiem 3%, mcbm 9%.
1% respondentu tuvkaj laik nav paredzti lieli trii vai investcijas, 6% nav
atbildjui uz o jautjumu. 29% krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedru savam mrim
gribtu aizemties, 18% uzkrt ldzekus pai, 22% plno daji uzkrt un daji
aizemties, 27% respondentu vl nevarja atbildt uz o jautjumu, 4% tuvkaj
laik neplno veikt finanu darjumus.
Aptaujas rezultti rda, ka krjaizdevu sabiedrbas paldz risint sadzves, socils
un mikrouzmjdarbbas problmas savu biedru lok. Biedri augsti novrt savu
krjaizdevu sabiedrbu principils atirbas no citm finanu un kredta iestdm,
k ar ir apmierinti ar savu krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbbu. Biedru ienkumi ir
samr zemi, tpc vii labprt izvlas savas krjaizdevu sabiedrbas, nevis kdas
citas institcijas, jo jtas drok un tiek laipni apkalpoti.
Ptjum rezultt autore iz izdarjusi dus secinjumus:
- no darb minto autoru ptjumiem izriet, ka mikrofinansana tiek atzta par
veiksmgu instrumentu nabadzbas un socils atstumtbas mazinanai vis
pasaul un nodroina iedzvotju, kam ir zemi ienkumi, piekuvi droiem
finanu pakalpojumiem par saprtgu cenu;
- No Eiropas Savienbas valstm visaugstkie nabadzbas un socils at
stumtbas rdtji ir Latvij katrs ceturtais iedzvotjs ir pakauts naba
dzbas riskam, tpc nepiecieama steidzga valsts rcba socilo problmu
risinanai;
- krjaizdevu sabiedrba pilngi atbilst mikrofinansanas institcijas defi
ncijai, jo t ir formla pafinansjoa organizcija, kas sniedz finanu pa
kalpojumu iedzvotjiem, kam ir zemi ienkumi, kredit un pieem nogul
djumus par saprtgu cenu;
- krjaizdevu sabiedrbu darbba Latvij tika atjaunota 1995. gad, bet
2010. gad Latvij jau darbojs 34 krjaizdevu sabiedrbas, kas apvieno
25tkstous biedru un kam aktvos ir LVL 11,68 miljoni;
- pc aptaujas datiem, 57% krjaizdevu sabiedrbu biedru dzvo ar ienkumiem,
kas ir zemki par LVL 250 mnes uz vienu imenes locekli, un tas ir tuvu
nabadzbas slieksnim valst;
- krjaizdevu sabiedrba dod iespju 14% biedru aizemties, 2% noguldt,
22% biedru tri paldz grt brd, ttad krjaizdevu sabiedrbas socil
loma izpauas biedru atbalst un drobas sajtas veidoan;
- 26% respondentu ir izvljuies krjaizdevu sabiedrbu, jo vii neuzticas
bankm. Ja viiem nebtu das alternatvas, viu ieguldjumi paliktu rpus
ekonomiskiem procesiem;
223
Latvijas krjaizdevu sabiedrbs slpjas liels potencils, kas ierobeota

biedru skaita d vl nav pilnb izmantots.
Lai panktu krjaizdevu sabiedrbu veiksmgu turpmko attstbu, Latvij btu
nepiecieams strdt dos galvenos virzienos:
- valdbai btu jatzst mikrofinansanas izmantoana nabadzbas un socilo
problmu risinanai valst, izdarot izmaias normatvajos dokumentos
un valsts attstbas plnos, piemram, btu jiekauj mikrofinansana k
attstbas instruments Latvijas stratij ldz 2030. gadam un stimuljoos
normatvos aktos, lai veicintu mikrouzmjdarbbu;
- valdbai btu jatzst krjaizdevu sabiedrbas par mikrofinansanas
institcijm, izdarot nepiecieams izmaias krjaizdevu sabiedrbu likum
un attiecgos normatvos dokumentos;
- krjaizdevu sabiedrbm btu vairk jpopulariz finanu koopercijas idejas
sabiedrb, publicjot izgltojous rakstus un veiksmes ststus plasazias
ldzekos, organizjot atvrto durvju dienas, piedaloties starptautiskos
mikrofinansanas projektos;
- iedzvotjiem, kam ir zemi ienkumi, jmekl iespjas apvienoties koope
ratvos, uzskt savu biznesu, ar izmantojot mikrofinansanas ldzekus.
LITERATRA
1. LR Krjaizdevu sabiedrbu likums. Latvijas Vstnesis, Nr. 60 (2447), 18.04.2001., ar
grozjumiem: 20.11.2003., 21.06.2007., 22.05.2008., 04.12.2008. (Latvijas Vstnesis,
Nr.175 (2940) 11.12.2003., Nr. 107 (3683) 05.07.2007., Nr. 90 (3874) 11.06.2008., Nr.
200 (3984) 23.12.2008.)
2. Caprio, G. Jr., ed., Vittas, D. Reforming Financial Systems: Historical Implications for
Policy. UK: Cambridge University Press, The World Bank, 1997. 222 p.
3. Community Statistics on Income and Life Conditions, 2009. Pieejams: http://epp.
eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Living_conditions_statistics
(sk.
15.03.2011.)
4. Elahi, K. Q. I., Rahman, M. L. Micro-credit and Micro-finance: Functional and Conceptual
Differences. Development in Practice, Vol. 16, No. 5, August 2006. Routledge: Taylor &
Francis, Oxfam GB, 2006, p. 476483.
5. Fairbourne, J., Gibson, S. W., Dyer, W. G. Jr., ed. Microfranchising: Creating Wealth at
the Bottom of the Pyramid, USA & UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2007. 254 p.
6. Felder-Kuzu, N., Making Sense: Microfinance and Microfinance Investments. Hamburg:
Murmann Verlag GmbH, 2004. 103 p.
7. FKTK statistika par krjaizdevu sabiedrbm. Pieejams: www.fktk.lv
8. Hulme, D., Arun, T., ed. Microfinance: A Reader, London & NY: Routledge: Taylor &
Francis, 2009. 235 p.
9. Jerving, J. Financial Management for Credit Union Managers and Directors, USA:
Kendall & Hunt Publishing Co / WOCCU, 1989. 169 p.
10. Ledgerwood, J. Microfinance Handbook: an Institutional and Financial Perspective,
USA: Washington DC: World Bank Publications, 1999. 304 p.
224
11. Lee, P. A., ed. Introduction to Credit Unions, 4-th edition. USA: CUNA, Kendall & Hunt
Publishing Company, 1990. 265 p.
12. Rao, P. K. Development Finance. Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin-Heidelberg, 2003.
208 p.
13. Robinson, M. S. The Microfinance Revolution. USA: Washington DC: World Bank
Publications, Open Society Institute NY, 2003. 306 p.
14. Sundaresan, S., ed. Microfinance: Emerging Trends and Challenges. UK: Edward Elgar
Publishing Ltd, 2008. 130 p.
15. Wisniwski, S. Developing Commercially Viable Microfinance: Microfinance
Handbook. 2004 Bankakademie Verlag GmbH, Bankakademie International 2004, kfw
Entwicklungsbank, Germany, p. 1116.
16. Latvijas Kooperatvo krjaizdevu sabiedrbu savienbas nepublictie materili:
krjaizdevu sabiedrbu statistikas dati par 2005.2010. gadu, mcbu materili par
krjaizdevu sabiedrbm.
Summary
Microfinance is the provision of basic financial services - savings, credit, and
insurance - to poor households, which are able to involve themselves into incomegenerating activities. Credit Union is a member-owned, not-for-profit cooperative financial
institution. Credit unions can be actively involved in provision of microfinance services.
Credit Unions help people to become more active in their economic and social life. There
are 34 credit unions in Latvia, which provide safe and low-cost financial services to
25 thousands of their members. Credit union members give preference to credit union
services and describe their financial cooperatives as reliable and safe institutions. There
is a big potential hidden in these mutual-help organizations. But unfortunately because
of limited membership, 34 credit unions are not enough to cover all the interested people
in the country. To make microfinance services more available in the country, government
should support microfinance initiative in state development documents, position credit
unions as microfinance institutions. At the same time existing credit unions should better
promote themselves and help interested people to organize new credit unions.
Keywords: microfinance, credit union, financial cooperative, poverty, income
inequality, social exclusion.

225.236. lpp.
Tristu apmierintbas faktoru struktras analze Latvij

The Analysis of the Factor Structure of Tourist Satisfaction
in Latvia
Ilze Medne
E-pasts: ilze.medne@lu.lv
raksta mris ir raksturot rzemju tristu apmierintbas lmea izmaias Latvijas trisma
tirg, analizt tristu apmierintbas faktoru struktru un identifict tos faktorus jeb ceojuma
elementus, kuri palielina tristu apmierintbu, novr tristu neapmierintbu vai ar darbojas
abjdi.
Rakst tiek analizti un novrtti divu rzemju tristu aptauju rezultti, izmantojot tristu
apmierintbas matricas un soda / balvas faktoru analzes metodes.
Autore piedv pilnveidot rzemju tristu aptaujas anketas, k ar ptt vietjo tristu apmie
rintbu.
Atslgvrdi: tristu apmierintba, apmierintbas faktoru struktras analze.
Ievads
Latvija k trisma vieta un rzemju tristu galamris konkur ar vairkm citm
Ziemeaustrumeiropas trisma vietm, pirmm krtm ar kaimivalstm Igauniju un
Lietuvu, piedvjot ldzgus apstkus brvdienu un darjumu trismam.
Kop 1993. gada rzemju ceotju skaits Latvij ir pieaudzis vairk nek 2rei
zes, uzrdot maingu augup un lejup ejou tendenci laika posm no 1993. ldz
1999.gadam, bet kop 2000. gada ldz pat 2008./2009. gada globlajai ekonomiska
jai krzei rzemju ceotju plsma uz Latviju ir neprtraukti augusi, un ts pieau
gums svrsts robes no 7% 2001. gad ldz pat 24% 2005. gad. Straujie rzemju
ceotju skaita pieauguma tempi 2004.2006. gad ir skaidrojami gan ar zemo iz
maksu lidsabiedrbu ienkanu Latvijas avioprvadjumu tirg (Ryanair un EasyJet
2004. gad, Aer Lingus un Norvegian Air 2005. gad), gan ar pievienoanos ES,
kas ldzi nesusi pastiprintu rvalstu urnlistu un iedzvotju interesi par jauno
dalbvalsti. Tomr jau 2007. gad ienko trisma pieaugums ir bijis gandrz
2 reizes mazks (13%) nek iepriekjos 3 gados, un tas liecina par zinmu tirgus
piestinjumu un liek secint, ka Latvijas trisma produktu piedvtjiem vairk
uzmanbas ir jpievr mrketinga aktivittm, kas vrstas uz jau pareizjo tristu
piesaistanu un jaunu tristu ieganu.
226
1. attls. rzemju ceotju skaita dinamika Latvij 1993.2009. gad (tkst., %)

The Dynamics of the Number of Foreign Travelers in Latvia in 1993-2009 (thous., %)
Avots: autores veidots attls, izmantojot LR CSP datus [7].
Svargs tristu piesaistes ldzeklis ir tristu k patrtju apmierintba, kura

var izraist gan pareizjo tristu atgrieanos, gan jaunu tristu ieganu ar tlk
ieteikanas (word-of-mouth) paldzbu. ptjuma mris ir analizt rzem
ju tristu apmierintbas lmeni un faktoru struktru, k ar noteikt tos faktorus
(ceojuma elementus), kuri paaugstina vai pazemina tristu apmierintbu Latvij.
Tristu apmierintbas faktoru struktras analzes metodes

Lai trisma vietas sptu sekmgi piesaistt tristus, ir svargi noskaidrot, kds
ir tristu apmierintbas lmenis, tau objektvkai apmierintbas novrtanai
nepiecieams noteikt ar tos ceojuma elementus vai pakalpojumu pazmes, kuri
tristiem ir svargki un kuri mazk svargi. Ceojuma elementu nozmguma un
tristu apmierintbas lmea savstarpjs attiecbas analz izmanto t. s. klientu
apmierintbas portfeli jeb matricu, kuru da veida ptjumos iesaka lietot V.naiders
(W. Schneider) [4, 119; 5, 135]. Klientu apmierintbas matricas dimensijas veido
atseviu ceojuma elementu vai trisma pakalpojumu pazmju relatv
nozme jeb svargums klienta vrtbu skal;
tristu apmierintbas lmenis attiecb uz tiem paiem ceojuma elementiem
vai pakalpojumu pazmm.
Tiem ceojuma elementiem vai pakalpojumu pazmm, kuri klientiem ir mazk
svargi, pieaujams ar zemks apmierintbas lmenis. Savukrt nav apaubma
to ceojuma elementu vai pakalpojumu pazmju nozme tristu apmierintbas
nodroinan, kurus klienti uzskata par svargkajiem. Zems apmierintbas lmenis
ar atbilstoiem ceojuma elementiem ir uzskatms par vjo punktu, kura novrana
I. Medne. Tristu apmierintbas faktoru struktras analze Latvij
227
ir jnosaka par stratisko prioritti. Ceojuma elementi vai pakalpojumu pazmes

ar augstu nozmgumu tristu vrtbu skal kop ar augstu apmierintbas lmeni
parda produkta stiprs puses, kas var bt trisma vietas vai uzmuma konkurences
priekrocbas.
Nozmgas daas tristu apmierintbas ptjumu pamat ir patrtju ap
mierintbas trs faktoru modelis, kas plak pazstams k Kano modelis. Japu
ptnieks Noriaki Kano patrtju apmierintbas trs faktoru struktru pirmoreiz
definja 1984. gad, pamatojot, ka patrtju apmierintba vai neapmierintba
veidojas no dadu faktoru iedarbbas, un tos var iedalt trs grups: pirmaj grup
tiek ierindoti bzes faktori, kuri nodroina produkta / pakalpojuma minimls pra
sbas un kuru trkums izraisa neapmierintbu, bet esamba nerada augstku ap
mierintbas lmeni. o faktoru negatvam novrtjumam ir lielka ietekme uz
kopjo apmierintbas lmeni nek pozitvam novrtjumam. Otra faktoru grupa
ir t. s. valdzinjuma faktori, kas palielina patrtju apmierintbas lmeni, ja tie
ietilpst produkta pazmju sastv, bet nesamazina to, ja to nav produkta pazmju
sastv. Valdzinjuma faktori prsteidz klientu un rada prieku. Tre faktoru grupa
ir produkta / pakalpojuma izpildjuma faktori jeb vlamo pakalpojumu faktori, kas
rada apmierintbu, ja to izpildjuma kvalitte ir augsta, un neapmierintbu, ja
kvalitte ir zema. Izpildjuma kvalittes un apmierintbas savstarpj sakarba ir
linera un simetriska (2. att.).
Klients oti
apmierints,
savaldzints
Valdzinjuma
faktori
Vlamo
pakalpojumu
faktori
Laiks
Vienaldzbas
zona
Klienta
gaidas nav
piepildtas
Bzes
faktori
Klienta
gaidas ir
prpildtas
Klients oti
neapmierints,
vlies
2. attls. Klientu apmierintbas trsfaktoru jeb Kano modelis

The Three-factor Consumer Satisfaction Model of Kano [3, 447]
228
augsts
SVARGIE
PRODUKTA /
PAKALPOJUMA
IZPILDJUMA
FAKTORI
MAZSVARGIE
PRODUKTA /
PAKALPOJUMA
IZPILDJUMA
FAKTORI
NEAPMIERINTBU
IZRAISOIE
(BZES)
FAKTORI
NETIEAIS
SVARGUMS
AUGSTU
APMIERINTBU
RADOIE
(VALDZINJUMA)
FAKTORI
zems
Apmierintbas trsfaktoru struktras empriskajos ptjumos visbiek tiek

lietotas divas metodes: vienu no m metodm piedv T. G. Vavra (T. G. Vavra)
[6,384387]. s metodes pamat ir patrtju / klientu apmierintbas higinas jeb
bzes, pakalpojumu un valdzinjuma faktoru identificana, saldzinot dadu pakal
pojumu vai ar trisma vietas pazmju / faktoru tieo (explicit) svarguma novrtjumu
ar netieo (implicit) jeb atvasinto novrtjumu. Tdjdi tiek pieemta hipotze, ka
patrtji spj atirt produkta / pakalpojuma ties un neties svarguma dimensijas,
kas tlk paldz identifict trs faktorus, kas nosaka apmierintbu: faktorus, kuri
izraisa neapmierintbu, faktorus, kas rada apmierintbu, un valdzinjuma faktorus.
Faktori, kas rada augstu apmierintbu jeb valdzinjuma faktori aptaujs parasti
iegst oti zemu svarguma novrtjumu, tau tie uzrda oti augstu netieu ietekmi
uz apmierintbas novrtjumu. Produktu / pakalpojumu izpildjuma faktori ir kva
littes pazmes jeb dimensijas, kuras vienlaikus parda gan tieo, gan netieo sva
rgumu. Tie tiek apzmti k viendimensionli faktori. Atkarb no novrtjuma
lmea izir augsta un zema svarguma produkta / pakalpojuma izpildjuma fak
torus. Produkta/ pakalpojuma pazmes jeb dimensijas, kuras parasti apzm k ne
apmierintbu izraisoos jeb bzes faktorus, patrtji parasti vrt ar oti augstu
(tieo) svarguma novrtjumu, tau tiem parasti nav (neties) ietekmes uz kopjo
apmierintbas lmeni, vai t ir oti neliela (3. att.).
zems
augsts
TIEAIS SVARGUMS
3. attls. Apmierintbu / neapmierintbu izraisoo faktoru svarguma gradcijas
matrica
Satisfaction / Dissatisfaction Factor Importance Grid Matrix [6, 385]
Apmierintbu vai neapmierintbu izraisoo faktoru svarguma gradcijas

matric produkta pazmju jeb kvalittes dimensiju svarguma vrtjumi tiek atzmti
229
uz horizontls ass, pamatojoties uz aptaujto patrtju jeb klientu tieo novrtjumu.

Netie svarguma vrtjums tiek iegts ar regresijas modea paldzbu, atsevios
dadu produktu vai trisma vietas pazmju apmierintbas lmeus attiecinot pret
kopjo apmierintbas lmeni.
Otra metode ir t. s. soda / balvas (Penalty / Reward) faktoru analzes metode,
kuru attstja R. D. Brands (R. D. Brandt) [1, 6165; 2, 3541]. Ar metode
pieder pie daudzfaktoru analzes metodm un balsts uz hipotzi, ka produktu /
pakalpojumu struktru veido divu veidu produktu / pakalpojumu pazmes jeb faktori:
rutnas faktori un izmuma faktori. Produktu jeb pakalpojumu soda faktori ir tie
elementi jeb pazmes, kuru iztrkums vai slikts izpildjums (zema kvalitte) izraisa
klientu neapmierintbu. Savukrt t. s. balvas faktori ir tie produktu / pakalpojumu
elementi, kuri rada paaugstintu klientu apmierintbu, tau, ja to nav, apmierintba
nesamazins.
Metodes pamatmris ir soda un balvas faktoru noteikana. Ts izmantoanai
nepiecieams noskaidrot kopjo apmierintbas lmeni, k ar apmierintbu ar
atseviiem produkta / pakalpojumu elementiem. Metode tiek realizta, veicot
regresijas analzi un izmantojot t. s. fiktvos maingos (Dummy-Variables), kuri
aizvieto stos apmierintbas novrtjumus. Nosakot t. s. soda faktorus, apmie
rintbas vrtjumi 1 (oti neapmierints) un 2 (drzk neapmierints) tiek aizvietoti
ar vrtbu 1, bet citi vrtjumi ar vrtbu 0, savukrt, nosakot t. s. balvas faktorus,
apmierintbas vrtjums 5 (oti apmierints) tiek aizvietots ar vrtbu 1, bet citi ar
vrtbu 0. Tdjdi fiktvais maingais, kur atspoguo sliktu produkta / pakalpojumu
izpildjumu, parasti ietver divus zemkos 5 punktu Likerta skalas vrtjumus,
bet fiktvais maingais, kur atspoguo pozitvu vrtjumu, ietver tikai augstko
novrtjumu. Regresijas rezultt iegtie koeficienti var ietvert ar vairkus statistiski
nenozmgus koeficientus, kuriem atbilstoie produkta / pakalpojumu faktori tiek
izslgti no tlks analzes.
Analizjot iepriek aplkoto patrtju apmierintbas novrtanas metou
lietojumu pdjo gadu empriskajos ptjumos, autore nonca pie secinjuma, ka
ts tiek vienldz biei izmantotas ar tristu apmierintbas lmea un ts faktoru
struktras analz. im nolkam nepiecieamo datu veidi apkopoti 1. tabul.
1. tabula
Tristu apmierintbas lmea un ts faktoru struktras

analzeinepiecieamodatuveidi
Data Types Required for the Analysis of Tourist Satisfaction and its Factor Structure
Patrtju apmierintbas
matrica
Apmierintbu /
neapmierintbu izraisoo
faktoru svarguma gradcijas
matrica
Soda / balvas (Penalty /

Reward) faktoru analze
Ceojuma elementu / pakal- Ceojuma elementu / pakal- Apmierintba ar atseviiem

pojumu pazmju svargums
pojumu pazmju svargums
ceojuma elementiem / pa Apmierintba ar atseviiem Apmierintba ar atseviiem kalpojumu pazmm
ceojuma elementiem / paceojuma elementiem / pa Kopj apmierintba
kalpojumu pazmm
kalpojumu pazmm
Kopj apmierintba
Avots: izstrdjusi autore.
230
rzemju tristu apmierintbas ptjumi Latvij

rzemju tristu apmierintbas ptjumi Latvij tiek veikti kop 2007. gada.
Raksta autore ir piedaljusies divu rzemju tristu aptauju sagatavoan un realiz
an sadarbb ar Latvijas Trisma attstbas valsts aentru (TAVA) un ieguvusi
aptaujas neapstrdtos datus, kuri tika izmantoti turpmkaj analz.
2007. gada rzemju tristu aptauja tika veikta no jlija ldz decembrim. Izman
tojot nejaus izlases metodi, dads Latvijas viets tika uzrunti rzemju tristi un
iegtas 989 dergas anketas. Ldzs citiem jautjumiem aptaujas ankets bija ietverti
vairki jautjumi, kuru mris bija noskaidrot dadu ceojuma elementu svargumu
un apmierintbu ar iem elementiem, rzemju tristu atgrieans nodomus, k ar
Latvijas k ceojuma galamra tlk ieteikanas nolkus.
Izmantojot iegtos datus, tika aprints rzemju tristu vidjais apmierintbas
lmenis (3,64 Likerta skal no 1 oti neapmierints ldz 5 oti apmierints), k
ar doti apmierintbas un svarguma vrtjumi katram (pavisam bija 21) ceojuma
elementa (4.att.).
4. attls. Vidj apmierintba ar atseviiem ceojuma elementiem, to svargums

unrespondentu vidjais apmierintbas lmenis
Average Satisfaction with Certain Elements of the Trip, the Importance of the Elements
and the Average Satisfaction Level of the Respondents
Avots: 2007. gada rzemju tristu aptaujas dati.
Diagramma parda rzemju tristiem svargkos ceojuma elementus: Droba

(3,88), Tristu mtnes (3,83), Veselgs diens (3,81), Svargko tristu piesaistes
231
objektu apmeklana (3,8). Visaugstkais apmierintbas vrtjums ir konstatjams

ceojuma elementiem Svargko tristu piesaistes objektu apmeklana (3,98),
Droba un Dabas baudana (3,93).
Attl apkopot informcija atbilst tai informcijai, kas iegta ar patrtju
(tristu) apmierintbas matricas paldzbu, td eit netiks dublta matricas
veid. Diagrammas stabii, kuri atbilst negatvai starpbai starp apmierintbu ar
ceojuma elementu un t svargumu tristiem, parda Latvijas k trisma galamra
vjs vietas: vislielko negatvo vrtbu sasniedz Kontaktans ar vietjiem
iedzvotjiem (0,16), Vietj dzvesveida iepazana (0,12). Ceojuma elementi
Svargko tristu piesaistes objektu apmeklana un Droba, kuri ir ieguvui
visaugstko svarguma un apmierintbas vrtjumu, ir Latvijas k trisma galamra
stiprs puses.
2007. gada aptauj iegtie dati nedeva iespju veikt apmierintbu / neapmieri
ntbu izraisoo faktoru svarguma analzi ar gradcijas matricas metodi un soda /
balvas (Penalty / Reward) faktoru analzi, jo aj aptauj anket nebija iekauts
jautjums par respondentu apmierintbu ar ceojumu kopum (kopj apmieri
ntba).
2010. gada rzemju tristu aptauja tika veikta no 2010. gada jlija ldz decem
brim, aptaujas mrgrupa bija rzemju tristi no augsti prioritriem Latvijas trisma
mrtirgiem Igaunijas, Krievijas, Lietuvas, Somijas, Vcijas un Zviedrijas. Izlase:
nejaua kvotu izlase, plnojot 4000 respondentu izlasi (tie rzemju tristi vecum
no 15 gadiem, kuri apmekljui Latviju). Sasniegts izlases apjoms: vairk nek
12 200 kontaktu (izstto e-pasta uzaicinjumu), iegtas 952 pilnb pabeigtas
intervijas.
Vairki aptaujas jautjumi tika veidoti, lai noskaidrotu rzemju tristu kopjo
apmierintbu ar ceojumu uz Latviju, apmierintbu ar cenu / pakalpojumu attiec
bm, ceojuma izdevgumu, k ar apmierintbu ar dadiem ceojuma elementiem.
Tika noskaidroti ar ceotju nodomi ieteikt Latviju k ceojuma galamri citiem
potencilajiem Latvijas apmekltjiem (di nodomi ir viena no tristu apmierin
tbas izpausmm).
Aptaujas datu analze pardja, ka respondentu vidjais apmierintbas lmenis ar
dadiem ceojuma elementiem ir 4,17 (aptaujas ankets apmierintbas novrtanai
tika piedvti 22 dadi ceojuma elementi) (Likerta skal no 1 oti neapmierints
ldz 5 oti apmierints), bet vidj apmierintba ar atseviiem ceojuma
elementiem svrsts robes no 3,78 (Izbraukumi ar velosipdu) ldz 4,42 (Miera
un klusuma baudana) (5. att.).
Saldzinot ar 2007. gad veikts rzemju tristu aptaujas rezulttiem, respondentu
vidjais apmierintbas lmenis ir pieaudzis no 3,64 ldz 4,17, kas liecina par Latvijas
trisma produkta kvalittes paaugstinanos.
Nebija iespjams saldzint abu aptauju rezulttus attiecb uz tristu nodomiem
par atgrieanos Latvij, jo 2010. gada aptauj tie netika noskaidroti, bet tlkieteik
anas nodomi 2007. un 2010. gada aptauj tika noteikti dads novrtjuma
skals.
232
5. atls. Vidj apmierintba ar atseviiem ceojuma elementiem un respondentu

vidjais apmierintbas lmenis
Average Satisfaction with Certain Elements of the Trip and Average Satisfaction Level
Avots: 2010. gada rzemju tristu aptaujas dati.
2010. gada rzemju tristu aptauju tehniski realizja SIA Factum, izemot
no aptaujas anketm 2 nozmgus jautjumus: ceojuma elementu svarguma
novrtjumu un, k jau tika nordts, jautjumu par rzemju tristu atgrieans
nodomiem. Tas liedza iespju tristu apmierintbas analz izmantot patrtju
apmierintbas matricu, k ar apmierintbu vai neapmierintbu izraisoo faktoru
svarguma analzi ar gradcijas matricas metodi.
Aptauj iegtie dati deva iespju analizt soda un balvas faktorus, kas ir svargs
instruments, lai noteiktu tos ceojuma elementus jeb faktorus, kuru trkums vai
slikts izpildjums (zema kvalitte) izraisa klientu neapmierintbu, un tos faktorus,
kuri rada paaugstintu klientu apmierintbu. Izmantojot fiktvos maingos un veicot
regresijas analzi, tika iegti 9 ceojuma elementi jeb apmierintbas faktori, kuriem
atbilstoie fiktvo maingo koeficienti izrdjs ar pietiekamu statistisko btiskumu
(significance) (2. tab.).
233
2. tabula
Soda un balvas faktoru analzes fiktvo maingo koeficienti

Coefficients of the Dummy Variables for the Penalty-Reward Analysis
Fiktvo maingo koeficienti un btiskuma prbaude
Ceojuma elementi
Augsta apBtisZema
Btis- Btiskums
mierintba, kums H0, apmierin- kums H0,
H0,
j+
j+ = 0
tba, jj- = 0
j++ j- = 0
1.
Tristu mtnes
0,202
0,010
0,548
0,009
0,128
2.
dinanas pakalpojumi
0,148
0,080
0,874
0,000
0,001
3.
Vietjs virtuves baudana
0,162
0,039
4.
Pilstu apskate
0,200
0,008
0,752
0,009
0,066
5.
Galveno tristu piesaistes

objektu apmeklana
6.
Dabas baudana
0,174
0,021
7.
Miera un klusuma baudana
8.
Izbraukumi ar velosipdu
9.
Prgjieni un pastaigas dab
0,246
0,001
1,755
0,000
0,000
16. Kontaktans ar vietjiem

iedzvotjiem
0,160
0,073
17. Brvdienas ar brniem
0,276
0,047
1,196
0,000
10. Pludmales
11. Medbas
12. Makerana
13. Kultras mantojuma
baudana
14. Vietj dzvesstila iepazana
15. Vietjo tradciju un amatu
apgana
18. Labjtes / SPA pakalpojumi

19. Medicnas pakalpojumi
20. Nakts dzve un izklaide
21. Iepirkans
22. Sporta paskumi
Konstante
4,074
0,000
R = 0,235
2
Lai noteiktu t. s. bzes faktorus, kuri nodroina ceojuma elementu minimls

prasbas (o elementu trkums izraisa neapmierintbu, bet esamba nerada lielku
apmierintbu), ir jatlasa tie faktori, kuru zemas apmierintbas fiktvo maingo
koeficienti ir lielki nek augstas apmierintbas fiktvo maingo koeficienti. aj
234
gadjum par bzes faktoriem ir uzskatmi di ceojuma elementi: Tristu mtnes,

dinanas pakalpojumi, Pilstu apskate un Kultras mantojuma baudana
(6. att.).
Balvas (reward) jeb valdzinjuma faktori, kuri var palielint tristu apmierin
tbas lmeni, ja tie ietilpst piedvjum, bet nesamazina to, ja to piedvjum nav, ir
tie faktori, kuru zemas apmierintbas fiktvo maingo koeficienti nav pietiekami no
zmgi, bet augstas apmierintbas fiktvo maingo koeficienti ir pietiekami nozmgi.
Latvijas gadjum tie ir tdi faktori k Brvdienas ar brniem, Vietjs virtuves
baudana, Dabas baudana un Kontaktans ar vietjiem iedzvotjiem. ie
faktori prsteidz klientu, rada prieku un paaugstintu apmierintbu, kuras rezultts
var bt atgrieans Latvij nkamaj ceojum vai Latvijas k ceojuma galamra
tlk ieteikana, ttad tristu piesaiste bez papildu mrketinga aktivitu veikanas.
6. attls. Soda un balvas faktoru analze

Penalty-Revard Analysis
Pdjais jeb devtais faktors Nakts dzve un izklaide ir neapaubmi rakstu

rojams k soda (penalty) faktors, jo tam nav nozmgas augstas apmierintbas fik
tvo koeficientu vrtbas, bet ir izteikti nozmga zemas apmierintbas fiktvo koefi
cientu vrtba. Ttad izklaides un naktsdzves piedvjuma trkums vai slikta kvalitte izraisa pastiprintu tristu neapmierintbu, kas var izpausties k negatva no
mutes mut reklma un lmums Latvij vairs neatgriezties.
235
Secinjumi un ieteikumi
Ldz im ar raksta autores ldzdalbu veiktie tristu apmierintbas ptjumi un
aj rakst pardt tristu apmierintbas faktoru analze, kaut ar objektvi nepilnga,
auj izdart svargus secinjumus Latvijas k trisma vietas un ceojumu galamra
mrketinga pilnveidoanai.
Katra no eit apskattajm patrtju apmierintbas faktoru nozmbas un
struktras analzes metodm auj objektvk novrtt tristu apmierintbu,
izskaidrot kopjs apmierintbas veidoanos un prognozt turpmko trista
k patrtja uzvedbu.
Lai vartu pilnvrtgk izptt tristu apmierintbu un novrtt dadu
ceojuma elementu nozmi kopj tristu apmierintb, nkamajs tristu
aptaujs, analizjot apmierintbas faktoru struktru un izmantojot visas
trs eit apskatts metodes, nepiecieams iekaut jautjumus, kas autu
noskaidrot
tristu kopjo apmierintbu ar ceojumu / uzturanos Latvij;
tristu apmierintbu ar atseviiem ceojuma elementiem;
ceojuma elementu svargumu.
rzemju tristu turpmks patrtjuzvedbas prognozanai tristu aptauj
jiekauj jautjumi gan par atgrieans, gan tlkieteikanas nodomiem,
izmantojot nemaingu vrtjuma skalu.
Pieaugot vietj trisma nozmei Latvijas trisma tirg, jpta vietjo tristu
apmierintba, lai noskaidrotu kopgs un atirgs iezmes rzemju un
vietjo tristu ceojuma elementu novrtjum un patrtjuzvedb.
is darbs izstrdts ar Eiropas Socil fonda atbalstu projekt Atbalsts doktora
studijm Latvijas Universitt.
LITERATRA
1. Brandt, R. D. (1987) A Procedure for Identifying Value-Enhanced Service Components
Using Customer Satisfaction Survey Data. Add Value to Your Service, edit. Surprenant,
C. American Marketing Association: Chicago, p. 6165.
2. Brandt, R. D. (1988) How Service Marketers Can Identify Value-Enhanced Service
Elements. The Journal of Service Marketing, Vol. 2., Nr. 3 (Summer), p. 3541.
3. Matzler, K., Pechlaner, H., Siller, H. (2001) Die Ermittlung von Basis-, Leistungs- und
Begeisterungsfaktoren der Gstezufriedenheit. Tourismus Journal, 5 (4), S. 445469.
236
4. Schneider, W. (2000) Kundenzufriedenheit: Strategie, Messung, Management. Landsberg.

Lech: Moderne Industrie, 208 S.
5. Schneider, W., Kornmeier, M. (2006) Kundenzufriedenheit: Konzept, Messung,
Management. Bern, Stuttgart, Wien: Haupt, 309 S.
6. Vavra, T. G. (1997) Improving Your Measurement of Customer Satisfaction: A Guide
to Creating, Conducting, Analyzing and Reporting Customer Satisfaction Measurement
Program. Milwaukee, WI: ASQC Quality Press, 490 p.
7. Trisms Latvij. Rga: LR CSP (ikgadjie trisma statistikas datu krjumi 19942010).
Summary
The aim of this article is to analyze the satisfaction level of foreign tourists in
tourism market in Latvia, the factor structure of tourist satisfaction and to identify those
factors (components of the trip) in Latvia that increase tourist satisfaction, those that
prevent the tourist from feeling dissatisfied and those factors that can work both ways.
The article presents and analyses the results of two foreign tourists surveys using
tourist satisfaction matrix and penalty/ reward factor analysis methods.
The author recommends to improve questionnaires for foreign tourists, as well as to
organise domestic tourism survey.
Keywords: tourist satisfaction, satisfaction factor structure analysis.

237.245. lpp.
Nodoku process k budeta resursu veidoanas pamats

Tax Process as a Basis for Formation of Budgetary
Rescurces
Gaina Reina
Baltijas Starptautisk akadmija

Lomonosova iela 4, Rga, LV-1019
Epasts: reshinaganna@inbox.lv
Lai reli sasniegtu plnotos budeta parametrus, jbt principilam prieknoteikumam
maksimli preczai t iemumu daas prasbu izpildei, kas ir fisklo, ekonomisko un socilo
valsts funkciju stenoanas pamats. Rakst pamatota nodoku un budeta procesa adekvtas
un preczas savstarpjs saiknes nepiecieamba, im procesam jveido vienots funkcionls
veselums, nodoku iemumu da nodroinot pietiekamus vajadzgos resursus. Pc autores
domm, da pieeja paredz nepiecieambu pankt pamatotu ldzsvaru starp ekonomiski
iespjamiem un politiski nepiecieamiem nodoku procesa rezulttiem. Galvenais sldziens
prasbu stenoana nodoku procesa organizan ir nodoku iemumu, kas veido iemumu
strukturizcijas konstruktvo principu to ieganas avotu griezum, objektvas nodroinanas
pamats.
Atslgvrdi: budeta iemumi, budeta process, nodoku process, nodoku plnoana,
nodoku prognozana.
Msdienu ekonomisks attstbas apstkos, kad valsts nodoki sasniegui lielus

apjomus un nodoku iemumi veido valsts ienkumu galveno dau, jebkur gad
um jnovrt nodoku kvantitatv un kvalitatv ietekme gan uz ekonomikas
pieaugumu, gan uz ts samazinanos. No viedoka nodoku politika vispirms
iedarbojas uz uzmju aktivitti, iedzvotju nodarbintbu, valsts un pavaldbu,
k ar mjsaimniecbu ienkumu sadali. Haotiska un neapsvrta iejaukans nodoku
likmju izmainan nekdi neveicina apstku raanos, lai palielintos ienkumi k
visa vajadzbu kompleksa apmierinanas avots valst. Mint aktualitte nosaka
raksta mri nodoku procesa praktisks realizcijas prasbu pamatojums, kuru
reglament divi galvenie komponenti nodoku prognozana un nodoku plnoana.
mra stenoanai tiek izvirzti di uzdevumi:
atspoguot ekonomisks lejupsldes aktuls krzveidgs izpausmes, kas ie
tekm budeta resursu veidoanos;
pamatot budeta procesa saturisko struktru un noteikt ts reglamentanas
konceptulos pamatus;
konkretizt un raksturot budeta procesa organizanas prasbu prioritti k
budeta resursu veidoanas pamatu.
238
Ptjuma metodoloija balsts uz emprisko pieeju, un autore ir izmantojusi

sistmiski analtisko un funkcionli loisko metodi.
Makroekonomikas krituma un ekonomisks nenoteiktbas apstkos jievro
nodoku bzes veidoanas relie nosacjumi. Jebkura prrinans vai nepilnga
jautjuma izpte, mainot nodokus, pazemina ne tikai valsts ienkumu lmeni, bet
spgi skar ar iedzvotju labkljbu. Latvijas Republik krzes pardbu simpto
mtika izpauas k uzmjdarbbas un patranas aktivittes krasa samazinans,
pastvgi augsts bezdarba lmenis un darba resursu masveida aizplana uz rzemm.
Tas veicina disproporciju palielinanos reionu attstb, budeta izdevumu (to
skait socilo, medicnas, izgltbas, zintnes izdevumu), vietjo pavaldbu dz
vesdarbbu veicinoo programmu sekvestrcij. Tpc nepiecieams nekavjoties un
radikli maint fiskls un nodoku politikas veidoanas paskumus, kuri veicintu
gan tautsaimniecbas kompleksa atjaunoanu, gan ilglaicgu stimulu raanos t
turpmkajai izaugsmei.
Konsolidt kopbudeta struktras analze no 2007. ldz 2011. gadam parda, ka
budeta ienkumos krasi samazins nodoku iemumi. 2007.2008. gad nodoku
iemumi bija 81,682,7% no budeta ienkumiem, bet budeta prognoz par
2011. gadu paredzti 72,6%. Turklt to samazinans tempi prognoz par diviem
krzes gadiem 2009. un 2010. gadu ir 28,9 procentpunkti, kopjiem iemumiem
samazinoties par 20 procentpunktiem saldzinjum ar attstbas zi labvlgko
2008. gadu. Vis analizjam period budeta ienkumu daas samazinans bija
350,3 milj. latu jeb 6,5% saldzinjum ar 2007. gadu (bzes gadu) un 12,7%
saldzinjum ar 2008. gadu (pirmskrzes gadu). Uzmanba pievrama faktam: lai
ar krasi samazins gan budeta iemumi, gan ar iekzemes kopprodukts (IKP),
to savstarpj attiecba rda noturgu pieaugumu no 32,2% 2007. gad ldz 36,4%
2010. gad un 38,1% 2011. gad, pastvot pretjai tendencei nodoku iemumos
attiecb pret IKP atbilstoi 29,5, 26,9 un 27,4% (1. tab.; att.).
1. tabula
Nodoku iemumi konsolidtaj kopbudet no 2007. ldz 2011. gadam (milj. latu)
Tax revenue in consolidated budget structure in 20072011 (millions of lats)
2007
1. Kopbudeta iemumi,
% no IKP
t. sk. nodoku iemumi,
% no IKP
Nodoku iemumi % no budeta
iemumiem
2. Pieagums faktiskajs cens
(% pret iepriekjo gadu)
Kopbudeta iemumi
Nodoku iemumi
5350,1
36,2
4363,1
29,5
81,6
2008
fakts
5727,2
35,3
4737,4
29,2
82,7
2009
2010
2011
prognoze
4607,0
4999,8
36,4
38,1
3402,8
3630,4
26,9
27,4
73,9
72,6
4728,4
36,1
3509,7
26,8
74,2
33,2
7,0
17,4
2,6
8,5
32,3
8,6
25,9
3,0
6,7
Autores aprini pamatojas uz diem avotiem: 4.2. 2.1., 2.2., 2.3. tab.
G. Reina. Nodoku process k budeta resursu veidoanas pamats
2011
27,4
2010
26,9
2009
26,8
2011
38,1
36,4
t. sk. Nodoku
2010
iemumi
% no IKP
36,1
2008
29,2
2007
29,5
35,3
36,2
Kopbudeta
iemumi
% no IKP
38,1
36,4
2009
36,1
2008
35,3
2007
36,2
239
72,6
73,9
74,2
82,7
81,6
Kopbudeta
iemumi
% no IKP
Nodoku
iemumi
% no
budeta
Attls. Nodoku iemumi konsolidtaj kopbudet no 2007. ldz 2011. gadam

(milj.latu)
Tax revenue in consolidated budget structure in 20072011 (millions of lats)
Jautjuma izpte liecina: lai ar notiek atseviu nodoku veidu likmju piespiedu
palielinana, tomr budeta resursi ne tikai nepalielins, bet pat ievrojami
samazins. Piemram, no 2007. ldz 2011. gadam iemumi no pievienots vrtbas
nodoka samazinjs par 263,6 milj. latu jeb par 21,3% un pc 2011. gada progno
zjamiem iemumiem jbt tikai 939,3 milj. latu, neskatoties uz likmju palielin
anu 2009. gad, k ar dadu atvieglojumu likmju atcelanu im nodoklim (t
turpins ar 2011. gad) [4.2. 2.1. tab.].
Ar ierobeojoiem paskumiem nevar atrisint budeta iemumu problmu,
jo nodoku iemumu lielumu nosaka ne tikai nodoku atsavinanas kopdaa, bet
ar nodoku bzes apjoms. Maksjumi budet neprtraukti samazins, jo saaurins
nodoku bze, apstjas uzmjdarbbas pieaugums un krasi samazins ts apjomi,
kapitls prceas aiz nacionls ekonomikas robem un uz nu ekonomikas sektoru,
notiek izvairans no nodoku maksanas. Tas viss ietekm brvo iekjo ldzeku,
kas veido iekjos aizmumus, uzkranu, un to loma jtami pavjins. ajos
apstkos nkas krasi samazint daudzas valsts socils programmas un vienlaikus
palielint rjos aizmumus, lai izpildtu minimli nepiecieams valsts prvaldes
saistbas. T, piemram, 2007. gad konsolidt kopbudeta struktr rvalstu
finansil paldzba bija 10,5% no nodoku iemumiem, bet 2011. gad rvalstu
finansil paldzba pieaugusi gandrz divas reizes un veido 18% no nodoku
iemumiem. 2011. gad finanu transfertu pieaugums faktisks cens saldzinjum
ar iepriekjo gadu ir 49,7% [4.2. 2.1.; 2.3. tab.].
Jautjums kst aktulks td, ka mint pardba noris, vienlaikus pieaugot
aizmumu apkalpoanas izdevumiem, kas 2009. gad bija 212,5 milj. latu, bet ldz
2013. gadam tiem jbt jau 270,0 milj. latu, pieaugot valsts pardam, kura lielums
mint perioda beigs noteikts 47,2% no IKP. ie maksjuma procenti atbilst
nacionl budeta finansjuma lielumam tds sabiedrbai nozmgs nozars k
zintne, kultra, izgltba, medicna [4.3. 6.3., 6.4. tab.].
Civiliztu tirgus attiecbu veidoana objektvi prasa aizsargt cilvku
socilekonomisks tiesbas un intereses. Bez nodoku sistmas problmu risinjuma
nav iespjams pildt visas valsts funkcijas, no kurm oti nozmgas ir socils saistbas.
Pagaidu ekonomisks lejupsldes period sabiedrbas un valsts funkcionanas
240
galvenie uzdevumi apstkos, kad saglabjas visu paumu formu un tirgus attiecbu
daudzveidba, ir atbalstt nodoku sistmas tiesisko un socilekonomisko problmu
risinanu atbilstoi Konstitcijai un cilvku tiesbu un intereu aizsardzbai.
o jautjumu risinana ir aktula sakar ar Latvijas Republikas valdbas
paskumiem 2009. gad pensiju izmaksu apcirpanu, vairku socilo pabalstu
samazinanu, ar nodokli neapliekam minimuma samazinanu un nodoku
maksjumu par pievienots vrtbas palielinanu. Dai no tiem bija atzti par
antikonstitucionliem. da destruktva pieeja nestimul makstspjgo pieprasjumu
jeb efektvo pieprasjumu un provoc nodoku multiplikatora efekta raanos. Turklt
nevar apstrdt un noliegt faktu, ka nodoku palielinana veicina situciju, ka
noteikta nodoku makstju kategorija samazina un prtrauc savu darbbu. Runa
ir par tdu aplikanu ar nodokiem, kura btu spjga efektvi stimult attstbu un
maksimli mazint krzes rezonansi.
Visvairk diskusiju rada jautjums par nodoku negatvo iedarbbu uz eko
nomikas stimulanu, jo nodoki mazina personu komercilos ienkumus vai ar
ienkumus, ko cilvki saem darba algas veid. Pea no komercijas vai darba alga
ir svargkais faktors, k iedarboties uz personisko materilo ieinterestbu. Skaidri
japzins un jpiekrt atziai, ka cilvki par savas darbbas mri izvirza vispirms
naudas pelnanu (kaut vai tpc, lai nodrointu savai eksistencei nepiecieamos
ldzekus) un ka visi faktori, kas veicina naudas ienkumu palielinanos, aktiviz
cilvku darbu.
Ir visprzinma patiesba, ka izvest valsti no krzes var tikai uzmji. Nodokiem
jpaldz izdzvot uzmjiem, stenot nepiecieamo restrukturizciju un ieiet tirg ar
jauniem produktiem vai pakalpojumiem, kuru cena btu mazka un kvalitte labka.
Tiei aj apstkl saskatma krzes k attstbas avota liel filozofisk ideja [2].
paa vieta valsts izvean no krzes Latvij ir mazajiem uzmjiem, preczk,
mikrobiznesam, kur uzmum strdjoo skaits ir mazks par pieciem cilvkiem
un gada apgrozjums ir ldz 70 000 latu. Latvij mikrobiznesu veido 91% uzmju.
Tpc ir atbalstms prieklikums par iespjm prcelt bezdarbniekus un daji
nodarbintos tdu personu kategorij, kas veic saimniecisko darbbu. Un, lk, kd
tas ir nepiecieams. Analizjamaj piecu gadu period no 2007. ldz 2011. gadam
ienkuma nodoka daai no uzmumiem ir tendence krasi samazinties kopgaj
nodoku maksjumu apjom, konkrti no 503,1 milj. latu jeb 10,6% no nodoku
iemumiem labvlgkaj pirmskrzes 2008. gad ldz 112,2 milj. latu jeb 3,2%
2010. gad, atbilstoi 2011. gada prognozei sasniedzot 111,2 milj. latu jeb 3,1%
no visiem nodoku iemumiem. Aprini rda, ka nodoka summrais apmrs
trs gadu ekonomisks nenoteiktbas period (no 2009. ldz 2011. gadam) veido
420,6milj. latu vai dau (83%) tikai no viena nodoka iemumiem 2008.gad. T
daa iekzemes kopprodukt pakpeniski samazins un ir oti niecga: 2007. gad
2,75%, 2008. gad 3,1%, bet 2011. gad vairs tikai 0,8%, un tas auj apgalvot
par biznesa procesu zemo efektivitti, par konkurtspjas potencila zaudjumu,
neefektivitti vis nacionlaj ekonomik un galu gal par nodoka lomas pilngu
zudumu budeta iemumu un valsts fiskls politikas veidoan. Starp citu,
nodoka stimuljo un reguljo funkcija uzmjdarbbas aktivittes attstb un
ekonomiskajos procesos ES valsts ir nozmga [2. tab.].
241
2. tabula
Uzmumu ienkuma nodoka dinamika konsolidtaj kopbudet no 2007. ldz 2011.

gadam (milj. latu)
Dinamics of tax revenues in the Consolidated Budget in 20072011 (millions of lats)
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Iekzemes kopprodukts
(IKP)
14479,8
16188,2
13082,8
12640,3
13136,5
Uzmumu ienkuma
nodoklis
399,8
503,1
197,2
112,2
111,2
% no IKP
2,76
3,11
1,51
0,89
0,85
Autores aprini pamatojas uz diem avotiem: 4.1; 4.2. 2.1. tab.
Latvij tiei maz biznesa uzmjdarbbas jom palaik slpjas rels potenci
ls, kas vartu reanimt ekonomisks aktivittes, tikai noteikti jsteno pamatota
nodoku politika. Krzes laik valstij ekonomika jregul t, lai reli sasniegtu
noteiktos nodoku maksjumu un iemumu apjomus, kas btu pietiekami socils
aizsardzbas paskumu finansanai un socils paldzbas snieganai bezdarba
pieauguma apstkos, k ar lai investtu ldzekus nodarbintbas palielinan un
nodrointu pietiekamu ekonomisko potencilu, kas nepiecieams krzes prvaranai
un turpmkajm socilajm garantijm.
Galvenais valsts uzdevums ir radt tdu budeta politiku un ts sastvdau
nodoku plnoanu, kas ilgstoa budeta deficta apstkos (kad ir jtams inflcijas
process un tiek apturts ekonomikas atslbums, un manms reionlo raoanas, ar
lauksaimniecbas, sektoru trkums) ilglaicgi veicintu tautsaimniecbas atjaunoanu
un ts turpmko izaugsmi.
Palaik vl valsts nav mainjusi nodoku iemumu metodoloiju, t. i., budeta
projekts tiek izstrdts pc tradicionls shmas bez valsts attstbas stratiska
redzjuma, proti, pamatojoties uz tautsaimniecbas attstbas ekonomisk pieaugu
ma vai krituma prognozm un iekzemes kopprodukta sagaidmo novrtjumu.
Izmantojot du pieeju, rezultti ir paradoksli to apstiprina budeta izdevumu
sekvestrcija 2009. un 2010. gad un resursu meklana budeta konsolidcij
2011. gad visa krtj finanu gada garum. Turklt iespjamo ekonomisks
izaugsmes regulanas kritriju vrtan ir vrojama voluntristiska pieeja. Par
btisku metodoloisku izmaiu nepiecieambu budeta iemumu prognozan
un ekonomiski pamatotu metou izmantoanu nodoku plnoan liecina, piemram,
fakti, ka 2008. gada makroekonomisks attstbas un nodoku bzes veidoanas
scenrij ietvertie plni rda IKP pieaugumu, kura apjomam 2010. gad bija jbt
20260 milj. latu, ja budeta proficts ir 1,5%. Bet jau 2010. gada budet, kas tika
pieemts 2009. gad, IKP samazinjs gandrz divkrt un bija 11891,5 milj. latu,
bet t proficts prtapa defict 4,4%. Turklt divos finanu pamatdokumentos, kas
nosaka budeta plnoanas procesu 2010. un 2011. gad, ir btiskas atirbas
vairk nek miljards latos vrtjoajos rdtjos. Likuma par valsts budetu
2010. gadam paskaidrojumos IKP 2010. gad novrtts par 11892 milj. latu,
2011.gad 11861 milj. latu, 2012. gad 12359 milj. latu, bet pieemtaj Likum
242
par valsts budetu 2011. gadam atbilstoi par 12640,3 milj. latu, 13136,5 milj. latu,
13806,4 milj. latu, td veid izkropojot attstbas pieauguma (mazinans) tempus
[4. 4.1; 5. 5.1]. Ttad jsecina, ka uzmumu makstnespjas un bankrotanas
process nebeidzas, bezdarbnieku skaits nemazins, nodarbinto skaits nepalielins
un niecgais jaunizveidoto uzmjdarbbas organizciju skaits nedod ieganstu
optimismam.
Mintajos likumos ietverts prognozes piesaista uzmanbu ar tpc, ka atiras
starptautisko aizdevumu novrtjums, ie aizdevumi veido vairk nek 84% no
kopg valsts parda. T, piemram, kopgais valsts pards pieemtaj valsts budet
2010. gadam bija 7008,0 milj. latu 2010. gad, 6989,6 milj. latu 2011. gad un
7035,8 milj. latu 2012. gad. Bet tiei pc gada Likums par valsts budetu 2011.
gadam mainja os rdtjus, samazinot summu par vairk nek miljards latu: 2010.
gad 4931,2 milj. latu, 2011. gad 5639,6 milj. latu, 2012. gad 6039,4 milj.
latu [4.3. 6.3; 6.4. tab.; 5.2. 6.3; 6.4. tab.]. Par miljoniem atbilstoi mains ar
procenti maksjumiem par pasaules finansil atbalsta izmantoanu. Varbt s
atirbas nosaka neprtrauktos miljonu mekljumus budeta konsolidcijai ne tikai
t pieemanas, bet ar izpildes proces atbilstoi starptautisko kreditoru prasbm.
Ar nodokiem var stimult vai, tiei otrdi, kavt ekonomisko darbbu valst.
Protams, valsts vienmr ir ieinteresta gt lielkus iemumus Valsts kas, tau
nav mrtiecgi un nav pieaujami to dart, tikai nosakot daudzus nesabalanstus
nodokus vai palielinot to likmes. Lai noteiktu budeta resursu pietiekambu
makroekonomisk krituma un ekonomisks nenoteiktbas apstkos, jem vr
rel situcija, jo kdaina rcba var izrdties katastrofla ne tikai ekonomikai, bet
ar valsts un pavaldbu budeta piepildanai, ttad ar valsts socilajai sfrai.
Ekonomisks attstbas makrordtju droa prognoze ir nodoku iemumu
objektva nodroinjuma un valsts iemumu fiskls politikas veidoanas pamats,
kas nosaka budeta ienkumu strukturanas konstruktvo principu attiecb uz to
saemanas avotiem, kuru nozme ir tiei atkarga no socilekonomisks sistmas
attstbas. Domjams, ka kompleksi un loisk secb risint budeta rels
piepildtbas un nodoku iemumu finansils plnoanas galvenos uzdevumus
auj nodoku procesa organizanas prasbu praktiska realizcija, ievrojot
tautsaimniecbas efektivittes nodroinanas principilos noteikumus. Autore uz
skata, ka galvens, svargks nodoku procesa sastvdaas un to galvenie uzde
vumi ir nodoku prognozana, nodoku plnoana un plnu izpildes kontrole.
Nodoku procesa prognozanas uzdevumu grupa ir obligta sastvdaa, kas
nodroina t zintnisko objektivitti, ticambu un iecerto plnu izpildi. Makro
ekonomisko un socilekonomisko rdtju skaitlisko prognou nozmju kopums
veido nodoku procesa bzi un nosaka kopgo nodoku iemumu apjomu vis
takscijas period (kas sakrt ar budeta izpildes periodu). aj gadjum jrisina
fundamentla problma jnovrt budeta ienkumu daas galvenie, prioritrie
avoti, t. i., nodoku un valsts parda veidoans. dai pieejai, domjams, jbalsts,
no vienas puses, uz ekonomisks attstbas prognozm un objektvu plnoanu, bet,
no otras puses, uz politisko lmumu principiliem atzinumiem, tdjdi saskaojot
nodoku procesa prognozanas un plnoanas ptnieciskos (tehnoloiskos) un
normatvi tiesiskos aspektus. Tda pieeja paredz kvantitatvo (prognozjamo) un
243
kvalitatvo (saturisko) parametru iteratvu korekciju, lai panktu mrtiecgu un

objektvi pamatotu ldzsvaru starp ekonomiski iespjamo un politiski nepiecieamo
nodoku procesa rezulttu. Par galveno problmu, prognozjot nodoku procesa
rezultativitti, kst ekonomiski pamatota un politiski attaisnota (budeta period)
valsts iemumu apmra rela sasniegana gan kopum, gan ar pateicoties atseviai
(valsts iemumu) avotu mobilizcijai. Turklt jem vr dai apsvrumi.
Pirmkrt, kopgaj valsts ienkumu apjom gaidmais lielais nodoku iemu
mu patsvars ir attaisnojams tad, ja ekonomisks attstbas prognozei ir raksturgs
augsts makroekonomisko rdtju lmenis. Pretj gadjum liels prognozjamo
nodoku izemanas apjoms ievrojami pastiprins Lefra lknes efektu un nodoku
procesa izpildes stadij rads neadekvti lielu nodoku iemumu pazeminanos.
Otrkrt, valsts ienkumu struktr prioritte tiek mainta un dota nodoku ie
mumiem, kas objektvi pastiprins nodoku multiplikatora darbbu, un, samazi
noties efektvam pieprasjumam, t sekas bs IKP apjoma samazinans.
Valsts ienkumu apjomu ietekm ar tas, ka nodoku daas lomu valsts ienkumu
apjom var palielint tad, ja ir rpgi pamatota ts struktra, ko nosaka nenodoku
iemumu dadu elementu atirg ietekme uz ekonomisko procesu gaitu.
Analizjot aizmumu daas pamatojumu kopgaj valsts ienkumu apjom,
domjams, nepiecieams emt vr aizmumu nosacto raksturu ienkumos, jo
ienkumi uz valsts parda rina perspektv, k jau teikts iepriek, budet b
tiski palielins izdevumus valsts parda apkalpoanai. Td, pc autores domm,
aizmumu palielinana ir lietderga tikai tad, ja budet tiek izveidota autonoma
iemumu bilance par visu valsts pardsaistbu realizciju un o iemumu izlietoanu stingri noteiktiem mriem. Turklt nepiecieams objektvi izvrtt aizdevuma ldzeku izlietoanas rezulttus un kompleksas analzes proces skatties, k tie
turpmk ietekm IKP lmeni un raoanas un patria apjomu kopum, kdas ir s
ietekmes teritorils un nozaru proporcijas, socilie un demogrfiskie parametriu.c.
Aizemtie ldzeki jizmanto t, lai vartu pilngi kompenst izdevumus, kas
saistti ar aizmumu (izmaksas par valsts parda apkalpoanu), un uz galveno
makroekonomisko rdtju palielinans rina nodroint pardsaistbu preczu
izpildi atbilstoi to apjomam un saistbs noteiktajiem termiiem.
Lai nodoku procesa plnoana btu objektva, nepiecieams prognozt nodoku
iemumu kopjo apjomu un rpgi noteikt konkrto nodoku veidu, jo tikai tad bs
nodrointa nodevu un citu obligto maksjumu rela iegana. Plnojot nodoku
struktru un nodoku iemumus, nepiecieams secgi un konsekventi analizt un
saldzint iespjams izrietos ekonomisks sekas, kdas var bt, izdarot izmaias
aj struktr.
stenojot nodoku procesa plnoanas uzdevumus, nozmgs prieknoteikums
to racionlai risinanai, iet, ir ne tikai tieas, bet ar atgriezenisks saiknes
nodroinana, jo visi nodoku sistmas parametri ir savstarpji saistti, un tos var
preczi noteikt tikai iteratv ce. Tas nozm, ka nodoku sistmas un nodoku
iekasanas skumstruktra jpreciz atkarb no potencili sasniedzams nodoku
bzes apjoma izvrtjuma katr nodoku veid, bet pieaujamie nodoku likmju
lielumi jnosaka, pamatojoties uz nodoku bzes apjomu, turklt jem vr ar
nodokiem apliekamo objektu satura iespjams izmaias.
244
Noslgum ir loiski uzsvrt, ka nodoku procesa plnoanas un prognozanas

efektivitte nedrkst bt noirta no nodoku procesa to subjektu darbbas, kuri atbild
par procesa kontroli un izpildi, lai vartu nodroint plnoto ienkumu nonkanu
budet.
Secinjumi
Ekonomisks attstbas makroekonomisko rdtju zintniski pamatota progno
zeir nodoku prognozanas un nodoku iemumu finansilas plnoanas objekt
vasnodroinanas pamats, kas veido budeta iemumu strukturizcijas konstruk
tvu principu to ieganas avotu aspekt, kuru nozme nepastarpinti ir atkarga no
iespjam socilekonomisks attstbas lmea.
Vienot nodoku proces nepiecieams precizt un izirt trs atsevius uzde
vumus:
no loikas un aplikanas ar nodokiem viedoka lietdergk raksturot ob
jektu, emot vr tam noteikto saturu, kam jbalsts ne tikai uz konkrt
nodoka fisklo, bet ar uz t ekonomisko un socilo saturu;
izstrdt skaidru un preczu nodoku aplikanas bzes aprinanas meto
diku, obligti nosakot prasbas ts informatvai nodroinanai;
izvrtt un analizt nodoku aplikanas bzes potencilo lielumu atbilstoi
ts aprinanas metodikai un balstoties uz ekonomisks attstbas progno
zjamiem rdtjiem atseviu nodoku veidos.
Budeta iemumu daas btu jnosaka, pamatojoties uz objektvu informciju
par ekonomisko attstbu un tendencm gan Latvij kopum, gan ar valsts reionos,
k ar uz likumu Par budetu un finanu vadbu, kas regul nodoku iekasanu
atbilstoi budeta sistmas lmeiem un nosaka nodoku iemumu sadali. Tas,
emot vr gan Reionls attstbas likuma mrus, gan ar apsprieamo Fiskls
disciplnas likumprojektu, autu prognozt relku finanu situciju, k valst tiek
veidoti iemumi un k tiek noteikts to apmrs, lai sadale pc iemumu avotiem
btu ekonomiski mrtiecga.
Galvenais secinjums: nodoku procesa organizanas prasbu stenoana ir
nodoku iemumu objektv nodroinjuma pamats, kas veido iemumu struk
turizcijas konstruktvu principu nodoku ieganas avotu aspekt. Tas auj pa
nkt pamatotu ldzsvaru starp atseviiem ekonomiski iespjamiem un politiski
attaisnojamiem nodoku procesa rezulttiem un kopjiem fiskls politikas rezul
ttiem.
LITERATRA
1. Kavale, L., Joppe, A. Nodoku politikas un administranas pamati. Rga: LU
Akadmiskais apgds, 2008. 78 lpp.
2. Reshina, G., Vocish, A. Formation of the budgetary policy at regional level in the Latvian
Repuplic. International Conference: New Socio-economic Challanges of Devolopment in
Europe-2010, October 79,2010 at the University of Latvia in Riga.
245
3. LR 2010. gada 20. decembra ,,Likums par valsts budetu 2011. gadam. (LV, 206 (4398),
30.12.2010.).
4. Likuma Par valsts budetu 2011. gadam paskaidrojumi. Pieejams: http://www.fm.gov.
lv. _ FMPask _A_280111.
4.1. FMPask_B_280111. Likuma Par valsts budetu 2011. gadam paskaidrojumi.
1. nodaa. Makroekonomisks stratijas apskats. Galvenie makroekonomiskie
rdtji.
4.2. FMPask_D_280111. Likuma Par valsts budetu 2011. gadam paskaidrojumi.
2.nodaa. Fisklais apskats.
4.3. FMPask _AJ_ 280111. Likuma Par valsts budetu 2011. gadam paskaidrojumi.
6.nodaa. Valsts finansilo saistbu. kopsavilkums.
5. Likuma Par valsts budetu 2010.gadam paskaidrojumi. Pieejams: http://www.fm.gov.
lv. _ FMPask _A_210110.
5.1. FMPask_B_210110. Likuma Par valsts budetu 2010. gadam paskaidrojumi.
1. nodaa. Makroekonomisks stratijas apskats. Galvenie makroekonomiskie
rdtji.
5.2. FMPask _AJ_ 210110. Likuma Par valsts budetu 2010. gadam paskaidrojumi.
6.nodaa. Valsts finansilo saistbu kopsavilkums.
Summary
A science based forecast of the macro-economic indicators serves as the basis of
the unprejudiced estimates of the revenue due from taxation thus allowing for financial
planning of the tax receipts, which forms the core of the budget revenue structuring in a
constructive way linked to the sources of revenue, while the weight of the sources depends
on the presumable level of development of the social economic system. A fundamental
condition for the planned parameters of the budget to be achieved should be accurate to
the utmost fulfilment of the requirements to the revenue side of the budget, through which
the fiscal, economic and social functions of the state are essentially carried out.
The article provides rationalization for the necessity of adequate and coherent tax
process and budgeting, which must be an integral functional whole to provide sufficient
and essential resources in the part of the tax revenue. The main specific tasks regulating
the tax process as regards its two major constituents tax forecast and tax planning
were determined based on the findings of the research based on empirical and systematic
analytical methods.
The main conclusion: fulfilment of the requirements for the tax process organization
serves the basis for actual provision for the tax receipts, which forms a constructive
principle of the revenue structuring linked to the sources of revenue and allowing for
the achievement of a feasible balance between the economically possible and politically
justified results of the tax process in particular and fiscal policy in general.
eywords: budget revenue, budgeting, tax process , tax planning, tax forecast.

246.255. lpp.
Optiml valtas kursa rema izvle

Choosing an Optimal Exchange Rate Regime
Ramona Rupeika-Apoga
E-pasts: rr@lanet.lv
aj rakst autore ir ptjusi valtas kursa rema izvli dads valsts, pau uzmanbu
pievrot attstbas valstm. Tika mekltas jaunas atbildes uz veco jautjumu kds rems
valstm jizvlas: fikstais, peldoais vai reguljamais? Skum tika izptti galvenie faktori,
kas ietekm preju no fikst valtas kursa uz peldoo. Tika ptta valtas kursu remu
dinamika pdjos 15 gados, analizjot faktorus, kas veicinja izmaias. Ptjuma rezultt
autore izstrdja prieklikumus, kuri vartu paldzt attstbas valstm izvlties optimlko
valtas kursa remu, kas veicintu valsts tautsaimniecbas attstbu.
Atslgvrdi: valtas kursa rems, fikstais valtas kurss, brvi peldoais valtas kurss.
Ievads
rjos okus ir pieredzjuas daudzas valstis, 20. gadsimta 80. gados tas bija
strauj starptautisko procentu likmju pieaugums, industrilo valstu attstbas tempu
samazinjums, aizdevumu krze, bet 21. gadsimta pirmajos gados hipotekro kredtu
krze, fondu tirgus krze un finanu krzes gan nacionl, gan starptautisk lmen.
Lai pielgotos iem apstkiem, biei bija nepiecieams ne vien samazint atseviu
valtu vrtbas, bet ar meklt jaunu valtas kursu remu. Pdjos gados pieaugo
kapitla mobilitte un it sevii kapitla iepldes un izpldes vii ir paaugstinjui
ne vien dadu oku iespju, bet ar palielinjui nepiecieambu valstij bt gatavai
jebkur mirkl pielgoties jaunai valtas tirgus situcijai.
SVF ir sagatavojis trs galvens analtisks mcbas, kas paldz valstm izvl
ties valtas kursa remu, 1999., 2003. un 2009. gada prskatus [8; 10; 5] ie pr
skati, daa no SVF uzraudzbas mandtiem, inform valstis par valtas kursa rema
izvles ietekmi uz makroekonomisko attstbu inflciju, izaugsmi un kru apdrau
djumiem.
Raksta mris ir, ptot valtas kursa remus dads valsts, izstrdt priek
likumus, kuri vartu paldzt attstbas valstm izvlties optimlko valtas kursa
remu, kas veicintu valsts tautsaimniecbas attstbu.
Darba mra sasnieganai autore izvirza dus uzdevumus:
- izptt faktorus, kas ir ietekmjui preju no fikst valtas kursa uz
peldoo;
- izanalizt SVF analtisks mcbas, kas paldz valstm izvlties valtas
kursa remu;
R. Rupeika-Apoga. Optiml valtas kursa rema izvle
247
noskaidrot valtas kursu remu dinamiku pdjos 15 gados un faktorus, kas

to ir ietekmjui;
- izstrdt prieklikumus, kuri vartu paldzt attstbas valstm izvlties
optimlko valtas kursa remu, kas veicintu valsts tautsaimniecbas
attstbu.
Darb tika izmantotas ekonomisks un statistisko datu analzes ptanas me
todes.
Statistisko datu ieganai autore izmantoja SVF statistiskos izdevumus. Darb
tika lietota jaunk zintnisk literatra un periodika.
1. Preja no fikst valtas kursa uz peldoo valtas kursu

Preja no fikst valtas kursa uz peldoo valtas kursu norisa pakpeniski. T
sks ar Bretonvudas fiksto valtas kursu sistmas sabrukumu 20. gadsimta 70.
gadu skum, kad pasaules lielks valtas ska peldt viena pret otru.
Skum daudzas valstis, pai attstbas valstis, turpinja piesaistt savus valtas
kursus vai nu pie vienas valtas (ASV dolra, Francijas franka utt.), vai ar pie
valtas groza. 20. gadsimta 70. gadu beigs s valstis prgja no piesaistes vienai
valtai uz valtas groziem, piemram, tdiem k Starptautisk valtas fonda SDR.
Kop 20. gadsimta 90. gadiem attstbas valstis prgja no valtas piesaistes uz
daudz peldokiem valtas kursiem. das prmaias notika lielkaj da pasaules
reionu.
Piemram, 1975. gad 87% [1, 19] visu attstbas valstu lietoja kdu no pie
saistto vai fiksto valtas kursu remiem. 2009. gad proporcija bija sarukusi
zem 54% [2]. 1975. gad valstis ar fiksto valtas kursu veidoja 70% [1, 19] no visa
attstbas valstu kopj tirgus, tau 2009. gad is skaitlis bija tikai 12% [2]. Kaut
ar kopj tendence ir skaidri pamanma, tomr atirba vartu bt ar mazka,
jo daudzas valstis, kas ir paziojuas savus valtas kursus par vadtu peldoo vai
neatkargi peldoo, faktiski turpina neoficili noteikt savus kursus vai ar lietot tos
k monetrs politikas instrumentus [1, 19].
Jpiemin ar vairki svargi izmumi. Btisks piemrs ir CFA franka zona
Zemsahras frik, kur kop 1948. gada 14 valstis savu valtas kursu veiksmgi pie
saistjuas Francijas frankam, tikai ar vienu btisku devalvciju 1994. gad. Papildus
tam daas valstis, piemram, Argentna (1991. gad) un Honkonga (1983. gad),
pretji kopjai tendencei ir prgjuas no peldo valtas kursa uz fiksto.
T k apsvrumi, kas noteica valstu prieanu uz peldokiem valtas kursu
remiem, ir oti atirgi, preja nenotika vien acumirkl. Kad 1973. gad
Bretonvudas fiksto valtu sistma sabruka, daudzas valstis turpinja savu valtu
piesaistt tai valtai, kas tika izmantota jau iepriek, parasti uz vsturisks pieredzes
bzes. Preja uz peldoo valtas kursu notika vlk, kad lielkajm valtm mainjs
to vrtba un valstis ska apsvrt savu valtu piesaisti vienai valtai.
Daudzas valstis, kas 20. gadsimta skum tradicionli savu valtu piesaistja
ASV dolram, 80. gadu skum prgja uz piesaisti valtas grozam lielkoties
tpc, ka dolra vrtba ska strauji palielinties. Otrs svargs faktors bija straujais
inflcijas pieauguma temps daudzs attstbas valsts 20.gadsimta 80. gados. Valstis,
248
kam bija augstks inflcijas lmenis nek to galveniem tirdzniecbas partneriem,

biei bija spiestas devalvt savu valtu, lai nesamazintu savu konkurtspju. Tpc
daudzas Rietumu puslodes valstis ska izmantot t. s. rpojoo joslu (crawling pegs),
t. i., valtas kurss tika pielgots iepriek noteiktam kritrijam inflcijas lmea
relatvajm izmaim. Vlk daudzas valstis, kas bija piedzvojuas oti augstu
inflcijas lmeni, prgja atpaka uz piesaistto valtas kursu k galveno elementu
stabilizcijas proces. das, uz valtas kursu balsttas stabilizcijas programmas
parasti bija oti slaicgas vidjais piesaistes ilgums bijis apmram 10 mnei.
20. gadsimta 90. gadiem bija raksturgas maksjumu bilances kapitla konta un
valtu krzes attstbas valsts. Saska ar SVF ptjumiem 1999. gad [8] vienkra
valtas piesaiste ir sekmjusi krzes, tpc valstm tika ieteikts adoptt stingru
piesaisti vai brvu valtas peldanu bez valsts iejaukans.
Rezultt 20. gadsimta beigs izveidojs bipolra situcija: daudzas valstis,
taj skait ar attstts, izvljs stingru piesaisti monetrs savienbas vai valtas
padomes form, kamr citm bija brvi peldos valtas kurss.
Tomr ar bipolra situcija attstbas valstm nebija veiksmgs risinjums.
Argentnas stingras piesaistes (valtas padomes form) krze 2002. gad apaubja
bipolrs sistmas optimlo variantu.
SVF ptjums 2003. gad atklja, ka piesaistto kursu priekrocbas attstbas
valstm ir nenozmgas gan inflcijas, gan ekonomiskas izaugsmes zi, tpc SVF
piedvja valstm adoptt brvi peldous valtu kursu remus [10]. Tomr praks reti
kuras valsts centrl banka bija vai ir gatava atteikties no valtas kursa regulanas.
2. Valtas kursu remu dinamika no 1995. ldz 2009. gadam

Pc SVF datiem, 1995. gad 25 pasaules valstis savas nacionls valtas
bija piesaistjuas ASV dolram, 14 valstis Francijas frankam, bet 8 valstis bija
izvljus citu enkura valtu.
1. attls. Valtas kursa remi pasaul 1995. gad (procentos)

World Exchange Rate Regimes in 1995 (in percents) [2]
249
Valtu grozu par piesaistes objektu bija izvljus 24 valstis. Kopum 71 valsts
savai nacionlajai valtai bija izraudzjusies kdu piesaisti. Ierobeoti elastgas pret
kdu noteiktu valtu bija etru valstu nacionls valtas, bet devim valstm o
ierobeoto elastbu noteica sadarbbas vienoans. Trs valsts valtas kursa izmaias
bija ietekmjui dadi indikatori, bet 33 valstis bija lietojuas citus valtas vadtas
peldanas veidus. 61 pasaules valsts nacionl valta brvi peldja. o valtas kursa
remu patsvari redzami 1. attl. Tre daa pasaules valstu bija izvljusies brvu
valtas peldanu, bet piekt daa vadtu valtas peldanu. 39% valstu bija izrau
dzjus piesaistt savu nacionlo valtu kdai konkrtai valtai vai valtu grozam.
Savukrt 2008. gad (2. att.) ASV dolram savu valtu bija piesaistjuas jau
66 valstis, eiro valtai 27 valstis un citai valtai 7 valstis. Valtu groza k
piesaistes objekta popularitte bija samazinjusies ldz 15 valstm. Kopum 115val
stis savai nacionlajai valtai bija izvljus kdu piesaisti, kas bija par 38%
vairk, saldzinot ar 1995. gadu. Ceturt daa pasaules valstu bija izvljus valtas
peldanu, bet 61% valstu piesaistjuas savu nacionlo valtu kdai konkrtai
valtai vai valtu grozam.

Ldz ar to pdjos gados tiek novrota atgrieans pie valtas piesaistes. Lai
noskaidrotu ts iemeslus, ir nepiecieams izanalizt valtas kursa remu izmaias
dinamik un faktorus, kas to ietekm.
Fiksts kurss sastv no diviem remiem: rema bez atsevia likumga mak
sanas ldzeka (t saucams dolarizcijas, kaut nav obligti, lai naudas funkcijas
pildtu tiei ASV dolrs) un valtas padomes. Piesaistts kurss iekauj remus,
kam nav tik cietas piesaistes k fiksto kursu remu gadjum, t ir tradicionl
piesaiste, piesaiste ar horizontliem ierobeojumiem, rpojo josla un rpojoie
horizontlie ierobeojumi. Peldoo kursu rems ietver gan vadtu valtas peldanu,
gan brvu valtas peldanu.
250
Tabula
Valtas kursa remu izvrtjums no 1996. ldz 2009. gadam (valstu skaits)
Evaluation of Exchange Arrangements, 19962009 (number of countries) [2]
1996
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Fiksts kurss
17
21
22
22
22
22
22
23
23
23
Piesaiste
107
72
73
72
72
76
83
82
81
78
Peldoie kursi
60
93
92
93
93
89
82
83
84
75
12
Citi remi
T k arvien lielks valstu skaits izvlas valtas kursu vadbu un atsaks maint
klasifikciju uz vadtu valtas peldanu vai piesaisti, rodas vairkas problmas:
- grti atirt vadtu valtas peldanu no brvas;
- vairkas valstis ar vadtu valtas peldanu nepiekrt, ka viu kursu remi
ir piesaistti.
Analizjot tabulas datus, var secint: kaut ar kopj tendence par labu lielkai
kursu elastbai saglabjas, tomr, skot ar 2005. gadu, ir vrojamas das jauns
tendences:
- piesaistto kursu popularitte;
- peldou kursu patsvaru samazinjums.
Lai atrastu pieradjumus jaunm tendencm, autore ir padziinti ptjusi valtas
kursu remu dinamiku un faktorus, kas ietekm prmaias.
1999. gad valtas kursa rema izvl joprojm dominja brv valtas peld
ana, kuru bija izvljuies 26% valstu (3. att.). 21% valstu lietoja tradicionlo pie
saisti, bet 20% valtas kursa remu bez atsevia likumga maksanas ldzeka.

Ar 2001. gad vairums valstu (25%) bija izvljus brvu valtas peldanu,
tau palielinjs ar tradicionls piesaistes popularitte (no 21% 1999. g. ldz
24% 2001. g.), valtas kursa rema bez atsevia likumga maksanas ldzeka
251
popularitte (no 20 ldz 21%) un vadtas valtas peldanas popularitte (4.att.), kas
atbilst SVF ieteikumiem par bipolras sistmas priekrocbm.

2004. gad vadta valtas peldana jau bija kuvusi par populrko valtas kursa
remu pasaul (27% valstu). Ldz tam populrkais valtas kursa rems brv
valtas peldana tika lietots vairs tikai 19% pasaules valstu. 22% valstu lietoja
valtas kursa remu bez likumga maksanas ldzeka, bet 21% tradicionlo
piesaisti (5. att.). s izmaias tiek pamatotas ar valstu bailm no brvi peldoiem
valtas kursiem. Ja valtas vrtba samazins, valdba uztraucas gan par importa
inflciju, gan par ietekmi uz aizmumiem rvalstu valt, kad pardu atmaksa
kst drgka. Bet valtas vrtbas pieauguma gadjum ir iespjams eksporta
konkurtspjas samazinjums.

252
2009. gad stingras fikscijas remi vairs nav tik populri un tos lieto tikai 12%
valstu. Arvien lielks valstu skaits izvlas piesaistt savu valtu kdai citai valtai
vai valtu grozam (42%), un peldoo kursu patsvars veido tikai 40% (6. att).

Piesaistto kursu popularitte tiek apliecinta ar SVF jauniem atkljumiem, kas

veikti 2009. gad un pamatojas gan uz de facto, gan de jure valtas kursu remiem.
Saska ar iem ptjumiem piesaistto kursu remi labk paldz apkarot inflciju,
veicina raoanas pieaugumu un sekm ekonomisko integrciju [5].
No 1999. ldz 2009. gadam pasaul pieauga to valstu skaits, kas skum
izvljs vadtu valtas peldanu, prejot no brvs valtas peldanas (1999. gad
ts bija 27 valstis, bet 2004. gad jau 49 valstis) un vlk prejot no vadtas valtas
peldanas uz piesaisttiem kursiem (2004. gad ts bija 53 valstis, bet 2009. gad
jau 78 valstis) (7. att.).
Prasba pc lielkas valtas kursa elastbas ir saistma ar daudz atvrtku, uz
rpusi vrstu tirdzniecbas un investciju politiku kopum, k ar pieaugoo tirgus
noteikto valtas kursu un procentu likmju nozmbu ekonomik. Tomr vairum
attstbas valstu joprojm nav tik laba tirgus situcija, lai autu saviem valtas kursiem
brvi peldt. Daudzs ajs valsts ir tikai mazi un relatvi vji finanu tirgi, kur daas
lielas transakcijas vartu izraist milzgas svrstbas. Tpc, lai paldztu tirgum,
joprojm nepiecieama aktva valtas kursa vadana. dos apstkos centrls
bankas pilnvarotu personu galvenais uzdevums ir zint, kad un kur pielgot monetro
politiku, ieskaitot intervences lietoanu, lai novrstu ievrojamas svrstbas.
253
7. attls. Valtas kursa remi pasaul 1999.2009. gad (valstu skaits)

World Exchange Rate Regimes in 19992009 [2]
Analzes rezultt autore ir nonkusi pie secinjuma, ka valtas kursa rema

izvl pastv kompromisi. Remi ar stingrku valtas kursu paldz valstm uzturt
inflciju vlam lmen, veicint IKP pieaugumu un sekmt dziku ekonomisko
integrciju. Bet s valstis ir vairk pakautas krzm, spiestas izmantot ierobeojoo
makroekonomisko politiku, un tajs tiek kavta rj pielgoans ekonomiskm
izmaim. Kompromisi remu izvl labi atspoguojas Eiropas attstbas valstu
tirgos. Kaut ar ldz globlai krzei daudzs valsts ar mazk elastgu valtas kursu
remu bija izteikts ekonomikas pieaugums, tomr tajs ar palielinjs problmas ar
maksjumu bilanci, valstis kuva jutgkas pret rjiem okiem un tika ierobeotas
iespjas izmantot ekspansvo makroekonomisko politiku.
Ptjuma rezultt autore nonk pie diem galveniem secinjumiem un izsaka
prieklikumus.
1. Galvenie faktori, kas ir ietekmjui preju no fikst valtas kursa uz peldoku
valtas kursu:
strauj dolra vrtbas pieaugums 20. gs. 80. gadu skum;
liela inflcija;
starptautisko procentu likmju pieaugums;
industrilo valstu attstbas tempu samazinjums;
aizdevuma krze;
pieaugo kapitla mobilitte.
2. Pdjo piecpadsmit gadu laik
pieauga vadtas peldanas valtas kursa rema nozme (1995. gad ds
kursa rems bija 36 valsts, 2004. gad 49 valsts); to apstiprina ar SVF
ptjums 2009. gad;
254
no 2005. ldz 2009. gadam pieauga piesaistto kursu popularitte (2005.gad

ds kurss bija 53 valsts, 2009. gad 78 valsts);
krasi samazinjs brvi peldo valtas kursa rema nozme (1995. gad
ds kursa rems bija 61 valst, 2009. gad 35 valsts).
3. Optimlo valtas kursa remu izvl pastv kompromisi, jo attiecb uz
makroekonomisko darbbu (inflciju, IKP pieauguma tempiem, valtas krzm)
neviens no abiem valtas kursu remiem nedz fikstais, nedz peldoais nav
prks par otru.
4. Jebkurai valstij, kas vlas lietot stingrku vai brvku valtas kursa piesaisti, btu
rpgi jiepazstas ar citu valstu vsturisko pieredzi das politikas stenoan, jo
pai analizjot o valstu neveiksmju clous, kas ts izraisja.
5. Valstij, kas vlas maint savas nacionls valtas kursa remu, detalizti
janaliz das prmaias pamatojums un tas, vai da maia dos labumu
tautsaimniecbas attstbai ilgtermi.
LITERATRA
1. Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions 1995. Washington:
International Monetary Fund, 1995.2008.
2. Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions database.
3. Aziz, J., Caramazza, F. Fixed or Flexible? Getting the Exchange Rate Right in the 1990s.
Washington: International Monetary Fund Economic, Issues No. 13, 1998. 19 p.
4. Brooks, R., Husain, A. M., Mody, A., Oomes, N., Rogoff, K. S. Evolution and Performance
of Exchange Rate Regimes. IMF Working Paper WP/03/243. 2003. December. 83 p.
5. Ghosh, A., Ostry, J., and Tsangarides, C. Toward a Stable System of Exchange Rates,
IMF Occasional Paper (Washington: International Monetary Fund), 2010.
6. Habermeier, K., Kokenyne, A., Veyrune, R. and Anderson, H. Revised System for the
Classification of Exchange Rate Arrangements. IMF working paper, 2009. 18 p.
7. Latter, T. The Choice of Exchange Rate Regime. Handbooks in Central Banking No. 2.
Bank of England, 1996. 31 p.
8. Mussa, M., Masson, P., Swoboda, A., Jadresic, E., Mauro, P., and Berg, A. Exchange
Rate Regimes in an Increasingly Integrated World Economy. IMF Occasional Paper 193
(Washington: International Monetary Fund), 2000.
9. Papaioannou, M. G. Determinants of the Choice of Exchange Rate Regimes in Six
Central American Countries: An Empirical Analysis. IMF Working Paper WP/03/59.
2003. March. 27 p.
10. Rogoff, K., Husain, A., Mody, A., Brooks, R., and Oomes, N. Evolution and Performance
of Exchange Rate Regimes, IMF Occasional Paper 229 (Washington: International
Monetary Fund), 2004.
Summary
This paper examines significance of the choice of exchange rate regime in different
countries. The author offers a new look at an old question: Should countries fix, float, or
choose something in between? Research begins with general factors analysis that leads
255
to the change from fixed to floating exchange rate. The focus then shifts to dynamics
of exchange rates regimes during last 15 years, as well as factors that affected these
changes. Although the IMF three major analytical studies on countries choices of
exchange rate regime in 1999, 2003, and 2009 were researched.
The author finds important trade-offs in the choice of exchange rate regimes.
Regimes that are more rigid help countries anchor inflation expectations, sustain output
growth, and foster deeper economic integration. But they also constrain the use of
macroeconomic policies, increase vulnerability to crisis, and impede external adjustment.
During the development of the paper, the generally accepted qualitative and quantitative
methods of economic research were used.
Keywords: exchange rate regime, fixed exchange rate, floating exchange rate.

256.267. lpp.
Nodoku plnoanas ietekme uz uzmuma brvs naudas

plsmas palielinanu
The Tax Planning Influence on Increase in Free Monetary
Streams of the Enterprise
Svetlana Saksonova
E-pasts: svetlana.saksonova@lu.lv
Nataja Verina
Alberta koleda
Skolas iela 22, Rga, LV-1010
E-pasts: natalija.verina@inbox.lv
Izdevumi nodoku nomaksai veido pamatgu naudas izdevumu dau, td veid ierobeojot
uzmuma brvos finanu ldzekus. Lai optimiztu ldzeku trius nodoku maksjumiem,
bet taj pa laik rkotos likuma robes, uzmumi var ieviest un lietot nodoku plnoanu.
Nodoku plnoanas rezultt atbrvotie ldzeki var tikt izmantoti dadiem mriem pc
uzmuma vadbas ieskatiem. raksta mris ir izptt nodoku plnoanas nepiecieambu
un ts ietekmi uz uzmuma brvs naudas plsmas palielinanu. Ptjum autores risina
dus uzdevumus: pta, kdos gadjumos uzmumam nepiecieams ieviest nodoku
plnoanu un kdas nodoku sloga noteikanas metodikas uzmums var izmantot, parda
uzmuma ietaupjumus uz nodoku maksjumu rina, k ar nosaka, k var aprint brvo
naudas plsmu, kura var bt palielinta, ievieot nodoku plnoanu. Analizjot uzmuma
datus, autores piedv nodoku sloga aprinanas gaitu, nosaka iespjamos uzmuma
ietaupjumus un parda, kdus naudas ldzekus akcionri var izemt no apgrozbas. Ptjuma
rezultti apstiprina hipotzi par nodoku plnoanas ievieanas nepiecieambu uzmum, k
ar to, ka ievieanas rezultt palielinsies brv naudas plsma, kuru var izmantot uzmuma
akcionru vajadzbm.
Atslgvrdi: nodoku slogs, nodoku plnoana, operciju brv naudas plsma, naudas
plsma no operciju darbbas.
Ievads
Pdjos trijos gados izmaias nodoku jomu reguljoos normatvajos aktos
notiek regulri, dakrt oti negaidti, bet vienmr paaugstinjuma virzien. Tpc
pilngi dabiski, ka d situcij uzmji cenas samazint izdevumus uz nodoku
samaksu rina.
Izdevumi nodoku nomaksai veido pamatgu naudas izdevumu dau, tdjdi
ierobeojot uzmuma brvos finanu ldzekus. Lai izvairtos no prmrgiem
257
ldzeku triiem, nomaksjot nodokus, bet taj pa laik rkotos likuma robes,
uzmumi var ieviest nodoku plnoanu un lietot to. Nodoku plnoanu izmanto,
lai samazintu uzmuma nodoku slogu. Nodoku sloga rdtjs atspoguo nodoku
slodzes lmeni uzmum, un radtja samazinana liecina par nodoku plno
anas efektivitti.
Ldzeki, kas tiek atbrvoti nodoku plnoanas rezultt, var tikt izmantoti
dadiem mriem tos var ieguldt uzmuma attstbai vai ar izemt no uzmuma
finanu plsmas akcionru vajadzbm. K rda prakse, daudzu Latvijas uzmumu
finansisti nevar noteikt operciju darbbas rezultt saemto naudas ldzeku apjomu,
ko akcionri var izemt no aprites bez zaudjumiem uzmuma krtjai darbbai, t.i.,
nevar noteikt uzmuma brvo naudas plsmu un ldz ar to neanaliz brvs naudas
plsmas izmaias. Raksta mris ir izptt nodoku plnoanas nepiecieambu un
ts ietekmi uz uzmuma brvs naudas plsmu. Raksta sagatavoan ir izmantotas
emprisks un analtisks ptjumu metodes.
1. Nodoku plnoana uzmum

Pareizj ekonomisk situcija Latvij ir smaga ikvienam uzmumam, pat
lieliem uzmumiem var rasties finanu ldzeku trkums. T saucamie treknie
gadi jau ir aiz muguras, un, pc dau analtiu domm, tuvko 57 gadu laik
Latvijas ekonomika diez vai sasniegs 2007.2008. gada lmeni. Tpc uzmumiem
maksimli efektvi jplno savas darbbas rezultti, savi iemumi un izdevumi, tai
skait naudas iemumi un izdevumi.
Galvenais uzmuma ekonomikas princips nevis maksimizt peu, bet izvai
rties no zaudjumiem [10, 58].
Nodoki ir viens no izmaksu posteiem, tpc vlme samazint nodokus ir ska
tma kopjs personas finanu stratijas kontekst [3, 112].
Pc finanu ministra Andra Vilka vrdiem, nodoku sistma Latvij tuvkajos
trijos gados nemainsies un ldz 2013. gadam nodoku likmes samazint nav pa
redzts [8]. Ttad, lai maksimli samazintu nodoku maksjumus likuma robes,
uzmumiem ir jizmanto nodoku plnoanas iespjas, jo nodoku plnoana nav
iespjama bez valsts kopjs ekonomisks situcijas izvrtanas [10, 96].
Latvij nodoku plnoana pagaidm ir diezgan jauns un neierasts process. aj
jom praktiski nav ne literatras, ne veikto ptjumu. rvalsts pirms grmatas par
nodoku plnoanu pardjs jau 1959. gad. Attsttajs valsts nodoku plnoanas
un optimizcijas jautjumiem uzmuma finanu plnoan pieir oti lielu nozmi,
jo augsto nodoku likmju gadjum nepietiekama nodoku plnoana var izraist
finanu zaudjumus un pat bankrotu, bet, no otras puses, nodoku likumos paredzto
atlaiu, atvieglojumu un nodoku remu izmantoana auj samazint izdevumus,
palielint uzkrjumus vai pat nodroint investcijas, atmaksjot nodokus [2, 99].
Nodoku plnoanas efektivitte var tikt novrtta gan krtjs nodoku pl
noanas, gan ar stratisks nodoku plnoanas posm. Atirba ir tda, ka pirmaj
posm t tiek izmantota plna un faktu analz (regulra budet plnoto rdtju
saldzinana ar faktiskajiem rdtjiem un to analze), bet stratisks nodoku
plnoanas posm t auj izveidot prognou rdtjus, tai skait ar sabalanstos
rdtjus [12].
258
Plnoanas un optimizcijas rezultt, samazinot nodokus, kas maksjami no

peas, uzmums palielins peas apjomu, kas atbilst uzmuma panieku, vad
tju un darbinieku interesm.
Nodoku plnoana paredz tdus nodoku makstja vadanas paskumus, kas
auj ne tikai tlt samazint nodoku slogu, bet ar nodroint ilgtspjgu ldzeku
ekonomiju uz nodoku maksjumu rina, gt ekonomisko efektu no to ieguldanas,
novrst vai samazint risku no iespjamm soda sankcijm nkotn.
Td nodoku plnoana ir saimniekojo subjekta kopjs uzmjdarbbas
neatemama sastvdaa. Nodoku plnoana ir pastvgs, obligts un ties uzmj
darbbas elements, un tai jnotiek ikvien ts lmen un posm.
Par nodoku plnoanas pamatuzdevumu var uzskatt prieklaicgu nodoku sum
mu aprinanu gan par pamatdarbbas rezulttiem, gan par konkrtu darjumu vai
projektu (darjumu) grupu atkarb no to realizcijas dadm tiesiskm formm.
Nodoku plnoana pilda uzmjdarbbas operatvs funkcijas, kontroles un pl
noanas funkcijas. Tdjdi nodoku plnoanu var atspoguot k trs lmeu struk
tru, kur ietilpst operatvais, taktiskais un stratiskais elements; atkarb no tiem
mains nodoku plnoanas objektv puse un nodoku plnoanas paskumi [14].
Nodoku plnoanas paskumu nepiecieambas shma

The schema of necessity of tax planning actions
1. tabula
Nodoku
slogs
Nodoku plnoanas lmenis
Nepiecieamba plnot nodokus
1015%
- Precza grmatvedbas uzskaite, dokumentu aprites un lietvedbas organizcija, nodoku tieo atlaiu izmantoana
- Profesionls grmatvedis
- Vienreizji rj nodoku konsultanta pakalpojumi
Minimla nepiecieamba plnot nodokus, vienreizji

nodoku plnoanas
paskumi
2040%
- Nodoku plnoana ir neatemama finanu vadbas un kontro- Nepiecieama nodoku plnoana,

les sastvdaa, tipveida, lielo un ilgtermia darjumu shmu
regulri paskumi
specil plnoana un sagatavoana
- Nepiecieams specili sagatavots personls finanu direktora
tie pakautb, vadb un kontrol
- Specializtas nodoku konsultantu komercdarbbas pakalpojumu izmantoana
4560%
- Nodoku plnoana ir svargkais uzmuma komercdarbbas Vitli svarga un nepiecieama ikdienas

veikanas un stratisks plnoanas elements
- Nepiecieams specili apmcts personls, ciea sadarbba ar nodoku plnoana
visiem dienestiem, uzmuma augstks vadbas kontrole
- Pastvgs darbs ar rjo nodoku konsultantu, nodoku advokta esamba
Virs 60% Darbbas jomas un / vai jurisdikcijas maia
Bez komentriem
Avots: 2, 67.
Tau vienmr ir jatceras, ka nodoku slogs dadiem ekonomiskiem subjek

tiem ir individuls, tas ir atkargs no uzmuma lieluma, k ar no dadiem ekono
miskiem un nozares faktoriem. No pareizi izstrdtas nodoku plnoanas stratijas
259
ir atkargs ne tikai uzmuma finanu stvoklis un darjumu reputcija, bet ar

veiksmga kopj uzmjdarbbas attstba.
Nodoku plnoanas nepiecieambu un lietdergumu nosaka nodoku sloga
apjoms uzmum. Atkarb no nodoku sloga lmea var ieteikt dadus nodoku
plnoanas paskumus [2, 67].
Nodoku sloga aprinanai var izmantot dadas metodikas. Ts atiras pc
aprinanas saretbas, pc nodoku veidiem, ko izmanto nodoku sloga aprin,
k ar pc rdtja, ar kuru tiek saldzinta kopj nodoku summa par konkrto
periodu. Katras metodikas pamat ir ideja izveidot tdu nodoku sloga rdtju, kas
btu universls un autu saldzint nodoku sloga lmeni dads tautsaimniecbas
nozars. eit jebkuram uzmumam var rasties problma Latvij nav oficili
izstrdtas un pieemtas nodoku sloga aprinanas metodikas. Autores piedv
divas metodikas, kas atirgi trakt viena uzmuma finanu darbbas rezulttus.
Viena no metodikm, kas plai tiek lietota vis pasaul, ir oti vienkra, un ts
aprinanai nav vajadzgas specilas zinanas vai specifiski uzmuma finanu
darbbas dati. Saska ar o metodiku nodoku slogs tiek aprints k aprinto
nodoku un iemumu no pamatdarbbas (neto apgrozjuma) attiecba [2, 67].
NS = (Nkop/Ikop) *100%,
(1)
kur NS nodoku slogs,

Nkop kopj aprinto nodoku summa,
Ikop kopjie iemumi no pamatdarbbas / neto apgrozjums.
Nodoku sloga rdtjs, kas ir aprints saska ar o formulu, auj noteikt
nodoku summro dau iemumos no realizcijas. Tomr is rdtjs nespj raksturot
konkrto nodoku ietekmi uz subjekta finanu stvokli, jo neem vr katra nodoka
attiecbu pret iemumiem no realizcijas.
Nodoku sloga metou praktisks lietoanas atspoguoanai tiek izmantoti SIA
T 2009. gada prskata dati. SIA T darbojas apsardzes nodroinan un ir liels
nodoku makstjs.
Saska ar iepriek aprakstto metodiku nodoku slogs SIA T 2009. gad ir
Ls 94,9 tkst. / Ls 200,0 tkst. x 100% = 48%. Tas nozm, ka nodoku maksjumu
kopj summa attiecb pret iemumiem no realizcijas (pakalpojumu prdoanas)
ir 48%. Ldz ar to nodoku plnoana SIA T ir vitli svarga uzmuma ikdienas
darbb.
Vienu no detaliztkm metodikm piedv Krievijas ekonomiste T. Ostrovenko.
Saska ar o metodiku rdtji, kas raksturo nodoku slogu, tiek iedalti paos un
visprjos rdtjos.
Par visprjiem rdtjiem, kas raksturo subjekta nodoku slogu, tiek atzti di
rdtji:
nodoku slogs subjekta iemumiem (NSie );
nodoku slogs subjekta finanu resursiem (NSf);
nodoku slogs subjekta pau kapitlam (NSpk);
260
nodoku slogs subjekta peai pirms nodoku samaksas (NSp);

nodoku slogs uz vienu darbinieku (NSd).
ie rdtji tiek aprinti pc dm formulm:
NSie = NI/Ier;
(2)
NSf = NI/VB vid/gada;
(3)
NSpk = NI/PK vid/gada;
(4)
NSp = NI/P;
(5)
NSd = NI/D,
(6)
kur NI nodoku izdevumi,

Ier iemumi no realizcijas,
VB vid/gada gada vidja bilances kopsumma,
PK vid/gada gada vidjais pau kapitls,
P pea pirms nodokiem,
D darbinieku skaits.
Atseviie rdtji, kas raksturo nodoku slogu, ir konkrtki un informatvki.
Tie tiek aprinti, izmantojot paizmaksu, iemumu no realizcijas, trs peas
rdtjus.
Saska ar iepriek minto izir dus paos rdtjus, kas raksturo subjekta
nodoku slogu:
nodoku slogs ekonomisk subjekta realizcijai (NSr);
nodoku slogs preu (pakalpojumu) raoanas izmaksm (NSpi);
nodoku slogs subjekta peai pirms nodoku samaksas (NSfr);
nodoku slogs trai peai un specilajiem fondiem (NStp).
o rdtju aprinanai izmanto das formulas:
NSr = NIr/Ier;
(7)
NSpi = NIpi/PIr;
(8)
NSfr = NIfr/FR;
(9)
NStp = NItp/TP,
(10)
kur NIr nodoku izdevumi, kas attiecas uz realizciju;

Ier iemumi no realizcijas;
NIpi nodoku izdevumi, kas attiecas uz realizto preu (pakalpojumu) pa
izmaksu. Te ir paredztas valsts socils apdroinanas obligts iemaksas;
261
PIr realizto preu (pakalpojumu) paizmaksa;

NIfr nodoku izdevumi, kas attiecas uz finanu rdtjiem;
FR pozitvs finanu rezultts no preu (pakalpojumu) realizcijas (pea
pirms nodokiem);
NItp nodoku izdevumi, kas attiecas uz tro peu (uzmuma ienkuma
nodoka kopj summa);
TP subjekta tr pea [13].
Turklt ar s metodikas paldzbu var aprint nodoku slogu uz vienu darbi
nieku. Ja o rdtju saldzina ar vidjs darba algas un peas uz vienu darbinieku
rdtjiem, var noskaidrot atsevia darbinieka ieguldjumu uzmuma peas
veidoan, nodoku maksjumu budet un paa ienkuma veidoan.
s metodikas priekrocba ir tda, ka t auj aprint nodoku slogu ar dadu
detalizcijas pakpi atkarb no vadbas uzdevuma, k ar to var izmantot ekonomiski
subjekti jebkur tautsaimniecbas nozar. Turklt s metodikas aprinos tiek
lietoti rdtji, kas atspoguojas uzmuma atskaits un btiski samazina aprinu
procesu.

2. tabula
SIA T ekonomiskie rdtji 2009. gad

T Ltd. economic indicators in 2009
Nr.
p.
k.
Rdtjs
Vrtba (tkst. Ls)
1. Iemumi no realizcijas
200,0
2. Operciju izdevumi
140,0
3. Operciju pea
60,0
4. Tr pea
40,8
5. Vidj bilances kopsumma
216,7
6. Darbinieku skaits
47
7. Kop nodoku saistbas
94,9
8. Pievienots vrtbas nodoklis
44,0
9. Nekustam pauma nodoklis
10. Uzmuma ienkuma nodoklis
7,2
11. Socils apdroinanas iemaksas
43,7
12. Nodoku sloga iemumiem visprjs rdtjs
0,48
13. Nodoku sloga finanu resursiem visprjs rdtjs
0,44
14. Nodoku sloga peai pirms nodoku samaksas visprjs rdtjs
1,58
15. Nodoku sloga 1 darbiniekam visprjs rdtjs (tkst. latos)
2,02
16. Nodoku sloga iemumiem no realizcijas paais rdtjs
0,48
17. Nodoku sloga izmaksm paais rdtjs
0,22
18. Nodoku sloga peai pirms nodoku samaksas paais rdtjs

19. Nodoku sloga trai peai paais rdtjs
Avots: 5; 11, 4748, autoru aprini.
0
0,18
262
Aprinu rezultti atspoguoti 3. tabul.
3. tabula
Nodoku sloga radtju aprins

Calculation of tax burden indicators
Rdtjs
Nodoku sloga iemumiem

visprjs rdtjs
Nodoku sloga finanu resursiem
visprjs rdtjs
Formula
Aprins
Rezultts
NSie = NI/Ier
NSie = 94,9/200,0
0,48
NSf = NI/VB vid/gada
NSf = 94,9/216,7
0,44
Nodoku sloga peai pirms nodoku

samaksas visprjs rdtjs
NSp = NI/P
NSp = 94,9/60,0
1,58
Nodoku sloga 1 darbiniekam

visprjs rdtjs (tkst. latos)
NSd = NI/D
NSd = 94,9/47
2,02
Nodoku sloga iemumiem no

realizcijas paais rdtjs
NSr = NIr/Ier
NSr = 94,9/200,0
0,48
Nodoku sloga izmaksm paais

rdtjs
NSpi = NIpi/PIr
NSpi = 43,7/200,0
0,22
Nodoku sloga peai pirms nodoku

samaksas paais rdtjs
NSfr = NIfr/FR
NSfr = 0/60,0
Nodoku sloga trai peai paais

rdtjs
NStp = NItp/TP
NStp = 7,2/40,8
0,18
Avots: 5; 11, 48, autoru aprini.
Visvairk nodoki ietekm peu pirms nodoku samaksas par 158%. Ie

mumos no realizcijas nodoku slogs ir 48%, turklt, emot vr pao rdtju,
peas nodoku slogu veido tikai netieie nodoki. Finanu resursus nodoku summas
ietekm par 44%. Viena darbinieka ieguldjums kopj nodoku slog ir Ls 2020.
Izvloties nodoku sloga aprinanas metodiku, ir jem vr, ka viena un t
pati informcija, aprinot to ar dadm metodikm, sniedz atirgus rezulttus.
Tpc uzmuma vadbai jizvlas savi koeficienti un japstiprina to aprinanas
metodika. Piemram, jnosaka, kd veid japskata iemumu rdtjs neto vai
bruto, utt. Izvloties koeficientus, par pamatu jem nodoku aprinu informcijas
lietotju intereses.
emot vr iepriekjos aprinus, vidji nodoku slogs uzmum T ir
48,3%, kas naudas vrtb veido 94,9 tkst. latus. Samazinot nodoku slogu vismaz
par 1% gad, uzmums atbrvo finanu ldzekus aptuveni Ls 950 apmr.
Iespjas optimizt nodokus un td veid samazint nodoku maksjumus ir
dadas. Skot ar uzmuma uzskaites izveidoanu un nodoku atvieglojumu izmantoanu un beidzot ar kardinlkiem risinjumiem. Piemram, lai samazintu nodoku
maksjumus, uzmums var maint jurisdikciju izmantot zemu nodoku teritoriju
pakalpojumus. Prceot uzmumu uz Kipru, tiek samazinti pievienots vrtbas
nodoka maksjumi (mazk par 7%) un uzmuma ienkuma nodoka maksjumi
(mazk par 5%) [7]. Vai ar var sadalt uzmumu mazkos uzmumos, vienu no
tiem izveidot k mikrouzmumu, kura gada apgrozjums neprsniedz Ls70000 un
263
darbinieku skaits nav lielks par 5, bet nodoku maksjums, kur ietilpst valsts socils apdroinanas obligts iemaksas, iedzvotju ienkuma nodoklis un uzmjdarbbas riska valsts nodevas par mikrouzmuma darbiniekiem, uzmumu ienkuma nodoklis un mikrouzmuma panieka iedzvotju ienkuma nodoklis, ir tikai
9% [1]. Tas vismaz vienai uzmuma daai btiski samazins nodoku izdevumus.
Ar finanu ldzekiem, kuri tiek atbrvoti nodoku plnoanas un optimizcijas
rezultt, uzmuma vadba var rkoties pc saviem ieskatiem. Tos var izmantot
uzmuma attstbai, ieguldt vrtspapros, nekustamaj paum, ar izemt no
aprites. Kdu summu uzmuma vadba var izemt no aprites t, lai tas negatvi
neietekmtu uzmuma darbbu?
2. Uzmuma operciju brvs naudas plsmas noteikana

Prakse rda, ka daudzu Latvijas uzmumu finansisti nevar noteikt finanu
darbbas rezultt saemto naudas ldzeku apjomu, ko akcionri var izemt no
aprites bez zaudjumiem uzmuma krtjai darbbai, t. i., uzmuma kopjo brvo
naudas plsmu, un tpc vii neanaliz brvs naudas plsmas izmaias. problma
ir oti aktula ne tikai Latvijas uzmumiem oti biei uzmuma operciju brvs
naudas plsmu jauc ar naudas plsmu no operciju darbbas [9, 48].
Izskatsim brvs naudas plsmas aprinanas metodi, k ar operciju brvs
naudas plsmas atirbu no naudas plsmas no operciju darbbas, izmantojot SIA
T X finanu rdtjus.
4. tabula
SIA T peas vai zaudjumu aprina izvilkums (tkst. n. v. )

Endurances from profit and loss account of T Ltd. (thous. n. c.)1
Operciju iemumi
200,0
Operciju izdevumi,
140,0
t. sk. amortizcija
30,0
Operciju pea (EBIT)
60,0
Prjie iemumi un izdevumi,
(12,0)
t. sk. kredtprocenti
(10,0)
Citi izdevumi
(2,0)
Pea pirms nodokiem (EBT)
48,0
Uzmuma ienkuma nodoklis 15% (IT)
7,2
Tr pea (NI)
40,8
Avots: 5, autoru aprini.
Kdus naudas ldzekus uzmuma darbbas rezultt var izemt akcionri, lai
uzmums neciestu naudas ldzeku iztrkumu sav krtj darbb? Lai atbildtu
EBT Earning Before Tax.
264
uz o jautjumu, nepiecieams noteikt brvo naudas plsmu, kuru ener operciju

pea (EBIT2).
No operciju peas jatskaita
- nodoki no peas;
- investcijas apgrozmaj kapitl;
- investcijas ilgtermia aktvos
un jpieskaita
- amortizcija.
SIA T kopja brv naudas plsma (tkst. n. v. )

The general free monetary stream of T Ltd. (thous. n. c.)34
Operciju pea (EBIT)
5. tabula
60,0
Uzmuma ienkuma nodoka likme
0,15
Pcnodoku pea (NOPLAT3)
51,0
Amortizcija un nolietojums
30,0
Brv naudas plsma pirms atskaitjumiem investcijm
81,0
Investcijas, t. sk.
35
operciju (apgrozmaj) kapitl
10,0
iekrts
25,0
Kopj brv naudas plsma
46,0
Piezmes:
- atliktie nodoki kori NOPLAT summu;
- aprin izmantoja piemumu, ka visa apliekam pea tiek aplikta ar
vienu nodoka likmi;
- investcijas iekrts var bt ne tikai biznesa paplainanas gadjum, bet ar
kompensjot noraksttos aktvus;
- investcijas iekrts (naudas izdevumi), k ar naudas iemumi no
pamatldzeku prdoanas nav operciju darbbas naudas plsma, bet o
operciju rezultt mains operciju aktvu apjoms, tpc investcijas em
vr, nosakot operciju brvs naudas plsmas.
Operciju brv naudas plsma nesakrt ar naudas plsmu no operciju dar
bbas.
To var pamatot ar diem apriniem (6. un 7. tab.).
2
3
4
EBIT Earning Before Interest and Tax.

NOPLAT Normalized Operation Profit Less Adjusted Taxes.
Kopjo brvo naudas plsmu ener raoanas (operciju) aktvi [6, 14].
265
SIA T operciju darbbas naudas plsma (tkst. n. v. )

T Ltd. monetary stream from operational activity (thous. n. c.)
Tr pea (+)
40,8
Nolietojums (+)
30,0
Izmaias apgrozmaj kapitl bez izmaim naudas da ()
8,0
Naudas plsma no operciju darbbas
62,8
6. tabula

7. tabula
SIA T operciju brv naudas plsma (tkst. n. v. )

T Ltd. free monetary stream from operations (thous. n. c.)
Naudas plsma no operciju darbbas
62,8
Kredta procenti (+)
10,0
Nodoku vairogs procentiem ()
1,5
Izmaias apgrozmaj kapitl naudas da ()
2,0
Prjie iemumi un izdevumi (+)
2,0
Nodoku vairogs prjiem iemumiem un izdevumiem ()
0,3
Brv naudas plsma, pirms tiek atskaittas investcijas iekrts
71,0
K redzams, brvs naudas plsmas apjoms, pirms tiek atskaittas investcijas

iekrts, ir lielks par naudas plsmu no operciju darbbas (msu gadjum par
7,2tkst.). Abas naudas plsmas savukrt ir lielkas par kopjo brvo naudas plsmu
(46 tkst. n. v.)
Akcionriem, izemot no aprites naudu (msu gadjum maksimli 46 tkst.
n.v.), ir jatceras, ka produkcijas vai pakalpojumu apjoma pieaugumam uzmumam
ir nepiecieams palielint savu apgrozmo kapitlu [4, 86], k ar ir nepiecieamas
akumultas investcijas uzmum, kas savukrt ir uzmuma kopjs brvs naudas
plsmas avots, k ar operciju darbbas naudas plsmas un operciju brvs naudas
plsmas avots.
Secinjumi
1. Attsttajs valsts nodoku plnoanai ir liela nozme. T ir uzmuma
stratisks vadbas neatemama sastvdaa. Ts mris ir, maksimli izmantojot
likum noteikts atlaides, atvieglojumus un citas iespjas, samazint uzmuma
finanu ldzekus nodoku maksjumiem. Plnoanas un optimizcijas rezultt,
samazinot nodokus, kas maksjami no peas, uzmums palielina peas
apjomu, k ar savu apgrozmo kapitlu, kas atbilst uzmuma panieku,
vadtju un darbinieku interesm.
2. Saska ar nodoku sloga apriniem, kas veikti pc divm dadm metodikm,
tika secints, k vidji nodoku slogs SIA T veido 48,3%. Tas nozm, ka
266
gandrz puse no uzmuma iemumiem tiek patrta nodoku maksjumiem

un naudas izteiksm ir 94,9 tkst. latu. Samazinot nodoku slogu vismaz par 1%
gad, uzmums atbrvo finanu ldzekus aptuveni 950 latu apmr. Pamatojoties
uz nodoku plnoanas paskumu shmu, uzmumam ir nepiecieamas ieviest
nopietnu nodoku plnoanu un t jizmanto ikdienas darbb.
3. Ietauptie ldzeki td veid palielina uzmuma brvo naudas plsmu, un
akcionri to var gan izmantot attstbai, gan izemt no apgrozbas, t. i., izmakst
dividends. Jebkura uzmuma brvs naudas plsmas palielinana ir prioritrs
uzdevums, to var pankt dados veidos, ar izmantojot nodoku plnoanas
metodi, kura, pc autoru viedoka, ir oti svarga, bet vl nav pietiekami novrtta,
jo uzmumi neizmanto nodoku plnoanu.
LITERATRA
1. Mikrouzmumu nodoka likums (LV, 131 (4323), 19.08.2010.) (stjs spk
01.09.2010.)
2. Ketners, K. (2008) Nodoku optimizcijas principi. Rga: Merkurijs LAT.
3. Ketners, K., Titova, S. (2009) Nodoku politika Eiropas Savienbas vid. Rga: Banku
augstskola.
4. Saksonova, S. (2007) Uzmuma finanu vadbas praktisks metodes. Rga: Merkurijs
LAT.
5. SIA T 2009. gada prskats.
6. Stewart, G. (1999) The quest for value: a guide for senior managers. N. Y.: Harper
Business.
7. Tax Burden by Country Country Ranks 2009. Pieejams: http://www.photius.com/
rankings/tax_burden_country_ranks_2009.html. SOURCE: Forbes Tax Misery and
Reform Index.
8. Vilks: nodoki samazinsies pc diviem gadiem. 2011. gada 17. janvris. Pieejams: http://
bnn.lv/2011/01/17/sabiedriba/vilks-nodokli-samazinasies-pec-diviem-gadiem/
9. , . . (2007)
. : .
10. , . . (2000) . . . . . :
.
11. , ., , . (2003)
:
. : .
12. , . . . :
, 2011. 1, . . 0421100034. Pieejams:
http://uecs.mcnip.ru/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=307
13. , . . .
() 2007, 31.
14. . . Pieejams:
http://distribut.net/article/a-177-4.html (sk. 10.04.2011.)
267
Summary
The tax payment expenses are the essential part of the enterprise expenses, thus,
limiting free financial recourses, which could be used for the further development of
the enterprise. To avoid an excessive expenditure of means for the tax payment, but at
the same time to operate within the limits of the law, the enterprises can use the tax
planning. A tax planning is the constant active actions of the tax payer to reduce a tax
loading of the enterprise on a purpose. The indicator of the tax burden allows judging
the fullest level of the tax load of the enterprise, and the reduction of the given indicator
testifies to efficiency of the tax planning.
1. In the developed world tax planning is highly significant and an integral ingredient
of strategic management of a firm. The objective of tax planning is to use discounts,
tax breaks and other benefits defined by the law to a maximum possible extent and
consequently to lower tax liability for the firm. By lowering income tax payable
on profits as a result of this planning and optimization, a firm will increase
profits available for distribution, which is in the interests of firms owners and
management.
2. After calculating the tax burden with two different methods, one can conclude that
the average tax burden for SIA T is 48, 3 percent. This means that almost half of
the profits for this firm are spent on paying taxes. In monetary terms 94, 9 thousand
lats are paid in taxes. Lowering tax burden by at least 1 percent in a year, the firm
frees up approximately 950 lats. Consequently, the firm requires the introduction and
application of tax planning system in routine operations.
3. The saved funds increase the free cash flow for the firm, shareholders can use
them for investment or they can withdraw them from the firm that is to pay them in
dividends.

268.281. lpp.
Latvijas trisma mrketinga darbbas efektivitte

galvenajos mra tirgos
Productivity of Latvian Tourism Promotion in Main Target
Markets
Aija van der Steina
E-pasts: aijavandersteina@hotmail. com
Autore ir izvrtjusi Latvijas relatvo trisma mrketinga efektivitti galvenajos tristu mra
tirgos, izmantojot E. Smerala un S. F. Vita [19] portfea matricu, kas ietver tirgus daas un
to izmaiu analzi. Ptjum galvenais uzsvars tiek likts uz Latvijas augsti prioritriem un
prioritriem mra tirgiem, izvrtjot Latvijas tirgus pozcijas un to izmaias mra tirgos un
novrtjot mra tirgu atraktivitti.
Raksta beigs autore izvirza secinjumus par portfea matricas un tirgus daas aprinu iz
mantoanu mrketinga darbbas rezulttu izvrtan un Latvijas k ceojuma galamra
pozciju galvenajos mra tirgos.
Atslgvrdi: trisma vietas mrketings, trisma mrketinga efektivitte, mra tirgi, portfea
matrica.
Ievads
Mrketinga efektivittes izvrtana ir viens no aktulkiem jautjumiem trisma
vietu vadb vis pasaul. Ldz im mrketinga efektivittes jautjumi trism
visbiek ir risinti konceptuli vai teortiski, bet par dadu rdtju un metou
izmantojumu joprojm tiek diskutts [2]. K nordjui U.Gretcela, R.Fezenmeiera,
S.Formika un Olrijs [6], viena no izmaim trisma vietas mrketinga prvaldbas
organizciju (TMPO) darbb ir jaunas metodoloijas piemroana mrketinga
efektivittes izvrtanai. Ldz im dada lmea (nacionla, reionla, pavaldbas)
trisma vietas mrketinga darbbas efektivittes izvrtanu balstja galvenokrt
uz trisma vietas mrketinga prvaldbas organizcijas mrketinga komunikcijas
aktivitu izvrtjumu, pamatojoties uz stermia rezulttu novrtjumu. Mrketinga
izvrtanas jautjumi mrketinga plnoanas procesa jeb mrketinga menedmenta
metodes nosldzo fze trisma mrketinga zintniskaj literatr nereti netiek
pieminti vai ir apskatti oti virspusgi. Tas liecina par mrketinga efektivittes
teortisko aspektu vju implementciju trisma mrketing, td ar praktiski
efektivitte lielkoties netiek izvrtta. o piemumu ir apstiprinjis ar Pasaules
trisma organizcijas [21] veiktais ptjums par nacionlo trisma organizciju
mrketinga darbbas izvrtanu. Ptjums atklj, ka nacionls trisma organizcijas
A. van der Steina. Latvijas trisma mrketinga darbbas efektivitte galvenajos mra ..
269
(NTO) galvenokrt ir izmantojuas mrketinga komunikcijas aktivitu izvrtanu

vai darbbas pamatoanai lielkoties lieto ikgadjos trisma statistikas rdtjus, kas
ne vienmr atspoguo trisma vietas veiksmes vai neveiksmes starptautisk tirgus
kontekst.
P. lds [16] nordjis, ka galvens problmas mrketinga efektivittes iz
vrtan makrolmen ir atbilstou datu un adekvtu metou trkums, ceoanas
lmumu pieemanas procesa patnbas un rjs vides faktoru ietekme uz trisma
attstbu. Ja trisma attstb vrojamas pozitvas tendences, piemram, pieaug tristu
skaits vai palielins trisma eksporta daa, tad trisma vietas mrketinga prvaldbas
organizcijas tradicionli uzsver to k savas darbbas nopelnu, savukrt, ja trisma
tirg vrojama negatva attstba, tiek uzsvrta citu rjo vides faktoru negatv
ietekme uz trisma pieprasjumu [15].
Literatras apskats
Trisma kontekst visplak ir ptta reklmas efektivitte un ts ekonomisk
ietekme [13; 7; 27]. Lai ar ai metodei ir savi vjie punkti [3; 13], tomr akceptt
reklmas izvrtanas metode ir konversijas metode (conversion study) [27], ar
kuras paldzbu mra pakpi, kd ceotji ierodas trisma viet reklmas ietekm
[24]. Konversijas metodi reklmas izvrtanai izmantojui D. Silbermans un
M.Kloks [18], S. Sigls un V. Zifs-Levine [17], E.G.Makviljams un D. Kromptons
[13], S. Prats un citi [27]. K. Maklemrs un N. Mitels [11] metodi izmantojui
trisma vietas mjaslapas ekonomisks efektivittes izvrtan. Reklmas
izvrtan tiek lietoti ar patrtju reakcijas mrjumi dados mrketinga procesa
posmos (advertising tracking study) [17] un eksperiments [24]. Citu NTO veikto
popularizanas instrumentu, piemram, sabiedrisko attiecbu, nozares paskumu,
k ar ekonomisko efektivitti, izvrtt ir sareti [15], tpc par o tmu ir veikts
saldzinoi maz ptjumu. Sabiedrisko aktivitu efektivitte ir mrta, pieldzinot
to reklmas vrtbai vai izmantojot kvalitatvos rdtjus, piemram, rakstu skaitu,
rakstu atbilstbu mrketinga mriem, auditorijas lielumu u. c. [14]. Gan publicittes,
gan trisma izstu, gan iepazans ceojumu un citu paskumu izvrtanai
visbiek tiek izmantoti kvalitatvie rdtji [21]. Trisma vietu broru efektivitti ir
vrtjis Z.Zhou [25], lietojot tdus indikatorus k lastju skaits, ietekme uz lmuma
pieemanu u. c.
S. Prats un citi ptnieki [27], izmantojot konversijas metodi un ienkumu no
ieguldjumiem (INI) aprinus, ir saldzinjui mrketinga kampau ekonomisko
efektivitti starp dadm mrketinga kampam. N. Kulendrana un L. Dveijers
[8], lietojot dinamisko modelanu un izmaksu efektivittes aprinus, novrtjui
Austrlijas mrketinga ekonomisko efektivitti pdjos 25 gados galvenajos Aus
trlijas mra tirgos. Autori sav ptjum vrt mrketinga efektivitti ilgtermi,
tau metodes izmantojumu citu trisma vietu mrketinga efektivittes izvrtan
sare tas, ka nav pieejami dati par mrketinga budeta sadaljumu pa dadiem
mra tirgiem ilgk laika posm.
Lai ar pastv uzskats, ka katrai organizcijai ir jspj novrtt savas darbbas
ekonomisko efektivitti, izmantojot ienkumu no ieguldjumiem metodi trisma
vietu mrketing un / vai trisma vietas mrketinga prvaldbas organizcijas
270
darbbas izvrtan, tomr s metodes lietoan pastv ierobeojumi, kas saistti

ar trisma vietas mrketinga specifiku. K nordjis Hunts (citts no [15]), valsts vai
sabiedrisko trisma organizciju lmen ir sareti vai pat neiespjami izmantot INI,
jo visbiek s organizcijas attsta un veicina (populariz) produktus, pr kuriem
tm nav nekdas kontroles.
S. Paiks [15] trisma vietas mrketinga efektivittes izvrtjumam ieteicis
lietot indikatoru kopumu, kas balsts uz trisma tirgus (market performance)
un TMPO darbbas (organisation performance) izvrtjumu, jo trisma vieta ir
prvaldbas objekts, bet mrketinga veicjs ir trisma vietas mrketinga prvaldbas
organizcija.
Apkopojot gan zintniskaj literatr aprakstto, gan praks izmantoto mrke
tinga darbbas izvrtanas pieredzi trisma viets, jatzst, ka trisma vietu mr
ketinga efektivittes izvrtana ir komplekss process, kur var tikt lietots plas
indikatoru un metou kopums.
R. L un J. F. Petriks [9] nordjui, ka mrketinga un trisma paradigmu maias
ietekm mrketinga darbba ir jizvrt pc diem kritrijiem: patrtju uztvere,
mra tirgu attstba, zmols un t attstba, pozcija tirg, vides ilgtspja u. c.
Tirgus pozcijas un mra tirgus attstbas novrtanai ir izmantojama portfea
matrica, kas ietver tirgus daas un ts izmaiu analzi. B. Makerers [12], B.Folk
ners[3], D. Mazaneks (citts no [15]), E. Smerals un S. F. Vits [19] portfea matricu
iesaka izmantot trisma vietas mra tirgu atraktivittes un mrketinga aktivitu
lietderbas izvrtanai mra tirgos. Viena no visbiek lietotm metodm mra
tirgu atraktivittes novrtan ir valsts potencila enerjoais indekss (country
potential generation index CPGI) [1]. Tiek uzskatts, ka o indeksu 20.gadsimta
70. gados ieviesa A. J. Burkarts (Burkart) un S. R. Medliks (Medlik), savukrt
atsevii autori, piemram, S. Paiks [15], uz to atsaucas k uz Hadmana (Hudman)
indeksu.
D. Mazaneks (1997) izmantoja divdimensiju matricu, kas apvieno gan tirgus
atraktivittes, gan konkurtspjas pozcijas. Portfea matricu lietojis ar Maker
ers[12], kur TMPO piedvja lietot trisma vietas tirgus matricu (DestinationMarket Matrix), kur iekauts gan tirgus pieauguma rdtjs, gan trisma vietas
dzves cikla posms. V. Frejers [5] nordjis, ka trisma jom portfea metode (iz
manto Bostonas konsultantu grupas (BCG) matricu, balstoties uz relatvo tirgus dau
jeb relatvajm konkurences priekrocbm un tirgus attstbu (pieaugumu) jeb tirgus
atraktivitti) vl nav guvusi plau izmantojumu, tas vartu bt saistts ar metodes
saretbu un abstraktumu divdimensiju matricas rezulttu interpretcij. Lai gan
trisma komplekso sakarbu d t btu pai piemrota tiei trismam, turklt me
tode izmantojama dados mrketinga lmeos gan valsts, gan reiona, gan pa
valdbas lmen.
Viens no galvenajiem NTO mriem ir piesaistt vairk rvalstu tristu un iegt
lielku rvalstu mra tirgus dau, tas ir svargi no valsts eksportspjas viedoka, tad
tirgus daas rdtjs var nordt uz aktivitu rezulttu veiksmm un neveiksmm,
k ar iespjams plnot mrketinga aktivittes nkotn, novirzot resursus daudz
efektvk. K nordjis B. Folkners [3], mrketinga darbbas izvrtan tirgus daa
ir viens no galvenajiem indikatoriem, kas auj novrtt, k organizcijai ir izdevies
271
realizt vienu no pamatmriem piesaistt trisma vietai rvalstu tristus no

konkrtiem mra tirgiem. Tirgus daas rdtji auj novrtt trisma vietas veikumu
dados mra tirgos saldzinjum ar citiem galamriem, turklt rezultti ir
izmantojami stratisks plnoanas proces, nosakot galvenos mra tirgus, kur
veicamas mrketinga aktivittes. Lietojot o metodi, tiek izvrtta trisma vietu
mrketinga organizciju darbbas relatv efektivitte, turklt ir svargi novrtt,
k notiek tirgus pozcijas izmaias laik, mazku nozmi pieirot relatvajai tirgus
daai, jo
1) trisma vietas pozciju tirg nosaka gan eogrfiskie, gan politiskie un
vsturiskie faktori, kas atrodas rpus mrketinga programmu un aktivitu
ietekmes [3];
2) infrastruktras un / vai vides ietilpba (carying capacity) nosaka limitus
tirgus pozcijas ieganai [3];
3) statistikas dati ne vienmr ir saldzinmi starp valstm, jo pasaul nepastv
vienoti principi trisma statistikas ieguv un prezentcij [23].
Ptjuma un metodes apraksts

Lai novrttu Latvijas k ceojumu galamra darbbu galvenajos mra
tirgos, autore izmanto E. Smerala un S. F. Vita [19] portfea matricu, kas balsts
uz B. Folknera [3] pieeju trisma vietu relatvo tirgus dau izvrtanai. Metode
ietver tirgus daas indeksu un tirgus daas izmaiu indeksu aprinanu un indeksu
ievietoanu portfea matric, kas auj vizuli novrtt mra tirgu atraktivitti un
trisma vietas relatvo pozciju mra tirgos.
Tirgus daas indekss (S) tiek izteikts k pakpe, cik liel mr trisma galamra
tirgus daa attiecb uz kdu atseviu tirgu atiras no visu tristu kopjs tirgus
daas.
Mjit
Sjit =
1,
Mit
kur Mjit = Xjit
i=1
Mit =
j=1
n
i=1
Xjit
Xjit
mj=1 Xjit
Sjit ceojuma galamra i tirgus daa mra tirg.

Mjit ceojumu galamra i tirgus daa mra tirg j, gad t.
Mit ceojuma galamra i tirgus daa kopj starptautiskaj tirg gad t.
Xjit trisma pieprasjums izteikts kvantitatvi (nakojumu skaits ceojumu
galamr i no mra tirgus j gad t).
Ja tirgus daa trisma vietai i mra tirg j ir lielka par trisma vietas dau
kopj tirg, tad tirgus daas indekss ir pozitvs (0 <) un norda, ka ceojumu
galamra tirgus daa konkrtaj mra tirg ir virs vidj. Savukrt, ja tirgus daa
trisma vietai i mra tirg j ir mazka par trisma vietas dau kopj tirg, tad
tirgus daas indekss ir negatvs (< 0) un norda, ka ceojumu galamra tirgus daa
272
konkrtaj mra tirg ir zem vidj. Savukrt, ja tirgus daas indeksa vrtba ir
vienda ar nulli (= 0), tas norda, ka ceojuma galamra tirgus daa mra tirg
atbilst vidjai tirgus daai kopj tirg.
Tirgus daas izmaiu indekss atspoguo tirgus daas izmaias noteikt laika
posm. Tirgus daas izmaiu indekss (D) atspoguo ceojuma galamra tirgus daas
izmaias dados mra tirgos noteikt laika posm.
D ji(tk) =
t
Mjit
1,
Mji(tk)
kur Mjit ceojumu galamra i tirgus daa mra tirg j, gad t.

Mji(tk) ceojuma galamra i tirgus daa mra tirg j gad (t-k).
Ja D ji(tk) ir pozitvs, tad ceojuma galamra tirgus daa laika posm ir
t
palielinjusies un trisma vieta gst konkurtspjgu pozciju mra tirgos. Savukrt,
ja izmaiu indeksa vrtba ir negatva, tas norda uz tirgus pozciju pasliktinanos.
Lai atvieglotu rezulttu izvrtanu dados tirgos, o abu indeksu vrtbas
tiek attlotas grafisks izteiksmes veid portfea matric, kur tirgus daas indekss ir
attlots uz horizontls ass, bet izmaiu indekss uz vertikls ass.
Matric autori mra tirgus pc to novietojuma kvadrantos ir klasificjui etrs
grups.
1. Sekmgi darbojoies tirgi, kur ceojuma galamra daa attiecgaj tirg ir
lielka nek vidj tirgus daa kopj tirg un kur tirgus da novrojams
pieaugums.
(Sjit > 0) (D ji(tk) > 0 )
t
2. Jaunie topoie tirgi, kur ceojuma galamra daa attiecgaj tirg ir zem
vidjs tirgus daas kopj tirg, bet tirgus da ir novrojams pieaugums.
(Sjit < 0) (D ji(tk) > 0 )
t
3. Sarkoie tirgi, kur ceojuma galamra daa attiecgaj tirg ir virs vidjs
tirgus daas kopj tirg, bet tirgus da ir novrojams samazinjums.
(Sjit > 0) (D ji(tk) < 0 )
t
4. Zaudtie tirgi, kur gan ceojuma galamra daa attiecgaj tirg ir zem
vidjs tirgus daas kopj tirg un ar tirgus da ir novrojams sama
zinjums.
(Sjit < 0) (D ji(tk) < 0 )
t
Latvijas tirgus daas apriniem autore izmanto visbiek lietoto kvantitatvo

trisma pieprasjumu raksturojoo rdtju tristu skaitu [20]. Tirgus daas
aprinan var lietot ar nakojumu skaitu, tristu izdevumus u. c. Tristu skaita
izmantoanas pamatojums tirgus daas raksturoan ir datu pieejamba, jo metodes
273
lietoan ir nepiecieami dati gan par kopjo trisma tirgu, gan atseviu valstu
(tristu cilmes vietu) izejoo trismu, gan Latvijas ienkoo trisma tirgu.
Ptjums ietver laika posmu no 2002. ldz 2007. gadam, kas atspoguo pirmskrzes
periodu, kad ienko trisma attstba Latvij sasniedza strauju izaugsmi un aktvi
tika veikts valsts trisma mrketings. T k, skot ar 2008. gadu, trisma nozare
pasaul un Latvij darbojas krzes apstkos, otrs izvrtanas posms ir no 2007. ldz
2009.gadam.
Ptjum tika iekautas visas ts tristu cilmes vietas (valstis), no kurm Latvij
ierads vairkdienu ceotji jeb tristi un par kurm bija pieejami dati par tristu
skaitu CSP datubz, par bzes gadu emot 2007. gadu. Ir pieejami dati par 17
valstm, kas skotnji tika iekautas analz, tau analizjamo valstu skaits saruka,
jo nebija pieejami apriniem nepiecieamie papildu dati (piemram, izceojoo
tristu skaits tristu cilmes viet / valst) par iem tirgiem, tomr jatzm, ka tas
ptjuma nozmi nemazina, jo ptjum tika iekauti Latvijas Trisma attstbas valsts
aentras (TAVA) izvirztie galvenie augsti prioritrie mra tirgi un daa prioritro
mra tirgu. Lietuva un Igaunija netika iekauta ptjum saldzinmu datu trkuma
d.
Latvijas k ceojuma galamra pozcijas un relatv mrketinga

efektivitte dados mra tirgos
Latvijas tirgus daa tika aprinta, izmantojot Centrls statistikas prvaldes
datus par vairkdienu ceotjiem Latvij sadaljum pa valstm, savukrt kopj
mra tirgus apjoma izteikanai tika lietoti Pasaules trisma organizcijas apkopotie
dati par izceojoo tristu skaitu sadaljum pa valstm un kopjo tristu skaitu
pasaul. Latvijas tirgus daa kopj starptautiskaj trisma tirg 2002. gad tika
izteikta k Latvijas kopjais ieceojuo tristu skaits pret kopjo tristu skaitu
pasaul. 2002. gad Latvijas tirgus daa (M) kopj starptautiskaj tirg ir 0,0012,
2007. gad 0,0018, bet 2009. gad 0,0015, emot vr, ka tristu skaits pasaul
2002. gad bija 701,5 milj., 2007. gad 898 milj., 2009. gad 880 milj. [22].
1. tabul ir attloti Latvijas tirgus daas indeksi (S) un tirgus dau izmaiu indeksi
(D) galvenajos trisma mra tirgos 2002., 2007. un 2009.gad.
Izmantots metodes priekrocbas autores aprinos trisma vietas pozcijas
novrtan oti labi parda Baltkrievijas piemrs: lai ar ieceojuo tristu skaits
Latvij 2007. gad, saldzinot ar 2002. gadu, bija samazinjies (1. tab.), tomr
tirgus daas indekss bija pozitvs (2002. gad S = 11,5, bet 2007. gad S = 15,6).
Tas liecina par to, ka Latvijas pozcijas Baltkrievijas mra tirg bija virs vidj
lmea. Baltkrievijas tirg Latvijas tirgus daa ajos gados bija lielka nek Latvijas
tirgus daa kopj trisma tirg, un tas liecina par Latvijas labvlgajm pozcijm
aj tirg. Ar Latvijas tirgus daas izmaiu indekss Baltkrievijas tirg ir pozitvs
(D = 1,02), ttad tirgus ir darbojies veiksmgi, lai ar ir novrojams Baltkrievijas
tristu skaita kritums Latvij. Ar Krievijas piemrs atspoguo, ka tristu skaita
pieaugums ne vienmr liecina par spcgm ceojuma galamra pozcijm un
pozitvm attstbas tendencm. No 2002. ldz 2007. gadam Krievijas tristu skaits
Latvij pieauga no 137,4 tkstoiem ldz 219,9 tkstoiem (apmram par 60%), tau
274
tirgus dau izmaiu indekss ir negatvs (D = 0,04). Tas liecina, ka Latvija savas
pozcijas k ceojuma galamris Krievijas mra tirg zaud, jo lielks Krievijas
ceotju patsvars izvlas citus ceojumu galamrus.
1. tabula
Latvijas tirgus daas indekss un tirgus daas izmaiu indekss

Market share index and index of changes in market share of Latvia
Vairkdienu ceotju
skaits Latvij (tkst.) *
Mra tirgus
valsts
2002
2007
2009
Latvijas tirgus daas

indekss (S) **
2002
2007
2009
Tirgus daas izmaiu

indekss (D) **
2007 /2002 2009 /2007
Baltkrievija
21,7
15,8
nd
11,4997 15,6007 na
1,0224
ASV
17,6
22,4
30,4
-0,7493 -0,8100 -0,6708 0,1542
na
0,4148
ehija
11,8
15,6
11,1
0,3532
0,1693
0,1156
0,3158
-0,2208
Dnija
16,2
38,9
26,3
1,7153
2,2191
1,7562
0,8053
-0,3008
Francija
nd
23,6
20,9
na
-0,4901 -0,4046 na
Itlija
22,8
30,8
nd
-0,2494 -0,3967 na
Krievija
137,4
219,9
164,4
4,5636
Lielbritnija
16,9
77,2
61,5
-0,7646 -0,3962 -0,3021 2,9055
2,4840
1,9928
-0,0464
0,2238
na
-0,0464
-0,2985
-0,0561
Nderlande
nd
27,1
nd
na
-0,1615 na
na
na
Norvija
11,6
85,8
62,2
2,6497
12,7280 na
4,7277
na
0,5055
Polija
44,6
70,9
37,9
-0,1810 -0,1902 na
Somija
58,7
92,2
114,6
7,2900
7,7116
12,0704 0,6002
na
0,2253
Ukraina
9,1
15,1
nd
-0,4890 -0,5268 na
0,4099
na
Vcija
82,4
158,4
117,4
-0,0701 0,2222
0,0801
1,0015
-0,2783
Zviedrija
39,7
168,3
144,7
2,9945
6,1656
1,2819
-0,0224
Kop
848,1
1653,1 1322
4,9858
nd nav pieejami dati.

na nevar aprint, jo nav pieejami apriniem nepiecieamie dati.
* Dati no Latvijas CSP datubzes.
** Autores aprini.
Avots: autores aprini, izmantojot E. Smerala un S. F. Vita tirgus daas izmaiu indeksus.
Pirms tiek analizta Latvijas darbba atsevios mra tirgos, jatzm, ka t

risma vietas pozciju katr mra tirg ietekm ne tikai nacionls trisma orga
nizcijas un trisma uzmumu / organizciju mrketinga darbba, bet ar citi
faktori, kas iespaido trisma pieprasjumu, piemram, patrtju gaume, patria
cenas gan trisma cilmes viet, gan ceojuma galamr, k ar potencilo ceotju
ienkumu palielinans u. c. [10], tpc, analizjot Latvijas pozciju un ts
izmaias mra tirgos, paralli ir jizvrt ar citi faktori, kas ietekm Latvijas k
ceojuma galamra pieprasjumu. emot vr no mrketinga neatkargu faktoru
ietekmi uz trisma pieprasjumu, mrketinga darbbas izvrtanas mriem tika
analizti mra tirgi, kuros Latvijas nacionl trisma organizcija TAVA veica
mrtiecgas mrketinga aktivittes, tau paralli tika vrtts, vai mra tirgos, kuros
275
TAVA neveic mrtiecgu mrketingu, Latvijas pozcijas nav veiksmgkas, un tas

vartu liecint par neveiksmgu mra tirgu izvli. Pieemot, ka Latvijas gadjum
trisma mrketings ietekm tristu skaita pieaugumu (ar nakojumu un iemumu
paaugstinanos), ptjum galvenais uzsvars tiks likts uz Latvijas augsti prioritro
un prioritro mra tirgu analzi.
Visi Latvijas mra tirgi tika ievietoti portfea matricas etros kvadrantos, kur uz
x ass attlots tirgus daas izmaiu indekss, savukrt uz y ass tirgus daas indekss.
Analizjot matricu 2002.2007.gadam (1. att.), atkljas, ka no augsti prioritriem
tirgiem sekmgi darbojas Somijas, Zviedrijas un Vcijas tirgus.
Sarkoie tirgi
Sekmgi darbojoies tirgi
18
16
Baltkrievija
14
Norvija
12
10
Tirgus izmaiu indekss
Somija
8
Zviedrija
4
Krievija 2
0
-5
-3
Dnija
ehija Vcija
-1
1
-2
ASV
Lielbritnija
-4
-6
Tirgus daas indekss
Stagnjoi jeb zaudtie tirgi
Jaunie tirgi
1.attls. Latvijas pozcijas rvalstu mra tirgos laika posm no 2002. ldz 2007.gadam
Position of Latvia in foreign target markets over the period of 20022007
Avots: izveidojusi autore.
Vcijas (D = 1,00) un Zviedrijas (D = 1,28) gadjum ir novrojams pozitvkais

tirgus daas pieaugums, savukrt Somijas (S = 7,71) un Zviedrijas (S = 4,99) tirg
Latvijas pozcijas ir virs vidj, saldzinot ar Latvijas tirgus dau pasaules kopj
trisma tirg. ie rezultti liecina par Latvijas k ceojuma galamra veiksmgu
darbbu Somijas un Zviedrijas tirg, k ar potencilu Vcijas tirg, kur Latvijas
tirgus daas indekss ir tuvu 0. Lielbritnijas mra tirg Latvijas daa ir zem vidjs
tirgus daas kopj tirg (S = 0,39), bet ir novrojams tirgus daas pieaugums, kas
no 2002. ldz 2007. gadam sasniedz 2,90. Tas liecina, ka is tirgus ir ar attstbas
potencilu un pieskaitms jauno, topoo tirgu grupai. No ptms augsti prioritro
mra tirgu grupas Krievijas tirgus ietilpst sarkoo tirgu grup, jo, lai ar 2007.gad
Latvijas tirgus daa Krievijas mra tirg ir virs vidjs (S = 2,48), tomr, saldzinot
ar kopjo tirgus dau, tirgus daas izmaias indekss ir negatvs (D = 0,05), un tas
276
liecina, ka tirgus da vrojams samazinjums un tirgus nav tik atraktvs. T k

Krievijas tirgus ir augsti prioritrs un taj daudzas mrketinga aktivittes notika
intensvk nek, piemram, prioritrajos tirgos, jatzst, ka darbba aj mra tirg
nav devusi pozitvus rezulttus. Protams, to ietekm ne tikai mrketinga aktivittes,
bet ar dadi makrovides faktori. Krievijas gadjum viens no ietekmjoiem
faktoriem ir politiski tiesiskais faktors, kas saistts ar vzu remu un Latvijas tlu
Krievij. Latvijas k ceojuma galamra tla veidoana un uzlaboana ir viens no
galvenajiem Latvijas TAVA pamatuzdevumiem, tpc neveiksmes Krievijas tirg ir
saistma ar ar TAVA neveiksmgo darbbu.
2. tabula
Latvijas mra tirgu iedaljums portfea / matricas mra tirgus grups

Distribution of Latvian target markets in portfolio-matrix target market groups
Mra tirgu
grupa pc
mrketinga
aktivitu
intensittes
Augsti
prioritrie
tirgi
Prioritrie
tirgi
Sekmgi darbojoies
tirgi
Jaunie, topoie
tirgi
2002/ 2007
2007/
2009
2002/
2007
Somija
Somija
Lielbritnija
Zviedrija
2007/
2009
Dnija
2002/
2007
2007/
2009
Krievija Krievija
Zviedrija
Vcija
Norvija,
Baltkrievija
Sarkoie tirgi
Stagnjoie jeb
zaudtie tirgi
2002/ 2007/
2007 2009
Lielbritnija
Vcija
Itlija
Dnija
Polija
Ukraina
ehija
Francija
ehija
Ukraina
Citi
ASV
ASV
Norvija, kas nav iekauta augsti prioritro mra tirgu grup, uzrdja labkos
rdtjus gan attiecb uz Latvijas tirgus dau (2007. gad S = 12,73), gan tirgus
daas pieauguma tempiem (D = 4,72). Galvenais iemesls dai straujai Norvijas
tirgus izaugsmei ir saistts ar lidojumu galamru un to skaita palielinanos, tas ir
oti veiksmgs rjs vides faktors, kas pozitvi ietekm mrketinga vidi. Norvijas
tirgus jau 2002. gad pc tirgus daas indeksa bija atraktvs mra tirgus un
prsniedza Lielbritnijas tirgus daas indeksu. TAVA nav spjusi veiksmgi novrtt
ieceotju potencilu no Norvijas, tpc tirg nav veikti atbilstoi paskumi, kas
veicina pieprasjumu. 2007. gad Norvijas tirgus daas indekss jau apsteidza
Zviedrijas (S = 4,9), Somijas (S = 7,71), Krievijas (S = 2,48) un Vcijas (S = 0,22)
tirgus daas indeksu, turklt Latvijas pozcijas Norvijas tirg ievrojami apsteidz
augsti prioritro mra tirgu pozcijas. Baltkrievijas tirg pieaugums nav tik strauj,
bet tirgus daa (S = 15,60) ir ievrojami virs vidjs Latvijas tirgus daas, lai ar
kopum Baltkrievijas iedzvotju ceojumi rpus Baltkrievijas samazins un attiecgi
samazins ar ieceojoo Baltkrievijas iedzvotju skaits Latvij. Latvijas nozmgs
pozcijas Baltkrievijas mra tirg ir izskaidrojamas ar nelielo eogrfisko attlumu,
t. i., kaimivalsts pozciju un to, ka ceoanas motvs Latvij ir apmeklt draugus
un radus.
277
K rda matrica, ar Dnijas (S = 2,22; D = 0,81) un ehijas (S = 0,17; D = 0,32)

mra tirgos Latvija ir darbojusies veiksmgk nek atsevios augsti prioritros
tirgos, un tas apstiprina to, ka mrketinga aktivittes ir tikai viens no pieprasjumu
veicinoiem faktoriem, tomr btiska ietekme ir ar citiem faktoriem.
Pavisam cita situcija atkljs no 2007. ldz 2009. gadam, kad trisms vis
pasaul piedzvoja lejupsldi, ko izraisja ekonomisk lejupslde. Krzes ietekm
Latvijas tirgus daa kopj pasaules tirg samazinjs no 0,18% 2007. gad ldz
0,15% 2009.gad. Grafik (2. att.) atainotas Latvij ieceojuo tristu skaita izmai
as sadaljum pa valstm. 2008.gad gandrz visos mra tirgos (izemot Somiju)
novrojama tristu skaita samazinans, ldzgu situciju ienko trism piedzvo
daudzas pasaules valstis.
,
,
,
,
,
,
2.attls. Tristu skaits Latvij no augsti prioritrm valstm 2000.2009. gad

(tkstoos)
Tourist arrivals in Latvia from high priority countries over the period of 20022009 (in
thousands)
Avots: izveidojusi autore, izmantojot CSP datus (CSP, 2011).
Vai Latvija krzes ietekm zaudja savas tirgus pozcijas un / vai samazins Lat
vijas tirgus daa mra tirgos, to visuzskatmk parda 3. attl atspoguot mat
rica.
No augsti prioritriem tirgiem krzes laik veiksmgi darbojies tikai Somijas tirgus,
kur Latvijas tirgus daa (S = 12,07) krzes period ir pieaugusi, k ar tirgus daa ir
ievrojami augstka par Latvijas tirgus dau kopj tirg, un tas ir izskaidrojams ar
nelielo eogrfisko attlumu, kas veicina bieu so ceojumu pieprasjumu. Sarkoo
tirgu grup aj period ir iekuvuas Krievija (S = 1,99; D = 0,30), Zviedrija
(S=6,17; D = 0,02), Vcija (S = 0,08; D = 0,28), Dnija (S = 1,76; D = 0,30) un
ehija (S = 0,12; D = 0,22) (3.att.). ajos tirgos ir samazinjusies Latvijas tirgus
daa, tas liecina par intereses mazinanos un citu ceojumu galamru nozmes
pieaugumu, tau tirgus daa joprojm saglabjas virs vidj lmea. Uz Zviedrijas
mra tirgus potencilu norda saldzinoi liel tirgus daa, ko Latvija ieguvusi
saldzinjum ar tirgus dau pasaul. Visstraujk Latvija tirgus dau zaud Krievijas,
Vcijas un Lielbritnijas tirg. Krievija un Vcija ieskaitma sarkoo mra tirgu
278
grup, jo tirgus daa aj period ir samazinjusies, bet tirgus daas indekss vl ir

pozitvs. Lai ar abi ie tirgi ir TAVA augsti prioritrie tirgi, kur tika veikts daudz
mrketinga aktivitu, o tirgu attstba nav pozitva. ajos tirgos ir jveic aktvas
mrketinga darbbas, lai nkotn tie neiektu stagnjoo valstu grup.
14
Sarkoie tirgi
Sekmgi darbojoies tirgi
12
Somija
Somija
10
Zviedrija
Tirgus izmaiu indekss
-0.4
Dnija
2
Krievija
ehija
-0.3
Vcija
-0.2
0
-0.1
0.0
0.1
Lielbritnija -2
Francija
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
ASV
-4
-6
Stagnjoie tirgi
Tirgus daas indekss
Jaunie tirgi
3. attls. Latvijas pozcijas rvalstu mra tirgos laika posm no 2007. ldz 2009.gadam
Position of Latvia in foreign target markets over the period of 20072009
Krzes ietekm Lielbritnija no jauna topoa tirgus ir kuvusi par stagnjou

mra tirgu, jo Latvijas tirgus daa aj tirg ir strauji samazinjusies (D = 0,06),
bet tirgus pozcijas ldzgi k pirmskrzes period ir zem vidj (S = 0,30). No
2002. ldz 2009. gadam Latvijai nav izdevies uzlabot pozcijas Lielbritnijas tirg,
lai ar attstjs ltas transporta lnijas un tika veiktas dadas mrketinga aktivittes,
darbojs trisma birojs, Latvija piedaljs trisma izstds u. c. Matric netiek
atspoguoti Baltkrievijas, Norvijas un Polijas mra tirgi, jo CSP 2009.gad nav
iegti reprezentatvi dati par vairkdienu ceotju skaitu.
Kopum Latvija krzes laik zaud gan tirgus dau, gan tirgus pozcijas lielkaj
da augsti prioritro un prioritro mra tirgu. Tikai Somijas tirg Latvijai izdevies
gan uzlabot pozcijas, gan pankt tirgus daas pieaugumu. Zviedrijas tirg vrojama
pozitva tendence, jo tirgus daa nav tik strauji kritusies k kopj Latvijas tirgus daa
pasaul, tau tirgus daas samazinjums ir novrojams. Ldzga situcija novrojama
Krievijas, Vcijas, Dnijas un ehijas tirg. Savukrt Lielbritnijas un Francijas
tirg novrojama tirgus daas samazinans, un Latvijas pozcijas ajos tirgos ir
vjkas nek vidji pasaul.
279
Secinjumi
Portfea matricas izmantoanas priekrocba ir t, ka ceojuma galamra
pozcijas mra tirgos tiek izvrttas saldzinjum ar pozciju pasaul. Tas auj
uzskatmi atpazt atraktvkos mra tirgus un vrtt izmaias kd noteikt laika
posm. Metode neatspoguo mrketinga tieo ietekmi uz mra tirgiem, bet auj
spriest par relatvo efektivitti, k ar novrtt mra tirgu attstbu pasaules trisma
attstbas kontekst, turklt piedv iespju noteikt trisma vietai atraktvkos mra
tirgus stratisks plnoanas vajadzbm.
Straujs ekonomisks izaugsmes period Latvija k ceojumu galamris
darbojs sekmgi gandrz visos augsti prioritros tirgos (Somija, Zviedrija un
Vcija); Lielbritnijas tirgus uzrda attstbas potencilu, savukrt Krievijas tirg
Latvija zaudja savas pozcijas, lai ar Latvij bija novrojams Krievijas tristu skaita
pieaugums. Saldzinot ar Krievijas un Lielbritnijas tirgu, labkas pozcijas Latvijai
ir atsevios prioritros tirgos: Norvijas, Dnijas, ehijas un Baltkrievijas tirg.
Norvijas tristu tirgus potencilu TAVA nav izdevies novrtt un veikt atbilstoas
mrketinga darbbas, nostiprinot pozcijas un piesaistot vairk tristu un iemumu.
Norvijas mra tirgus attstba lielkoties notikusi rjo faktoru ietekm, nevis
TAVA mrtiecgu darbbu d, tas liecina par trisma vietas mrketinga relatvo
ietekmi uz mra tirgu attstbu.
Krzes period tikai Somijas mra tirg Latvija uzrdja veiksmgu darbbu,
savukrt Krievijas, Zviedrijas un Vcijas tirgus kuvis par sarkou tirgu. Tas liecina
par Latvijas k atraktva ceojuma galamra vjo tlu, jo krzes period tirgus daas
samazinjums liecina par citu ceojumu galamru spcgkm pozcijm. ajos
tirgos nkotn ir nepiecieamas spcgas mrketinga aktivittes, lai vartu atgt
pozcijas un sarkoie tirgi nektu par stagnjoiem k Lielbritnij un Francij.
Ptjuma gait rads aktuli jautjumi, kas btu jem vr, izmantojot portfea
matricu trisma vietas mra tirgu novrtan vai ptjumos nkotn.
Mra tirgus darbbas izvrtjum var izmantot ne tikai tristu skaitu, bet
ar nakojumu skaitu, tristu izdevumus, nakojumu skaitu izmitinanas
iestds, tau iepriek jveido atbilstoa mrketinga informcijas sistma,
kas nodroins ar datiem, kuri nepiecieami metodes apriniem. Tristu
izdevumi btu vispiemrotkais rdtjs, jo atspoguotu mra tirgus
ekonomiskos ieguvumus.
Latvijas reionu un pilstu trisma mrketinga darbbas izvrtan portfea
matricu var izmantot, saldzinot reiona darbbu Latvijas kontekst un tirgus
daas apriniem lietojot nakojumu skaitu viesncs un tm pieldzints
mtns.
o metodi darbbas efektivittes izvrtan trisma vietas mrketinga
prvaldbas organizcijas efektvk var izmantot, izvirzot mrus tirgus daai
katr mra tirgus grup vai mra tirg un emot vr kopjo pasaules
trisma tirgus attstbu. Mrtiecgi noteikti un izmrmi tirgus dau mri
mra tirgos auj izvrtt, vai ie mri ir sasniegti.
280
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Interneta avoti
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Nepublictie avoti
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Summary
Evaluation of marketing productivity is one of the topical issues in destination
marketing management worldwide. Up until now issues concerning productivity of tourism
marketing were mostly resolved conceptually or theoretically but the indicators and
methods applied are still being discussed. The author in her original paper evaluated the
relative effectiveness of Latvian tourism marketing in key target markets using Smeral`s
and Witt`s (2002) portfolio matrix that involves the analysis of market share and change
in market share. Main emphasis in the research is laid on Latvian high priority and
priority target markets evaluating the Latvian market position and its changes in the
target markets and attractiveness of target markets. The review of literature in the paper
summarises most commonly used methods and indicators for evaluation of effectiveness
and efficiency of destination promotion.
The author draws conclusions on the use of portfolio matrix and market share
calculations for evaluating the results of promotion and the position of Latvia as a
destination in key target markets.
Keywords: destination marketing, marketing productivity, target markets, portfolio
matrix.

282.293. lpp.
Privt un aizsardzbas sektora sadarbba militr

keinsisma teorij
The Cooperation of Private and Defense Sector within the
Framework of Military Keynesianism
Alekss Tilti
NBS Nodroinjuma pavlniecbas tbs

Operatvs plnoanas (G-3) prvalde
Atbalsta operciju daa
Vienbas gatve 56, Rga, LV-1004
E-pasts: alekss_tiltins@yahoo.com
Pdjs desmitgades laik ir krasi mainjus daudzu valstu aizsardzbas politikas priorittes.
Samazinjies konvencionls karadarbbas, bet palielinjies terorisma un loklo konfliktu
risks. Agrk kaujas darbb bija nepiecieama lielka militro resursu koncentrcija un uzsvars
tika likts uz spka kvantitti, tau msdienu militrajs opercijs tiek akcentta militr
spka kvalitte, pc iespjas vairk samazinot izmaksas, kas saisttas ar kaujas darbbu.
Pasaules ekonomisks krzes ietekm daudzu valstu valdbas sk pievrst lielku uzmanbu
angu ekonomista Dona Meinarda Keinsa teorijai, kura atirb no klasisks liberls
ekonomikas uzsver valsts iejaukanos ekonomiskajos procesos. Viens no valsts ekonomikas
ietekmanas mehnismiem var bt aizsardzbas budets, k ar valsts aizsardzbas politika
tautsaimniecba tiek atbalstta, palielinot aizsardzbas sektora aktivittes, k ar izmantojot
privt un aizsardzbas sektora sadarbbu, kas var iekaut dadu aizsardzbas sektora funkciju
privatizciju.
Raksta mris ir izveidot msdienu aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas koncepciju,
emot vr militr keinsisma politiku. Lai sasniegtu o mri, autors izvrt militr
keinsisma teorijas evolciju, k ar nosaka aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas politikas
mrus militr keinsisma kontekst. Sav ptjum autors izmanto das ptjumu metodes:
1) monogrfisko metodi zintnisks literatras un ptjumu analzi; 2) grafisko metodi
attlu un tabulu veidoanu; k ar 3) situcijas analzi (case study) privt un aizsardzbas
sektora sadarbbas programmu analzi.
Raksta pirmaj noda aplkota militr keinsisma evolcija. Otr nodaa veltta aizsardzbas
un privt sektora sadarbbas politikas mriem. Savukrt treaj noda autors piedv
msdienu aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas koncepciju. Secinjumu da apkopoti
galvenie secinjumi, emot vr iepriek veikto analzi.
Atslgvrdi: militrais keinsisms, aizsardzbas budets, publiskie iepirkumi, tautsaimniecba,
sadarbba, koncepcija.
1. Militr keinsisma evolcija

Pc Otr pasaules kara aizsardzbas ekonomik ska izplatties militr kein
sisma teorija. Par militr keinsisma teortisko bzi kuva Dona Meinarda
A. Tilti. Privt un aizsardzbas sektora sadarbba militr keinsisma teorij
283
Keinsa (John Maynard Keynes) [14] idejas par valdbas ekonomikas stabilizcijas
aktivittm, palielinot efektvu pieprasjumu un ldz ar to samazinot bezdarba lmeni.
Aizsardzbas ekonomikas kontekst militr keinsisma teoriju [6] var defint k
valsts politiku, kur valdba izmanto aizsardzbas budetu k ietekmes instrumentu,
lai stimultu raoanu, kas cie no ekonomisks lejupsldes, samazintu bezdarba
lmeni un atbalsttu ptniecisko nozari (pieprasjuma pc militrajm precm
stimulana).
Keinsisma, tai skait ar militr keinsisma, evolcijas skums ir 20. gadsimta
30. gadi. Evolcijas procesu ietekmja ekonomikas cikliskuma teorija (Business
Cycle Theory), kuras attstbu sekmja tdi pasaules jeb globls ekonomikas procesi
(liels krzes) k Ilg depresija (18731896) [8] un Liel depresija (19291939) [11].
Daudzi ekonomisti (tai skait ar Dons Meinards Keinss sav darb Nodarbintbas,
procenta un naudas visprj teorija, kas publicts 1936. gad) bija secinjui, ka
pasaules ekonomika sav attstb svrsts, veidojot ekonomiskus ciklus, ir strauja
uzplaukuma periodi un ekonomiskas stagncijas jeb lejupsldes periodi.
Jau pirms Keinsa teorijas publikcijas pou ekonomists Mihals Kaleckis (Michal
Kalecki) 1935. gad pievrsa uzmanbu uzmjdarbbas attstbai Vcij [13].
20. gadsimta 30. gadu skum Vcijas valdba, izmantojot aizsardzbas budeta
finanu resursus un valsts pardzmes (darba izpildes vekseus), atbalstja uz
mumus, kuri tika iesaistti militraj raoan. Tpc Vcij tika veidota stipra mi
litr industril bze, lai atbalsttu nkotnes karadarbbu. Autors uzskata, ka aj
vstures period btiskkais Vcijas tautsaimniecbas struktras straujo izmaiu
iemesls bija totalitr rema pastvana. Ldz ar to valsts stingri kontrolja eko
nomiskos procesus, iekaujot tos kara ekonomikas aurajos rmjos.
Savukrt starpkaru period ASV [15] militro preu raotjus valdba aktvi
neatbalstja, jo Pirm pasaules kara straujai mobilizcijai sekoja demobilizcijas
process (valsts vienpusji izbeidza kara laik noslgtus lgumus). Valsts izdevumi
aizsardzbai krasi samazinjs, tomr ASV valdba uzturja aizsardzbas industrijas
minimlo kapacitti, kas deva iespju veiksmgi skt mobilizciju Otrajam pasaules
karam. Galvenie atbalsta mehnismi bija: 1) militr ekipjuma standartizcija un
raoanas izvietoana dados uzmumos; 2) uzmumu informana par gaid
majiem militro preu raoanas apjomiem mobilizcijas gadjum un 3) militro
preu iepirkuma procedru vienkroana mobilizcijas laik. Tpc Otr pasaules
kara laik ASV militro preu raoanas apjomi prsniedza Pirm pasaules kara
raoanas apjomus. Kaut gan militr keinsisma strauj attstba bija skusies
20. gadsimta 50. gados, tomr Vcijas militro preu raotju atbalstu un ASV
tautsaimniecbas mobilizcijas aktivittes 20. gadsimta 30. un 40. gados var uz
skatt par s teorijas izmantoanas atskaites punktu jeb par skotnjm valdbu
aktivittm bez oficili apstiprints pastvgs valsts politikas aizsardzbas
ekonomikas jom. Vcijas gadjum militr keinsisma oficils politikas ievieanu
traucja Versaas lguma nosacjumi, savukrt ASV valdbas aktivittes galvenokrt
tika saisttas ar mobilizciju Otrajam pasaules karam.
Uzreiz pc tam, kad tika pasludinta uzvara Otraj pasaules kar, ASV valdba,
ldzgi k pc Pirm pasaules kara, ska kara laik noslgto militro preu piegdes
un pakalpojumu lgumu vienpusjs izbeiganas procesu par kopjo summu 20
284
miljardi ASV dolru [15]. ASV valdba uzskatja, ka strauj militro izdevumu
samazinjums var izraist nodarbintbas lmea un raoanas apjoma kritumu valst.
Savukrt ie procesi var kt par jauns depresijas iemesliem. Lai nepieautu jauno
ekonomikas lejupsldi, ASV valdba piema lmumu uzturt militro preu raoanu
un valsts aizsardzbas izdevumus noteikt lmen. Donatans Nicans un imons
Bilers (Jonathan Nitzan, Shimshon Bichler) [7] uzskata, ka jaun politika balstjs
uz 1950. gada 14. aprl izdoto ASV Nacionls drobas komitejas dokumentu
ASV Nacionls drobas mri un programmas [24], kur ASV valdba plnoja
sistemtisku ikgadju aizsardzbas budeta izdevumu palielinjumu, lai efektvk
cntos ar aukst kara draudiem un stimultu tautsaimniecbas attstbu, nepieaujot
jauno ekonomisko krzi. politika izpauas di:
tiek stenoti vietj raojuma produktu iepirkumi militrajm vajadzbm;
notiek resursu prdale no produktvm uz mazk produktvm nozarm
valsts raoanas sektor;
valsts budeta finanu ldzeki tiek piesaistti aizsardzbas sektoram (infra
struktras veidoana, bruojuma un militr ekipjuma iepirkumi utt.) [4].
Pirmo reizi uz militr keinsisma teorijas balstta aizsardzbas politika tika iz
mantota Korejas kara laik. Politikas rezultt budeta militrie izdevumi trskro
js, bezdarbs samazinjs un valdbas ienkumi palielinjs. Pc tam militr
keinsisma politika tika aktvi piekopta Vjetnamas kara laik, k ar 20. gadsimta
80. gados. Turklt militra keinsisma politika krasi nepalielinja inflciju [3]. Autors
uzskata, ka o militr keinsisma teorijas evolcijas posmu var raksturot k valsts
pastvgo oficilo politiku aukst kara laik. Cits pasaules valsts ldzga politika
netika oficili apstiprinta. PSRS un Varavas pakta valsts aizsardzbas izdevumu
pieaugums tika noteikts centralizti komandekonomikas jeb plnots ekonomikas
apstkos. du izdevumu pakrtotais mris nebija ekonomikas stabilizcija, tpc
das aizsardzbas politikas aktivittes nevar uzskatt par militro keinsismu.
Aukst kara beigas 20. gadsimta 90. gados veicinja jauno aizsardzbas
izdevumu samazinjumu vis pasaul. ASV aizsardzbas budets samazinjies
no 304,085 miljardiem ASV dolru (5,5% no IKP) [25] 1989. gad ldz
274,278miljardiem ASV dolru (3,1% no IKP) [25] 1998. gad. Ldz ar to militr
keinsisma aukst kara politika tika prtraukta 20. gadsimta 90. gados. Tau pc
2001. gada 11. septembra traiskajiem notikumiem ASV valdbas aizsardzbas
politika tika veidota ar militr keinsisma pazmm, palielinot valsts aizsardzbas
budeta izdevumus ldz 616,073 miljardiem ASV dolru (4,3% no IKP) [25]
2008. gad. Tika veidota jaun militr ekipjuma iepirkumu politika. Valdbas
pieprasjums pc augsti tehnoloiskm ierou sistmm veicinja militro preu cenu
pieaugumu, kas prasja lielku finanu resursu pieiranu valsts aizsardzbas budeta
izdevumu seganai. Saska ar Starptautisk Stokholmas miera ptniecbas institta
(SIPRI) datiem [25] 21. gadsimta skumam ir raksturgs aizsardzbas izdevumu
pieaugums (vietj valt) tds valsts k Lielbritnija, Francija un Norvija, bet
is pieaugums nebija tik strauj k ASV. Pasaules ekonomisks krzes d daudzu
valstu aizsardzbas budetu izdevumi pc 2008. gada samazinjs. emot vr visu
iepriek minto, 21.gadsimta skum militr keinsisma pazmes var konstatt tikai
ASV aizsardzbas politik, turklt militr keinsisma izmantoana netika oficili
285
apstiprinta. Tpc autors uzskata, ka o periodu var raksturot k valsts aizsardzbas

politiku ar militr keinsisma pazmm.
emot vr visu iepriek teikto, autors var defint militr keinsisma evolcijas
trs pamatposmus: 1) skotnjas valdbu aktivittes; 2) oficil aizsardzbas politika
aukst kara laik un 3) valsts aizsardzbas politika ar militr keinsisma pazmm.
Ldzgi k aizsardzbas pieprasjumu militr keinsisma attstbu ietekm draudu
lmenis valst.
Vl viens faktors, kas ietekm militr keinsisma pdjo evolcijas periodu, ir
valsts socilekonomiskie mri, piemram, nodarbintbas lmea paaugstinana un
ekonomisks recesijas seku mazinana. Lai stenotu militr keinsisma aizsardzbas
politikas mrus (nodarbintbas lmea paaugstinanu, vietjs raoanas sti
mulanu utt.), valdba var izmantot ne tikai aizsardzbas budeta izdevumu pa
lielinanu, bet ar alternatvu mehnismu cieo sadarbbu starp aizsardzbas un
privto sektoru, veidojot ilgtspjgu aizsardzbas un socilekonomisko programmu.
Turpmk autors aplkos, kdi faktori ietekm aizsardzbas un privt sektora
sadarbbu, emot vr militr keinsisma evolcijas pdjam posmam raksturgs
iezmes.
2. Aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas politikas mri

militr keinsisma kontekst
K mints iepriek, aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbu militr keinsisma
evolcijas pdj posm (valsts aizsardzbas politiku ar militr keinsisma pazmm)
nosaka di faktori: 1) aizsardzbas pieprasjums un 2) valsts socilekonomiskie
mri. o sadarbbu plno valsts aizsardzbas politik. Saska ar aizsardzbas
politikas pamatnostdnm tiek plnots valsts aizsardzbas budets, no kura ldzekiem
tiek finanstas valsts aktivittes militraj jom. aj kontekst politiku saprot k
valdbas aktivitu kopumu, kur ietekm pilsou vai noteiktas pilsou grupas
ikdienas dzvi [10].
T k aizsardzbas budets ir valsts kopj budeta sastvdaa, aizsardzbas
izdevumu btiskais palielinjums ietekm citu valsts kopj budeta izdevumu
pozciju finansjuma samazinanos. o situciju ilustr ar t. s. lielgabali pret sviestu
(guns vs. butter) modea paldzbu. Tautsaimniecb ar ierobeotiem resursiem
pards dilemma: prdalt vairk resursu lielgabaliem (aizsardzbai un drobai) vai
sviestam (labkljbai un attstbai). Abas s jomas ir viendi svargas iedzvotju
labsajtai. Resursu prdale aizsardzbai ir saistta ar aizsardzbas pieprasjumu, kuru
var izteikt gaidmos rezulttos: aizsardzba pret rjo agresiju, iekj droba un
miera uzturana. o rezulttu novrtana nosaka resursu prdales veidu, attiecbu
starp aizsardzbai vai civilam sektoram novirztiem resursiem [4]. Ttad aizsardzbas
izdevumu palielinana ir ciei saistta ar militro risku novrtjumu.
2005. gad Kandas Karaliskaj militraj koled (Royal Military College)
tika apkopoti msdienu militrie riski un to iestans varbtba [5]. Ar Padomju
Savienbas sabrukumu bija samazinta triju bstamko risku varbtba.
286
Stratiskais kodolierou kar
Riska bstamba
Ierobeotais kodolierou kar

Konvencionlais pasaules kar
Ierobeot karadarbba
Spka lietoana
Reaana uz krzm
Miera uzturanas opercijas
Karaspka kltbtne (spka izrdana)
Varbtbas pakpe
1. attls. Militro risku varbtba [5]

The Probability of Military threats
Ldz ar to izmainjs aizsardzbas pieprasjuma priorittes (1. att.). Tdiem ris

kiem k stratiskais kodolierou kar, ierobeotais kodolierou kar un konvencio
nlais pasaules kar bija nepiecieama vislielk militro resursu koncentrcija ar
uzsvaru uz spka kvantitti. Savukrt msdiens aktulkiem riskiem nepiecieams
militro un nemilitro ldzeku apvienojums (ekonomisks sankcijas, valsts attstbas
atbalsts, miera uzturana, militr apmcba, reaana uz dadm krzm,
humanitr paldzba). aj situcij uzsvars tiek likts uz neliela karaspka kvalitti.
Pc 2001. gada 11. septembra notikumiem sks globlais kar pret terorismu, kur
tika stenota ierobeota karadarbba, k ar miera uzturanas opercijas un karaspka
kltbtne. Atirb no pasaules kariem, kas notika 20. gadsimt, kar pret terorismu
neveicinja mobilizcijas procesus un daudzs pasaules valsts netika krasi palielinti
aizsardzbas izdevumi. Piemram, saska ar ASV ptnieku datiem 15 veco Eiropas
Savienbas valstu aizsardzbas izdevumi no 2001. ldz 2006. gadam palielinjs
tikai par 3% [26]. Taj pa laika posm ASV aizsardzbas izdevumi pieauga par
68% [25]. Savukrt pasaules ekonomisks krzes ietekm ES aizsardzbas izdevumi
2009. gad samazinjs par 3,48% [18], bet ASV aizsardzbas izdevumi 2009. gad
turpinja pieaugt [22]. Ldz ar to daudzi zintnieki [1] uzskata, ka 21. gadsimt
ASV aizsardzbas politikai ir militr keinsisma pabas, tai skait ar aizsardzbas
izdevumu palielinjums.
Galvenie faktori, kas 21. gadsimt ietekm militr keinsisma attstbu, ir
pastvgie militrie draudi (terorisms un asimetrisk karadarbba), k ar pasaules
ekonomisk krze. Tpc daudzu pasaules valstu aizsardzbas politika vairk
tendta uz socilekonomisko mru sasnieganu un jauno militro draudu varbtbas
samazinanu. Tau ne vienmr valstij ir iespjas palielint aizsardzbas budeta
izdevumus, un dareiz dadu iemeslu d aizsardzbas izdevumi btiski samazins;
t notika, piemram, ar ES aizsardzbas izdevumiem 2009. gad. Td tiek meklta
iespja paaugstint aizsardzbas izdevumu efektivitti un dadas aizsardzbas
sektora funkcijas tiek nodotas privtajam sektoram (outsourcing) jeb tiek izmantota
aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas politika.
287
Tabula
Aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas politikas mri

Aims of Private and Defense Sector Cooperation Policy
Aizsardzbas mri
Socilekonomiskie mri
Atbrvot militro personlu no viiem

neraksturgu uzdevumu pildanas
Samazint aizsardzbas budeta izdevumus
Atbrvot bruoto spku materilos resursus

kaujas uzdevumu pildanai
Atbalstt militro un divjds nozmes preu

raoanu, k ar pakalpojumu snieganu
Samazint premto funkciju izmaksas un

palielint to kvalitti
Jaunu darbvietu radana
Attstt privt sektora mobilizcijas kapacitti
Avots: veidojis autors.
ai politikai ir aizsardzbas un socilekonomiskie mri (tab.). Galvenie

aizsardzbas mri: 1) atbrvot militro personlu no viiem neraksturgu uzdevumu
pildanas, premot tdas jomas k militr personla dinana, infrastruktras
uzturana, sadzves pakalpojumi, kravu un militr personla transportana,
bvniecba, militr ekipjuma remonts u. c.; 2) atbrvot bruoto spku materilos
resursus kaujas uzdevumu pildanai un vairk piesaistt privt sektora resursus;
3) ilgtermi samazint premto funkciju izmaksas un palielint to kvalitti,
izmantojot brvo konkurenci un apjomradto ietaupjumu (economy of scale) [17];
4) attstt privt sektora mobilizcijas kapacitti. Aizsardzbas un privt sektora
sadarbbas politikas socilekonomiskie mri: 1) samazint aizsardzbas budeta
izdevumus, kuri nav tiei saistti ar bruoto spku kaujas gatavbu, radot finansilo
rezervi budeta konsolidcijas paskumiem; 2) atbalstt vietjos militro un divjds
nozmes preu raotjus un pakalpojumu sniedzjus; 3) atbalstt nodarbintbas
lmea palielinanos (jaunu darbvietu radanu) militro un divjds nozmes
preu raoanas un pakalpojumu snieganas nozars.
emot vr aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas politikas prieknosac
jumus un mrus, autors turpmk piedvs aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadar
bbas koncepcijas iespjamo variantu, kur darbojas visos militr nodroinjuma
lmeos.
3. Aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas iespjam

koncepcija
Aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas attstba skusies 20. gadsimta
80. gadu beigs un 90. gadu skum k pielgoans mehnisms aizsardzbas
izdevumu samazinjumam pc aukst kara beigm [9]. K vienu no das politikas
piemriem var mint ASV Civil nodroinjuma piesaistanas programmu
(Logistics Civil Augmentation Program LOGCAP) [19]. programma ir
ASV armijas iniciatva, saska ar to tiek plnota civilo uzmumu iesaistana
militraj nodroinjum, sldzot ilgtermia lgumus, kas auj atbrvot militro
vienbu resursus kaujas uzdevumu veikanai un uzlabot militr nodroinjuma
procesa kvalitti. Realizjot o programmu, ASV armija nenodroinja pietiekamu
288
konkurenci starp privt sektora uzmumiem, tpc, ieemot dominjou stvokli

militro pakalpojumu tirg, pakalpojumu sniedzjs vairs nevarja efektvi atbalstt
ASV armijas vienbas, palielinot pakalpojuma cenas un samazinot kvalitti [20],
un 2007. gada beigs LOGCAP ilgtermia pakalpojumu lgums tika sadalts starp
trijiem uzmumiem [2]. Lguma sadalanas iemesls bija ASV valdbas riska
samazinana, paaujoties uz trijiem uzmumiem, k ar izmaksu samazinana,
aujot civilajiem uzmumiem konkurt sav starp par darbu izpildi.
Savukrt Eiropas valstis izmanto Tres personas nodroinjuma atbalsta
(Third Party Logistic Support TPLS) [21] programmu, kas ir ldzga ASV
LOGCAP programmai, k ar valsts un privts partnerbas (VPP) konceptu [12].
s programmas tiek realiztas Eiropas aizsardzbas ekipjuma vienotaj tirg
(European Defence Equipment Market EDEM) saska ar Eiropas kopienas
direktvu 2009/81/EC [23]. Eiropas vienot aizsardzbas ekipjuma tirgus veidoanas
mris ir ES militro un divjds nozmes preu raotju, k ar pakalpojumu
sniedzju konkurtspjas palielinana, k ar ES galveno iepirkumu principu (brv
konkurence un nediskrimincija) integrcija aizsardzbas iepirkumos.
Msdienu aizsardzbas politik ar militr keinsisma pazmm aizsardzbas
un privt sektora sadarbba notiek divos virzienos: 1) militrais nodroinjums
(militro un divjds nozmes preu un pakalpojumu iegde un izmantoana) un
2) ekonomisks jeb tautsaimniecbas mobilizcijas kapacittes uzturana. Abos
virzienos aizsardzbas iepirkumi tiek izmantoti k galvenais aizsardzbas un privt
sektora sadarbbas politikas mehnisms.
Stratiskais
lmenis
Stratisk sadarbba (VPP projekti;

kompenscijas darjumi, TPLS un
mobilizcijas procesa plnoana,
ekipjuma iegdes)
Operacionlais
lmenis
Operacionl sadarbba (TPLS
Taktiskais
lmenis
R & D;
raoana;
pakalpojumu
sniegana
realizcija, militrais nodroinjums

miera un krzes laik)
Taktisk sadarbba vienbu

tieais atbalsts miera laik un
operciju rajonos
Gala
lietotjs
2. attls. Aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas koncepcija

The concept of Cooperation between Defense and Private Sector
Avots: veidojis autors.
emot vr visu iepriek minto, autors piedv aizsardzbas un privt sektora

sadarbbas iespjamo koncepciju (2. att.). Koncepcijas mris ir atbalstt gala lietotju
(militrs vienbas) ar nepiecieamiem resursiem (precm un pakalpojumiem) par
289
viszemko cenu, izmantojot privt sektora uzmumu iespjas. Koncepcij nav

stingru atbildbas robeu starp sadarbbas lmeiem katr lmen var bt uzskts
nodroinjuma process ar augstk lmea kontroli. Tas aus nodroinjuma sistmai
trk pielgoties maingai operacionlai videi.
Stratisk lmea sadarbba notiek valsts un privts partnerbas jom, ar
ptot jauns militrs sistmas un attstot ts (Research & Development), kompens
cijas darjumu (offset) jom, k ar tautsaimniecbas mobilizcijas paskumu un
dadu projektu plnoan (infrastruktra, militrais nodroinjums, standarta
ekipjuma iegde un uzturana utt.), to realizcija var tikt deleta sistmas
zemkajiem lmeiem.
Dadu aizsardzbas projektu gadjum VPP tiek izmantota koncesijas (ilgtermia
piegdes vai pakalpojuma lgumi) vai organizacionls partnerbas veid (izptes un
attstbas process). Lietojot du ilgtermia sadarbbu, nepilngas konkurences d
pastv izmaksu neattaisnota palielinjuma un kvalittes pazeminanas risks. os
riskus var samazint, izmantojot publisko iepirkumu brvs konkurences principu
(VPP vienoans tiek slgta ar vairkiem privt sektora uzmumiem, kuri var
konkurt sav starp), k ar ilgtermia lgumus ar fiksto preu un pakalpojumu
cenu.
Vl viens militr un privt sektora sadarbbas veids kompenscijas darjumi1
ir saistts ar militro preu importu un starptautisko sadarbbu aizsardzbas jom.
aj gadjum, sldzot ilgtermia lgumus par militrs preces piegdi, samjvalsts
var pieprast no piegdtja materilo kompensciju, piemram, ja tiek organizta
militrs preces raoana samjvalst pc raotja izsniegtas licences. o darjumu
izmantoana aizsardzbas iepirkumos netika aizliegta, k ar nav preczu ptjumu,
kas pierda s prakses pilngi negatvo ietekmi uz militro preu starptautisko
tirdzniecbu. Tpc tlkie kompenscijas darjumu teortisko aspektu un praktisks
izmantoanas ptjumi paldzs attstt militro preu publisko iepirkumu organiz
ciju, k ar ierou un militr ekipjuma starptautisko tirdzniecbu.
Tautsaimniecbas mobilizcijas paskumi tiek plnoti, emot vr valsts militri
industril kompleksa attstbu, pieejams materiltehnisko ldzeku rezerves, k
ar privt sektora resursu piesaistanas iespjas, pamatojoties uz noslgtajiem
ilgtermia lgumiem. Valsts, kuras ir atkargas no militr ekipjuma importa,
tautsaimniecbas mobilizcija vartu balstties uz sadarbbu ar privto sektoru un
uzkrtm mobilizcijas rezervm.
Operacionl un taktisk lmea sadarbba ir saistta ar militro vienbu kaujas
spju uzturanu. Saska ar tdiem militro vienbu uzdevumiem k reaana uz
krzm, piedalans starptautiskajs opercijs u. c. NATO ir izstrdjusi jauno
militro vienbu nodroinjuma koncepciju tres puses nodroinjuma atbalstu
(Third Party Logistic Support TPLS), kur tiek aktvi izmantota militr un privt
sektora sadarbba militro vienbu nodroinjum. o koncepciju lieto militro
vienbu nodroinjumam ar materiltehniskiem ldzekiem un pakalpojumiem,
lietojot privt sektora resursus. Turklt nodroinjums notiek gan militro vienbu
1
Sk. autora publikciju: Tilti, A., pate, I. Kompenscijas darjumi (offset) aizsardzbas ekonomikas
ietvaros. LU Raksti, 758. sj. Rga: LU Akadmiskais apgds, 2010, 213.229. lpp.
290
pastvgs dislokcijas viets, gan starptautisko operciju rajonos. aj proces

militrs vienbas decentralizti vai izmantojot centralizto iepirkumu institciju
spjas var iegdties nepiecieamos resursus no privt sektora uzmumiem.
Parasti ar TPLS veikts iepirkumu procedras balsts uz standarta iepirkumiem
vai VPP. aj gadjum militrs vienbas lieto ilgtermia lgumus ar privt sektora
uzmumiem. Tau atkarb no situcijas iepirkumu procedras veikanas tiesbas
var tikt deletas no augstk nodroinjuma lmea uz zemko, ldz pat noteiktai
militrai vienbai starptautisks opercijas rajon (taktiskais nodroinjuma lmenis).
T k tres puses nodroinjuma atbalsts ir saldzinoi jauns process militr
nodroinjuma sistm, vl nav pietiekami daudz zintnisko pierdjumu par
procesa efektivitti.
emot vr iepriek teikto, autors uzsver militr un privt sektora cies
sadarbbas msdiengo tendenci militro vienbu apgd visos nodroinjuma
lmeos. Neskatoties uz militr nodroinjuma sistmas augsto centralizcijas
pakpi iepriekjos gados, modern nodroinjuma sistma var tikt aplkota k
divjda centralizta sistma (privt un militr sektora resursu izmantoana) ar
nelielu decentralizcijas pakpi operacionl un taktisk lmen.
Autora piedvt koncepcija var tikt izmantota valsts, kuras ir atkargas
no militr ekipjuma importa, attstot militro un divjdu preu raoanu ar
kompenscijas darjumu un valsts un privts partnerbas paldzbu. Piemram,
Latvij militr un privt sektora sadarbba notiek uz lgumu pamata, lietojot
standarta iepirkuma procedras.2 Prsvar Latvijas Republikas Nacionlie bruotie
spki izmanto gatavo produkciju, kura tiek iegdta brvaj tirg. Latvij nav
programmu, kas veicina valsts mroga militrs industrijas un pakalpojumu sektora
attstbu, tpc valdba nevar tiei stenot militr keinsisma paskumus, palielinot
aizsardzbas budeta izdevumus. Ekonomisks krzes ietekm Latvijas aizsardzbas
budeta kopjie izdevumi tika btiski samazinti no LVL 304,75 milj. 2008. gad ldz
LVL 134,26 milj. 2010. gad [16]. Pc autora apriniem, kopjais samazinjums
trijos gados veidoja 55,9%. Tomr nkotn valsts var netiei atbalstt aizsardzbas
sektoru, stenojot dus paskumus: a) izstrdjot Latvijas kompenscijas darjumu
politiku; b) informjot Latvijas uzmjus par iespjm piedalties ES un ASV
militro un divjds nozmes preu iepirkumu procedrs; c) izmantojot vienot
Eiropas aizsardzbas ekipjuma tirgus iespjas un atbalstot investciju piesaistanu
no ES dalbvalstu aizsardzbas sektora lielkiem uzmumiem.
Secinjumi
Pamatojoties uz visu iepriek minto, var izdart dus secinjumus.
1. Militr keinsisma evolciju var sadalt trijos posmos: 1) skotnjas valdbu
aktivittes; 2) oficil aizsardzbas politika aukst kara laik; 3) valsts aizsar
dzbas politika ar militr keinsisma pazmm. Palaik daudzs valsts attsts
pdjais militr keinsisma posms valsts aizsardzbas politika ar militr
keinsisma pazmm.
Sk. LR Publisko iepirkumu likumu.
291
2. Galvenie faktori, kas 21. gadsimt ietekm militro keinsismu, ir pastvgie

militrie draudi (terorisms un asimetrisk karadarbba), k ar pasaules
ekonomisk krze. ie faktori nosaka aizsardzbas politikas mrus.
3. Aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas politikas mrus var sadalt aizsar
dzbas un socilekonomiskos mros. Aizsardzbas mri: 1) atbrvot militro
personlu no viiem neraksturgo uzdevumu pildanas; 2) atbrvot bruoto
spku materilos resursus kaujas uzdevumu pildanai; 3) ilgtermi samazint
premto funkciju izmaksas un palielint to kvalitti un 4) attstt privt sektora
mobilizcijas kapacitti. Socilekonomiskie mri: 1) samazint aizsardzbas
budeta izdevumus; 2) atbalstt militro un divjds nozmes preu raoanu,
k ar pakalpojumu snieganu; 3) jaunu darbvietu radana. Msdiens daudzs
pasaules valsts pastv aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas politikas
socilekonomisko mru dominanas tendence.
4. Aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbba notiek divos virzienos: 1) militrais
nodroinjums un 2) tautsaimniecbas mobilizcijas kapacittes uzturana.
Abos virzienos aizsardzbas iepirkumi veido galveno aizsardzbas un privt
sektora sadarbbas politikas mehnismu.
5. emot vr autora piedvto aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas
koncepciju, modern nodroinjuma sistma var tikt aplkota k divjda
centralizta sistma (privt un militr sektora resursu lietoana) ar nelielu
decentralizcijas pakpi operacionlaj un taktiskaj lmen.
6. Aizsardzbas un privt sektora sadarbbas koncepcija var tikt izmantota valsts,
kuras ir atkargas no militr ekipjuma importa.
7. Latvija var netiei atbalstt savu aizsardzbas sektoru, lietojot militr keinsisma
pieeju.
LITERATRA
Publikcijas
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Review, 2007, No. 2, Vol. 59, p. 3755.
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6, Vol. 39, p. 50.
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Grmatas
11. Bernstein, M. A. The Great Depression: delayed recovery and economic change in
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Understanding Cultures. Aldershot: Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2005. 137 p.
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Osiatyski J., eds. Collected Works of Michal Kalecki: Vol. VI: Studies in Applied
Economics, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 196204.
14. Keynes, J. M. The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. London:
Macmillan press, 1951. 403 p.
15. Nagle, J. M. A History of Government Contracting. Washington D. C.: The George
Washington University, 1999. 605 p.
Elektroniskie informcijas avoti
16. Aizsardzbas ministrijas budets. Tiesaist Aizsardzbas ministrijas mjaslap. Pieejams:
www.mod.gov.lv (sk. 28.03.2011.)
17. LZA Akadmisk terminu datubze Akadterm. Pieejams: www.termini.lza.lv (sk.
20.01.2011.)
18. Additional Defence Data 2009, EDA 11.01.2011. In: European Defence Agency home
page. Pieejams: www.eda.europa.eu (sk. 21.01.2011.)
19. Army Regulation 700137 Logistics Civil Augmentation Program (LOGCAP),
Headquarters Department of the Army, 1985. In: Army Sustainment Command home
page. Pieejams: www.aschq.army.mil (sk. 22.01.2011.)
20. DOD Needs to Reexamine Its Extensive Reliance on Contractors and Continue to Improve
Management and Oversight. United States Government Accountability Office, 2008. In:
GAO home page. Pieejams: www.gao.gov (sk. 04.04.2008.)
21. EDA Bulletin Commercialising Logistics. Special Issue, 2008. In: European Defence
Agency home page. Pieejams: www.eda.europa.eu (sk. 21.01.2011.)
22. European-United States Defence Expenditure in 2009, EDA 21.12.2012. In: European
Defence Agency home page. Pieejams: www.eda.europa.eu (sk. 21.01.2011.)
23. New Directive on defence and security procurement enters into force. 2009. In: European
Commission home page. Pieejams: www.ec.europa.eu (sk. 27.08.2009.)
24. NSC-68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security, 1950. In:
Federation of American Scientists home page. Pieejams: www.fas.org (sk. 15.01.2011.)
25. The SIPRI Military Expenditure Database. In: Stockholm International Peace Research
Institute home page. Pieejams: milexdata.sipri.org (sk. 16.01.2011.)
26. Trends in European Defense Spending 20012006, A Report of the CSIS DefenseIndustrial Initiatives Group, April 2008. In: Center for Strategic & International Studies
home page. Pieejams: www.csis.org (sk. 20.01.2011.)
293
Summary
In the paper The Cooperation of Private and Defense Sector within the Framework
of Military Keynesianism author examines such aspect of the theory of defense
economics as Military Keynesianism. In accordance with this theory, states, using well
developed defense procurement policy together with the cooperation between the defense
and private sectors, can achieve not only defense policy goals but also very important
socio-economic goals.
The aim of the paper is to develop modern concept of cooperation between the defense
and private sector. The concept of cooperation between the defense and private sector
covers all military levels of operation (strategic, operational and tactical) and forms
flexible integrated system of partnership that can be used as addition to the standard
military logistics. At the strategic level cooperation between private and defence sector
develops in areas of Research and Development (R&D), offset transactions, and planning
of economic mobilization, as well as different non-R&D projects (infrastructure, military
logistics, equipment, consulting etc.) which realization can be delegated to the lower
level. In its turn, the cooperation at the operational and tactical levels is more or less
connected with the deployment of military units and their participation in multinational
operations worldwide.
During his research author has found out that despite of great centralization of the
defence procurement in previous years, modern procurement system can be described
as a hybrid of centralization and a small degree of decentralization at operational and
tactical levels.
Keywords: military keynesianism, defence budget, public procurement, national
economy, cooperation, concept.

294.304. lpp.
Prospects of the Cohesion Policy in the Context of

Analysis of the Multiannual Financial Framework
oftheEuropeanUnion
Kohzijas politikas perspektvas Eiropas Savienbas
daudzgadu finanu ietvara analzes kontekst
Inese Vaidere
LU Ekonomikas un vadbas fakultte

E-mail: inese.vaidere@europarl.europa.eu
Abstract
After thirty six years since the creation of an EU Regional policy and over twelve years
of the Cohesion policy, which aims to ensure full economic and social convergence of the
regions and Member States of the European Union, the economic and social disparities within
the Union are striking, begging the question of the efficiency and future prospects of the
European Unions Cohesion policy.
This paper provides an analytical examination of the objectives, strategies, outcomes, and
current trends in the Cohesion policy of the European Union, based on the analysis of planning
and expenditure of the EU multiannual financial framework. In order to evaluate the outcomes
of the policy and propose solutions and improvements for the future Cohesion policy, the
paper begins with a brief insight into the history, objectives, and functioning of the Cohesion
policy in order to pursue with an analysis of its results, as well as the impact that the global
financial crisis has had on cohesion and economic development of the EU.
It is concluded that the EU needs to employ greater flexibility and sovereignty in political
decision-making and regulations on allocation of cohesion financing under its financial
framework, if it wishes to improve the policys economic impact on Member States
economies, ensure equality and attain the ambitious Europe 2020 strategic goals without
harming sustainable cohesion of the weakest European regions.
To that goal, the Cohesion policys budget in the upcoming multiannual financial framework
should be maintained at the existing levels, if not increased. Furthermore, the future Cohesion
policy should above all focus on the economically weakest Member States rather than regions,
since the more developed states have more resources at their disposal to invest into their
weaker regions. The Member States whose national GDP per capita is below 75% of the EUs
average do not enjoy the same advantages.
The future Cohesion policy, as well as allocation of cohesion funding within the next
multiannual financial framework need to reflect the practice of fair competition, based on the
EUs core values of solidarity and equality. Only then will the European Union be able to
fulfil its regional and global ambitions.
Keywords: Cohesion policy, Europe 2020, EU financial framework.
Atslgvrdi: Kohzijas politika, Eiropa 2020, ES finanu perspektva.
I. Vaidere. Prospects of the Cohesion Policy in the Context of Analysis ..
295
Introduction
Essentially, cohesion can be defined as a process of reducing disparities social,
economic or other. In the EU policy terms, it also signifies equality of opportunity.
(1; 4) As it has been rightly concluded by several authors (28; 30; 35), full cohesion
encompasses long-term policy planning which combines different existing policies
and a combination of strategic scenarios, extending beyond a simple territorial
cohesion or development policy.
Planning and the political strategy, as well as approach to cohesion, its
management and correlation with existing policies is best demonstrated in the
planning of the EUs multiannual financial framework. The budgetary expenditure
has a direct link to the success of the territorial cohesion, as well, which is why it
has been chosen as the defining point of reference in the analysis of the outcomes
and prospects of the EUs Cohesion policy.
The Treaty of Maastricht (32) initiated a global reform of the EUs Regional
policy and created the Cohesion fund, which set the ground for development of the
EUs Cohesion policy. Its aim is to stimulate economic and social integration of the
271 regions of the EU. Nonetheless, even after a long history and several reforms,
large economic and social disparities continue to exist among the EUs Member
States and regions, furthermore aggravated by the global financial and economic
crisis.
The efficiency and success of the EUs Cohesion policy are often widely
celebrated, Ireland being quoted as its most pronounced example the countrys
GDP per capita rose from 61% of the EUs average in 1981 to 184.08% of the
EUs average in 2005.1 In contrast, Greece presents a rather opposite evidence of
the efficiency of the Cohesion policy in 1981, its GDP per capita was 55% of the
EUs average; in 2005, it had reached only 83.1% of the EUs average.
This paper will analyse the outcome of the Cohesion policy in the context of
the current financial framework of 20072013, existing economic challenges and the
policys role during the economic crisis, in order to tie the analysis of the capacity
of the Cohesion policy within the present and upcoming multiannual financial
frameworks of the EU and offer feasible solutions for its improvement.
The analysis is based on inductive reasoning and comparison of statistical data
and facts provided by national and European policy documents.
Fundaments of the EUs Cohesion policy

According to the Treaty of Lisbon, Article 174, (33) and the European
Commissions (EC) work programme (19; 20), the Cohesion policy is based upon three
objectives: convergence, competitiveness and employment, and European territorial
cooperation. The policy has been provided with a budget of EUR 347 billion for
the financing period of 20072013, EUR 49.4 billion being allocated in 2010 and
EUR64.5 billion in 2011. (12; 17)
Calculations based upon data provided by the World Bank. (34)
296
The convergence objective aims to secure regional cohesion and eliminate

the existing differences among EU Member States and regions. Its funding of
EUR 282.8 billion is allocated through the European Regional Development Fund
(ERDF) to those MS and regions where GDP per capita results in less than 75%
of the Communitys average. (19; 29) The convergence objective is additionally
supported by the Cohesion fund, which finances programmes and projects related
specifically to transport, infrastructure and environment and take place in MS whose
GNP per capita amounts to 90% of the EUs average. (5)
The second objective for competitiveness and employment similarly to the first
objective coincides with the direct effects of the global financial crisis, namely, rise
in unemployment levels. Through this goal, the EU invests EUR 55 billion from the
European Social Fund and ERDF into programmes aimed at increasing employment
and competitiveness of European professionals within the EU and globally.
Finally, the third objective of the Cohesion policy with a budget of
EUR 8.7 billion or 2.4% of the Cohesion policys budget for 20072013 (covered
uniquely by ERDF) has been created to improve cross-border collaboration.
(20;29)
Impact of the global financial crisis on cohesion within the EU

The global financial and economic crisis has had a particularly damaging effect
on the European economy, striking with sharp contrasts in the effect of the crisis
on national economies among EU MS. Namely, in 2009, the real GDP growth rate
in the EU-15 fell down to4.3%, in the Eurozone it was4.1%, whilst in the new
Member States the recession was considerably higher, varying from5.5% (as in
the case of Bulgaria) to a fall of over 10% in the Baltic states: in Lithuania, GDP
that same year fell to14.7%, in Estonia to13.9%, whilst Latvia that experienced
a fall of18% in GDP. (23) The economic gap between the MS has thus increased
even more, indicating the inevitable if the EU truly wishes to reach full economic
and social cohesion of its MS and regions, the convergence objective must remain
the priority of the Cohesion policy and its expenditure.
Moreover, the global financial crisis also created a crisis of trust between
lenders and borrowers. If initially, the bailout of Greece raised hopes of calming
down the credit rating agencies, the EUR 85 billion loan to Ireland proved such
actions will not be sufficient. The crisis has highlighted the long-existed urgency
for change, revealing numerous weak points and place for improvement in the
EUs budget expenses, planning of multiannual financing periods and its Cohesion
policy in particular. Those include budget adaptation to new political and economic
challenges, flexibility in structural expenditure and the need for a new approach to
development policies in the EU.
Given the heavy burden that this crisis in Euro zone countries bears on economies
like Germany, doubts have been raised whether economic recovery and cohesion
should be tackled at EU level at all. (3) The case for a common EU Cohesion
policy, however, is implicit. Firstly, development of a single European market
and currency has been a defining goal to the EU. It requires a thorough economic
297
and social cohesion; hence action on regional level. In any scenario, individual
countries will be bound to experience complications, due to the intensification of
EU policies, which may initially challenge the internal policies. (26; 27) However,
without a unified supranational strategy directed at horizontal convergence of all
Member States, the unified goals will not be attainable, as they would constantly be
challenged by the differences in national sectoral planning and development goals.
Secondly, a full economic and social convergence cannot be realised through
individual policies. The market and investments will always turn to the more
developed regions with particularly favourable conditions. In addition, a successfully
functioning monetary union requires harmonized socioeconomic development and
similar macroeconomic characteristics among MS. Hence, the present inconsistency
between a unified monetary policy and a weak and uncoordinated fiscal policy in the
EU is one of the leading threats to stability of the EU monetary union. (6; 24)
Thirdly, in a certain way the Cohesion policy compensates for the imperfections
of other EU policies, for example, the Common Agricultural policy and inequalities
in its direct payments. (29, p. 95; 35) The existing differentiation among EU
policies has been criticized by numerous authors (7; 24; 29) who have noted
their contradictory effects on cohesion, which, alongside the insufficient budget
expenditure on cohesion, are largely quoted as the leading obstacles to success of
the EUs Cohesion policy.
Fourthly, as emphasised in the ECs Report on European Region Policy, (15) the
modern technological, demographic, economic and climatic trends are global, as is
the competition between the worlds leading economies. As one of those, the EU is
obliged to take regional action in order to meet the expectations of its citizens and
tackle its own inefficiencies. And finally, closing of the gap between the rich and
the poor would strengthen a truly unified Europe, which has been the essential
goal of the EU since its creation.
A number of Cohesion policy instruments proved particularly helpful during the
crisis, when the EU funding available under the Cohesion policy was used to a large
extent to finance the immediate national needs, providing irreplaceable support for
the short-term to the national economies. In Latvia, for instance, in November 2010,
the composite codex of macro-economic indicators grew to 4.6% in constant prices,
compared to the same period in 2009. (31) It thus shows that structural financing,
which has been used as the main source of national investment, became a more
important stimulus of economic growth than ever before. Hence, it can be concluded
that under previously defined crisis situations an extended flexibility in use of
cohesion financing might in fact accelerate economic growth and, consequently,
convergence.
A structured assessment of the current multiannual financial framework (FF)
leads to conclude that greater emphasis is called for not only in amount of finances,
but also in the Communitys budgetary flexibility. The global economic crisis
emphasised the lack of a crisis budget or even possibility to shift funds. Numerous
adjustments had to be made, not among least to the European Globalisation
Adjustment Fund (EGF).
298
As the global financial crisis hit Europe, the European Parliament adjusted
regulations governing the EGF to target also those whose job loss was a direct effect
of the crisis. (8) Its budget, consisting of EUR 500 million, aims to stimulate selfemployment and entrepreneurship, covering up to 65% of costs associated to mobility,
change of qualifications and other related activities. Most of EU MS have already
received funding from EGF to compensate for losses suffered in their textiles industry
namely, in Italy, Malta, Lithuania, Portugal, Spain, and Belgium, manufacturers of
mobile phones (in Finland and Germany) and cars (France, Spain, Austria, Germany,
Sweden), as well as construction (in The Netherlands and Lithuania) and numerous
other European industries. One of the most pronounced examples of efficient use of
the EGF is Lithuania it has already received EUR1.1million in support to those
who lost jobs in its construction sector, EUR 0.3 million to former employees of
Snaige factory, EUR 0.8 million to the unemployed in textiles industry and EUR
0.7 million to those who became unemployed in Lithuanian furniture industry. The
EGF serves as an additional instrument to the Cohesion policys competitiveness
and employment goal and functions of the Social fund. (21)
An important step towards recovery was the ECs decision to increase advance
payments of 20072013 programs. (18) Additional advance payments released in April
2009 provided for an immediate cash injection of EUR 4.5 billion in investments.
These funds brought a total of advance payments of nearly EUR 23.3 billion since
2007, providing a much needed boost to public investment. (Ibid) Article 82 of
the General Regulation was additionally modified to allow advance payments, (25)
which in 2009 thus added up to EUR 6.25 billion additional payments supplementing
the previously agreed envelopes for each MS. (Ibid)
Nevertheless, certain actions taken under the Cohesion policy lead to question
the case for fair competition and convergence within the EU. Decisions such as
the creation of a Euro crisis fund with a budget of EUR 44 billion (22), which
targets the Euro zone, leaving out half of the EUs MS, mostly the newest MS, have
questionable effect on the territorial and economic cohesion of the EU.
The prospects of a more efficient Cohesion policy of the EU

As it has already been concluded, existing regional disparities among EU MS
have not been successfully reduced, leading to question whether the Cohesion policy
expenditure has not benefited the regions and sectors in the advanced EU MS more
than the less developed. Hence, on numerous occasions, analysts have called for a
change in the way the EU Cohesion policy is operated. (1; 2; 7)
Indeed, the EU faces a daunting task it needs to tackle globalisation, emerging
powerful economic actors on the international fora, demographic changes in the
region itself, global warming, and energy dependency. In other words, the EU must
exit from a deep economic and financial crisis, whilst reducing unemployment and
poverty, and simultaneously switching to a low-carbon economy. Such an ambitious
task requires swift action in many policy areas.
In the analysis of the prospective Cohesion policy, one stumbles across conflicting
arguments with regards to the rationale and conclusions on the achieved results of
299
the Cohesion policy; even the scope and the need for a reform. Consequently, the
risk of wrong changes is equally high, including the danger that no change takes
place at all.
It is clear however that cohesion benefits two essential preconditions of
increasing the EUs competitiveness it stabilizes the market and stimulates
economic growth.
Given the data presented above, a number of conclusions arise immediately.
Firstly, the convergence objective based upon the existing criteria of GDP per capita
less than 75% and GNI less than 90% of the EUs average must be maintained
as prerogative to the Cohesion policy, to ensure harmonized and equal growth
opportunities to regions in all MS. Secondly, the weaker EU MS should not be
given the heavy burden of fulfilling all goals of the Europe 2020 strategy, given
their limited capacities due to the prevailing economic and social obstacles. Thirdly,
given the rising burden of challenges and policy goals, the budget for Cohesion
policy in the next multiannual financial framework of 20142020 should not be
reduced, as compared to the current financing period. Additionally, a transparent
method of calculations governing allocation of cohesion funds is also needed to
effectively consider the variety of macro-economic measurements and provide a
focused approach to the thematic priorities of the EU policies.
The European economic recovery plan (16) called for a targeted approach in
areas of added-value to the EU, namely, growth-enhancing policies, development
of strategic infrastructure, safeguarding key skills and assets from being lost, etc.
(13, p.2) The Commission is due to present its proposals for the next multiannual
financial framework before 1 July 2011. Already in 2007, it defined the future
strategic priorities to the EU FF that would support its economic competitiveness
and strategic political role in the world of the 21st century. Given the nature of these
goals, adopted with the Europe 2020 strategy in 2010, (10) among those cohesion,
knowledge economy, innovations, mobility, competitiveness, the Cohesion policy
is seen as the key tool to implementing the strategy. (14) It is therefore all the more
important that the funding provided for the Cohesion policy under the next financial
framework is not reduced compared to the 20072013 financing period. However,
given the amount of remaining tasks for the Cohesion policy, the EU should avoid
placing too heavy burden on it. Europe 2020 requires a coordinated approach of
combining all tools and EU policies in a harmonious manner, rather than through
a single, albeit prospective programme. Author of this article therefore believes
that progress needs to be made by concentrating resources on the strategic policy
priorities, implementing the needed reforms, whilst improving performance of the
Cohesion policy as a whole. Such a view has also been presented by the 2010 EU
budget review (13).
By the end of January 2008, the first round of public consultations came to an
end. The EC received contributions by over a hundred national, regional and local
authorities, economic and social partners, and academic and research institutions.
(25) Those were integrated in the following Fifth Progress Report on Economic and
Social Cohesion. (11) The EC communication on Regional Policy contributing to
Sustainable Growth in Europe 2020 (10), published in early 2011, makes several
300
plausible recommendations that coincide with the position of this paper. To begin
with, the next generation of Cohesion programmes should encompass a greater
thematic focus on green investment and capacity building, using technical assistance
budgets. Indeed, in order to maximize the impact of cohesion spending, it will be
necessary to ensure that Member States concentrate the available EU and national
resources on agreed limited number of priorities (preferably up to five) of European
importance to ensure a targeted approach in allocation of cohesion funds. In the
meantime, the Cohesion policy needs to be equally territorially focused, i.e. through
the convergence objective and the existing criteria targeting the least developed MS
and regions by GDP per capita. Lack of full convergence will render fulfilment of
the ambitious Europe 2020 goals not viable.
Furthermore, MS should be given the possibility to choose their leading priorities,
respecting not only the European interest and prerogatives, but also national budget
capacities. It is important to maintain a simplified procedure in all stages of decisionmaking and implementation of the Cohesion policy. Hence, adoption of Development
and Investment Partnership Contracts to be signed by the EC and MS following a
common agreement on National Reform Programmes, as proposed by the EC (13),
appears to be the most efficient approach.
Moreover, the Cohesion policy, as well as Europe 2020 growth strategy, will
need to make use of increased coordination with other EU instruments in areas
of transport, communications, energy, agriculture, environment, and innovation.
MS should be encouraged to develop synergies between regional policy and EU
instruments like the Research Framework Programme, the Rural Development Policy,
the Competitiveness and Innovation programme, and the Covenant of Mayors (10)
to maximise their potential impact.
In addition, the quality of co-funded projects can be improved by drawing
on innovative methods of financial delivery, such as green public procurement.
Environmental and social considerations should certainly be taken into account in
ordering purchasing procedures. Managing authorities should invest in natural capital
and use Cohesion funding for natural risk prevention to prioritise green infrastructure.
That would also require involvement of local, regional and non-government parties
in the building of regional strategies.
Finally, Cohesion must be a result-based policy, grounded in ex-ante evaluations
of performance and results rather than an increased number of policy checks. At
present, the financial resources available to the Cohesion policy are spent in a too
dispersed manner with a high level of mistakes (9), limiting the possibility for a
thorough evaluation of the actual effects of the Cohesion funding. The existing
empirical evidence on the performance of cohesion policy is often criticized, in
particular relating to the poor system of outcome indictors and targets included in the
policy. Extensive attention is paid on the amount of allocated sums to the detriment
of efficiency of the expenditure itself. This paper therefore suggests including in
the future Cohesion policy a set of defined principles of evaluation alongside exact
targets to be reached by Cohesion programmes. That should provide for a significant
improvement in evaluation capacity of the policy and eventually improve efficiency
of the Cohesion expenditure.
301
Conclusions
The remaining level of disparities within the EU is still disproportionately high,
especially in the aftermath of the global economic and financial crisis. The Cohesion
policy has long intended to tackle the problem, yet its results remain inconsistent.
After an analytical examination of the Cohesion policy in the context of the
EUs multiannual financial framework, several key suggestions have been made for
the creation of a more efficient prospective Cohesion policy and convergence of the
European regions.
Firstly, the convergence objective must be defined as priority of the Cohesion
policy. The newest and economically weakest MS, i.e. those, whose GDP per capita
is below 75% of the EUs average, should be ensured a larger proportion of the
Cohesion budget. The territorial convergence and regional development need to
be managed on EU level, in order to promote consistent convergence and avoid
situations where progress and growth in a region is weakened by obstacles, such
as short-term economic and financial difficulties in a particular Member State.
Suggestions that are based on support to the weakest regions are not compatible
with the fundamental goals of cohesion, since the more developed EU MS possess
considerably greater possibilities to benefit development of their weaker regions.
Ignoring this basic principle would mean promoting unfair competition and unequal
possibilities of development among regions.
Secondly, financial allocations under the Cohesion policy need to target specific
territories and a limited number of priorities of European importance, with each
MS given the possibility to choose its priorities, according to individual budgetary
capacities. Moreover, increased sovereignty and flexibility need to be employed
in political decision-making and regulations on allocation of cohesion funding. At
this point, the Development and Investment Partnership Contracts proposed by the
Commission appear to be a feasible alternative.
Thirdly, in order to ensure a more efficient evaluation system of the Cohesion
policy, simplified financial governance with explicit goals and criteria of evaluation
must take place.
Finally, whilst the Cohesion policy will be crucial to achieving the Europe 2020
strategic goals, it should not be used as the leading policy instrument in implementing
the strategy. Europe 2020 encompasses a broad spectrum of policy areas, industries
and stakeholders and therefore requires a coordinated use of different EU policies
and programmes. Putting too heavy burden on the Cohesion policy will consequently
weaken the accomplishment of both cohesion and long-term growth.
Fair competition, based on the EUs values of solidarity, is a key element to
economic development. Those are also the founding principles of the Cohesion
policy and the EUs goal to safeguard its political and economic leadership in the
world. The future Cohesion policy must therefore simplify its approach, limit its
objectives, and reflect upon these fundamental principles in its targets, regulations,
and outcomes.
302
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304
Kopsavilkums
ES valstu ekonomisks un socils atirbas, pai pc globls ekonomisks un
finanu krzes, ir sasnieguas nepieemami augstu lmeni. o atirbu izldzinana
ir bijis ES Kohzijas politikas mris jau kop ts izveides, tomr sasniegtie rezultti
joprojm ir vji un neprliecinoi.
Balstoties uz Kohzijas politikas mru, darbbas un turpmks attstbas perspektvu
analzi ES finanu ietvara kontekst, rakst ir izvrtti ts ldzinjie rezultti, k
ar piedvti risinjumi efektvkai Kohzijas politikai jauns ES daudzgadu finanu
perspektv.
Veicot uz indukcijas metodes balsttu ldzinjo Kohzijas politikas mru, sasniegumu
un stratijas analzi, raksta autore ir nonkusi pie vairkiem btiskiem secinjumiem.
Pirmkrt, konverences mrim ir jkst par ES Kohzijas politikas prioritti,
atbalstot ekonomiski vjks ES dalbvalstis, kuru IKP uz vienu iedzvotju ir zemks
par 75% no ES vidj lmea. ES teritoril un ekonomisk kohzija un dalbvalstu
reionu attstba ir jveicina Eiropas Savienbas mrog, lai izvairtos no situcijas, ka
atseviu reionu attstbu kav slaicgas ekonomisks grtbas attiecgaj dalbvalst.
Prieklikumi, kas balstti uz vjko reionu atbalstu, neiztur kritiku, jo attsttkajm ES
dalbvalstm ir krietni plakas iespjas atbalstt savu reionu attstbu. Neievrojot o
pamatprincipu, tiktu veicinta nevienldzga konkurence un attstbas iespjas reionu
starp.
Otrkrt, Kohzijas politikas finansjumam ir jbt teritorili un tematiski fokustam,
t. i., attiecintam uz konkrtm teritorijm un specifiskiem, skaidri noteiktiem mriem
bezdarba samazinanu un kvalifikcijas un produktivittes paaugstinanu, kas atbilst
gan ES, gan ar dalbvalstu individulajm interesm un iespjm. ai kontekst
piedvts divpusjs vienoans starp Komisiju un dalbvalstm ir vrtjamas k veik
smgs risinjums.
Trekrt, lai nodrointu efektvku un pilngku Kohzijas politikas izvrtjumu, ir
nepiecieams pieemt skaidri defintus progresa kritrijus un galvenajs programms
pankamos mrus.
Kohzijas politikai nenoliedzami bs btiska nozme stratijas Eiropa 2020
realizan, tomr t nedrksttu kt par viengo vai pat galveno s stratijas
ievieanas instrumentu. Eiropa 2020 realizana praks ir jbalsta uz dadu ES
programmu un politiku koordintu lietojumu, aujot Kohzijas politikai vispirms sasniegt
ts pamatmrus ekonomisko, socilo un teritorilo konverenci.
Visbeidzot, uz ES pamatvrtbu solidarittes un vienldzbas elementiem balstta
godga konkurence ir ilgspjgas ekonomisks attstbas pamat. Uz ts ir balstta
ar ES izaugsmes stratija un mris stiprint ES ekonomisko un politisko ietekmi
un konkurtspju pasaul. Tiei uz diem principiem ir jveido ar jaun nkotnes
Kohzijas politika un ES daudzgadu finanu perspektva 2014.2020. gadam.

305.317. lpp.
Assessment of Disparities of Socioeconomic Development

of EU Member States
ES dalbvalstu socilekonomisks attstbas atirbu
novrtjums
Vladislavs Vesperis
Ministry of Environmental protection and regional development

Latvia University of Agriculture, Faculty of Rural Engineering
Aim of the article is to reveal trends and disparities of socioeconomic development among EU
member states in a time period from year 2001 until year 2009. Main tasks are to analyse extent
of socioeconomic disparities and whether these disparities are in general going to decrease
taking into account that new EU member states have received financial assistance from
pre-accession financial aid mechanisms and later benefited from the Convergence objective
funding of the EU Cohesion policy. For this purpose descriptive statistics, calculation of
standard deviation, and analysis of dynamics of time series of indicators were used. Another
task that was fulfilled by the article is to reveal possible links between socioeconomic trends
characterized by time series of selected indicators that were analysed by the use of correlation
analysis method.
Keywords: indicators, member state, development, socioeconomic.
Introduction
Since establishment of the EU various funds and initiatives were created to
reduce social and economic inequalities. The biggest ones of them were the European
Social Fund, the European Regional Development Fund and the Agriculture
Guidance and Guarantee Fund. In 1988 EU Council adopted the regulation which
included structural funds into the Cohesion policy which since then is an official EU
level regional policy. If earlier there were doubts on necessity and value of regional
policy then since 1970 Cohesion policy is one of the central policies of the EU
(Manzela G.P., Mendez C., 2009). Since beginning of 21st century EU-12 states
were changing their legislation and economies to become members of the EU and
at the same time they benefited from the pre-accesion financial aid and Cohesion
policy funding. Therefore analysis of socioeconomic disparities and their dynamics
is important in order to assess the development of EU member states during this
period.
At current moment active discussion on future Cohesion policy has been
started. Important contribution to this discussion was the independent report on
EU Cohesion policy prepared by Italian economist Fabrizio Barca. Fabrizio Barca
considers that harmonius development means also to achieve acceptable standard of
living according to the parameters that characterize not only the GDP per capita but
306
also the quality of life (Barca F., 2009). Therefore it is important to look at more
wide range of indicators that can be used to assess socioeconomic performance of
EU member states.
Traditionally indicators are used to assess quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of change. Task of indicators is not only to evaluate current trends of
development but also to give an opportunity to evaluate the extent to what the goals
of planning document are reached. With respect to decision making four main tasks
are given to the indicators:
1) To describe and explain factual state of concrete development factors and
elements as well as their deviation from the defined point of reference;
2) To evaluate influence of various measures on factual state of development
factors and elements;
3) To prognosticate future development and characteristics of development
factors and elements depending on various scenarios of socioeconomic and
environmental change;
4) To monitor process of change of development factors and elements and to
argue necessary corrective measures (Selman P., 1999).
Indicators can be divided by relation to pillars of sustainable development
environmental indicators, social indicators, and economic indicators. Indicators
can be categorized also by spatial scale that they are refered to i.e local level
indicators, regional and national level indicators, as well as by their importance
basic indicators, general indicators, and specific indicators (Briassoulis H., 2001).
OECD notes that indicators must be politically significant, analytically perfect, and
measureable (OECD, 2005).
Eurostat has defined four main thematic sets of indicators that are related to the
level of EU member states and those are:
1) Euroindicators that are core economic indicators for monetary policy pur
poses. There are indicators, such as GDP in volume, investments in volume,
inflation, government balance/surplus, unemployment rate, employment
rate, industrial production, etc;
2) Structural indicators that allow to measure progress of Lisbon strategy
concerning such domains as social cohesion, employment, innovation, and
general economic background. Main structural indicators that are mentioned
by new Europe 2020 strategy are employment rate of 2064 old population,
gross domestic expenditure for R&D as a share of GDP, tertiary education
attainment of 3034 aged population, population at risk of poverty or
exclusion;
3) Sustainable development indicators which ensure monitoring of the EU
Sustainable development strategy comprising various issues with an aim
to reconcile social, economic and environmental aspects. Main indicators
under this domain are growth rate of real GDP per capita, resource
productivity, population at risk of poverty or exclusion, life expectancy at
birth, employment of older workers, greenhouse gas emissions, etc.;
4) Employment and social policy indicators that cover employment and social
policy issues as well as education and information society. These domains
V. Vesperis. Assessment of Disparities of Socioeconomic Development ..
307
are characterized by long list of indicators such as risk of poverty rate,

dispersion of regional employment rates, inequality of income distribution,
social protection expenditure, etc.
Main statistical data and information on EU member states are available at
Eurostat publication Europe in figures Eurostat yearbook 2010. The yearbook
treats the following areas: economy; population; health; education; the labour
market; living conditions and welfare; industry and services; agriculture, forestry
and fisheries; trade; transport; environment and energy; science and technology; and
Europes regions (European Office of publications, 2010).
Under the economy domain main economic indicators are GDP per capita, real
GDP growth, gross value added, labour productivity per person employed, labour
productivity per hour worked, investment as a share of GDP, etc. Concerning labour
market following indicators are mentioned as the most important: employment rate,
employment rate of older workers, persons working part time, unemployment rate,
long-term unemployment rate, minimum wage, average hourly labour costs.
Important domain in a context of life quality is living conditions and welfare
which is covered by number of following indicators: at risk of poverty rate after
social transfers, inequality of income distribution, expenditure on social protection
per inhabitant, expenditure on pensions as a share of GDP.
Analysis of disparities of socioeconomic development disparities

among the EU member states
To perform more detailed analysis of socioeconomic development trends six
traditionally used and very robust indicators were chosen:
1) GDP per capita; 2) labour productivity per employee; 3) unemployment rate;
4) employment rate; 5) disposable income per inhabitant; 6) population density.
Time series of each of these indicators from year 2001 and 2009 were used with
an exception of disposable income per inhabitant and population density that was
available for year 2007 as the latest. Situation among the member states at the end
of the period is compared as well as their performance during the respective period.
Correlation analysis was used to reveal whether there are links between six chosen
indicators demonstrating current development level of member states, as well
whether there are links between changes of indicator values during the whole period.
Method of convergence using standard deviation allows assessing whether the
gap between most developed and less developed member states is closing.
GDP per capita by PPS is macroeconomic indicator that shows total economic
activity in the country. It can be calculated in three various ways using corresponding
approaches: income approach, production approach, and consumption approach. It is
also the main socioeconomic indicator that is used at NUTS 2 level to determine
those NUTS second level regions that are eligible for convergence objective of the
EU Cohesion policy if the GDP per capita in the region is less than 75 per cent of
EU average. GDP per capita values at market prices in 2009 per each EU member
state are shown in figure 1.
308
70
63,9
60
Thousands of euro
50
40
30,8
30
27,4
28,4
26,6
27,9
29,8 29,3
26,5
27,4
23,6
24,4
25,4
24,3
23,2 21,9
20,7
20
19,2 19
18,8 17,2
15,3 15
14,3 12,9
12,2 10,9
10
LV
RO
PL
LT
EE
SK
HU
PT
MT
SL
CZ
CY
GR
EU-27
IT
ES
FR
FI
UK
BE
SE
DE
DK
IE
AU
NE
LU
EU member states
Data source: Eurostat

Fig. 1. GDP per capita values at market prices in 2009 per each EU member state
IKP uz vienu iedzvotju tirgus cens ES dalbvalsts 2009. gad.
Luxembourg is an obvious leader among all member states and it has GDP per
capita of 271 per cent of EU-27 average GDP per capita. Disparities among all other
member states are not as high as the Netherlands which is130 per cent of EU-27
average GDP per capita but Romania with lowest GDP per capita is about of 46 per
cent of EU-27 average GDP per capita. It should be noted that there are only EU15 states which have GDP per capita higher than EU-27 average, and Greece and
Portugal are the only EU-15 member states whose GDP per capita is less than EU-27
average. Among EU-12 member states Cyprus and Slovenia are the most successful
but Latvia is one of the underdeveloped as GDP per capita in Latvia is just about 49
per cent of EU-27 average. It can be concluded that disparities by GDP per capita
are impressive and elimination of them is possible only in long-term perspective.
To evaluate trends of GDP per capita speed of GDP per capita growth during
the period from 2001 until 2009 were calculated for each EU member state. Among
those EU member states whose GDP per capita in 2001 was higher than the EU
average, only Luxembourg has experienced more rapid growth (38.2 per cent) than
EU-27 average growth (19.2 per cent). It should be noted that Spain in 2001 was
among member states with GDP per capita less than EU-27 average but in 2009
it moved to group of member states that have it above the EU-27 average. Among
those fifteen countries which in 2001 had GDP per capita less than EU-27 average
most rapid growth was observed in EU-12 member states, in particular, in Romania
(98.2 per cent), Slovakia (65.4 per cent), and Estonia (63 per cent). GDP per capita
grew significantly also in Latvia by 58.4 per cent. Portugal is the only member
state among the mentioned fifteen which has experienced slower GDP per capita
growth than EU-27 average growth. When comparing both groups of member states
(divided bu EU-27 average) it is observed that in the group of economically stronger
member states average GDP per capita grew by 13.5 per cent but in the group of the
309
less developed member states average growth was 44 per cent. By comparing growth
rates it can be concluded that convergence was taking place because of higher GDP
per capita growth rates in the less developed member states and it gives a hope that
elimination of current economic disparities is possible in future.
Labour productivity per employee shows how well human capital is developed
and used to ensure growth of economy. Productivity growth can be characterized
as growth of production amount with all other production factors being stable and
what is even better, the same or even larger amount of production by fewer resources
used for production. Labour productivity per EU member state in 2009 is shown at
figure2.
180
170
160
132
140
125
Percentage
120
121
112
111
111 111 110
110
107 105 100 100
100
98
89
88
82
80
79
74
72
70
65
65
60
56
50
47
40
39
20
BG
LV
RO
PL
LT
EE
HU
PT
CZ
SL
SK
CY
MT
GR
DK
EU-27
FI
DE
IT
SE
UK
ES
NL
FR
AU
IE
BE
LU
EU member states

Fig.2 Labour productivity per EU member state in 2009
Darba produktivitte ES dalbvalsts 2009.gad
Likewise in case of GDP per capita labour productivity in Luxembourg is the

highest 170 per cent of EU-27 average. Thirteen member states have achieved higher
labour productivity than EU-27 average and all these are EU-15 states. Similarly,
only Greece and Portugal are member states whose labour productivity is less than
EU-27 average. The most successful are Cyprus, Malta and Slovenia but Latvia,
Bulgaria, and Romania are those with the lowest labour productivity. When looking
at the group of most productive member states it should be noted that only Spain
and Ireland have increased their relative labour productivity but the productivity has
decreased in eleven other countries. However, decrease was comparatively small and
all thirteen member countries with labour productivity higher than EU-27 average
in 2001 have kept their productivity levels above EU-27 average also in year 2009.
Second group comprises those fourteen countries with labour productivity less than
EU-27 average. Almost all of these countries have demonstrated increase of relative
labour productivity, except Malta. The most rapid labour productivity growth is
registered in Romania (23.6 per cent), Slovakia (20.6per cent), and Estonia (17.6per
cent) which is similar with the case of GDP per capita growth.
310
After comparing both groups of member states it is observed that relative labour
productivity in the first group of member states fell from 122.2 per cent in 2000
down to 117.3 per cent in 2009 but in the second group of less developed member
states relative labour productivity grew from 60 per cent up to 69.5 per cent which
allows to conclude that convergence is observed in this respect.
Unemployment rate is a critical labour market indicator which shows general
economic activity and conformity of labour force with request of national economy.
In practice unemployment rate is calculated as a share of unemployed people from
the working age population. Unemployment figures in 2009 per EU member state
are shown in figure 3.
20,0
18,0
18,0
17,1
16,0
13,8
14,0
13,7
12,0
Percentage
12,0
11,7
10,0
10,0
9,5
9,5
9,5
8,9
8,4
8,2
8,2
8,0
7,9
7,8
7,7
7,6
7,0
6,9
6,8
6,7
6,0
6,0
5,9
5,3
5,1
4,8
4,0
3,4
2,0
NL
LU
AU
SL
CY
CZ
DK
BG
RO
UK
MT
IT
DE
FI
BE
SE
PL
PT
EU-27
FR
GR
IE
HU
SK
EE
LT
ES
LV
0,0
EU member states

Fig. 3 Unemployment figures in 2009 per EU member state
Bezdarba lmea rdtji ES dalbvalsts 2009.gad
Ten of EU member states experience higher than EU average unemployment

rates in 2009 and five of them are EU-12 member states hence it can be concluded
that unemployment figures show much more diversity among EU-15 member states
and EU-12 member states than in case of GDP per capita or labour productivity.
Countries affected by high unemployment the most are Spain, Baltic States, and
Ireland but most successful in keeping jobs are the Netherlands, Austria, and
Luxembourg.
When comparing changes in unemployment rates in period from 2001 until
2009 it should be noted that in both cases ten member states had unemployment
rates higher than EU-27 average. However in 2009 Poland, France, and Finland have
reduced their unemployment rates below the EU-27 average and they were replaced
by Ireland, Hungary and Portugal whose unemployment rates exceeded average
unemployment rate of EU-27 countries. From the first group of member states
(with high unemployment rates) with the most negative cases of unemployment rate
change Spain, Latvia, and Estonia were observed.
311
When comparing both groups of member states it is observed that unemployment

rate in general dropped down in first group of member states which initially had
higher average unemployment rate but in the second group of member states with
initially lower unemployment rates the numbers have increased. Hence,it can be
concluded that disparities by unemployment rate have been reduced however overall
unemployment has increased as the rate has grown in 16 member states out of 27.
Employment rate characterizes accessibility of the labour market, conformity of
abour force to the requirements of the labour market, and economic activity of the
population in general. Employment rates per EU member state in 2009 are shown
in figure 4.
90
77
80
75,7
72,2
70
71,6
70,9
69,9
69,9
68,7 67,5 66,3

65,4 65,2 64,6 64,2 63,5
62,6 61,8 61,6 61,2 60,9
60,2 60,1 59,8 59,3 58,6 57,5
Percentage
60
55,4 54,9
50
40
30
20
10
MT
IT
HU
RO
ES
PL
LT
SK
LV
GR
IE
BE
EE
BG
FR
LU
EU-27
PT
CZ
FI
SL
CY
UK
DE
SE
AU
NE
DK
EU member states

Fig.4 Employment rates per EU member state in 2009
Nodarbintbas lmea rdtji ES dalbvalsts 2009.gad
First group of member states with higher employment rates than EU-27 average
includes twelve member states only three of which are EU-12 member states.
Therefore it can be concluded that in general EU-15 member states enjoy better
employment. Employment rate in Latvia is less than in EU-27 countries. Dramatic
decrease of employment in Latvia was experienced in 2009 and it has returned to
level of year 2002. Employment rate in the EU-27 countries as a whole grew from
62.2 per cent in 2000 up to 65.9 per cent in 2008 but this was followed by decrease
to 64.6 in 2009. Most rapid increase of employment rate is observed in Bulgaria,
Poland, and Germany.
When comparing employment rates of 2000 and 2009 among groups of member
states, it should be noted that in 2000 there were fourteen member states that enjoyed
employment rate higher of that in EU-27 countries. Of these fourteen countries eight
experienced growth of employment rate but other six experienced decline. In the
group of thirteen member states with initially lower employment rates, almost all
countries achieved growth of employment except Hungary. However none of these
312
thirteen countries was able to achieve employment rates above the EU-27 average
hence it can be concluded that convergence was observed however it was rather
weak.
Disposable income per inhabitant is an important indicator that characterizes
level of socioeconomic development and material welfare by eyes of individual.
Income demonstrates an ability of individual to ensure at least minimum standard of
life quality and affordability of services and goods. Disposable income per inhabitant
in the EU member states in 2007 is shown in figure 5.
20,0
19,0
18,0
18,1 17,4 17,3

16,2 16,1 15,7
16,0
15,6 15,0
14,8 14,8
14,0
13,5 13,1
Thousands of euro
12,3
12,0
11,2
9,8
10,0
8,9
8,0
8,1 8,1
8,1
7,9
7,7
5,2
6,0
4,2
4,0
2,0
BG
RO
EE
LV
HU
PL
LT
SK
CZ
SL
PT
FI
DK
ES
SE
GR
IE
NL
IT
BE
FR
DE
UK
AU
0,0
EU member states

Fig. 5 Disposable income per inhabitant in the EU member states in 2007
Rcb esoais ienkums uz vienu iedzvotju ES dalbvalsts 2007.gad
Data on 24 EU member states were analyzed as information on Luxembourg,

Cyprus and Malta were not available in Eurostat database. The highest disposable
income per inhabitant is observed in EU-15 member states, but Bulgaria and Romania
have the lowest disposable income per inhabitant, followed by Baltic States, Poland,
and Hungary. It should be emphasized that disposable income in the Baltic countries,
Hungary, and Poland are similar despite of more diverging GDP per capita figures in
these member states.
Disposable income in Latvia is almost 2, 5 times less than that in Austria;
however the most rapid growth of disposable income in the period from 2001 until
2007 was registered in Latvia (111.5 per cent). Taking into account global economic
crisis it can be concluded that level of disposable income in years after economic
crisis will be significantly lower than that of year 2007. It is observed that disposable
income per inhabitant in the EU-12 member states grew on average twice as fast
as in the EU-15 member states, hence, convergence in this period is obvious, and
nevertheless it is sure that situation has dramatically changed during global economic
crisis.
313
Population density change and population change reflects on socioeconomic

situation in countries, influenceing both birth and death rates as well as existence
of open borders and increasingly opening labour markets within the EU enabling
migration. Population density is an indicator that determines costs of public
infrastructure and services per inhabitant. Population density in the EU member
states in 2007 is shown in figure 6.
1400
1296
1000
800
600
394 348
62
52
35
30
21
16
EE
SE
FI
69
LV
85
IE
89 85
LT
99 90
BG
197 186 131 127 122 115 113 110 108 101 100
CY
251 230
200
GR
400
RO
Number of inhabitants
1200
ES
SL
AU
FR
SK
HU
PT
EU-27
PL
CZ
DK
IT
LU
DE
BE
UK
NL
MT
EU member states

Fig.6 Population density in the EU member states in 2007
Iedzvotju blvums ES dalbvalsts 2007.gad
Average population density in 2007 in the EU was 113 inhabitants per square
kilometre. There are eleven densely populated EU member states which have
population density above the EU-27 average and three of them are EU-12 member
states Malta, Poland, and Czech Republic. The most populated countries in the EU
are Malta, the Netherlands, and Belgium.
From those seventeen member states whose population density is below the EU27 average the most densely populated are Portugal, Slovak Republic, and Hungary.
Population density in Latvia is one of the lowest in the EU and only Estonia,
Sweden, and Finland have lower population densities. However Finland and Sweden
are specific case due to their territorial location which has historically impacted
their settlement structures which were mostly developed in the southern parts of
these member states. It should be also noted that Sweden and Finland have recorded
positive population change in time period from1998 till 2007. Population density has
increased in most EU member states, except Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Lithuania,
and Latvia. The most rapid depopulation took place in Bulgaria (by 7.2 per cent) and
in Latvia (by 5.6 per cent).
EU-15 member states population densities increased most of all as population
density increased in fourteen of them. Most successful in this respect were Ireland,
Spain, Cyprus, and Luxembourg whose population density growth exceeded 10 per
cent. It can be said almost sure that high growth of population density in Ireland
314
is caused by depopulation in EU-12 member states. Population density in Latvia

decreased from 37 inhabitants per square kilometre down to 35 that makes pressure
on costs of public infrastructure and public services because it becomes more difficult
to finance them because of decreasing tax revenues. Eight of EU-12 member states
experience decrease of population density, most rapid decline being experienced in
Bulgaria, Latvia and Romania.
Within the group of densely populated member states trend of increase in
population density is observed with an exception of Germany (decrease by 0.1 per
cent) and Poland (decrease by 0.4 per cent). On the other hand in the group of less
densely populated member states six of them experienced population decline and
all of them were EU-12 member states. Hence, it is concluded that disparities by
population have grown from 1998 till 2007 despite convergence trends of other
macroeconomic indicators. In general, it seems that in member states with higher
GDP per capita figures also higher labour productivity, employment, and level of
income is observed. To test that, correlation analysis was used to detect whether
there is relationship among indicators that were used to describe socioeconomic
development disparities among EU member states. Data of year 2007 was used as it
was available for all abovementioned indicators. Results of correlation analysis are
shown in the table 1.
Table 1
Correlation coefficients between values of six chosen indicators for year 2007
Seu izvlto indikatoru 2007. gada vrtbu korelcijas koeficienti
GDP per
capita
GDP per capita
Population Labour pro- Unemploydensity

ductivity
ment
Employment
Disposable
income
0.053
0.930
-0.354
0.348
0.900
Population density
0.053
0.138
-0.059
-0.297
0.452
Labour productivity
0.930
0.138
-0.215
0.303
0.932
Unemployment
-0.354
-0.059
-0.215
-0.548
-0.106
Employment
0.348
-0.297
0.303
-0.548
0.443
Disposable income
0.900
0.452
0.932
-0.106
0.443
Source: authors calculation using Eurostat data.
It can be seen from table 1 that there is a strong positive relationship between
labour productivity and GDP per capita (coefficient of correlation 0.93), between
labour productivity and disposable income (coefficient of correlation 0.93) as well
as between GDP per capita and disposable income (coefficient of correlation 0.93).
Hence, it is obvious that member states with higher labour productivity produce
more GDP per capita which in turn increases disposable income per inhabitant.
However, values of indicators change over time and therefore it is important not only
to analyze development trends as simple change of indicator values but also how
change of one indicator is related to the change of another one. Using correlation
analysis, relationships among trends of change of six abovementioned indicators
in period from 2001 until 2007 were analysed. Results of correlation analysis are
shown in the table 2.
315
Table 2
Correlation coefficients between changes of six chosen indicator values

Seu izvlto indikatoru izmaiu vrtbu korelcijas koeficienti
Indicator
GDP per Labour pro- Employ- Unemploy- Disposable

capita
ductivity
ment
ment
income
Population
density
GDP per capita
0.827
0.443
0.527
0.927
0.374
Labour productivity
0.827
0.106
0.310
0.722
0.293
Employment
0.443
0.106
0.450
0.595
0.241
Unemployment
0.527
0.310
0.450
0.607
0.224
Disposable income
0.927
0.722
0.595
0.607
0.636
Population density
0.374
0.293
0.241
0.224
0.636
Once again strong correlation between GDP per capita and labour productivity
is detected as well as correlation between GDP per capita and disposable income per
inhabitant. Correlation between labour productivity and disposable income in this
case looks less prominent as in case of analysis of current values of indicators.
Another option to evaluate whether the gap between developed and less
developed countries is closing is to use method of so called convergence. Early
research on use of this method was done by Easterlin (Easterlin, 1960), Bort, and
Stein (Bort, Stein, 1964). Method of convergence allows assessing direction
of socioeconomic change while comparing values of the indicator per country and
calculating their standard deviation. If standard deviation decreases it means that
socioeconomic disparities are reduced and vice cersa if standard deviation increases,
disparities are growing. Values of standard deviation were calculated per each
indicator to evaluate trends of socioeconomic development within the EU-27 and
results are shown in table 3.
Table 3
Change of standard deviation of six chosen indicators

Seu izvlto indikatoru standartnovirzes vrtbas un to izmaias
Indicator
GDP per capita
Change of standard deviation, %
Year
2001
2007
2009
2001/2007
2001/2009
5799.9
6060.6
5225.6
4.2
9.9
Labour productivity
29.2
23.3
22.02
18.9
24.6
Employment
4004.2
4005.8
No data
No data
Unemployment
102.7
26.7
No data
74.0
No data
Disposable income
6.57
5.52
5.77
16.0
12.1
Population density
3.88
1.72
3.27
55.7
15.7
316
It is concluded that trends of socioeconomic change are to some extent

controversial. Despite of positive trend of elimination of disparities in unemployment
and labour productivity in period from 2001 until 2007 disparities in GDP per capita
have grown by 4.2 per cent. It means that disparities between EU member states
by GDP per capita were still growing despite the more rapid growth rates of GDP
per capita and labour productivity in the EU-12 member states. Employment is
almost stable without any significant change. It is also worth to note that impact of
global economic crisis was in general positive and helped to reduce socioeconomic
disparities as standard deviation decreased for GDP per capita and labour productivity
however disparities by disposable income per inhabitant among EU member states
remain stable.
Conclusions
1. EU Cohesion policy is strongly oriented towards elimination of socioeconomic
disparities among EU member states and regions, however, questions emerge
about what and how should this be achieved and measured.
2. Disparities of socioeconomic development between EU member states are high
and trends of their development reveal that convergence process is not strong
enough. Disparities in GDP per capita according to method of so called
convergence were still growing despite the decrease of disparities in labour
productivity and unemployment.
3. Analysis of main socioeconomic indicators confirms importance of labour
productivity as a prerequisite of growth of GDP per capita and disposable
income per inhabitant. Other factors do not show strong relationships; therefore
main target for less developed member states should be to develop those sectors
which are most promising from productivity growth point of view.
4. Population density is not a crucial factor for success of the economy at the
national level as sparsely populated member states can also demonstrate strong
economic growth and performance.
List of references
1. Barca, F. (2009) AN AGENDA FOR REFORMED COHESION POLICY a place-based
approach to meeting European Union challenges and expectations. Independent report
prepared at request of Danuta Hubner, Commissioner for Regional Policy. Available:
http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/policy/future/pdf/report_barca_v0306.pdf. Access:
09.04.2010.
2. Borts, G., Stein, J. (1964) Economic growth in a free market. New York: Columbia
University Press.
3. Briassoulis, H. (2001) Sustainable Development and its Indicators: Through a (Planners)
Glass Darkly Journal of Environmental planning and Management, 44: 3, p. 409427.
4. Easterlin, R. A. (1960) Interregional diferences in per capita income, population, and
total income, 18401950, in Trends in the American economy in the nineteenth century.
A report of the National Bureau of Economic Research. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
317
5. Europe in figures 2010 (2010) Luxembourg: Office for official publications of the
European Communities.
6. Handbook on constructing composite indicators: methodology and user guide. (2005)
OECD Statistics Working Paper, OECD: Paris.
7. Manzela, G. P., Mendez, C. (2009) The turning points of EU Cohesion policy. Report
working paper. Available: http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/policy/future/pdf/8_
manzella_final-formatted.pdf. Access: 09.04.2010.
8. Selman P. (1999) Three decades of environmental planning: what have we really learned?
In: M.Kenny&J.Meadowcroft (Eds.). Planning Sustainability London: Routledge.
Kopsavilkums
Rakst analizts ES valstu socilekonomisks attstbas lmenis un t izmaias,
pamatojoties uz tdiem seiem nozmgiem indikatoriem k IKP uz vienu iedzvotju, r
cb esoais ienkums uz vienu iedzvotju, darba produktivitte, bezdarbs, nodarbin
tba un iedzvotju blvums. Izvrtjot ES valstu rdtjus atbilstoi iem indikatoriem,
tiek secints, ka atirbas starp ES valstm ir ievrojamas, jo pai augstas ts ir pc
tdiem indikatoriem k IKP uz vienu iedzvotju, darba produktivitte un rcb esoais
ienkums uz vienu iedzvotju.
ES-12 valsts novrojami augstki IKP uz vienu iedzvotju pieauguma tempi,
vienlaikus tiek secints, ka, emot vr ES-12 valstu IKP uz vienu iedzvotju zemo bzes
lmeni, konverence starp ES dalbvalstm ir nepietiekama, jo atirbas valstu lmen
pc IKP uz vienu iedzvotju laik no 2001. ldz 2007. gadam, izmantojot t saukto
konverences aprina metodi un ts ietvaros novrtjot standartnovirzes rdtja
izmaias, ir palielinjus. Korelcijas analze norda uz cieu sakarbu starp darba
produktivitti, no vienas puses, un IKP uz vienu iedzvotju un rcb esoo ienkumu
uz vienu iedzvotju, no otras puses. Tas liecina, ka darba produktivitte ir btisks
prieknosacjums IKP un iedzvotju ienkumu pieaugumam.

318.329. lpp.
Graudu raoanas potencila novrtjums Latvij un

tsasnieganas ekonomiskie nosacjumi
The Possibilities of Grain Production in Latvia and
Economic Conditions to Reach Them
Armands Vveris
Latvijas Valsts agrrs ekonomikas institts
Struktoru iela 14, Rga, LV-1039
E-pasts: armands@lvaei.lv
Ptjums sniedz ieskatu par graudu raoanas palielinjuma potencilu Latvij un ekonomiskajiem nosacjumiem, k ar ieteicamajiem valsts politikas paskumiem t realizcijai. Analizta lauksaimniecbas zemes izmantoana un secints, ka sekmgas politikas rezultt jau
dau gadu laik btu iespjams kpint graudu raoanu par 400500 tkst. tonnu, saldzinot
ar 2010. gada lmeni, bet aptuveni 10 gadu laik par miljonu un vairk tonnm, palielinot
gan graudu platbas, gan rabu. Iepirkuma cena virs 90 Ls/t kvieiem un 80 Ls/t mieiem,
rudziem un auzm veicina graudu audzanu. K papildu stimuls nepiecieami atbilstoi politikas paskumi.
Atslgvrdi: graudi, platbas, raba, robecena, reioni.
Ievads
Jau vairkus gadus gan pamju, gan rvalstu pircjiem ir liela interese par Latvij
audztajiem graudiem. Pieprasjums ir pai aktvs situcijs, kad pasaules tirg
graudu trkst. ds stvoklis izveidojs gan 2007., gan ar 2010. gad, kad Latvijas
tirg rads pat graudu deficts, pai lopbarbai. Turklt Latvij ir iecerti vai jau
tiek realizti vairki bioetanola projekti, kas paredz par izejvielu izmantot graudus.
Tas vl vairk var palielint graudu pieprasjumu Latvij. Tpc ir pastiprinta
galvenokrt privto investoru interese gan par graudu raoanas potencilu Latvij,
gan par to, kdiem jbt nosacjumiem, lai mintais potencils tiktu sasniegts. is
jautjums ir svargs ar, izvrtjot lopkopbas nozaru iespjas Latvij.
Ldzinjos ptjumos autors nav lasjis par konkrtiem apjomiem, cik daudz
graudu Latvij iespjams izaudzt. Tau ir ptjumi par to, kda tipa augsnes un cik
liel mr ts ir piemrotas graudu audzanai (piem., A. Boruka u. c. ptjumi),
k ar ekonomiskie dati par graudu audzanas izmaksm, lietojot izplattks
tehnoloijas.
Darb analizta pieejam informcija par zemes izmantoanu un graudu audz
anu Latvij, graudu audzanas izmaksm, iemumiem, graudkopbas saimniec
bu ienesgumu dados Latvijas reionos, saldzinot ar citiem zemes izmantoanas
A. Vveris. Graudu raoanas potencila novrtjums Latvij un t sasnieganas ..
319
veidiem; analizta graudu raba Latvij un cits valsts ar saldzinmiem apstkiem,

graudu audzanas apjomu atkarba no iepirkuma cenm un citi faktori.
Raksta mris ir novrtt graudu audzanas potencilo pieaugumu Latvij un
indikatvi novrtt ekonomiskos nosacjumus, ar kdiem tas btu sasniedzams.
Mra sasnieganai izvirzti di uzdevumi:
izvrtt potencilo graudu platbu pieaugumu un to teritorilo izvietojumu;
izvrtt graudu rabas potencilo pieaugumu;
novrtt orientjoo cenu lmeni, kas nepiecieams graudu rentablai au
dzanai;
noteikt valsts politikas paskumus, kas sekmtu graudu raoanas attstbu
Latvij.
Ptjuma metodoloiskais un informatvais pamats ir statistisk un ekonomisk
informcija, Latvijas zintnieku ptjumi. Darb lietotas ekonomisks analzes
metodes un pamieni.
1. Zemes resursi Latvij un to izmantoanas iespjas graudu

audzan
1.1. Stvoka vrtjums
Graudu raoana Latvij vsturiski bijusi viena no lauksaimniecbas pamat
nozarm un ir izplatta gandrz vis Latvijas teritorij, visos reionos. Graudkopba
palaik ir viena no galvenajm lauksaimniecbas nozarm Latvij. Par to liecina
izaudzto graudu vrtbas patsvars kopj lauksaimniecbas produkcij, un tas vei
do apmram 25%, bet izaudzto graudu vrtba gad sasniedz pat 150 miljonus
latu un vairk. Graudi Latvij ir kuvui par nozmgu eksportpreci. Graudu
eksporta apjoms svrsts atkarb no graudu raas. Labvlgkos gados, piemram,
2009.gad, eksporta apmri veidoja ap 500 tkst. tonnu. Graudu audzana Latvij
ir koncentrjusies lielajs saimniecbs 2009. gad jau divas tredaas no graudu
kopraas tika iegtas tajs1 [4]. Saimniecbu ekonomiskie dati rda, ka graudu
audzana ir viens no izdevgkajiem zemes izmantoanas veidiem, pai auglgkajs
zems ds saimniecbs gtie ienkumi uz darbaspka vienbu ir lielki nek
vidji viss saimniecbs (4. tab.). s nozares attstbai ir pamats, jo aptuveni pdjo
10 gadu laik vis pasaul ir tendence pieaugt izejvielu cenm, ar tirgojamiem
lauksaimniecbas produktiem. Pieprasjums pc graudiem pieaug pasaul un ttad ar
Latvij, jo graudi nepiecieami ne tikai prtikai, bet ar lopkopbai un biodegvielas
raoanas attstbai. Td ir btiski izvrtt, kds Latvij ir graudu audzanas
potencils un ar kdiem nosacjumiem to iespjams realizt.
Pirms Otr pasaules kara graudaugu platbas svrstjs ap 1 miljonu ha, kas ir
aptuveni 2 reizes vairk nek palaik (1. tab.).
Saska ar Centrls statistikas prvaldes lietoto klasifikciju par lielm tiek atztas saimniecbas, kuru
ekonomiskais lielums prsniedz 40 ELV (1 ELV = 1200 EUR bruto seguma).
320
1. tabula
Zemes platbas un graudu raoanas dinamika Latvij (19382010)

Land area and grain production in Latvia (19382010)
Mrvienba
Measurement
1938
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Zemes kopplatba
Total land area
tkst. ha
thsd ha
6579
6459
6459
6459
6459
6459
6459
Lauksaimniecbas
zeme
Agricultural land
tkst. ha
thsd ha
3947
2589
2567
2540
2485
...
2430
Graudaugu sjumu
platba
Grain area
tkst. ha
thsd ha
1005
690
675
408
420
468
535
Graudaugu
kopraa
Grain harvest
tkst. t
thsd ha
1317
1238
1599
689
924
1314
1417
Graudaugu raba
Grain yield
cnt/ha
13,1
17,9
23,7
16,9
22,0
28,0
26,5
Datu avots: LR Centrl statistikas prvalde.

Data source: Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia.
Padomju laikos graudu platbas samazinjs, tomr 20. gadsimta 80. gados ts
sasniedza ap 700 tkst. ha (par 30% vairk nek 2010. gad).
Strauj graudu platbu kritums tika piedzvots 90. gadu skum, kad nelabvlgu
tirgus apstku un atbalsta trkuma d to audzana liel da saimniecbu kuva
nerentabla, ldz ar to 5 gadu laik graudu platbas samazinjs par 40%, bet ievktais
kopapjoms par 60%. Vlk graudu platbas (tpat ar raba) pamazm ska
pieaugt, straujku pieaugumu piedzvojot pc Eiropas Savienbas atbalsta maksju
mu ievieanas no 2003. ldz 2008. gadam graudu platbas pieauga no 428 tkst. ha
ldz 544 tkst. ha (par 27%). Tomr, k rda 1. tabulas dati, ar pareizjs graudaugu
platbas atpaliek ne vien no pirmskara platbu apjoma (par aptuveni 600 tkst. ha jeb
vairk nek 2 reizes), bet ar no 90. gadu skuma rdtja (par 150 tkst. ha jeb
22%).
2010. gada dati par kopjm lauksaimnieciski izmantojamo zemju platbm un
to stvokli liecina, ka Latvij atrodas liels potencils vl pietiekami neizmantotu
zemju, kuras nepiecieambas gadjum var tikt izmantotas graudu audzanai (att.).
Lai gan lauksaimniecb izmantojam zemes (LIZ) platbas Latvij ir samazinjus,
tomr 2010. gad Lauku atbalsta dienesta (LAD) veiktais neizmantots LIZ
apsekojums rda, ka platbas, kuras faktiski var tikt atztas par LIZ, krietni prsniedz
2 miljonus ha. Saska ar LAD veikto apsekojumu (2010. gad tika apsekoti zemes
gabali, kuru platba prsniedz 1 ha tie veido 2 352 tkst. ha) 85% no valst esos
LIZ atzti par koptiem [6]. Ttad zeme apmram 2 miljoni ha potencili ir
izmantojama kultraugu audzanai.
321
50; 2%
316; 13%
3; 0%
Kopta LIZ / cultivated

UAA
Nekopta LIZ / not
cultivated UAA
Aizaugusi LIZ /
overgrown UAA
1983; 85%
Bvniecba / civil
engineering
Attls. Lauksaimniecb izmantojams zemes stvoklis Latvij saska ar LAD veikto

apsekojumu 2010. gad (tkst. ha; % no visas apsekots zemes)
Condition of agricultural land in Latvia (survey done by Rural Support service in 2010;
thsd ha, % of all surveyed land)
ie dati norda ar, ka Latvij ir btiskas iespjas palielint LIZ apsaimniekoanas

intensitti, iesaistot lauksaimnieciskaj aprit vl neizmantotas platbas. Pareizj
graudu platba aizem tikai 22% no kopjs LIZ un 27% no kopts LIZ.
Iespjas piesaistt papildu zemes platbas tiei graudu audzanai netiei ap
liecina ar Latvijas zintnieku agronomu ptjumi. Augu piemrotbu kultraugu
audzanai Latvij detalizti ptjis prof. A. Boruks. Vi secinjis, ka no 16 gal
venajiem augu tipiem tikai trijos graudu vidj raba ir btiski zemka, bet
praktiski viss labi un vidji iekultivts augsns (izemot purva augsnes) tiek
ieteikti augsnes izmantoanas modei, kuros graudaugu patsvars veido 4050%
kopj sjumu struktr [2].
1.2. Graudu audzana un to platbu palielinjuma iespjas Latvijas reionos

aj sada ir analizta pareizj graudu audzanas intensitte reionos, k
ar indikatvi aplstas graudu audzanas palielinanas iespjas reionu griezum,
raugoties no zemes izmantoanas viedoka.
Vrtjums ir izdarts, galvenokrt pamatojoties uz diem nosacjumiem.
Graudu audzanai nevajadztu prvrsties par monokultru, kas nelabvlgi
iedarbojas uz augsni, to noplicinot, un rada pastiprintu risku slimbu
izplatbai. Ldz ar to graudu patsvaram kopum nevajadztu prsniegt 50%
sjumu struktr, kaut ar atsevis pai labvlgs teritorijs tas var bt
lielks.
Tiek emta vr zemes platbas vajadzba lopbarbai, uz vienu nosacto
mjlopu vienbu rinot caurmr 1,5 ha lauksaimniecbas zemes, kas atbilst
samr ekstensvai audzanas tehnoloijai. Pareizjs pavu un ganbu, k
ar trumos audzto sto zlju platbas ievrojami prsniedz o vajadzbu,
savukrt btisku zldju dzvnieku skaita pieaugumu tuvkaj nkotn
ierobeo piena kvotas, turklt ldzinjie dati rda, ka dzvnieku skaitam ir
tendence samazinties (izemot aitas un kazas).
322

Tiek ievrtts, kda daa LIZ saska ar zemes pabm nav piemrotas
graudaugu audzanai (erodts augsnes, platbas ar zemu dabisko auglbu
u. c.). Tomr du teritoriju saldzinoi nav daudz: Latvij ir tikai 5 pagasti
ar trumu vidjo novrtjumu, kas zemks par 30 ballm. Ir emts vr
ar A. Boruka veiktais daljums lauksaimniecbas reionos, emot vr
zemju piemrotbas pakpi lauksaimniecbai. Tomr atzmjams, ka pat
ceturtaj lauksaimniecbai nelabvlgaj reion ir ieteiktas augu sekas
ar graudaugiem (prsvar tie ir rudzi, auzas).
Ir emts vr, ka daa platbu ir dabisks pavas un ganbas, kuras nevar
brvi prveidot par aramzemi un iekaut augu sek, un tas lielkoties
ar, iespjams, nebtu vlams no vides aizsardzbas un dabisko biotopu
saglabanas viedoka.
Graudi Latvij tiek aktvi audzti visos reionos, tau to audzanas intensitte
nozmgi atiras (2. tab.).
Tabulas dati apkopo gan kopjs LIZ izmantoanas lmeni (lab lauksaimniecbas
stvokl uzturto zemju patsvars), gan graudaugu sjumu platbas daljumu pa
reioniem. T k ptjuma veikanas laik 2010. gada lauksaimniecbas statistikas
dati vl nebija pilnb apkopoti, graudaugu sjplatbu analzei lietoti 2009. gada
rdtji, kuri btiski neatiras no 2010. gada datiem.
2. tabula
LIZ stvoklis un graudaugu sjumi Latvijas reionos

The conditions of UAA and grain areas in Latvian regions
Reioni
Regions
Kop LIZ*
Total UAA
ha
t. sk. kopta*
ha
neapstrdta*
Graudaugu
sjumi**
Grain areas
ha
ha
Pierga
314 268
250 584
80%
63 684
20%
59 496
19%
Kurzeme
442 977
374 928
85%
68 049
15%
120 600
27%
Latgale
623 035
512 723
82%
110 312
18%
100 210
16%
Vidzeme
503 696
428 642
85%
75 054
15%
87 572
17%
Zemgale
468 184
416 383
89%
51 801
11%
172 964
37%
1 983 260 84%
368 900
16%
540 842
23%
Pavisam Total
2 352 160
* LAD apsekotajs platbs 2010. g. Data of Rural Support Service for 2010.
** CSP dati par 2009. g. Data of Central Statistical Bureau for 2009.
Vislielk graudu audzanas intensitte ir Zemgal, kur graudu sjumi aizem

37% no kopjs LIZ. aj reion visvairk audz kvieus 68% no graudaugu
sjumu platbas. Jau palaik Zemgal daudzas saimniecbas graudus audz k
monokultru vairkus gadus pc krtas, tpc aj reion ir oti ierobeotas
iespjas palielint graudaugu sjumus, jo to patsvars ir pat 57% no vism aramzemes
platbm.
323
Otrs aktvkais graudu audzanas reions ir Kurzeme gan platbu zi

(120 tkst. ha 2009. gad), gan zemes izmantoanas zi 27% no kopjs LIZ
aizem graudaugu sjumi. Savukrt aramzemes struktr graudaugu sjumi aj
reion aizem 48%. No graudaugiem Kurzem lielko dau aizem kviei 48%
un miei 29%. emot vr samr kvalitatvo zemes sastvu (vidjais trumu
novrtjums balls 41, LIZ 37 balles, kas atbilst vidjam rdtjam Latvij, ar
oti neliels erodto un erozijai pakauto augu patsvars 3%) [1], Kurzemes reion
btu iespjams palielint graudu platbas. Tau im nolkam jpalielina aramzemes
platba, jo jau palaik Kurzem graudaugi veido 48% no izmantots aramzemes. T
k reion ir gandrz 200000 ha LIZ, kas nav aramzeme, tas ir iespjams, atgrieot
vismaz dau no s zemes intensvk lauksaimniecisk aprit. Indikatvi, atgrieot
no s platbas, graudaugu sjumus var palielint par aptuveni 50000 ha.
Piergas reion graudaugu audzana nav intensvi izplatta ar tiem apsti
tikai 19% no LIZ, tomr aramzem graudu patsvars sasniedz 40%. Zemes kvalittes
novrtjums Pierg ir ldzgs k Kurzem trumos vidji 41 balle un vis LIZ
38 balles. ie rdtji atbilst vidjiem rdtjiem Latvij. Turklt Pierg ir oti maz
erozijai pakautu lauku. Tas liecina, ka teortiski graudaugu platbu patsvars var
sasniegt vismaz Kurzemes lmeni. Tomr saldzinoi plaku ienkumu iespju d
zemju paniekiem acmredzot dakrt trkst stimulu intensvai zemes izmantoanai.
Tiei aj reion ir augstkais nekopts LIZ patsvars 20%, tpc zemju
izmantoanu eit galvenokrt nosaka ekonomiskie stimuli (vai to trkums), bet
potencils platbu palielinjums pastv. Pat koptajs LIZ platbs iespjams palielint
graudu platbas gandrz divkrt par 50000 ha, bet, atgrieot lauksaimniecb palaik
neizmantots platbas, vl par 2030 tkst. ha. Dr. habil. agr. A. Boruks, analizjot
reiona piemrotbu lauksaimniecbai, iir vairkus apakreionus, kuros dabas
apstki ir atirgi. Rgas tuvum tie nav graudkopbai labvlgi, bet pietiekami
plaas teritorijas gar Daugavu, Siguldas pus un biju Limbau rajona dienvidu
da, k ar biju Tukuma rajon tiek atztas par augkopbai labvlgm[1].
Vidzemes reion graudu patsvars ir vl zemks 17% no LIZ un 40% no
aramzemes platbm. Tomr aramzemes patsvars aj reion ir daudz mazks
nek iepriek aplkotajos reionos: Zemgal tas sasniedz 62% no kopjs LIZ un
Kurzem 57%, bet Vidzem tikai 39% [6]. Tas liecina, ka aj reion zeme tiek
izmantota mazk intensvi.
Vidzem vidjais augsnes kvalitatvais novrtjums ir zemks nek iepriek
aplkotajos reionos 19% aramzemes augu ir erodtas vai erozijai pakautas,
aramzemes vidjais kvalitatvais novrtjums balls 39, bet visai LIZ 35,
savukrt 12% no LIZ ir ar oti zemu novrtjumu mazk nek 20 balles. Tas
liecina, ka Vidzem ir saldzinoi lielkas platbas, kuras nav piemrotas graudu
audzanai, tomr, indikatvi vrtjot, du platbu patsvars nav oti liels. os
apstkus izvrtjot, var pieemt, ka kopum Vidzem graudaugu aprit vartu
iesaistt ap 60% no kopjs LIZ, un tie ir 300 tkst. ha, no kuriem graudaugi katr
atsevi gad var aizemt 120150 tkst. ha. T k pareizj graudu platba ir ap
90tkst.ha, iespjamais pieaugums vartu bt 3060 tkst. ha, turklt maksimlais
kpums iespjams, atgrieot lauksaimniecisk aprit palaik neizmantots zemes,
k ar pastvot labvlgiem ekonomiskiem nosacjumiem (cenas, atbalsta politika
u.c.).
324
Latgales reion situcija graudu audzan kopum ir ldzga k Vidzem

vai nedaudz sliktka. Graudu sjumi aizem 16% no kopjs LIZ un 41% no
aramzemes platbas. Kopjs zemes platbas aj reion ir lielkas, vairk ar
neapstrdto zemju. aj reion ir daudz mazo saimniecbu, kurs tiek turti lopi,
un lielas saimniecbas zemes tiek turtas ganbm un lopbarbas ieguvei zabarbai
vai sienam.
Latgal nosusinta ir tikai aptuveni no reiona LIZ, ar trumu un visas LIZ
kvalitatvais vrtjums ir viszemkais attiecgi 36 un 33 balles. Indikatvi graudu
vajadzbm par piemrotm var vrtt aptuveni 50% no reiona LIZ. Tau, veicot
atbilstous ieguldjumus, ar meliorcij, augu struktras uzlaboan, skbuma
regulan u. c., ar aj reion graudiem piemrots zemes platbas vartu
palielint, tomr tam btu nepiecieami papildu ieguldjumi, kas nav sedzami tikai
no tirgus krtjiem iemumiem.
Latgal pareizjos apstkos graudiem ir piemroti ap 300 tkst. ha, kuros,
audzjot graudus ar 4045% intensitti (kas atbilst pareizjai intensittei trumu
platbs), gad to platba var sasniegt ap 130 tkst. ha, kas, saldzinot ar tagadjo
graudu platbu (100 tkst. ha), nav btiski vairk. Ar is palielinjums galvenokrt
btu iegstams uz pareiz neizmantoto zemju rina.
Apkopojot datus, kuri iegti reionu analzes rezultt, var secint, ka Latvij ir
rezerves, lai palielintu graudu platbas, un galvenokrt tas iespjams mazk intensvi
izmantotajs platbs saldzinoi auglgkajs Latvijas das Pierg, Kurzem, da
Vidzemes un Latgales teritorijas (sk. secinjumus).
2. Graudu raba un ts pieauguma potencils Latvij

Graudu rabas lmenis un t dinamika rda, ka graudu apjoma palielinanas
iespjas nav izsmeltas ar uz rabas pieauguma rina. Vstures dati liecina, ka
ldz lauksaimniecbas modernizcijas skumam 19. gadsimta beigs graudaugu raba Latvijas teritorij un Rietumeirop bija aptuveni ldzvrtga [3]. Tas nozm,
ka dabisko nosacjumu d nav pamata tm btiski atirties ar palaik. Tau, t
k mintajs teritorijs ir oti atirgs ieguldjumu apjoms, lietots tehnoloijas un
irnes, Latvij ir radusies arvien lielka rabas atpalicba. Tomr pdjos 15 gados Latvij vidj graudu raba ir pieaugusi 2 reizes no 15,5 cnt/ha 1995. gad
ldz 30,8 cnt/ha 2009. gad (2010. gad raba samazinjs ldz 26,5 cnt/ha laika
apstku ietekm). Tas nozm, ka veiktie efektivittes paaugstinanas paskumi ir
sekmjui rabas kpumu, tpc Latvij pdjos gados (20072009) tika saraots
pat nedaudz lielks graudu kopapjoms nek ldz 1990. gadam, kaut ar platbas ir
samazinjus.
Tau, saldzinot ar citm Eiropas valstm, Latvij vl ir ievrojams potencils
rabas kpumam. Tds valsts k Dnija, Vcija, Lielbritnija, Francija vidj
graudaugu kultru raba 2009. gad bija sasniegusi 7075 cnt/ha, Nderland pat
83 cnt/ha, rij 65 cnt/ha, Austrij 60 cnt/ha, Zviedrij 51 cnt/ha, un pat Somij, kur
klimatiskie apstki ir ievrojami skarbki nek Latvij, raba tomr ir augstka
37 cnt/ha [9].
325
3. tabula
Graudu raoanas rdtji Latvijas reionos 2009. gad

Grain production in Latvian reions at 2009
Graudaugi 2009. gad
Grain production at 2009
Reions
Region
Sjumu
platba,
ha
sown
area
Kopraa, t
production,
tons
Kop
Total
540 842
1 663 139
30,8
100%
1925,3
28%
11%
260,9
23%
Vidj
raba,
cnt/ha
yield
% no visas
graudu
kopraas
% of total grain
production
No ts
Kop aktvo
graudaugu
saimniecbu
LIZ, tkst. ha platba, %
UAA in active of this grain
farms, thsd ha
area, %
Pierga
59 496
185 935
31,3
Vidzeme
87 572
213 971
24,4
13%
402,8
22%
Kurzeme
120 600
345 299
28,6
21%
359,4
34%
Zemgale
172 964
677 199
39,2
41%
401,9
43%
Latgale
100 210
240 735
24,0
14%
500,3
20%
Datu avots: CSP.

Data suurce Central Statistical Bureau.
T k Latvij turpins nozmgi ieguldjumi lauku saimniecbu modernizcij,

meliorcijas sistmu sakrtoan u. c., ir pamats sagaidt tlku graudu rabas pie
augumu, turklt tas iespjams visos reionos. K rda reionu dati (3. tab.), ar
Zemgal, kur koncentrtas galvens graudu platbas, raba 2009. gad (39 cnt/ha)
ievrojami atpaliek no Rietumeiropas. Provizoriski pieemot, ka rabas absoltais
pieaugums saglabtos pdjo 10 gadu lmen, pc 10 gadiem sasniedzot vidjo
rabu valst apmram 42 cnt/ha, pat pareizjs graudaugu platbs tiktu saraots
par 600tkst. tonnu vairk graudu nek palaik. Tomr, lai du pieaugumu panktu
tikai uz rabas pieauguma rina, tas ir samr ilgstos process un to nav iespjams
pankt s laik (daos gados).
3. Ekonomiskie nosacjumi graudu audzanas pieaugumam

Lai potencils iespjas vartu piepildties, tm nepiecieams ekonomisks
pamats. Straujais graudu raoanas kpums no 2003. ldz 2008. gadam netiei rda,
ka aj laik graudu audzana ir bijusi rentabla. To apliecina ar tehnoloisko karu
dati, ja saldzinm tiei graudu audzanas iemumus un izmaksas.
Apkopojot ekonomisko informciju par iemumiem un izdevumiem, aprins
norda, ka robecena ir ap 80 Ls/t skot ar o robecenu, saimniecbas var saraot
ziemas kvieus bez zaudjumiem, ja ir pareizjie nosacjumi (atbalsta lmenis un
pieiranas kritriji, resursu cenas utt.). Tomr, lai piesaisttu jaunas saimniecbas
un pareizjie audztji palielintu graudu raoanu, ir nepiecieami papildu ieguld
jumi, tpc par stimuljou var uzskatt cenu, skot ar 100 Ls/t. aj gadjum, lietojot
ekstensvo metodi, bruto pea sasniegs apmram 50 Ls/ha, bet, izmantojot intensvo
metodi 80 Ls/ha. ds aprins veikts, pamatojoties uz Latvijas lauksaimniecbas
326
konsultciju un izgltbas atbalsta centra (LLKC) ekspertu datiem un emot vr

faktiski lietots tehnoloijas ar nosacjumu, ka visi tehnikas pakalpojumi tiek
nomti[7].
Turklt, ja saimniecba izmanto savu tehniku vai to iegdjas koopercijas ce,
skotnjs izmaksas ts iegdei bs lielkas, tau pc tam tiks iegta lielka pea.
o attiecbu var labi redzt 4. tabul, kur saldzinta neto pievienot vrtba uz
darbaspka vienbu laukaugu specializcijas saimniecbs un vidji visu specializciju
saimniecbs. Te redzams, ka apvidos, kuri lauksaimniecbai ir labvlgki (pamat
Zemgale, Pierga un auglgks Kurzemes un Vidzemes teritorijas), visos 3 gados
(20072009) laukaugu saimniecbs tika gta augstka pievienot vrtba, ttad
laukaugi bija relatvi izdevgki par citiem zemes izmantoanas veidiem, pat
neraugoties uz cenas svrstbm ajos gados. Savukrt teritorijs, kurm noteikts
mazk labvlgo apvidu statuss, laukaugu audzana bija nozmgi izdevgka tikai
2007. gad, savukrt 2008. gad t bija viendi ienesga ar citm specializcijm,
bet 2009. gad mazk izdevga. Ttad, samazinoties graudu cenai, vispirms to
raoanas izdevgums zd mazk labvlgs teritorijs. o procesu pastiprinja ar
situcija, kad cena straujk samazinjs rudziem, mieiem un auzm, nevis kvieiem,
kurus audz galvenokrt auglgks zems.
4. tabula
Neto pievienot vrtba uz darbaspka vienbu mazk labvlgo apvidu (MLA) un

rpus tiem esos saimniecbs 2007.2009. gad, emot vr specializciju (Ls/gad),
un graudu vidj iepirkuma cena Latvij (Ls/t)
Net value added per work unit in less favourite areas (LFA) and other farms in 20072009
(Lats per year), and average grain price in Latvia (Lats/t)
2007
2008
Vidji / Average
20072009
2009
rpus MLA saimniecbas / Farms without LFA

Visas specializcijas
All types of farms
Laukaugi
Field crop farms
9259
8450
5422
7710
15220
13579
7726
12175
MLA saimniecbas / Farms in LFA

Visas specializcijas
All types of farms
Laukaugi
Field crop farms
Graudu vidj prdoanas cena
(Ls/t)
Average price (Lats/t)
9824
7015
5243
7361
14297
7024
4377
8566
2007
2008
Vidji / Average
2009
Kviei Wheat
125
106
83
Rudzi Rye
113
87
59
86
Miei Barley
115
92
66
91
93
74
53
73
Auzas Oats
Datu avots: Latvijas Valsts agrrs ekonomikas institts.

Source: Latvian State Institute of Agrarian Economics.
105
327
Tpat, apkopojot bruto segumu citu graudu kultru audzan, secints: lai
intensvi apsaimniekots platbs btu rentabla mieu, rudzu un auzu audzana, to
cenai vajadztu sasniegt 8590 Ls/t. Ldzga cena btu nepiecieama ar ekstensvs
platbs, lai to audzana btu pietiekami ienesga ieguldjumiem un peas g
anai.
No datiem izriet: ja graudu cenas prsniedz 100 Ls/ha, k tas bija 2007. gad, to
audzana ir noteikti izdevga visos reionos. T ir kopum izdevga ar tad, ja cenu
lmenis ir tds pats k 2008. gad, bet, ja ir 2009. gada cenu lmenis (4. tab.), saldzinoi izdevga graudu audzana ir Zemgal un Kurzem, kur ir augstks kvieu
patsvars, un, kas ir prsteidzoi, ar Latgal. Savukrt Vidzem, kur kvieu patsvars ir neliels (26% no graudaugu sjumiem), graudu audzana kst neizdevga.
Graudu audzanas apjomus nozmgi var ietekmt valsts atbalsta politika.
Graudus audzjoo saimniecbu struktras analze rda, ka to audzana koncen
trjusies lielajs saimniecbs. 2009. gad 66% no graudu kopraas tika iegti
lielajs saimniecbs (ar ekonomisko lielumu virs 40 ELV). Taj pa laik sjumu
platbu patsvars ajs saimniecbs ir krietni mazks 53% [4], bet kopjs
lauksaimniecisks zemes vl mazk. To daudzjd zi nosaka gan graudu
uzpircju vlme sadarboties ar lielkiem piegdtjiem, gan finansils un tehnisks
iespjas. Palaik tehnika iegdta galvenokrt lielajs saimniecbs, tpc prjs
saimniecbs graudu audzana ir ierobeota vai ar kvalitatvas tehnikas nomas
augsto izmaksu d sniedz mazku ekonomisko atdevi. Saimniecbm, kuras
iegdjus tehniku, to pamatfunkcija parasti nav tehnikas iznomana, td rt
pakalpojumu no malas parasti ir drgi, un ne vienmr tas ir pieejams.
Lai sekmtu raoanas attstbu lauksaimnieciskajs zems, lietderga ir valsts
un Eiropas Savienbas atbalsta maksjumu cieka sasaiste ar raoanu. Prasba
nodroint noteiktus iemumus no zemes hektra (ap 200 LVL/ha) ir jau plnota
valsts lmen, tomr ir diskutjama, jo ne visi lauksaimnieki var dus iemumus
nodroint. Td pirms das prasbas izvirzanas btu jizvrt, kdas ir iespjas
ar mazm saimniecbm bez grtbm realizt produkciju, dm saimniecbm
btu jsniedz atbalsts attstbai, k ar minto ierobeojumu vartu attiecint viengi
uz saimniecbm, kurs lauksaimniecisks zemes platba prsniedz 1520 ha. Turklt
preu produkcijas raoanu var sekmt, nosakot atirgas atbalsta likmes par
lauksaimniecisko darbbu mazk labvlgos apvidos atkarb no zemes izmantoanas
veida.
1. Zemju izmantoanas un graudu rabas analze rda, ka Latvij ir nozmgas
nepietiekami izmantotas platbas, kuras ir lietojamas graudu audzanai.
Saska ar veikto analzi kopj graudu platba vartu pieaugt par aptuveni
130 tkst. ha, tikai lietojot lauksaimniecisk stvokl uzturto zemi, bet,
atgrieot lauksaimnieciskaj aprit palaik neizmantots platbas, pieaugums
vartu sasniegt ap 220 tkst. ha.
2. emot vr abus iespjamos faktorus graudu platbu un rabas pieaugumu,
var secint, ka Latvij ir potencili iespjams jau nkamo dau gadu laik
328
palielint graudu raoanas apjomu par 400500 tkst. tonnu. Savukrt aptuveni
10 gadu laik, veicot ieguldjumus pareiz neizmantoto zemju atgriean
lauksaimnieciskaj aprit un piemrotu iru selekcij, k ar uzlabojot
agrotehniku, kopum iespjams palielint graudu raoanu pat par 1 milj. tonnu
un vairk tonnm, taj skait par 500 tkst. tonnu uz platbu pieauguma rina un
par 600 tkst. tonnu uz rabas kpuma rina pareizjs graudu platbs, bet,
kpinot rabu ar jaunapgtajs platbs, papildu ieguvums btu vl lielks.
3. Graudu audzana kst izdevga saldzinjum ar citm lauksaimniecbas noza
rm, ja kvieu graudu cena prsniedz 90 Ls/t un citu graudaugu cena 80Ls/t
(ja ir pareizjais resursu cenu lmenis). Tomr, lai piesaisttu investcijas graudu
audzanai, ir nepiecieami papildu resursi tie var tikt saemti, piemram,
atbalstot ieguldjumus.
4. To saimniecbu iesaistanos graudu audzan, kurm ir potencilas iespjas
to dart (piemroti zemes resursi u. c.), bet kuras pareiz to nedara vai ir to
prtraukuas, bez iepriek aprakstt cenu lmea nodroinanas graudu
iepirkumam veicintu
tehnikas pakalpojumu kooperatvu attstba, lai atvieglotu graudkopbu
saimniecbm, kurm nav pam savas tehnikas vai t ir novecojusi;
atbalsts augu ielaboanai (meliorcijai un meliorcijas sistmu uztura
nai, skbo augu kaoanai, augsnes struktras uzlaboanai u. c.), pai
mazk labvlgos apvidos;
subsdiju atbalsta cieka sasaiste ar lauksaimniecisks zemes izmantoanas
veidu, nosakot atirgus maksjumus atkarb no audzjams kultras.
Konkrta atbalsta apjoma noteikana ir atsevia ptjuma objekts;
nosacjums, ka lauksaimniecbas zemes pircjam t ir jizmanto lauk
saimniecbas kultru raoanai un jnodroina iemumi, ja zemes platba
prsniedz 1520 ha. Tas vartu paldzt izvairties no lielu zemes platbu
izemanas no lauksaimniecisks aprites spekulatvos nolkos utt. Ldzgas
tendences palaik vrojamas Pierg;
ptniecbas un selekcijas staciju darbba jaunu iru izveidoan un ap
robcij, lai sekmtu graudu rabas pieaugumu pareizjs platbs;
graudu iepircju ieinterestba iepirkt graudus ar no saimniecbm, kuras
spj saraot nelielus apjomus. Vartu veidot un atbalstt, piemram, koo
peratvus, kas paldz ar tehniku, zinanm, stermia aizdevumiem u. tml.
un uzprk produkciju, vai ar ar to nodarbotos tiei prstrdes uzmumi.
LITERATRA
1. Boruks, A. Dabas apstki un to ietekme uz agrovidi Latvij. Rga: 2004. 166 lpp.
2. Boruks, A. u. c. Zemes vrtanas metodika. Latvijas zemkopbas zintnisks ptniecbas
institts. Rga: 1991. 120 lpp.
3. Boruks, A. Zemnieks, zeme un zemkopba Latvij. Jelgava: LLU, 2003. 717 lpp.
4. Lauku saimniecbas Latvij 2009. gad. Statistikas datu krjums. Rga: LR Centrl
statistikas prvalde, 2010. 36 lpp.
329
5. Latvijas Valsts agrrs ekonomikas institta nepublicta informcija.

6. Lauku atbalsta dienesta nepublicta informcija.
7. Bruto seguma aprins zemnieku saimniecbai. Pieejams: http://www.llkc.lv/
web/?id=400459
8. Lauku attstbas programmas 2007.2013. gadam novrtjuma vidustermia ziojums.
Rga, 2010. 280 lpp. Pieejams: http://www.zm.gov.lv/doc_upl/MTE_gala_20122010.pdf
9. Datubze. Pieejams: www.copa-cogeca.be/img/user/file/ALL_CER2010.pdf
Summary
In this research the potential of grain production increase in Latvia is analysed.
The land use analysis show that even in some nearest years it is possible to increase
grain production by 400-500 thousand tons compared by 2010 level, but in 10 years
period by 1 million tons or more. This is due to increase both areas and yield. It
is assessed during of the research that price above 90 Lats/t for wheat and above
80 Lats/t for barley, rye and oats stimulates grain production. Also some additional
state regulation measures are recommended in the research.
Keywords: grain, area, yield, price, regions.

330.339. lpp.
MVU konkurtspjas un nodoku atvieglojumu

problmasLatvij
SME Competitiveness and Taxation Privileges Problems
inLatvia
Olga Zadoronaja
Socils integrcijas valsts aentras RRC koleda

Dubultu prosp. 71, Jrmala, LV-2015
E-pasts: ola@ml.lv
Ekonomikas krzes laik pau aktualitti iegst valsts iedarbbas uz maz biznesa sektoru
optimizcijas jautjumi, viengabalainas mazs uzmjdarbbas attstbas sistmas izstrde,
labvlgas biznesa vides nodroinana, prdomtas, uz ilgtermia attstbu orienttas nodoku
politikas piemroana. Latvij daudzas mazo un vidjo uzmumu (MVU) konkurtspjas
definanas un veidoanas problmas paliek nerisintas. Tpat netiek risintas problmas, kas
saisttas ar valsts lomu MVU konkurtspjas procesa veidoan. darba ptjuma objekts ir
mazo un vidjo uzmumu sektors un MVU nodoku atvieglojumu pieiranas problmas
Latvij. Secinjumi atvieglotas MVU aplikanas ar nodokiem pamat ir jbt orientieriem
uz ilgtermia attstbu, inovciju un kapitla investciju atbalstu. Latvijai jturpina darbs
administratvs slodzes samazinan un jveido maksimli labvlga biznesa vide vism
nodoku makstju kategorijm.
Atslgvrdi: konkurtspja, MVU nodoku atvieglojumi, ilgtermia izaugsme, ekonomisk
attstba.
Ievads
Ptot nacionls konkurtspjas jautjumus, jem vr, ka obrd pasaules
ekonomisks krzes ietekm notiek btiskas kvalitatvas izmaias, kas ir saisttas ar
globalizciju un teritorils attstbas nevienmrbu, turklt saasins konkurences ca
starp valstm, reioniem, transnacionlm kompnijm un atsevim firmm. Tiei
tpc nacionls attstbas stratijas izstrdes pamat jbt valst esoo uzmumu
augstai konkurtspjai.
Konkrt uzmuma konkurtspj galven nozme ir valstij un reionam,
kur darbojas firma. Sacensb ar konkurentiem btiska veiksmes daa ir atkarga
no uzmjdarbbas un biznesa stvoka valst. Jebkur valst nacionlo prioritu
sarakst svargkais ekonomikas valstisks regulanas uzdevums ir nodroint
apstkus un radt konkurtspju civiliztam tirgum, kas dinamiski attsts.
Maz biznesa konkurences priekrocbas izpauas t elastgum, mobilitt,
reakcijas trum uz rjs vides izmaim. Mazo uzmumu lomu ekonomik krzes
period ir grti prvrtt. Maz uzmjdarbba ir efektva visos rdtjos: t risina
socilos jautjumus, kas saistti ar iedzvotju nodarbintbu; auj tri prkrtot
O. Zadoronaja. MVU konkurtspjas un nodoku atvieglojumu problmasLatvij
331
raoanu un tdjdi operatvi reat uz tirgus vajadzbm; padara produkciju

ekonomiski konkurtspjgu. Mazai uzmjdarbbai ir ievrojama nozme noturgas
ekonomikas attstbas nodroinan.
Ekonomikas krzes laik pau aktualitti iegst tdi jautjumi k valsts iedarb
bas uz maz biznesa sektoru optimizcija, viengabalainas mazs uzmjdarbbas
attstbas sistmas izstrde, labvlgas biznesa vides nodroinana, prdomtas un
uz ilgtermia attstbu orienttas nodoku politikas piemroana. Latvij daudzas
mazo un vidjo uzmumu problmas paliek nerisintas. Tpat netiek risintas
problmas, kas saisttas ar konkurtspjas definanu un veidoanu, k ar valsts
lomu MVU konkurtspjas procesa veidoan. Valstisks regulanas problmas
mazs uzmjdarbbas jom ir nepietiekami pttas.
raksta ptjuma objekts ir mazo un vidjo uzmumu sektors. Ptjuma
mris izptt Latvij pastvos problmas MVU nodoku atvieglojumu jom,
izstrdt prieklikumus nodoku sistmas sakrtoanai. Ptjuma uzdevumi izptt
Latvijas valdbas minjumus vienkrot mazo uzmumu nodoku sistmu no
1993. ldz 2011.gadam, izanalizt Latvijas valdbas koncepciju par mikrouzmumu
atbalsta paskumiem, izptt ES politiku MVU jom. Darba metodoloiskais un
teortiskais pamats ir zintniskie ptjumi par problmm, kas saisttas ar MVU
darbbu un valsts atbalsta sistmu.
MVU Latvij
Latvij ar biznesu aktvi nodarbojas apmram 174000 uzmumu, kas reistrti
Uzmumu reistr vai Komercreistr, t. sk. 110 000 sabiedrbu ar ierobeotu
atbildbu, 31000 zemnieku saimniecbu, 15000 individulo uzmumu un 13000
individulo komersantu (Lursoft dati), k ar apmram 83000 fizisko personu, kas veic
saimniecisko darbbu (Valsts iemumu dienesta (VID) dati par 2008.gadu[3]).
Izstrdjot ceus izejai no krzes, jdom par to, k palielint darbojoos uz
mumu skaitu, k stimult odienas bezdarbniekus rtdien skt paiem savu bizne
su, skt uzmjdarbbu. Lai realiztu o mri, vispirms jatrisina prk sarets
un neskaidrs nodoku sistmas un grmatvedbas krtoanas jautjumi, kas atbaida
iescjus uzmjus uzskt savu biznesu.
Latvijas valdba vairkkrt dieml neveiksmgi ir minjusi vienkrot mazo
uzmumu nodoku sistmu. Pirmais minjums vienkrot aplikanu ar nodokiem
un grmatvedbas krtoanu bija patentmaksas ievieana 1993.gad. Maksa par
patentu pc btbas bija avansa maksjums par tiesbm nodarboties ar konkrtu
biznesa veidu. Tau maksa bija diezgan augsta, tika piemrota tikai atseviiem
darbbas veidiem, tpc Latvij nekuva populra.
Latvijas valdba nolma atcelt patentmaksu un ieviest fiksto ienkuma nodokli.
Skot ar 2008.gadu, ldz ar grozjumiem likum Par iedzvotju ienkuma nodokli
tika ieviests atsevis 11.8. pants, kas ir veltts fikstajam nodoklim.
Saska ar o pantu fikst nodoka samaksu var izvlties nodoku makstji,
ja tiek ievroti vairki noteikumi [1]:
darbbai ir jbt reistrtai VID ldz krtj gada 1. februrim;
darbba ir jveic patstvgi bez algota darba piesaistes;
332

konkrts personas darbba neatbilst profesionlas darbbas pazmm;

iemumi no das darbbas neprsniedz 10 000 latu pirmstakscijas gad
un saska ar prognozm ar nkamaj gad;
persona piekrt noteikumam, ka nodoku vajadzbm tiks emti vr tikai
bruto iemumi no saimniecisks darbbas; nekdi izdevumi, kas saistti ar
o ienkumu ganu, netiks emti vr.
Fikst nodoka ievieana bija patiem revolucionrs solis. Nodoka lielums
tika noteikts saska ar gada ienkumu lielumu, vidji tas bija aptuveni 5%. Tau
uzmji, kas sniedza os pakalpojumus, o nodoka veidu izvlties nevarja, jo
saska ar likumu vii tika ierindoti to personu kategorij, kuras nodarbojas ar
profesionlo darbbu1 un kurm iespja izvlties o nodoku samaksas veidu bija
aizliegta ar likumu (likuma par IIN 11.8. p.). Dieml VID nepublic preczus datus
par fikst iedzvotju ienkuma nodoka iekasanas apjomu. Acmredzot fikstais
ienkuma nodoklis, tpat k patentmaksa, plau izplatbu neieguva, to apliecina fakts,
ka 2010.gad valdba nolma atjaunot patentmaksu (likuma par IIN 11.10. p.).
Valst esos krzes d, pai nodarbintbas jom (2010.gada 1. ceturksn dar
bu mekljoo personu skaits vecum no 15 ldz 74 gadiem bija 235 800 cilvku),
valdba bija spiesta risint problmu, k izveidot komercdarbbas vidi, kas
veicintu uzmumu darbbu un mudintu bez darba palikuos iedzvotjus uzskt
komercdarbbu, tdjdi samazinot bezdarba lmeni un palielinot uzmju patsvaru
kopjo nodarbinto skait. Mazo uzmumu nodoku atvieglojumu problma atkal
izvirzjs priekpln.
2009.gada vid Latvijas valdba radja jaunu koncepciju Koncepciju par
mikrouzmumu atbalsta paskumiem, kas apstiprinta ar Ministru kabineta
2009. gada 30. oktobra rkojumu Nr. 748 [3]. 2010.gada 1. septembr Mikrouz
muma nodoka likums [2] un ar to saisttie grozjumi nodoku likumos stjs spk.
Tiek izirti divi kritriji skaitliskie un kvalitatvie, un saska ar tiem
uzmums tiek atzts par mazo uzmumu. Pie skaitliskiem kritrijiem pieder
tdi statistiskie rdtji k nodarbinto skaits uzmum, apgrozjums, aktvi,
kapitls, pea u.tml. Lai noteiktu mazo biznesu, kvalitatvais kritrijs ir persong
uzmuma vadana. Latvijas Mikrouzmuma nodoka likum defintais termins
mikrouzmums iekauj gan skaitliskos kritrijus ne vairk k 5 cilvki
uzmum, neto apgrozjums latos ne vairk k 70000 latu gad, gan ar kvalitatvo
raksturojumu firmas paniekiem jbt ts valdes locekiem (ja mikrouzmums ir
reistrts k SIA).
Mikronodoklis aizstj uzmuma ienkuma nodokli, iedzvotju ienkuma
nodokli un socilos maksjumus. Nodoka likme mikrouzmumiem tika plnota
20% apmr, tau socilo partneru spiediena d t tika noteikta 9% apmr no
apgrozjuma. Turklt likuma beigu variant tika pazaudta oti svarga remarka, kas
izskanja koncepcij: Mikrouzmums nevar bt uzmums, kas veic nekustamo
1
Profesionl darbba ir jebkura neatkarga profesionlu pakalpojumu sniegana rpus darba tiesiskajm
attiecbm, ar zintnisk, literr, pasniedzja, aktiera, reisora, rsta, zvrinta advokta, zvrinta
revidenta, zvrinta notra, zvrinta mrnieka, zvrinta taksatora, mkslinieka, komponista, mzia,
konsultanta, ineniera, zvrinta tiesu izpildtja, grmatvea vai arhitekta darbba. [1]
333
paumu apsaimniekoanu un tirdzniecbu, k ar gst ienkumus no aizdevumu

izsnieganas vai kas veic jebkur veid spekulatvos darjumus ar nekustamo pau
mu, vrtspapriem, drgmetliem, kolekcijas precm (piemram, gleznm, markm,
dzvniekiem, automanm).
Kpc FM izvljs 20% likmi, bet Saeima atbalstja 9% likmi?
2009.gada septembr izstrdt koncepcija tika balstta uz VID 2008.gada
datiem. Saska ar VID sniegto informciju par 2008.gadu uz mikrouzmuma
statusu var pretendt 32,2 tkstoi SIA (no tm 10,3 tkstoi darbojas ar zaudju
miem un 9,9 tkstoi vispr neveic saimniecisko darbbu) un 83 223 saimniecisks
darbbas veicji [3].
Dai komentri par FM analiztajiem datiem. Pirmkrt, t k 9937 uzmumu
apgrozjums ir viends ar nulli, ms varam pieemt, ka nodokus ie uzmumi
nemaks vispr, jo tie vienkri nestrd. aj gadjum btu bijis korektk
izdart secinjumus, izmantojot tikai reli strdjou uzmumu datus. Otrkrt,
FM likumprojekta Likums Par mikrouzmuma nodokli skotnjs ietekmes
novrtjuma ziojum ir da informcija:
Mikrouzmuma nodoka likmes aprins un secinjumi:
Lai izvrttu piemrojams mikrouzmuma nodoka likmes apmru, tika
izvrttas 10 sabiedrbas ar ierobeotu atbildbu un 12 fizisks personas saim
niecisks darbbas veicjas. Mintajm personm tika veikta valsts socils apdro
inanas iemaksu, iedzvotju ienkuma nodoka un uzmumu ienkuma nodoka
sloga aprinana attiecb pret apgrozjumu.
emot vr, ka fizisks personas saimniecisks darbbas veicji prsvar
nodarbina maksimli 2 cilvkus, to nodoka slogs vidji sasniedza 10 procentus
(3 nodoka makstjiem tas bija 18, 24 un 25 procenti, jo tika nodarbinti 3 dar
binieki). Savukrt sabiedrbas ar ierobeotu atbildbu (turpmk SIA) nodarbinto
skaits bija lielks, tomr to darba alga prsvar neprsniedza 200 latus mnes, ldz
ar to o personu vidjais nodoka slogs bija 15 procenti (32 procentu nodoku slogs
bija vienam nodoka makstjam ar 11 000 latu apgrozjumu un 2 darbiniekiem,
kuru darba alga bija virs 200 latiem).
Izvrtjot datus par kopjo gada apkopoto SIA rdtju, secinjm, ka nodoku
makstji ar lielku apgrozjumu apjomu ir novirzjui ldzekus darba samaksai
ievrojami mazk k nodoku makstji ar zemku apgrozjumu.
Ttad Finanu ministrijai ir enerlkopa 32 223 SIA plus 83223 saimniecisks
darbbas veicji, kop 115 446 uzmumi. FM izveido izlasi ar 22 vienbm
(10 SIA + 12 fizisks personas saimniecisks darbbas veicjas) (0,019% no
enerlkopas), apseko ts un iegst secinjumus. Vai izlase ir reprezentatva un
vai tas atbilst labas prakses principiem, izstrdjot nodoku politiku maz un
vidj biznesa stimulanai? Protams, nav un neatbilst.
Neapaubmi, ka FM un VID rcb ir nepiecieam informcija, kas
gta no uzmumu gada prskatiem, lai veiktu detaliztku analzi. Pirmajam
nepiecieamajam noteikumam, lai to veiktu, jbt skotnjai uzmumu grupanai
atbilstoi Saimniecisko darbbu statistiskas klasifikcijai NACE. informcija k
obligts parametrs tiek iekauta katra uzmuma gada prskat.
334
Nodoku atvieglojumu piemroana bez ierobeojuma pa darbbas jomm dod

pilngi nepamatoti saemtas nodoku priekrocbas labi samakstu pakalpojumu
sektoriem (nodoku un finanu konsultcijas,2 zvrinto advoktu, tiesu izpildtju,
mkleru u. c. pakalpojumi).
To apstiprina ptjuma autores veikts ekspertu aptaujas dati. Autore ir ap
taujjusi ekspertus, lai noskaidrotu viu viedokli par Latvij realizto nodoku
politiku un valdbas veiktajiem konkurtspjas paaugstinanas paskumiem. Par
ekspertiem tika izvlti ikgadjs starptautisks konferences Revzija, nodoki un
grmatvedbas apmekltji lielu privtu un valsts kompniju finanu direktori,
galvenie grmatvei, auditori un iekjie auditori (da konference Latvij tika rkota
jau 14. reizi). Aptauja tika veikta 2010.gada decembr, taj piedaljs 23 eksperti.
94% privtuzmumu specilistu atbildja, ka mikronodoklis nav izdevgs
raojoam uzmumam, bet 81% o specilistu teica, ka tas nav izdevgs tirdz
niecbas uzmumam. Pc s ekspertu grupas domm, mikronodokli ir izdevgk
makst uzmumam, kas sniedz pakalpojumus (87%). Paralli eksperti anket
atzmja, kd uzmum vii strd valsts vai privt. o ekspertu grupu domas
btiski atrs. Lielk daa valsts uzmumu specilistu ir prliecinti par to, ka
makst mikronodokli ir izdevgi gan tirdzniecbas un raojoam uzmumam, gan
pakalpojumus sniedzoam uzmumam.
1 Tirdzniecbas
uzmumam
Trading company
100
90
80
2 Raojoam
uzmumam
Producon company
70
60
3 Pakalpojumu
sniedzoam
uzmumam
Services company
50
40
30
80
2 Raojoam
uzmumam
Producon company
70
60
50
3 Pakalpojumu
sniedzoam
uzmumam
Services company
40
30
20
20
10
10
1 Tirdzniecbas
uzmumam
Trading company
90
Nepiekrtu /
Drzk nepiekrtu
Not agree
Piekrtu /
Drzk piekrtu
Agree
Gr pateikt / Nav
atbildes
No answer
Nepiekrtu /
Drzk nepiekrtu
Not agree
Piekrtu /
Gr pateikt / Nav
Drzk piekrtu
atbildes
Agree
No answer
Attls. Ekspertu atbildes Mikrouzmuma nodokli ir izdevgi makst.. (pa kresi

privtos uzmumos, pa labi valsts uzmumos strdjoie eksperti)
Answers of experts Microtax is favourable to pay.. (at the left answers of the experts
working at private enterprises, on the right - on the state enterprises)
Aprinsim nodoku izdevumus individulajam komersantam (IK), kura ien

kums ir 1000 latu mnes, izdevumi 200 lati (izdevumi persongajam automobilim,
nelielas darbvietas nomai, mobilo sakaru pakalpojumiem utt.). IK, iedzvotju
ienkuma nodoka makstjam, 2011.gad samaksto nodoku summa bs ap
Ls 2622 (valsts socils apdroinanas obligts iemaksas no minimls summas
200 latu 756, ienkuma nodoklis Ls 1866 ar noteikumu, ka strdjoajam ir
Pc Centrls statistikas prvaldes datiem, finanu un apdroinanas jom strdjoo darba alga
Latvij ir vislabk samakst 2010.gada 3. ceturksn par 1 stundu tie sama 7,91 latu.
335
1 apgdjamais). IK, mikronodoka makstjam, samakst mikronodoka summa

bs ap 1500 latu (neto apgrozjums 12000 ar 9% likmi plus 20% persong ienkuma
summm, kas prsniedz 500 latu mnes). Nodoku atvieglojums IK, mikronodoka
makstjam, bs ap 1100 latu (turklt tas ir saemts, ekonomjot uz iedzvotju
ienkuma nodoka rina). Faktiski valsts aj gadjum pieir mikrouzmumiem
nodoka atvieglojumus uz pavaldbu ienkumu rina to pienkums ir sniegt so
cilo paldzbu maznodrointm un trcgm personm, t. i., bagtie ks bagtki,
bet nabadzgie vl nabadzgki.
Taj pa laik valdba pazio, ka, skot ar 2011.gadu, Latvijas nodoku sistm
tiek ieviesti progresvs nodoku sistmas elementi:
iedzvotju ienkuma nodoka likme tiek samazinta par vienu procent
punktu ldz 25%;
socilo iemaksu likme pieaug par diviem procentpunktiem;
neapliekamais minimums tiek palielints no 35 ldz 45 latiem;
miniml alga tiek paaugstinta no 180 ldz 200 latiem;
atvieglojums par apgdb esoajiem tiek palielints no 63 ldz 70 latiem;
transportldzeku nodoklis ar progresivitti [11].
Ekspertu vrtjums par iem paskumiem k progresvs nodoku sistmas
elementiem ir ds. Lielk daa (80%) abu grupu ekspertu gan valsts sektor, gan
ar privtos uzmumos strdjoie atbildja, ka progresivitti nodoku sistm
rada neapliekam minimuma un atvieglojuma par apgdb esoiem palielinana,
bet nekd gadjum socilo iemaksu likmes pieaugums par diviem procentpunk
tiem un iedzvotju ienkuma nodoka likmes samazinjums.
Ir skaidrs, ka iepriek mintais komersants saska ar mikronodoka likumu
2012.gad zauds mikrouzmuma statusu, bet neviens nevar viam aizliegt o
uzmumu gada beigs slgt un atvrt jaunu, ar ar ldzgu statusu. Turklt IK, IIN
makstjs, maks socilos maksjumus vismaz no minimls darba algas 200
latiem (turpmk, pamatojoties uz iem 200 latiem, tiek aprintas visas socils
garantijas) un nav apdroints bezdarba gadjum. IK, mikronodoka makstjs,
ir apdroints bezdarba gadjum. ai gadjum socilo maksjumu bze, kas ir
atkarga no samakst mikronodoka, ir apmram Ls 233, t. i., komersants samakss
nodokus par 1100 latiem mazk, bet socils garantijas saems lielkas (lielka
socilo maksjumu bze un tiesbas saemt pabalstu bezdarba gadjum). Viam
bs izdevgk gada beigs slgt veco uzmumu, daus mneus padzvot ar
bezdarbnieka pabalstu un tikai pc tam dibint jaunu uzmumu. Tdi grozjumi
nodoku sistm pc savas btbas ir ekonomiski absurdi.
Novrtjot mikronodoka ievieanas ietekmi uz nodoku iekasanu valsts
budet, privtos uzmumos strdjoo ekspertu viedoki daljs. Puse apgalvo, ka
nodoku iemumi budet samazinsies, otra puse ir prliecinta, ka ne.
Likumdevji piema mikronodoka likumu, cerot, ka ar t paldzbu palieli
ns ekonomiski aktvo iedzvotju aktivitti vii uzsks uzmjdarbbu, kas
savukrt stimuls personu nodarbintbu un darbaspka piesaisti, t. i., atrisins
nodarbintbas problmu un mazins socil budeta slodzi. stermia perspektv
s cerbas attaisnojs. K liecina VID dati, prn gada laik Uzmumu reistr
336
mikrouzmumu nodoklim pieteikus 2128 jaundibintas firmas. 5548 jau eksistjoi

uzmumi un saimniecisks darbbas veicji nolmui makst mikronodokli [12].
Pamatojoties uz ilgtermia attstbas kritrijiem, likums neiztur nekdu kritiku. Taj
nav noteikti ierobeojumi noteiktiem darbbas veidiem. Tas pieauj situciju, ka ar
mazku samaksto nodoku summu ir tiesbas saemt lielkas socils garantijas,
tas auj darba algas veid izemt uzmuma peu bez dividendes aplikanas ar
IIN.3 Likums dod iespju lieliem uzmumiem optimizt nodokus (piemram,
darbinieku prcelana uz mikrouzmumiem [13]), un pareizj veid tas ir sava
veida vietj oforzona.
Mikrouzmuma statuss nav izdevgs tiem, kas strd, raugoties uz nkotni,
jo ikviens ilgtermia uzmums skas ar ieguldjumiem raoanas iekrts, ar
skotnjm investcijm. Ja uzmums ir mikronodoka makstjs, tad izdevumi
netiek emti vr, nodoklis tiek maksts no apgrozjuma, turklt nav tiesbu prnest
zaudjumus uz nkamajiem gadiem, pat ja nkotn uzmums ks par uzmumu
ienkuma nodoka makstju.
Ievieot nodoku atvieglojumus un apliekot uzmumus ar nodokiem, mrim
ir jbt ilgtermia attstbai, jveicina uzmumu ieguldjumi ptjumos, izstrds,
inovatvos produktos, jaunu tirgu apgan utt. Mikrouzmumu likumam Latvij
nav tdas jdzienisks slodzes.
ES politika MVU jom

MVU vajadzbas ir ES politikas priekpln jau kop 2000.gada, kad Eiropadome
sanksm Feir apstiprinja Eiropas Mazo uzmumu hartu. Eiropadome 2008.gada
mart izteica spcgu atbalstu iniciatvai turpmk stiprint MVU ilgspjgu izaugsmi
un konkurtspju un nosauca to par Eiropas Mazs uzmjdarbbas aktu [6], un
pieprasja to nekavjoties pieemt. Eiropas Mazs uzmjdarbbas akts satur
daudzas rekomendcijas, kuru pamat ir desmit principi.
I. Radt vidi, kur uzmji un imenes uzmumi var attstties un
uzmjdarbba tiek atalgota.
II. Nodroint, lai godgi uzmji, kas ir bankrotjui, tri vartu izmantot
otro iespju.
III. Noteikumus izstrdt saska ar principu Vispirms domt par maz
kajiem.
IV. Valsts iestdes padart atsaucgas MVU vajadzbm.
V. Valsts politikas instrumentus pielgot MVU vajadzbm: atvieglot MVU
dalbu valsts iepirkuma procedr un labk izmantot valsts atbalsta MVU
iespjas.
VI. Atvieglot MVU pieeju finansjumam un attstt tiesisko un uzmjdarbbas
vidi, kas atbalsta laikus veiktus maksjumus komercilos darjumos.
VII. Paldzt MVU izmantot iespjas, ko dod vienotais tirgus.
To atzm ar FM sav anotcij [2].
337
III. Veicint MVU prasmju uzlaboanu un dada veida inovcijas.

V
IX. aut MVU vides problmas prvrst par iespjm.
X. Rosint un atbalstt MVU, lai tie izmantotu tirgus izaugsmes priekro
cbas.
Katrs no iem principiem ir orientts uz ilgtermia un stabilu attstbu, un
nekur Eiropas Mazs uzmjdarbbas akt nekas nav teikts par to, ka MVU
vajadzbm jizveido nodoku oforremi, prliekot nodoku slogu uz citm
iedzvotju kategorijm. Nodokiem Eiropas Mazs uzmjdarbbas akt ir veltta
viena rindia nodroint, lai uzmumu ienkumu aplikana ar nodokli rosintu
investcijas.
Starptautisk zintnisk sabiedrba nevienprtgi izturas gan pret paa nodoku
rema ievieanu MVU, gan ar pret iemesliem, kuru d MVU ir pelnjui nodoku
atvieglojumus. Piemram, S. Deiviss (S. Davis), D. Hltvangers (J. Haltiwanger)
un S. (S. Schuh) apauba tzi par to, ka MVU rada vairk darbvietu nek lielie
uzmumi [8, 1320].
P. Pagno (P. Pagano) un F. ivardi (F. Schivardi) pierda, ka ar inovcijm
daudz vairk ir saistti lielie uzmumi, jo tie labk izmanto s inovcijas, t i., gst
no inovcijm lielus komercienkumus [10, 255274]. Lai gan ir atzta pozitva
korelcija starp ekonomikas izaugsmi un MVU izaugsmi, T. Beks (D. Beck),
A. Demirgaks-Kants (A. Demirguc-Kunt) un R. Levins (R. Levine) run par to,
ka pierdt MVU izaugsmes closakarbas ietekmi uz ekonomikas izaugsmi nav
iespjams [7, 199229]. A. Doustens (A. Jousten) nonk pie galg secinjuma, ka
valstm ir jvienkro sava nodoku likumdoana visiem biznesa veidiem, nevis tikai
atsevim nodoku makstju kategorijm [9, 1420].
Tiei nodoku likumdoanas vienkroana, labvlgas biznesa vides radana ir
galven Eiropas Mazs uzmjdarbbas akta ideja. Vissmagkais slogs, par ko zio
MVU, ir administratvo noteikumu ievroana. Tiem, MVU uzlikts nesamrgs
tiesiskais un administratvais slogs saldzinjum ar lielajiem uzmumiem. L, ka
lielais uzmums, izpildot normatvo pienkumu, iztr vienu eiro uz darbinieku,
bet mazajam uzmumam jiztr vidji ldz 10 eiro. ES 36% MVU zio, ka pdjo
divu gadu laik birokrtija ir traucjusi to uzmjdarbbu [6].
Eiropas Mazs uzmjdarbbas akts ES dalbvalstu valdbm izvirza grandio
zu uzdevumu modernizt un vienkrot ES tiesbu aktus un izstrdt tlejou
programmu, k ldz 2012.gadam par 25% samazint ES tiesbu aktu radto
administratvo slogu. Tiei aj virzien ir jstrd Latvijas valdbai, lai paaugstintu
nacionls ekonomikas konkurtspju.
Secinjumi
1. Latvijas Republikas Finanu ministrijai, izstrdjot nodoku atvieglojumu
koncepciju un izmantojot sistmisku pieeju, daudz rpgk ir jveic ptjumi,
jveido daudz preczki modei un skrupulozi jnovrt potencilo nodoku
izmaias.
338
2. MVU nodoku atvieglojumu sistmas pamat ir jbt orientieriem uz ilgtermia

attstbu, inovciju un kapitla investciju atbalstu.
3. Latvijai jturpina samazint administratvo slodzi un veidot maksimli labvlgu
biznesa vidi vism nodoku makstju kategorijm.
LITERATRA
1. LR likums Par iedzvotju ienkuma nodokli. Pieejams: http://www.likumi.lv/ (sk.
07.04.2011.)
2. LR Mikrouzmuma nodoka likums. Pieejams: http://www.likumi.lv/ (sk. 07.04.2011.)
3. LR MK Koncepcija par mikrouzmumu atbalsta paskumiem. Pieejams: http://www.
mk.gov.lv (sk. 07.04.2011.)
4. LR Centrl statistikas prvalde. Darba samaksa. Galvenie rdtji. Pieejams: http://
www.csb.gov.lv/ (sk. 07.04.2011.)
5. Lursoft statistika. Reistrto un likvidto Uzmumu reistra un Komercreistra subjektu
sadaljums pc to uzmjdarbbas formas. Pieejams: http://www.lursoft.lv/lursoftstatistika (sk. 07.04.2011.)
6. Komisijas paziojums Padomei, Eiropas Parlamentam, Eiropas ekonomikas un socilo
lietu komitejai un reionu komitejai Vispirms domt par mazkajiem. Eiropas Mazs
uzmjdarbbas akts Small Business Act. Brisel, 25.06.2008. COM(2008) 394 galg
redakcija. Pieejams: http:// www.eur-lex.europa.eu (sk. 07.04.2011.)
7. Beck, T., Demirguc-Kunt, A. and Levine, R. (2005) SMEs, Growth, and Poverty: CrossCountry Evidence. Journal of Economic Growth 10, p. 199229.
8. Davis, S., Haltiwanger, J., Schuh, S. Small Business and Job Creation: Dissecting the
Myth and Reassessing the Facts. Business Economics 19, 1994, p. 1320.
9. Jousten, A. SMEs and the tax system: what is so diffetent about them? CESifo Forum,
2007, Vol. 8, Issue 2, p. 1420.
10. Pagano, P., Schivardi, F. (2003) Firm Size Distribution and Growth. Scandinavian Journal
of Economics 105, p. 255274.
11. Ministru prezidenta Valda Dombrovska runa Saeimas plenrsd, izskatot 2011.gada
valsts budeta projektu 1. lasjum. Pieejams: http://www.mk.gov.lv (sk. 07.04.2011.)
12. Mikrouzmumu nodoka makstju skaits prsniedz prognozes. Pieejams: http://
www.db.lv/likumi-nodokli/mikrouznemumu-nodokla-maksataju-skaits-parsniedzprognozes-233625 (sk. 07.04.2011.)
13. VID informcija. Valsts iemumu dienests pastiprinti vrt uzmumu un mikrouz
muma nodoka makstju bijuo uzmuma darbinieku noslgtos uzmumu lgumus.
Pieejams: www.vid.gov.lv (sk. 07.04.2011.)
Summary
Development of ways of an overcoming the crisis, the special urgency is acquired
by questions of optimization of the state influence on small business sector, development
of complete system of SME stimulation, provision of favorable business environment,
application of the thought over tax policy, focused on long-term development.
339
In Latvia many problems of determination and forming of SME competitiveness

and governments roles in maintenance of SME competitiveness remain unresolved, state
regulation problems in sphere of small business are researched insufficiently.
Object of research in the work is SME sector and problems of system of SME
taxation in Latvia. At development of concepts of the preferential taxation it is necessary
to conduct more carefully researches, to build more exact models, to conduct a
scrupulous estimation of potential tax changes, using thus the system approach. At the
heart of preferential SME taxation reference points of long-term development, support of
innovations, capital investments should lie. It is necessary for Latvia to continue work
on reduction of administrative loading, and creation of as much as possible favorable
business environment for all categories of taxpayers.
Keywords: SME competitiveness, SME tax, long-term development, favorable
business environment, governments roles.

340.352. lpp.
Uzmju izvles iesaistties nu ekonomik analze

Analysis of Entrepreneur Choice to Engage in the Illegal
Economy
Baiba Zvirbule
SIA BM Sistma
Jaungou iela 9, dau novads, LV- 2137
E-pasts: baiba.bmsistema@gmail.com
Globl ekonomikas recesija palielinja to uzmumu skaitu, kuri ir daji vai pilnb
iesaistjuies nu ekonomik. Situcij, kad nu ekonomika palielins, iespjas izdzvot
leglajam biznesam samazins un godgie uzmji konkurences c var zaudt savu tirgus
dau. Pastv augsts risks, ka legl izdevumu optimizana pries neleglaj ekonomik.
Darb autore apskata nu ekonomikas ietekmi uz Latvijas uzmjdarbbas vidi un par
informcijas avotiem izmanto LR Finanu ministrijas un Valsts iemumu dienesta publiski
sniegto informciju. Autore analiz uzmju izvli iesaistties nu ekonomik. Par analzes
teortisko modeli autore ir izvljusies mikroekonomisko modeli Izvle nenoteiktbas
apstkos. Darb autore model uzmja iespjamos rcbas plnus iesaistties nu eko
nomik noteiktos ekonomiskos un laika ierobeojuma apstkos. Pamatojoties uz teortisk
modea analzi, autore secina, ka, pastvot nelielai soda varbtbai, uzmjs vartu optimizt
patrto laiku un iesaistties nu ekonomik, tau, palielinoties soda varbtbai, laika patri
neleglm aktivittm samazins, ttad btiskkais faktors, kas nosaka uzmja izvli, ir
risks jeb varbtba tikt pieertam un sodtam.
Atslgvrdi: nu ekonomika, uzmjs, risks, soda varbtba.
Ievads
Valsts politikai btu jbt oti piesardzgai un prdomtai, lai saglabtu leglo
tirgus dau kaut vai nemaing apjom, jo, veicot paskumus budeta iemumu
palielinanai, pieaug risks palielint neleglo ekonomiku, t. i., palielinot nodoku
slogu, rodas risks, ka samazinsies valsts iekasto nodoku apjoms.
nu ekonomikas ietekme uz leglo biznesu ir diezgan recesva, proti, tai ir ten
dence samazint legli darbojoos uzmumu apgrozjumu un ldz ar to ar peu,
konkurjot ar pazeminto produktu cenu uz nesamaksto nodoku rina, tdjdi
nuekonomika piespie optimizt izdevumus un rada apstkus legls uzmjdarb
bas prtraukanai, fiktvu uzmumu veidoanai vai nereistrtai uzmjdarbbai.
Darba mris ir ar teortiska modea Izvle nenoteiktbas apstkos paldzbu
analizt uzmja iespjamos rcbas modeus k vii laika ierobeojuma apstkos
izvlas, vai ir vrts iesaistties nu ekonomik, un izdart secinjumus par sodmbas
riska ietekmi uz uzmja lmumu pieemanu.
B. Zvirbule. Uzmju izvles iesaistties nu ekonomik analze
341
Darba uzdevumi ir di:

1) izptt LR izpildvaras viedokli par nu ekonomiku Latvij;
2) ar teortisk modea Izvle nenoteiktbas apstkos paldzbu analizt
uzmja izvli iesaistties nu ekonomik un s izvles iespjamos
scenrijus;
3) noteikt, kds risks jeb varbtba tikt pieertam un sodtam ierobeo uz
mja izvli iesaistties nu ekonomik.
Ptjuma teortiskais pamats ir modea Izvle nenoteiktbas apstkos iz
mantoana noziedzbas ekonomikas jautjumu ptan. Ptjuma metodoloiskais
pamats ir statistikas datu analze, problmu analze un teortisk modelana.
nu ekonomikas ietekmes uz uzmjdarbbas vidi Latvij

apskats
nu ekonomika veicina nevienldzgu konkurenci, izkropo tirgu un negatvi
ietekm nodoku iekasanu. Pieejamie statistikas dati par nu ekonomiku var
sniegt politikas veidotjiem maldgu priekstatu par norism tautsaimniecb. Td
nu ekonomikas apjoma samazinanu finanu ministrs bija noteicis par vienu no
2010. gada priorittm. Pareizjos valsts budeta deficta apstkos nu ekonomikas
apjoma samazinana var bt rela alternatva citiem budeta konsolidcijas
paskumiem [2].
Pardba tiek apzmta ar dadiem nosaukumiem pelk ekonomika,
prskatos neuztvert ekonomikas daa, neforml ekonomika, nu ekonomika.
ie nosaukumi var tikt dadi interpretti. Zintniskaj literatr ir sastopamas
dadas nu ekonomikas defincijas, izplattks no tm ir nu ekonomika ir
iekzemes kopprodukts, kas nedeklaranas un (vai) nepilngas deklaranas rezultt
nav uzskaitts oficilaj statistik vai leglu vai neleglu preu un pakalpojumu
raoana, kas netiek ietverta oficilaj IKP novrtjum [2].
Nereistrts ekonomikas aktivittes var iedalt ar ds grups:
1) raoana un pakalpojumi, kas nav uzskaitti;
2) pretlikumgs, neoficils aktivittes.
nu ekonomika ir gan aploku algas, gan dubult grmatvedba un izvairans
no nodoku maksas, gan kontrabanda un nelegla preu tirdzniecba utt., gan ar
pavisam ikdienia neliela msu katra acu pievrana dzvoka izrana bez
lguma un ienkuma uzrdanas, samaksa aukltei un frizierei skaidr naud, kases
eka neizsniegana veikal vai tirg, samaksa skaidr naud meistaram, kas atncis
salabot dens krnu vai izlmt jaunas tapetes. Tas viss kopum ir neuzskaitt
ekonomikas daa [2].
Tpat k pastv dadas nu ekonomikas defincijas, ir ar dadas ts apr
inanas metodes un rezultti. Metodes, kuras tiek izmantotas nu ekonomikas
ptjumos, var iedalt tieajs un netieajs metods. Ties ir mikrometodes jeb datu
metodes, un neties ir makrometodes jeb indikatoru metodes.
Tieajs metods tiek lietotas aptaujas un (vai) anketas ar brvas izvles
atbildm vai nodoku audits. Neties metodes, sauktas ar par indikatoru metodm,
342
legls ekonomikas apjoms
galvenokrt ir makroekonomiskas, un tajs izmantoti dadi ekonomikas un citi

indikatori, kas satur informciju par nu ekonomikas dinamiku [2].
Pamatojoties uz Latvijas Bankas veikto aprinu analzi, k ar Latvijas un
rvalstu ekspertu atzim, secinms, ka nu ekonomikas apjoma aprinu metodes
nevar vienprtgi uzskatt par preczm un savstarpji saldzinmm. Lielk daa o
metou dod iespju novrtt tikai nu ekonomikas prmaiu virzienu un pieauguma
vai samazinjuma aptuvenu mrogu, proti, tendences, nevis konkrtu ts lielumu.
Turklt, novrtjot nu ekonomikas lielumu konkrtai valstij, dadu metou
izmantoana biei uzrda krasi atirgus rezulttus vai pat pretjas tendences
dinamik. Preczk nu ekonomikas apjomu var novrtt, kvalitatvi apkopojot un
analizjot individulu uzmumu datus, tomr du datu iegana ir sarets un
drgs process. Metodes, kurs izmanto makrordtjus, jvrt oti piesardzgi, rpgi
analizjot iegtos rezulttus. Jem vr ar tas, ka preczkus datus var iegt tikai
ar zinmu laika nobdi [2].
Jau divus gadus pc krtas LR Finanu ministrija rko konferenci, kur tiek
apskatti jautjumi, kas saistti ar nu ekonomiku. Tostarp tiek prezentti ptjumi
par nu ekonomikas apjomu, aprinanas metodm, par faktoriem, kas ietekm
nu ekonomiku, tiek diskutts par metodm, kuras btu vrtgi lietot nu ekonomikas
apkaroanai. Ptjumi tiek veikti ar dadm metodm.
Centrl statistikas prvalde nu ekonomikas patsvara noteikanai izmanto
emprisko datu apstrdi pc noteikta matemtiska algoritma. Pc autores domm,
daaprina metode nav reprezentatva, jo statistikas dati apkopo informciju par
plau sabiedrbas dau, ts patriu un ienkumiem, nevis par konkrtiem indiv
diem, kas vartu bt iesaistti nu ekonomik. Iegtais rezultts par nu ekonomikas
patsvaru Latvij 2009. gad bija 17% no IKP [5].
100%
Korupcija
7699%
Aploku algas
5175%
Darbinieku skaita
neuzrdana
31-50%
Ienkumu jeb peas

neuzrdana
1030%
< 10%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Respondentu patsvars
1. attls. nu ekonomiku veidojos sastvdaas

Components of illegal economics [1]
Autore, izptot konferencs sniegto informciju par lietotajm nu ekonomikas

apjoma noteikanas metodm, par reprezentatvu atzst aptaujas veikanu ar
343
anketanu, kur tiek aptaujti konkrti indivdi. du metodi savam ptjumam

bija izvljuies ptnieki A. Sauka un T. Putni. Ptjums tika veikts dadu
jautjumu kontekst, respondentiem tika uzdoti vairki jautjumi par aktivittm,
kas saisttas ar indivdu iesaistanos nu ekonomik. Autore par reprezentatviem
un analizjamiem uzskata dus elementus, kas veido nu ekonomiku: korupcija,
aploku algas, darbinieku skaita neuzrdana un ienkumu jeb peas slpana.
Izlases veid autore apkopojusi, autoresprt, reprezentatvkos rezulttus, kas
iegti A. Saukas un T. Putnia veiktaj ptjum.
Izvrtjot iegtos aptaujas rezulttus par nu ekonomikas pamatproblmm,
autore nosaka divas plak atbalsttks nu ekonomikas aktivittes darbaspka
nodoku apieana un peas neuzrdana.
A. Sauka un T. Putni, turpinot savu ptjumu, bija saldzinjui Latvijas nu
ekonomiku ar prjo divu Baltijas valstu ekonomiku. Peas slpan vislielkais
nu ekonomikas patsvars ir Latvijas aptauj, t. i., 2010. gad 34% no gts peas
netiek uzrdti, Lietuv tie ir attiecgi 16,6% un Igaunij 11,4% [1].
nu ekonomiku ietekm di faktori:
1) nozare un reions;
2) uzmju apmierintba ar Latvijas nodoku sistmu;
3) uzmju apmierintba ar VID darbu;
4) uzmju apmierintba ar valdbas atbalstu;
5) tolerance pret nodoku nemaksanu;
6) tolerance pret korupciju;
7) uzmuma lielums, k ar vadtja un panieka pieredze;
8) orientcija uz inovitti, riska uzemans un proaktivitte biznes;
9) uzmumu darbbas rdtji apgrozjums, pea, darbinieku skaits [1].
Lai vartu samazint nu ekonomiku, ir btiski noskaidrot to veicinoos faktorus.
Pamat tie ir dalmi divs grups: ekonomiski pamatotie faktori un izpratnes un
zinanu faktori.
Ekonomiski pamatotie faktori ir
1) ietaupjumi. Darbojoties rpus oficils ekonomikas, var ietaupt uz nodoku
un valsts socils apdroinanas obligto iemaksu rina. Tpat var
izvairties no nodoku un nodarbintbas normatvo aktu prasbu ievroanas
(uzskaites, deklaranas, darba laika, drobas, sanitrs u. c. prasbas);
2) viegla iespja iesaistties. Piemram, viens no svargiem nu ekonomikas
funkcionanas nosacjumiem ir neierobeoti norini ar skaidru naudu, jo
tiem ir oti grti izsekot;
3) zems atklanas risks. Nelielas iespjas tikt pieertam un mazi sodi veicina
iesaistanos nu ekonomik [2].
Izpratnes un zinanu faktori ir
1) vainas apzias trkums. nu ekonomika sabiedrb tiek uztverta k normla
pardba. Tas pai izteikti ir valsts, kurs valsts institciju un to sniegto
344
pakalpojumu kvalitte ir zema un ldz ar to ir ar zems uzticbas lmenis

valsts varai. Turklt gtais labums no nu ekonomikas ir tltjs, turpret
saemtais labums no valsts ir neties, kolektvs un parasti nobdts laik;
2) nezinana par samaksto nodoku izlietojumu. Sabiedrba uztver nodokus
k abstraktu naudu, kas tiek trta abstraktiem mriem un valsts prvaldes
algoanai, nevis k nosactu maksjumu par valsts sniegto pakalpojumu
par salabotu ceu, par izremonttu skolu, par skolotjam samakstu
algu, par zlm un aparatru slimnc, par policistu, kas atrod mana
dzvoka apzadzjus, par subsdijm zemniekam, par inspektora noertu
maluzvejnieku, par pabalstu veckiem, par pabalstu invaldiem, par pabalstu
bezdarbniekam un, protams, par pensijm, k ar par daudziem citiem valsts
pakalpojumiem, kas tiek nodrointi par nodoku makstju naudu. Valsts
prvaldes izdevumi un atalgojumi no kopjiem valsts triiem veido tikai
nelielu dau;
3) zema uzticans valstij un oficilm struktrm, attiecgi ar valsts prvaldes
spjai efektvi un godgi izlietot nodokos samaksto naudu [2].
Pc autores domm, nu ekonomikas samazinanai nepiecieami ne tikai
sodmbas, agresvi, apkarojoi un kontroli pastiprinoi paskumi, bet ar kompleksi
paskumi, kas balstti uz sabiedrbas informanu par iekasto nodoku naudas
izlietojumu, k ar legliem risinjumiem nodoku optimizanas jom, lai radtu
valsts iedzvotjos motivciju darboties legli.
Latvij obrd krzes d ir jkonsolid budets, kas nozm vai nu iemumu
palielinanu, vai izdevumu samazinanu. Ne viens vien analtiis ir nordjis,
ka nu ekonomikas samazinana btu rela alternatva izdevumu grieanai. Ja
palielintos nodoku nomaksa par nelegli veikto uzmjdarbbu, valsts rcb btu
pietiekami daudz ldzeku un nebtu japsver drastiski izdevumu samazinanas
paskumi, kas skar iedzvotju ienkumus un saemtos pakalpojumus. Tau nu
ekonomika skar ne tikai valstisko lmeni. Katram aploku algas samjam btu
japzins, ka ldz ar algas saemanu aploksn vi ir labprtgi atteicies no sava
bezdarbnieka pabalsta, no slimbas pabalsta, galu gal no savas pensijas nkotn
un ka tiek apdraudta ar via vecku un vecvecku pensija palaik. Nenomaksjot
socilo nodokli, darba mjs zaud valsts piedvts socils garantijas, jo Latvij
darbojas socils apdroinanas sistma pabalstu un pensiju apmrs ir tiei saistts
ar nomaksto nodoku apjomu [2].
Valsts iemumu dienests ik gadu sabiedrbai dara zinmu veikto nodoku auditu
skaitu un to rezulttus. 2009. gad VID veica 1379 nodoku auditus (807juridisko
personu nodoku auditus un 572 fizisko personu nodoku auditus), no tiem rezultatvi
bija 1297 nodoku auditi. Rezultativitte ir 94%. VID nodoku auditos 2009. gad
ir aprinjis Ls 138,1 milj., taj skait Ls 91,5 milj. aprinti juridisko personu
nodoku auditos (jeb 66% no kopjs nodoku auditos aprints summas) un
Ls 46,6 milj. fizisko personu nodoku auditos (34%). Nodoku makstjiem,
apstrdot VID amatpersonu pieemto lmumu, papildus aprint summa samazinta
par Ls 6,1 milj., tdjdi papildus aprintie maksjumi budet ir Ls 132,0 milj.
No visiem nodokiem, kam 2009. gad veikti papildus aprini, vislielkais patsvars
ir pievienots vrtbas nodoklim Ls 44,0 milj. (32% no kopjs nodoku auditos
345
aprints summas). Nodoku auditos papildus aprints iedzvotju ienkuma

nodoklis Ls 23,1 milj. apmr, kas ir 17% no kopjs nodoku auditos aprints
summas, uzmumu ienkuma nodoklis Ls 7,3 milj. (5%) [4].
Autore, aptaujjot auditos iesaistts personas, secina, ka Valsts iemumu
dienesta rezultativitti 94% veido gan tdi audita gadjumi, kad sods tiek aprints
un iekasts, gan tdi, kuros konstattie prkpumi ir apstrdti un sods tiek atcelts
ie auditi nebija rezultatvi pc to galgs pabeiganas.
Izanalizjot statistiku par nu ekonomiku, autore secina, ka Latvijas uzm
ji saska ar model paredztajiem indivda uzvedbas modeiem ml risku, tpc
tlk modea analz autore neapskata tda uzmja iespjamos rcbas scenrijus,
kuram risks ir neitrls un kur neml riskt.
Uzmju izdarts izvles iesaistties nu ekonomik analze

Piemumi un apzmjumi
Uzmjdarbbas riska plnoanas period ir iespjami divi scenriji, attiecgi
ar varbtbm:
Pr(s = 1) =
(1) [3]
Pr(s = 2) = 1-,
(2) [3]
kur
s = 1 pirmais scenrijs, kur uzmjs maks visus likumdoan paredztos
nodokus;
s = 2 otrais scenrijs, kur uzmjs daji priet nu ekonomik, lai gtu
lielku peu;
Pr varbtba, ka uzmjs veiks vienu no divm iespjamm aktivittm;
uzmjdarbbas aktivittes, veicot leglu uzmjdarbbu;
1- uzmjdarbbas aktivittes, veicot neleglu uzmjdarbbu.
Uzmjs iegst dergumu no tirgus preu un pakalpojumu privt patria,
t.i., no peas izlietojuma, k ar no brv laika, t. i., no laika, ko vi velta peas
izlietojumam un brv laika aktivittm. Patria apjomu katr scenrij apzm
di:
- w1 uzmja privtais patri jeb peas lielums, veicot leglu uzmj
darbbu;
- w2 uzmja privtais patri jeb peas lielums, veicot neleglu uz
mjdarbbu.
Model autors pieem, ka brv laika apjoms ir fiksts. Ttad var pieemt, ka
dergumu nosaka tikai privt patria jeb peas apjoms. Katrs uzmjs cenas
maksimizt sagaidmo dergumu
346
E[u(w)] = u(w1) + (1-) u(w2),
(3) [3]
kur
E[u(w)] uzmja kopjais iegtais dergums jeb pea no uzmjdarbbas
veikanas;
u(w1) uzmja dergums jeb peas lielums, veicot leglu uzmjdar
bbu;
u(w2) uzmja dergums jeb peas lielums, veicot neleglu uzmj
darbbu.
Derguma no bagtbas (utility-of-wealth) funkcija u(w) ir neprtraukta visiem
w0 un augoa: u(w) > 0 visiem w > 0 [3].
Model pieem trs iespjamos uzmju uzvedbas tipus:
1) riska neitrls, kur u(w) = const;
2) risku nemlos, kur u(w) < 0 visiem w > 0, t. i., u(w) dilst;
3) risku mlos, kur u(w) > 0 visiem w > 0, t. i., u(w) aug [3].
Lai attlotu uzmja izvli starp divm aktivittm, t. i., starp leglas
uzmjdarbbas veikanu un neleglas uzmjdarbbas veikanu, izmanto
indiferences lknes. Katr punkt uz lknes uzmjs neizvirza priekrocbas
kdai no izvlm veikt leglu vai neleglu uzmjdarbbu, ttad abm uzmja
aktivittm ir vienda prioritte, lai uzmjs ts veiktu. Uzmja indiferences
lknes plakn (w1, w2) var attlot ar viendojumiem:
V(w1, w2) = const,
(4) [3]
kur
V(w1,w2) = u(w1) + (1-) u(w2),
(5) [3]
kur V punkts uz indiferences lknes, kur uzmja attieksme pret abm

aktivittm ir vienldzga.
W2
Indiferences lkne
V(w1,w2) = u(w1) + (1-) u(w2)
Dr
ne
ais
t
as
W1
2. attls. Indiferences lkne

Impassivity curve [3]
347
Indiferences lknes slpumu raksturo aizvietoanas robenorma starp uzmja

peas lielumu w1, t. i., kad uzmjs veic leglu uzmjdarbbu, un peas lielumu
w2, kad uzmjs iesaists nu ekonomik. Peas w1 vrtbu izsaka ar w2 vrtbm.
w
V/w1
u'(w1)
=
,
MRS(w1, w2) = w2 V(w , w ) = const =
V/w2
1 u'(w2)
1
kur
vrtba (delta), pa kdu izmains attiecgais peas lielums.
1
(6) [3]
Jo mazka ir iespjam vrtba un iespja, ka uzmjs veiks pilngi leglu

uzmjdarbbu, jo zemks ir peas w1 lielums, saldzinot ar iespjamo peas w2
lielumu. emot vr derguma funkciju E[u(w)] = u(w1) + (1-) u(w2), izriet, ka
aizvietoanas robenorma MRS < 0 un attiecgs indiferences lknes ir dilstoas, un,
ja w1 pieaug, tad w2 samazins [3].
Laika sadaljums starp leglm un neleglm uzmja

aktivittm
Model pieem, ka uzmja izvli starp leglm un neleglm uzmjdarbbas
aktivittm nosaka via ieguvums katr no tm, k ar soda smagums un varbtba
tikt vai netikt pieertam nelikumbs.
Plnoanas period uzmjs velta peu nesom aktivittm laiku
T = T1 + T2,
[3]
kur
T1 laiks, kas veltts leglai uzmjdarbbai;
T2 laiks, kas veltts neleglai uzmjdarbbai;
f1(T1) ienkums no legls uzmjdarbbas;
f2(T2) ienkums no nelegls uzmjdarbbas;
f1 un f2 ir raoanas funkcijas ar parastm pabm, t. i.,
f(0) = 0, f (t) > 0, f (t) < 0 (f = f1, f2)
(7) [3]
Model analiz divus iespjamos plnoanas scenrijus: s = 1 un s = 2:

s = 1: uzmjs tiks sodts par nodoku apieanas un naudas atmazganas
aktivittm (tendence ir bt godgam uzmjam un veikt leglu uz
mjdarbbu), tad varbtba ir robes 0 < < 1. Sodu F var izteikt
naudas ekvivalent: F = F(T2), kur
F(0) = 0, F (t) > 0 visiem t,
(8) [3]
kur
F (soda) naudas daudzums, kas atkargs no veltt laika daudzuma
nodoku apieanas un naudas atmazganas opercijm. Soda nauda
348
par neaprints valsts socils apdroinanas obligtajm iemaksm

ir trskr to apmr, savukrt par neaprintu iedzvotju ienkuma
nodokli nenomakst nodoka apmr;
s = 2: uzmjs netiks sodts (ttad netiks pieerts) par nodoku apieanu un
naudas atmazganu, varbtba 1 .
Model pieemot, ka uzmjs netaupa nkotnei, bet visu peu gatavojas
izlietot uzreiz pc ts ganas, viam ir pieejams konkrts peas apjoms patriam,
t. i., peas lielums ir atkargs no nodoku apieanai veltt laika:
w1 = w1(T2) = w0 + f1(T T2) + f2(T2) F(T2)
w2 = w2(T2) = w0 + f1(T T2) + f2(T2)
(0 T2 T),
(0 T2 T),
(9) [3]
(10) [3]
kur w0 ir uzmja neizlietot pea no iepriekjiem periodiem.

Saska ar modea teortiskajm nostdnm nodoku apieana un skaidrs
naudas iegana jeb nelegls aktivittes, kurs uzmjs iesaists vai kuras plno,
ir ienesgkas par leglu uzmjdarbbu, kas paredz nodoku nomaksu gan no
prdoto preu un pakalpojumu pievienots vrtbas, gan ar darba algm. Ja soda
nebtu, vienmr btu izdevgi pagarint laiku, kas tiek trts nodoku apieanas
shmu izveidei T2, uz leglaj uzmjdarbb patrt laika nodoku aprinam T1
rina, jo nodoku apieanas darbbu robeienkums ir augstks.
Ja uzmjs btu pilngi prliecints, ka viu nesods par nodoku apieanu, ir
iespjams tikai scenrijs s = 2, un vi izvltos maksimlo iespjamo T2 vrtbu
T2=T, jo
w2/T2 = (f1)(T T2)(1) + (f2)(T2) = (f2)(T2) (f1)(T1) > 0
(11) [3]
Saska ar modea teortiskajm nostdnm robesods prsniedz ienkumu

starpbu starp ieguvumu no nodoku apieanas un nodoku godgu nomaksu:
F(T2) > (f2)(T2) (f1)(T1)
(12) [3]
Ja uzmjs btu pilngi prliecints, ka viu sods un iestsies scenrijs s=1,

vi izvltos T2 = 0, jo
T2 = w2/dT2 F(T2) = (f2)(T2) (f1)(T1) F(T2) < 0
(13) [3]
Uzmja rcbas iespju robeu analze

Uzmja laika sadaljum starp leglm uzmjdarbbas aktivittm un nu
ekonomikas aktivittm katrai neleglai aktivittei T2 starp 0 un T atbilst punkts
A(T2) = (w1(T2), w2(T2)) plakn (w1, w2), kur attlo vienu no uzmjam pieejam
peas apjoma kombincijm scenrijos s = 1 un s = 2. Visi ie punkti veido iespju
robeu.
349
No modea izriet:
ja T2 = 0, iegst punktu
A(0): w1 = w0 + f1(T), w2 = w0 + f1(T) [3], kur atrodas uz drobas taisnes
w2 =w1;

ja T2 = T, iegst punktu
A(T): w1 = w0 + f2(T) F(T), w2 = w0 + f2(T) [3], kur atrodas virs drobas

taisnes, jo w2 > w1.
W2
Iespju robea
A2
A1
Dr
ne
ais
t
as
A0
W1
3. attls. Iespju robea
Opportunity limit [3]
Kad T2 pieaug no 0 ldz T, pea w1(T2) samazins un pea w2 (T2) pieaug, notiek
kustba pa kreisi un uz augu gar iespju robeu no punkta A(0) ldz punktam A(T).
Punkts A(T) atrodas pa kreisi no A(0):
w0 + f2(T) F(T) < w0 + f1(T)
(14) [3]
Savukrt, kad T2 samazins no T ldz 0, pea w1(T2) pieaug un pea w2 (T2)

samazins, kustba gar iespju robeu notiek pa labi un uz leju. Ttad iespju robea
ir dilstoa:
(w2/w1)|PPF < 0
(15) [3]
Saska ar peas w aprinanas izteiksmm (9) un (10), redzams, ka

w2(T2) > w1(T2)
(0 < T2 T)
(16) [3]
Soda nauda ir pozitvs skaitlis, ttad iespju robea (izemot galapunktu A(0))
atrodas virs drobas taisnes.
350
Uzmja optimls laika sadaljums starp leglu uzmjdarbbu

un darboanos nu ekonomik
Modelis paredz visus uzmjdarbb iesaisttos subjektus dalt 3 das, emot
vr viu attieksmi pret risku iesaistties nu ekonomik.
1. Uzmjs, kas pret risku izturas neitrli, gatavs uzemties samrgu risku
un izvlties peu w, kas atbilst nosacjumam w2 > w > w1.
2. Uzmjs, kas neml risku, gatavs samierinties ar mazku peas w dau
ar w1, tau neprkpt valst noteikto likumdoanu.
3. Uzmjs, kas ml risku, vlas saemt pc iespjas lielku peas w dau
w2, vi uzemas augstu risku un izmanto neleglas nodoku optimizcijas
metodes.
W2
Indiferences lkne
V(w1,w2) = u(w1) + (1-) u(w2)
Iespju
robea A2
s
ba
e
sn
tai
A1
Dr
A0
W1
4. attls. Risku mloa uzmja iespjamie uzvedbas scenriji

Risk loving entrepreneurs behavior scenarios [3]
Pamatojoties uz iepriek veikto analzi par nu ekonomikas apjomu valst,

autore ir secinjusi, ka Latvijas uzmji saska ar model paredztajiem indivda
uzvedbas modeiem ml risku, tpc tlk modea analz autore apskata da
uzmja iespjamos rcbas scenrijus.
Saska ar modea teortiskajm nostdnm uzmjam, kas ml risku, pastv
trs izvles veidot godgas vai mazk godgas uzmjdarbbas scenrijus atkarb
no soda varbtbas.
1. Uzmja sagaidmais dergums tiek maksimizts maxE[u(w)] punkt, kur
0 < T2 < T un indiferences lkne pieskaras iespju robeai: MRS = MRT
[3]; uzmjs kombin legls aktivittes ar neleglm peu palielinom
aktivittm. Ja soda varbtba pieaug, indiferences lkne kst stvka, ttad
pieskares punkts prvietojas gar iespju robeu pa labi un nelikumgm
aktivittm atvltais laiks T2 samazins.
2. Uzmja sagaidmais dergums tiek maksimizts maxE[u(w)] iespju
robeas kreisaj galapunkt (ar T2 = T), kur indiferences lkne ir lzenka
351
nek iespju robea: |MRS| |MRT| [3]. Tas nozm, ka uzmjs tikai
nelegli optimiz nodokus.
3. Uzmja sagaidmais dergums tiek maksimizts maxE[u(w)] iespju
robeas labaj galapunkt (ar T2 = 0, uz drobas taisnes), kur indiferences
lkne ir stvka nek iespju robea: |MRS| |MRT| [3], ttad uzmjs veic
tikai leglu uzmjdarbbu.
1. Realizjot kdu no rcbas modeiem, vienmr pastv pieeranas un sodanas
varbtba s = 0,94, par ko sabiedrbu inform Valsts iemumu dienests. Auto
rei ir prieklikums Latvijas uzmjiem, kas ml risku, nopietni izvrtt Valsts
iemuma dienesta sniegto informciju, pieemot lmumu par iesaistanos nu
ekonomikas aktivitts.
2. Uzmjam izvloties punkta A1 scenriju, kur tiek kombintas legls aktivittes
ar neleglm, lielkais patsvars saglabjas leglajm aktivittm, bet punkta
A2 scenrijs paredz oti ciei iesaistties nu ekonomik. Jem vr, ka kopjais
ieguvums absoltos skaitos lielks bs scenrijam punkt A2, tau risks jeb
varbtba tikt pieertam paliek nemainga. Autorei ir prieklikums uzmjiem
piesardzgi izvrtt iespju gt lielkus ienkumus, stenojot scenriju s = 2 jeb
rcbas modeli, kas atbilst punktam A2.
3. Robesods prsniedz ienkumu starpbu starp ieguvumu no nodoku apieanas un
nodoku godgas aprinanas. Ttad soda nauda par iemumu neuzrdanu
ir lielka par iegto naudas summu nelegl ce. Izptot LR likumdoanas
aktos paredztos soda naudas apmrus, autore secina, ka Latvij mintais
modea apgalvojums nestenojas visos soda aprina gadjumos. Piemram,
tikai par VSAOI apieanu (aploku algas) ir paredzts sods trskr apmr,
tau par PVN apieanu sods ir tikai nenomakst nodoka apmr. Autorei
ir prieklikums likumdevjam veidot sodu sistmu, kas paredz robesoda
palielinanu, piemram, visiem darbaspka un peas nodokiem piemrot
VSAOI soda aprina algoritmu un to noteikt trskr apmr.
Literatra
1. Sauka, A. Pelk ekonomika Latvij. Pieejams http://www.fm.gov.lv
2. nu ekonomika. Pieejams: http://www.fm.gov.lv
3. Tiesisko problmu mikroekonomiskie modei: Noziedzbas ekonomika, lekciju materils.
Pieejams: http://bb.vu.lv sada: Microeconomics II, course documents.
4. Statistikas dati par nodoku makstjiem. Pieejams: http://www.vid.gov.lv
5. CSP. nu ekonomikas aprinanas metodes un novrtjums Latvij. Pieejams: http://
www.fm.gov.lv/faili/struktura/BCF023523018001285840574107058.pdf
352
Summary
The author describe illegal economy influence on business environment in Latvia
in this paper as the information source using Ministry of Finance of the Republic of
Latvia and Customs Policy common available information. Entrepreneur option to
engage in illegal economy are analysed in this paper. The author use microeconomics
model Choice in undetermined circumstances for the theoretical basis of analysis.
There are entrepreneur behaviour possible scenarios for engaging in illegal economy
under determined economical and time limited circumstances simulated in this paper.
For entrepreneur behaviour possible scenario graphical illustration the author uses
indifference curve, potentialities limit and the safety line. Considering statistic data
about illegal economys amount in the Republic of Latvia, the author principally analysis
behaviour scenario of risky business entrepreneur group.
On the basis of the theoretical model analysis, the author conclude that if possibility
of penalty is small entrepreneur could participate into illegal economy for consumed time
optimization, but if possibility of penalty increases consumed time for illegal activities
decreases; it can be concluded that entrepreneur choice determinant is risk or possibility
to catch entrepreneur the act and punished.
Keywords: economic modelling, entrepreneurship, gray economy.

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LATVIJAS UNIVERSITTES

Redkolijas sekretres: Ella Jkobsone un Elna Ermane

Literrs redaktores: Ruta Puria un Gita Brzia

Latvijas Universitte, 2011

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