Mahatma Gandhi University

EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

Module I

Krishnachandran R.

January 31, 2014

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

Syllabus:- Recollection of basic principles of optics: ray theory- critical angle- total in-
ternal reection - Optical wave guides - Propagation in bre- expression for acceptance angle-
numerical aperture - V number-modes, mode coupling - SI bre and GI bre - single mode
bers

1 Light Wave Communication

Light Wave Communication commonly known as Optical Communication is the most
modern mode of wired communication. Optical communication is also the youngest mode
of communication. However its capabilities supersede all other modes of communication.
Before optical communication the most of the communication was in radio and microwave
domain which has frequency range orders of magnitude lower than the optical as shown in
the gure for the electromagnetic spectrum.

Figure 1.1: Electromagnetic Spectrum

For good communication a system needs to have following things.

1. Bandwidh (BW)
2. Good signal to noise ratio (SNR) i.e. low loss

Since the bandwidth of a system is more or less proportional to the frequency of opera-
tion, use of higher frequency facilitates larger BW. The BW at optical frequencies is expected
to be 3 to 4 orders of magnitude higher than that at the microwave f requencies (1GHz to
100GHz).

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

1.1 Transmission Media Alternative

The rst two media have a very limited bandwidth. Microwave links and Satellite
communication has comparable bandwidths as in principle their mode of operation is same
but the spatial reach of satellite is far greater. Before Fiber optic communication became
viable, satellite communication was the only choice for long distance communication.

Figure 1.2: Twisted Pair

Figure 1.3: Co-axial cable

Figure 1.4: Microwave Link

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

Figure 1.5: Satellite Communcation

2 Light Wave Communication System

The gure shows a block schematic of the dierent elements in an optical ber commu-
nication system. The carrier is modulated using analog information signal. The variation
of light emitting from the optical source is a continuous signal. The information source
provides an electrical signal to the transmitter. The transmitter comprises electrical stage.
The electrical stage (circuits) drives an optical source. The optical source output is a light
which is intensity modulated by the information. The optical source converts the electrical
signal into an optical signal. The source may be either semiconductor laser or Light Emitting
Diode (LED). The intensity modulated light signal is coupled to ber. The ber which is
made up of a glass acts as a channel between the transmitter and receiver.
The receiver consists of optical detector which converts optical signal to electrical signal
usually p-n, p-i-n or avalanche photodiodes are used as detectors.Sometimes photo transistors
and photo conductors are used for converting an optical signal into electrical signal. The
electrical signal is again processed and given to the transducer to get the original information.
The optical carrier may be modulated using either an analog signal or a digital signal.In
analog modulation the intensity of the light emitted from an optical source is changed ac-
cording to an analog signal in a continous manner. In digital modulation, discrete changes
in light intensity are obtained. This can be done using on-o pulses. Analog communication
is simpler, but less ecient. It requires a high SNR at the receiver compared to a digital
system. Also, linearity needed for analog communication cannot be obtained as the semi-
conductor devices lke LEDs, LASERs are nonlinerar, especially at high frequencies. Analog
communication is used for shorter distances and lower Bandwidth.

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

Figure 2.1: Fiber optic communication system

2.1 Digital optical Fiber Link

Figure shows a schematic of a typical digital optic ber link. The input is given as digital
signal from the information source and it is encoded for optical transmission in the encoder.
The encoder, encodes or modulates the digital signal as in the case of simple communication
system where we are using a message signal in which the signal is in analog form, but here
the signal is in digital form which is encoded i.e., modulated in the encoder. The laser
drive circuit directly modulates the intensity of semiconductor laser with the encoded digital
signal. Hence a digital optical signal is launched into the optical ber cable. At the receiver
we have to decode the digital optical signal for which we are using another Avalanche Photo
Diode (APD) as detector. The avalanche photo diode detector is followed by a front-end
amplier and equalizer or lter to provide gain as well as linear signal processing and noise
bandwidth reductions. Then the signal is passed through the decoder to get original digital
information which is transmitted

Figure 2.2: Digital optical ber link

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

3 Advantages of Light Wave Communication

1. Large Bandwidth (THz)
Optical Carrier frequency ranges from 1013 to 1016 Hz

2. Low Loss (0.2 dB/Km)

Optical bers have been fabricated with loss as low as 0.2 dB/Km
Extremely wide repeater spacing reducing cost and complexity

3. Low EMI
Optical bers are dielectric waveguides
No Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) or switching transients giving EMP Pulses
Unaected by transmission through an electrically noisy environment
Fiber cable require no shielding from EMI
Optical interference can also be avoided easily
Cross talk is negligible even when bers are cabled together

4. Signal Security
The light from the optical ber cable doesn't radiate signicantly, providing high
degree of security
In the case of twisted pair cable eld lies outside and can be coupled.
Optical signal cannot be obtained non invasively, can only be tapped where leakage
is there.
5. Electrical Isolation
Suited for communication in electrically hazardous environment

6. Low manufacturing cost

Cost in technology is comparable for optical ber/Km and Co-axial/Km
Cost per channel owing in optical ber 1000 times less cost per channel in co-
axial cable

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

4 Light Wave fundamentals

The exact nature of light is not fully understood, although people have been studying
the subject for many centuries. In the 1700s and before, experiments seemed to indicate
that light was composed of particles. In the early 1800s, a physicist Thomas Young showed
that light exhibited wave characteristics.
Further experiments by other physicists culminated in James Clerk (pronounced Clark)
Maxwell collecting the four fundamental equations that completely describe the behavior of
the electromagnetic elds. James Maxwell deduced that light was simply a component of the
electromagnetic spectrum. This seems to rmly establish that light is a wave. Yet, in the
early 1900s, the interaction of light with semiconductor materials, called the photoelectric
eect, could not be explained with electromagnetic-wave theory. The advent of quantum
physics successfully explained the photoelectric eect in terms of fundamental particles of
energy called quanta. Quanta are known as photons when referring to light energy.
Today, when studying light that consists of many photons, as in propagation, that light
behaves as a continuum - an electromagnetic wave. On the other hand, when studying the
interaction of light with semiconductors, as in sources and detectors, the quantum physics
approach is taken. The wave versus particle dilemma can be addressed in a more formal way,
but that is beyond the scope of this text. It suces to say that much has been reconciled
between the two using quantum physics. In this manual, we use both the electromagnetic
wave and photon concepts, each in the places where it best matches the phenomenon we are
studying.
The electromagnetic energy of light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Light and
similar forms of radiation are made up of moving electric and magnetic forces. A simple
example of motion similar to these radiation waves can be made by dropping a pebble into
a pool of water. In this example, the water is not actually being moved by the outward
motion of the wave, but rather by the up-and-down motion of the water. The up-and-down
motion is transverse, or at right angles, to the outward motion of the waves. This type of
wave motion is called transverse-wave motion. The transverse waves spread out in expanding
circles until they reach the edge of the pool, in much the same manner as the transverse
waves of light spread from the sun. However, the waves in the pool are very slow and clumsy
in comparison with light, which travels approximately 186,000 miles per second.
There are three theories that are widely used to describe the behavior of optical signals.
Each of them better explain certain phenomena and they are.

1. Ray Model
2. Wave Model

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

3. Quantum Model

5 Ray Optics
According to ray theory, light travels in a straight line from one point to another and
the path is called ray of light. A bundle of such rays constiutes a beam of light. This gives
us an easy tool to analyze the behavior of optical signal when the physical dimension of the
associated objects is much larger than the wavelength of the optical signal. For example
with prisms and lenses. We will use ray theory to get some results quickly.

5.1 Laws Reflection

Figure 5.1: Reection of light

The inccident ray, reected ray and normal to the reecting surface at the point of
inccidence lie in the same plane
The angle of inccidence measured from the normal is equal to the angle of reection.

i = r , i is the angle of inccidence & r is the angle of reection

5.2 Refraction, Snell's Law & Total Internal Reflection

5.2.1 Refraction

The direction of propagation of an obliquely inccident ray of light that enters the other
medium, changes at the interface of two media . This phenomenon is called refraction of
light.
When an optical ray of light is inccident on the interface between two transparent media
of dierent refractive index, a part of it is reected abiding the laws of reection and the

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

rest of it is refracted into the second media. The optical ray can be assumed to be divided
into two 1) reected ray 2) refracted ray.

Figure 5.2: Refraction of light

The angle of relection is equal to angle of inccidence i.e., 3 = 1

5.2.2 Snell's Law

Snell's law states when a light ray get refracted the inccident ray, the reected ray and
the normal to the surface(interface) at the point of inccidence lie in the same plane and the
sine of angle of inccidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant and is given by
n2 /n1 .

sin 1 n2
=
sin 2 n2
where n1 is the refractive index of the medium 1, n2 is the refractive index of the medium
2 and 1 is the angle of inccidence between the light ray and the normal to the interface
between two materials, 2 is the angle of refraction between the light ray and the normal

n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
If n1 < n2 the refracted ray bends towards the normal i.e., 2 < 1 .
If n1 > n2 the refracted ray bends away from the normal i.e., 2 > 1 .

5.2.3 Total Internal Reflection

When light travels from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer medium the
refracted ray bends away from the normal.

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

As the angle of inccidence (1 ) increases, the angle of refraction (2 ) also increases. At

some angle of inccidence the refracted ray is bent so much away from the normal that it
grazes the surface at the interace of media i.e., 2 = /2
This inccident angle at which the angle of refraction equals /2 is called the critical
inccident angle or critical angle (1c )

Figure 5.3: Total Internal Reection

at critical angle 1c no light penetrates into the second medium.

If the angle of inccidence is increased further i.e., 1 > 1c all light will be reected back
into the inccident medium. This phenomenon is called Total Internal Reetion.
Note:- for total internal reection; n1 > n2 & 1 > 1c . By Snell's Law,
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
At critical inccident angle 1c , 1 = 1c & 2 = /2

n1 sin 1c = n2 sin /2
n1 sin 1c = n2
n 
2
sin 1c =
n
 n1 
2
sin 1c =
n1
1 n2
 
1c = sin
n1

5.3 Principle of Reversibility, Optical Path & Fermat's

Principle
5.3.1 Principle of Reversibility

If the direction of the propagation of the reected or refracted ray is reversed each will
retrace the optical path. This is called Principle of Reversibility.

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

5.3.2 Optical Path

Optical path length or Optical distance is dened as the product of the distance d trav-
elled by a ray through the medium and refractive index.
Optcal Path denoted by l,
l = dn
where d is the distance and n is the refractive index of the medium. For a ray travelling

Figure 5.4: Optical Path

d1 , d2 , d3 .......dk distances through media with refractive indices n1 , n2 , n3 .......nk respectively,

l = d1 n1 + d2 n2 + ...... + dk nk
k
X
= di ni
i=1

Optical path length determines the phase of light and governs interference and dirac-
tion.
In free space light travels in straight line, for two points seperated by a distance d the
time taken for the light to travel between the two points
d
t=
c
If there is a media between two points the speed of light is reduced by a factor n, then.
d
tn =
c/n
nd
=
c
l
=
c
where l = nd is the optical path length

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

5.3.3 Fermat's Principle

Fermat's principle states that the path taken by a light ray travelling from one point to
another through any set of media is of shortest time. (i.e., the time required to travel is of
minimum).
The path a ray take between two points is that of shortest optical path length. Consider
Figure 7.1, for a ray travelling d1 , d2 , d3 .......dk distances through media with refractive indices
n1 , n2 , n3 .......nk respectively, the optical path length is
k
X
l= di ni
i=1

Fermat's Principle states that path taken from P0 to P1 minimzes l

5.3.4 Law of Reflection

Consider the propagation of light from point A to point B as shown in the Figure 5.5.
The optical path length from A to B is
d = nd1 + nd2 (5.1)
from the gure,

Figure 5.5: Reection of light

d21 = x2 + h21 (5.2)

d22 = (y x)2 + h22 (5.3)
Substituting equations 5.2 & 5.3 in equation 5.1
d(x) = n[h21 + x2 ]1/2 + n[(y x)2 + h22 ]1/2 (5.4)

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

According to Fermat's Principle the light ray will take the minimum optical path length
i.e., P will be at a position to minimize d(x). dierentiating equation 5.4 with respect to x
and equating to zero, we get.
d

d(x) = 0
dx
2 2 (1/2) 2 2 (1/2)
n.(1/2).(x + h1 ) .2x + n.(1/2).((y x) + h2 ) . 2(y x) = 0
x yx
p p = 0
x2 + h21 (y x)2 + h22
x yx
p = p
x2 + h21 (y x)2 + h22
sin 1 = sin 3
3 = 1

This gives the law of reection.

5.3.5 Law of Refraction

Consider the propagation of light from point A to point B as shown in the Figure 5.6.
The optical path length from A to B is

d = n1 d1 + n2 d2 (5.5)

from the gure,

Figure 5.6: Refraction of light

d21 = x2 + h21 (5.6)

d22 = (y x)2 + h22 (5.7)

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

Substituting equations 5.6 & 5.7 in equation 5.5

d(x) = n1 [h21 + x2 ]1/2 + n2 [(y x)2 + h22 ]1/2 (5.8)

According to Fermat's Principle the light ray will take the minimum optical path length
i.e., P will be at a position to minimize d(x). dierentiating equation 5.8 with respect to x
and equating to zero, we get.
d

d(x) = 0
dx
2 2 (1/2)
n1 .(1/2).(x + h1 ) .2x
+n2 .(1/2).((y x)2 + h22 )(1/2) . 2(y x) = 0
x yx
n1 p n2 p = 0
2
x + h12
(y x)2 + h22
x yx
n1 p = n2 p
x2 + h21 (y x)2 + h22
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2

and this is Snell's Law

6 Optical Waveguides
An optical waveguide is a physical structure that guides electromagnetic waves in the
optical spectrum. Common types of optical waveguides include optical ber and rectangular
waveguides. Optical waveguides are used as components in integrated optical circuits or as
the transmission medium in local and long haul optical communication systems. Optical
waveguides can be classied according to their geometry (planar, strip, or ber waveguides),
mode structure (single-mode, multi-mode), refractive index distribution (step or gradient
index) and material (glass, polymer, semiconductor).

6.1 Dielectric Slab Waveguide

The slab waveguide consists of three layers of materials with dierent dielectric con-
stants, extending innitely in the directions parallel to their interfaces. Light may be con-
ned in the middle layer by total internal reection. This occurs only if the dielectric index
of the middle layer is larger than that of the surrounding layers. Light may be conned in
the middle layer by total internal reection. This occurs only if the dielectric index of the
middle layer is larger than that of the surrounding layers. The simplest case is a rectangular
waveguide, which is formed when the guiding layer of the slab waveguide is restricted in

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

both transverse directions rather than just one. Rectangular waveguides are used in inte-
grated optical circuits, and in laser diodes. They are commonly used as the basis of such
optical components as Mach-Zehnder interferometers and wavelength division multiplexers.
The cavities of laser diodes are frequently constructed as rectangular optical waveguides.
Optical waveguides with rectangular geometry are produced by a variety of means, usually
by a planar process.

Figure 6.1: Dielectric Slab Waveguide

6.2 Optical Fibers

Optical ber is basically a solid glass rod. The diameter of rod is so small that it looks
like a ber. Optical ber is a dielectric waveguide. The light travels like an electromagnetic
wave inside the waveguide. The dielectric waveguide is dierent from a metallic waveguide
which is used at microwave and millimeter wave frequencies. In a metallic waveguide, there is
a complete shielding of electromagnetic radiation but in an optical ber the electromagnetic
radiation is not just conned inside the ber but also extends outside the ber.

Figure 6.2: Schematic diagram of Optical Fiber

The light gets guided inside the structure, through the basic phenomenon of total inter-
nal reection. The optical ber consists of two concentric cylinders; the inside solid cylinder
is called the core and the surrounding shell is called the cladding.The light undergoes mul-
tiple reection before reaching ber end. For the light to propagate inside the ber through

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

total internal reections at core-cladding interface, the refractive index of the core must be
greater than the refractive index of the cladding, n1 > n2 .

Figure 6.3: Total Internal Reection inside an optical ber

For propagation of light inside the ber, there are two possibilities.

1. A light ray can be launched in a plane containing the axis of the ber.We can then
see the light ray after total internal reection travels in the same plane i.e., the ray
is conned to the plane in which it was launched and never leave the plane. In this
situation the rays will always cross the axis of the ber after every reection at core
cladding interface. These are called the Meridional rays . These rays which always
pass through the axis of the ber giving high optical intensity at the centre of the core.

Figure 6.4: Propagation of Meridional rays

2. The other possibility is that the ray is not launched in a plane containing the axis
of the ber. For example if the ray is launched at some angle such that it does not
intersect the axis of the ber, then after total internal reection it will go to some
other plane. We can see that in this situation the ray will never intersect the axis of
the ber. The ray essentially will spiral around the axis of ber. These rays are called
the Skew rays . The rays which never intersect the axis of the ber, giving low optical
intensity at the center and high intensity towards the rim of the ber.

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

(a) Helical path taken by Skew Ray (b) Cross sectional view

Figure 6.5: Propagation of Skew Rays

6.3 Propagation of Meridional Rays

Consider a ray is launched fro outside at angle '' as shown in the gure, the ray get
refracted at the air-core interface and it gets refracted towards the axis and let '' be the
angle the refracted ray makes with the axis of the ber. Let '1 ' be the angle the ray makes
with the core-cladding interface. If 1 < 1c , the critical inccident angle of the core-cladding
interface the beam will be divided into two a reected beam and a refracted beam. The
beam strikes millions of times while travelling inside the ber ; even if a microscopic portion
of the beam is lost every time it hits the boundary, the beam will be completely lost after
travelling a short distance.

Figure 6.6: Propagation of Meridional rays - the ray being lost with out TIR

For conning the light inside the ber core or for total internal reection to take place

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

1 > 1c where 1c is the critical inccident angle of the core cladding interface. The angle the
beam makes with the axis of the ber inside the core above which the beam will undergo total
internal relfection at core cladding interface is called Critical Propagaton Angle (c ). That is
when = c , 1 = 1c & we know that = (/2) 1 . The total internal reection takes
place inside the ber for 1 > 1c (critical inccident angle) or < c (critical propagation
angle). So to save light inside the ber it is necessary to direct rays at this critical propagation
angle or even at lesser angle.
From Snell's Law,

n1 sin 1c = n2 sin(/2)
n2
sin 1c =
n1
sin 1c = cos c
n2
cos c =
n
p1
sin c = 1 cos2 c
r  n 2
2
sin c = 1
n1
r  n 2 
2
criticalpropagationangle, c = sin1 1
n1

Figure 6.7: Total internal reection condition for meridional rays

For any rays to be transmitted by total internal reection or for the rays to make an
angle less than the Critical Propagation angle, we have to direct it from outside the ber at
an angle a or less as shown in gure 6.8. we can see that any ray inccident on the ber core

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

with in a cone dened by conical angle 2a will be transmitted by total internal reection
with in the ber core, hence 2a is called Acceptance angle of the ber and the cone formed
by 2a is called Acceptance Cone. Sometimes a is called acceptance angle.

(a) Acceptance angle

(b) Acceptance cone

Figure 6.8: Launching Light into an optical ber

Considering air gap between the source and the ber (n = 1) and applying Snell's law
at the air core interface.

n sin a = n1 sin c
sin a = n1 sin c (n 1)

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

6.3.1 Numerical Aperture

Numerical Aperture (NA) is a measure of light gathering capacity of the bre and is
dened as sine of angle a ,

N A = sin a
= n1 sin c
r  n 2
2
= n1 1
n1
q
= n21 n22

NA describes the ability of an optical ber to gather light from a source and then
to preserve the light inside the ber NA will be specied in the optical ber data sheets.
Let n = n1 n2 , let the average refractive index n = n1 +n
2
2
, then the relative dierence of
refractive indices,
n
=
n
n1 n2
=
n

q
NA = n21 n22
p
= (n1 + n2 )(n1 n2 )
p
= (2n)(n)

= 2n2

= n 2

NA depends on average refractive index and relative dierence of the refractive indices.

6.4 Propagation of Skew Rays

The skew rays , which greatly out number the meridional rays, follow a helical path
through the ber. It is not easy to visualize the skew ray paths in two dimensions, it may
be observed that helical path traced through the ber gives a change in dierection of 2 at
each reection where is the angle between the projection of ray in two dimensions and the
radius of the ber core at the point of reection. The point of emergence of skew rays from
the ber will depend upon the number of reections they undergo rather than the input
conditions to the ber. Skew rays will have a smoothing eect on the distribution of light
giving a more uniform output.

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

(a) Ray path for a skew ray (b) Cross section

Figure 6.9: Propagation of Skew Rays

Consider a ray inccident at a point a on the core of the ber, it makes an angle s with
the normal at the point A. The ray is refracted at air-core interface before travelling to the
pont B in the same plane. The angles of inccidence and reection at the point are which
is greater than the critical angle for the core cladding interface. From the hure,
RB
cos =
AB
RB T B
= .
T B AB
= cos . sin
cos . sin = cos
q
cos . sin = 1 sin2

If the limiting case for total internal reection is considerd, the becomes equal to the
critical angle c for core cladding interface. From Snell's Law
n2
sin c =
n1

For total internal reection c ,

cos . sin cos

r
n2
= 1 ( )2
n1

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

Using Snell's Law at the point A,

n sin a = n1 sin
cos c
sin as = n1 .
cos
r
n1 n2
= . 1 ( )2
cos n1
q
sin as . cos = n21 n22
sin as . cos = N A

Skew rays are accepted at larger axial angles in a given ber than merional rays;
depending on the value of cos . for meridional rays = 0, cos = 1 and as becomes equal
to a .

6.5 Modes
Numerical Aperture characterizes the ability of a specic optical ber to gather light .
The larger the numerical aperture the easier it is to direct light into an optical ber. Light
can propagate inside an optical ber only as a set of seperate beams or rays, i.e. light will
only propagate at distinct propagating angles ranging from critical value c . These dierent
beams are called modes. we can distinguish modes by their propagting angles. smaller the
angles smaller the order of the mode. The mode travelling precisely along the ber central
axis is the zero order mode and the mode travelling at critical propagation angle is the
highest order mode possible. The zero order mode is also called the fundamental mode.
The light basically consists of wave fronts. A line perpendicular to a wave front is called the
ray. Light is an electromagnetic wave and when we say it travels like a ray it is a collection
of wavefronts which move. Let us take an optical ber with light rays propagating in it. The
rays and the wave fronts which are perpendicular to the rays, are as shown in gure 6.10.

Figure 6.10: Dierent modes at discrete angles

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

Let us consider a phase front corresponding to the ray AB and passing through the
point B. This phase front also meets the ray CD at point E. In other words, the phase of
the ray at B (just before the reection) is same as that of the ray at point E. That is to
say that the phase change corresponding to the distance BCE added with the phase of the
reection coecient at points B and C should be a multiple of 2 . This is what is called the
condition for the constructive interference.

Figure 6.11: Core of optical ber, rays with wave fronts

+ 2 = /2
BC = d sec
CE = BC sin
= d sec sin(/2 2)
= d sec cos 2

Phase change from B to E

2  
= .n1 BC + CE + 2

2  
= .n1 d sec + d sec cos 2 + 2

for constructive interfernce the phase change should be a multiple of 2

= 2m
2.n1 d cos
+ = m

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

It can be noted that for = /2 that is the ray along the axis of the ber, = 0 and
the condition is satised with m = 0 for any value of n1 , d, .
As increases n1 d/ (either due to increase of the diameter of the core or refractive index
of the core, or decrease in wavelength) more values of m satisfy the condition and therefore
have sustained propagation inside the ber.
The above phase condition can be satised only by discrete rays entering the structure
i.e. rays at nite number of angles are accepted by the optical ber. The ensemble of
rays entering at a specic angle from the axis of the ber gives discrete optical intensity
distributions. These are called the modes of an optical ber. From the expression of the
phase matching condition we nd that as d increases, the number of rays accepted by the
optical ber increases and as d decreases the number of rays decreases.
If we take a value of d small enough such that it satises the phase condition only the
lowest value of m , only one mode will propagate inside the ber. These bers are called
Single Mode Fibers.

6.5.1 V-number

The number of modes a ber can support dependson the optical and geometric char-
acteristics of a ber. The number of modes inside a ber should be proportional to ber
diameter d, the numerical Aperture (NA) and inversly proportional to . The number of
modes in a ber is determined by the Normalized Frequency Parameter 'V 'which is also called
the V-Number or Normalized Cut-o Parameter or Characteristic Waveguide Parameter.
The V-Number is given by
.d
q
V = . n21 n22

.d
= .N A

.d
= .n. 2

where n = n1 +n2
2
is the average refractive index, and = n1 n2
n
the relative dierence
of refractive indices.

6.6 Mode Coupling

Deviation of the ber axis from straight line, variation in the core diameter, irregularities
at he core cladding interface, refractive indesx variations etc may change the propagation
characteristics of the ber. Consider the two cases shown in the gure, the rst gure
shows irregularity in refractive index at the core-cladding interface and the second shows
the deviaton of ber axis from straight line . In both cases the rays nolonger maintain the

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

(a) Irregularity at the corecladding interface

(b) Fiber Bend

Figure 6.12: Two possibilities of mode coupling

same angle with the axis. This beam will only propagate only if the new angle corresponds
to the angle formed by adjacent modes. There will be energy transfer from one mode
to its adjacent modes. The eect of coupling energy travelling in one mode to another
mode is called Mode Coupling or Mixing. The individual modes do not normally propagate
throughout the length of the ber without large energy transfers to adjacent mode; even
when the ber is exceptionally good and is not strained or bent by its surroundings.

7 Question Bank
7.1 Part A & B
1. Explain the basic principle of transmission of light through optical ber.
2. What is total internal reection Explain.
3. Dene critical angle. What is its signifcance.
4. Explain critical propagation angle.
5. Explain critical incident angle.
6. Dene acceptance angle and acceptance cone.

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

7. Dene Numerical Aperture. On what factors it depend.

8. Obtain an expression for numerical aperture.
9. What is acceptance angle and numerical aperture?
10. What is meant by index prole?
11. Why is single mode propagation impossible in GI ber.
12. What is normalized frequency? Explain its signicance.
13. Distinguish between multimode step index ber and graded index ber.
14. Compare the characteristics of single mode and multi mode bers.
15. Explain mode coupling.
16. What is mode scrambler? Explain.
17. What do you mean by modal number?
18. What is Vnumber? Explain its signicance.

7.2 Part C
1. What is the dierence between Propagation phase constant and the normalised
propagation constant b? How are they related? Explain.
2. What is normalized frequency parameter? Explain its signicance. Calculate the num-
ber of modes for GIF if core diameter is 62.5m, NA=0.275 and operating wavelength
is 1300nm.
3. Explain the signifcance of V number. Write mode volume expression for single and
multimode ber. Dene Acceptance cone.
4. Explain the ray theory in ber optics in detail. Explain the concept of mode coupling
in optical ber.
5. Discuss the eect of index prole on propagetion. Derive standard wave equations for
optical bers.
6. Dene and expalin: i) critical angle iii) Acceptance cone iv)Vnumber.
7. Derive the expressions for acceptance angle and numerical aperutre. State and explain
Snell's law.

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KC EC 010 803 Light Wave Communication

8. Describe in detail the eect of index prole on propagation. Describe the modes in SI
and GI bers. Give mathematical represntaions.
9. What are the parameters of an optical ber? Explain how they aect the propagation
of wave. Explain the eect of index prole on wave propagation thorugh a cable.
10. Explain how optical ber act as a waveguide. What is V number? Derive Vnumbers
for dierent types of optical bers.
11. Dene the eect of index prole on propagation.
12. Explain the signicance of V number. A multimode SIF with core diameter 80m and
relative index is 1.5 is operating at a wavelength of 0.85m. If the core refractive index
is 1.48 calculate the normalized frequency for ber and the number of guided waves.
13. Dene and expalin acceptance cone. Obtain an expression for a . Draw the index
prole diagrams for all the glass bers and explain.
14. Compare and contrast all the parameters of step index and graded index glass bers.
Expalin the signicance of V-number. Derive expressions for v number for step index
and graded index ber.
15. State Snell's Law for refraction and outline its signiance in ber optics. Explain the
propagation modes in single modes in single mode bers.
16. Compare the parameters of single mode ber, multimode step index ber and multi-
mode graded index ber. Give an account of plastic bers.
17. Explain with diagrams the principle of wave thorugh an optical bre. Discuss on the
eect of index prole on light wave propagation through bre.
18. Discuss on the modes of propagation in SI and GI bres. Derive the wave equations
in cylindrical co ordiantes for single mode glass bers.
19. Explain the following 1)Total Internal reection 2) Snell's law 3)VNumber.

Reference :- M G University Question Papers for L704 Optical Fiber Communication Systems
(F6474 NOV 2013, F3185 DEC 2012, G1298 MAY 2012, F9139 NOV 2011, G6952 APR 2011,
F3646 NOV 2010, G2031 MAY 2010, F7957 NOV 2009, G6032 APRIL/MAY 2009, F3658
NOV 2008, G2354 MAY 2008)

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