Solution 1 or more substances are homogeneously mixed or dissolved in another substance

Solute component that is dissolved, least abundant component in the solution

Solvent the dissolving agent, most abundant component in the solution
Solubility the maximum amount of solute that dissolves in a given amount of solvent at a specified
temperature
Solubility of a solid in liquid: very soluble, moderately soluble, slightly soluble, insoluble
Solubility of liquid in liquid: miscible and immiscible
Miscible liquids that are capable of mixing and forming a solution with one phase
Immiscible do not mix to form a solution or generally insoluble in each other
Hydrated ions become surrounded by water molecules
Ionization acids that dissolve in water with the formation of ions
Henrys Law - Since the solubility is directly proportional to the partial pressure above the liquid, if
the partial pressure is
doubled, the solubility is doubled; if the partial pressure is
one-half as great, the solubility is one-half as much.
Concentration amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or solution
Dilute or concentrated to determine the amount of solute present
Dilute solution relatively small amount of dissolved solute
Concentrated solution relatively large amount of dissolved solute
Saturated solution dissolved and undissolved solute are in dynamic equilibrium
Unsaturated solution less solute than a saturated solution
Supersaturated solution an unstable state and when disturbed, can change to a stable saturated
solution and excess solute
recrystallizes
Weight percent one of the easiest methods of making a mixture with a specific composition is
to measure the masses of
each of the parts and express the concentration as a
percentage of solute to the mass of the entire mixture
Weight/volume percent this method expresses concentration as grams of solute per 100 mL of
solution
Volume percent volume of a liquid in 100 mL of solution
Mole fraction any component of a solution is the number of moles of that component divided by
the total number of moles
of solute and solvent
Molarity (M) the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
Molality (m) number of moles of solute per 1000 g (1kg) of solvent

Mole Fraction

Convert grams to moles

Xsolute =
mol solute_____
mol solute + mol solvent
Xsolvent =
___mol solvent______
mol solute + mol solvent
Xsolute + Xsolvent = 1

Molarity

Convert grams to moles

Convert milliters to liters by dividing it by 1000 mL
M = mol solute
L solution

Molality

Convert grams to moles

Convert grams to kilograms by dividing it by 1000 g
m = mol solute
kg solvent

Dilution of Concentrated Solution

molarity x volume of concentrated solution = molarity x volume of diluted solution

Mc x Vc = Md x Vd

Weight percent

wt % =

g solute_____ x 100
g solute + g solvent

Weight/Volume percent

wt/vol % =

g solute____ x 100
mL solution

Volume percent

vol % =

volume solute in solution__ x 100

total volume of solution

DILUTION OF CONCENTRATED SOLUTION

Example #3 - 8:
3. A stock solution of 1.00 M NaCl is available. How many milliliters are needed to make 100.0 mL of 0.750
M
4. What volume of 0.250 M KCl is needed to make 100.0 mL of 0.100 M solution?
5. Concentrated H2SO4 is 18.0 M. What volume is needed to make 2.00 L of 1.00 M solution? Concentrated
HCl is 12.0 M. What volume is needed to make 2.00 L of 1.00 M solution?
6. A 0.500 M solution is to be diluted to 500.0 mL of a 0.150 M solution. How many mL of the 0.500 M
solution are required?
7. A stock solution of 10.0 M NaOH is prepared. From this solution, you need to make 250.0 mL of 0.375 M
solution. How many mL will be required?
8. 2.00 L of 0.800 M NaNO3 must be prepared from a solution known to be 1.50 M in concentration. How
many mL are required?
These next two are a bit harder and involve slightly more calculation than the discussion above. Here's a
summary of the steps:
1) calculate total moles
2) calculate total volume
3) divide moles by volume to get molarity
You can also think of it this way:
M1aV1a + M1bV1b = M2V2
Where the '1a' refers to one starting solution, '1b' to the other and '2' refers to the mixed solution (hints:
V2 is the total volume after mixing and M2 is the unknown).
Example #9: Calculate the final concentration if 2.00 L of 3.00 M NaCl and 4.00 L of 1.50 M NaCl are
mixed. Assume there is no volume contraction upon mixing.
Example #10: Calculate the final concentration if 2.00 L of 3.00 M NaCl, 4.00 L of 1.50 M NaCl and 4.00 L
of water are mixed. Assume there is no volume contraction upon mixing.

ANSWERS:
3. (0.750 mol/L) (100.0 mL) = (1.00 mol/L) (x); x = 75.0 mL
4. (0.100 mol/L) (100.0 mL) = (0.250 mol/L) (x)
5a. (18.0 mol/L) (x) = (1.00 mol/L) (2.00 L); x = 0.111 L
5b. (12.0 mol/L) (x) = (1.00 mol/L) (2.00 L)
6. (0.500 mol/L) (x) = (0.150 mol/L) (500.0 mL)
7. (10.0 mol/L) (x) = (0.375 mol/L) (250.0 mL)
8. (1.50 mol/L) (x) = (0.800 mol/L) (2.00 L); x = 1.067 L = 1067 mL
Notice, in problem 8, the multiply by 1000 to get the mL asked for in the problem.
Example #9: Calculate the final concentration if 2.00 L of 3.00 M NaCl and 4.00 L of 1.50 M NaCl are
mixed. Assume there is no volume contraction upon mixing.
Here are the two mole calculations:
x = (3.00 mol/L) (2.00 L)
x = (1.50 mol/L) (4.00 L)
I hope it is obvious that you add the two answers to get the total moles.
The total volume calculation is 2.00 + 4.00 = 6.00 L.
Divide total moles by total volume to get the final answer. The answer is 2.00 M.
Example #10: Calculate the final concentration if 2.00 L of 3.00 M NaCl, 4.00 L of 1.50 M NaCl and 4.00 L
of water are mixed. Assume there is no volume contraction upon mixing.
The solution to this problem is almost exactly the same as 10a. The only "problem child" appears to be the
4.00 L of water. Hint: the water contributes to the final volume, but NOT to the total moles. The ChemTeam
gets a final answer of 1.20 M in this problem.

MOLALITY
1) Calcuate the molality when 75.0 grams of MgCl2 is dissolved in 500.0 g of solvent.
2) 100.0 grams of sucrose (C12H22O11, mol. wt. = 342.3 g/mol) is dissolved in 1.50 L of water. What is the
molality?
3) 49.8 grams of KI is dissolved in 1.00 kg of solvent. What is the molality?
4) Calculate the molality of 25.0 grams of KBr dissolved in 750.0 mL pure water.
5) 80.0 grams of glucose (C6H12O6, mol. wt = 180. g/mol) is dissolved in1.00 kg of water. Calculate the
molality.
ANSWERS:

1)

2)

4)

5)

3)

MOLARITY
1) Calcuate the molarity when 75.0 grams of MgCl 2 is dissolved in 500.0 mL of solution.
2) 100.0 grams of sucrose (C12H22O11, mol. wt. = 342.3 g/mol) is dissolved in 1.50 L of solution. What is the
molarity?
3) 49.8 grams of KI is dissolved in enough water to make 1.00 L of solution. What is the molarity?
4) Calculate the molarity of 25.0 grams of KBr dissolved in 750.0 mL.
5) 80.0 grams of glucose (C6H12O6, mol. wt = 180. g/mol) is dissolved in enough water to make 1.00 L of
solution. What is its molarity?
ANSWERS:

1)

2)

4)

5)

3)

MOLE FRACTIONS
Example #1: 0.100 mole of NaCl is dissolved into 100.0 grams of pure H2O. What is the mole fraction of
NaCl?
Solution:
100.0 g / 18.0 g mol1 = 5.56 mol of H2O
Add that to the 0.100 mol of NaCl = 5.56 + 0.100 = 5.66 mol total
Mole fraction of NaCl = 0.100 mol / 5.66 mol = 0.018
What is the mole fraction of the H2O?
5.56 mol / 5.66 mol = 0.982
Example #2: A solution is prepared by mixing 25.0 g of water, H2O, and 25.0 g of ethanol, C2H5OH.
Determine the mole fractions of each substance.
Solution:
1) Determine the moles of each substance:
H2O 25.0 g / 18.0 g/mol = 1.34 mol
C2H5OH 25.0 g / 46.07 g/mol = 0.543 mol
2) Determine mole fractions:
H2O 1.34 mol / (1.34 mol + 0.543 mol) = 0.71
C2H5OH 0.543 mol / (1.34 mol + 0.543 mol) = 0.29
Example #3: A solution contains 10.0 g pentane, 10.0 g hexane and 10.0 g benzene. What is the mole
fraction of hexane?
Solution:
1) You need to determine the moles of pentane, hexane and benzene:
to do this, you need the molecular weights. Here are the formulas:
pentane: C5H12
hexane: C6H14
benzene: C6H6
2) When you have the moles of each, add them together.
3) Then, divide the moles of hexane by the total.
Example #4: The molality of an aqueous solution of sugar (C12H22O11) is 1.62m. Calculate the mole
fractions of sugar and water.
Solution:
1) Molality is moles solute / kg of solvent. Therefore we know our solution is:
1.62 mol C12H22O11
1.00 kg = 1000 g of water
2) Calculate the moles of water present:
1000 g / 18.0152 g/mol = 55.50868 mol
3) Determine the mole fraction of the sugar:
1.62 mol / (1.62 mol + 55.50868 mol) = 0.028357 = 0.0284 (to three sf)
4) You can calculate the mole fraction of the water by subtraction.
Example #5: How many grams of water must be used to dissolve 100.0 grams of sucrose (C 12H22O11) to
prepare a 0.020 mole fraction of sucrose in the solution?
Solution:
1) Determine moles of sucrose:
100.0 g / 342.2948 g/mol = 0.292145835 mol
2) Determine moles of water required to make the solution 0.020 mole fraction of sucrose:
0.020 = 0.292 / (0.292 + x)
(0.020) (0.292 + x) = 0.292
0.00584 + 0.02x = 0.292
0.02x = 0.28616

x = 14.308 mol of H2O

Comment: you can also do this:
0.292 is to 0.02 as x is to 0.98
3) Determine grams of water:
14.308 mol x 18.015 g/mol = 258.0 g
Example #6: Surprisingly, water (in the form of ice) is slightly soluble in liquid nitrogen. At -196 C, (the
boiling point of liquid nitrogen) the mole fraction of water in a saturated solution is 1.00 x 10 -5. Compute
the mass of water that can dissolve in 1.00 kg of boiling liquid nitrogen.
Solution:
1) Use the definition of mole fraction to set up the following:
water = moles water / (moles water + moles nitrogen)
1.00 x 10-5 = x / (x + 71.3944041)
I'm going to carry some guard digits until the end of the calculation.
2) Some algebra:
(1.00 x 10-5) (x) + 7.139440411 x 10-4 = x
0.99999x = 7.139440411 x 10-4
x = 7.139511806 x 10-4 mol of H2O
3) Calculate grams of water from moles of water:
7.139511806 x 10-4 mol x 18.0152 g/mol = 1.2862 x 10-2 g
1.29 x 10-2 g (to three sf)
Example #7: What is the mole fraction of cinnamic acid in a mixture that is 50.0% weight urea in
cinnamic acid (urea = 60.06 g/mol; cinnamic acid = 148.16 g/mol)
Solution:
1) Let us assume 100.0 g of this mixture are present. Therefore:
50.0 g is urea
50.0 g is cinnamic
2) Convert grams to moles:
urea: 50.0 g / 60.06 g/mol = 0.8325 mol
cinnamic acid: 50.0 g / 148.16 g/mol = 0.3375 mol
3) Determine mole fraction of cinnamic acid:
0.3375 mol / 1.1700 mol = 0.2885