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Ultrasonic PDF
Ultrasonic PDF
Pulse echo test method uses reflected ultrasound as a means of collecting A sufficient amount of time between
test information. A single crystal probe is normally used for ultrasound successive pulses is necessary to allow
generation as well as reception. ultrasound to travel through the material
The transmitter circuit of the flaw detector supplies short excitation pulses under examination. Higher pulse repetition
of few hundred volts at regular interval to the probe crystal. The excitation rate produces brighter screen display. Very
pulse oscillates the crystal to generate short burst of ultrasound such that high pulse repetition rate produces
the arrival of each returning echo may be identifiable as a discrete event. spurious signals [ ghost echoes ] on the
During the interval between two successive pulses, the crystal is at rest and CRT screen.
detects any return echo such as from the back wall. A large percentage of The ultrasonic pulses used by the flaw
the sound is reflected from the front surface of the test part and the detector are radio frequency type and
remainder is reflected by the back surface or discontinuities. The flaw have a serrated look. The pulses are
detectors CRT screen displays the whole operation by producing separated filtered and rectified to smooth looking
signals of transmission and the time of arrival of defect echo and the back shapes by the flaw detector before
wall echo. The transmission pulse and subsequent echoes appear as peaks display.
rising out of the CRTs base line. The distance between the peaks is a Pulse echo A-scan method displays
measure of the defects location or the parts thickness. distance along the horizontal scale called
Transmission of high frequency ultrasound cannot takes place in air. It is the baseline and amplitude of the
carried out through an intermediate liquid, in bulk or as a thin layer. Oily reflection along the vertical scale. Because
substances or water are generally used. They are called couplants. of similar return path, the screen is
The initial or transmitter pulse appears first in time and represents the calibrated to display one way travel only.
electrical zero. This is the exact start time of crystal excitation. The exact A scan test method can accurately locate
point in time when ultrasound enters the test material is called acoustical a discontinuity. The amplitude of the return
zero. Acoustical zero is superimposed within the initial pulse and is not signal is a relative measure of the
distinguishable. The next pulse represents the total elapsed time for sound amount of reflected energy and depends
to travel from the entry surface to the reflector and back to the entry on the area and orientation of the
surface again. reflecting surface. Amplitude of the signal
At the instant the electrical pulse is removed the oscillations of the crystal can be used for accept / reject decision.
do not cease immediately but decreases in an exponential manner until they
reach zero. A dead zone is produced, starting immediately after entry into the
test surface, in which echoes can not be detected.
One single test cycle is so fast that it is not physically visible in the
detectors screen. Hence the flaw detector repeats the test cycle several
times per second by supplying successive excitation pulses to the crystal
and make the event appear as constant due to persistence of vision. The
number of times, the crystal is electrically pulsed per second is called the
pulse repetition rate.
Weld discontinuity evaluation :
Ulllll
Discontinuity evaluation consists of various steps to assess the
type or character, orientation, location, length and width of the
reflector.
To reach a reasonable conclusion regarding identification of the
discontinuity, the technician must be thoroughly familiar with the
welding process, degree of perfection in welding fit up and should
accurately locate the reflector within the weld cross section.
Combining this information with the basic shape of the reflector
identified by beam manipulations, the identification of the weld
discontinuity may be possible.
The basic weld discontinuity shapes which can be identified by
ultrasonic beam manipulations are Spherical, Cylindrical and Planar.
Discontinuity types :
Spherical : single and widely spaced pores [ P ],
non elongated slag [ SL ].
Cylindrical : elongated slag, wormholes, aligned pores,
hollow bead, unfused slug, concave root [ C].
Planar : cracks, side wall lack of fusion [ LF ], unfused
root faces, Lack of penetration [ LP ], fusion line
slag, burn through, undercut [ UC ], cold lap,
misalignment.
Angle beam probes can be used to obtain information about the
type of the reflector detected during scanning. Use of all the three
angles is recommended. The reflector is to be scanned by lateral,
orbital and swivel movement of the probe. Orbital scanning is made
around the discontinuity in a circular path with the discontinuity at
the center of the circle. Swivel scanning involves rotation of the
probe around an axis through the center of the probe body, and
perpendicular to the scanning surface.
The signal from a spherical reflector remains basically unchanged
as the probe is moved around the reflector in orbital fashion. The
reflector does not respond to swivel scan and also shows no length
with the lateral movement of the probe. The signal from this type of
reflector is normally small with narrow base because of only a
small area of the discontinuity actually reflects the ultrasonic beam.
A single pore produces a sharp indication and a cluster will
produce multiple or a broad based indication with many peaks.
A planar or a cylindrical reflector will produce weak or no
indication if orbital and swivel scanning is performed. With the lateral
movement of the probe, a varying or constant signal may result, but
the continuity of the signal indicates length of the reflector.
To differentiate a cylindrical reflector from the planar, the reflector
should be scanned with several different angle probes. A cylindrical
reflector will produce equivalent or significant signal at all angles of
incidence [ assuming equal sensitivity calibration and adjustment for
attenuation ]. A significantly greater amplitude signal from a particular
angle probe, indicates a planar reflector. Sound is reflected at its
0
maximum from only one angle of interception, i.e. around 90 .
Indications from opened cracks typically shows multiple peaks and
of wider shape because of the many discontinuity facets usually discontinuity type relative sensitivity
present. When the probe is rotated or orbited, an angle of some 20 Planar Highest
0
to 30 can be maintained before the echo is totally reflected away. Linear Intermediate
Side wall Lack of Fusion produces sharp indication and usually Spherical [ cluster ] Intermediate
detectable from one side. The maximum signal remains constant for Spherical [ isolated ] Lowest
some distance of the probe movement perpendicular to the weld [ assuming favorable orientation ]
axis.
Equipment performance check :
Ulllll
The calibration and performance of manual ultrasonic test
system can be checked using the IIW - V1 block.
Normal Probe :
S : System Sensitivity check, with the hole signal set to 75%
screen height, minimum 40 dB reserved gain required.
R : Resolution check [ ability to produce separate indication ]
The signals from the 85, 91 and 100 mm distances should be
displayed on the screen without overlapping.
D2 : Dead zone, signal from hole indicates 10 mm or less.
D1 : Dead zone, signal from hole indicates, 5 mm or less.
P : Checks sound generating ability of the system. With the
gain at maximum, 5 full screen signals from the 23 mm
Perspex insert, using a 2 MHz probe should be obtained.
R1 and R2 : Range calibration and Horizontal Linearity.
Angle Probe :
E: Beam exit point, when the signal from the radius
becomes maximum, the exit point of the probe coincides
with the center mark of the scale on the face of the block.
S: Sensitivity check. with the signal from the radius set to
100%, minimum 40 dB reserved gain required.
R: Range calibration for angle probe.
A1: and A2: Angle check, when the signal from the hole
becomes maximum, the exit point of the probe may coincide
with one of the marks on the face of the block to indicate
the refracted beam angle of the probe.
Horizontal Linearity : For accurately locating reflectors, a linear
distance scale is essential.
A 100 mm range is accurately calibrated from location R1.
With the probe at position R2, signals should appear exactly
at 12.5, 25, 37.5 and 50 th division on the screen. A signal
position deviation by more than 1% indicates, non linear
distance scale. This check should be carried out over the
maximum range used for actual testing.
The ultrasonic instrument must provide linear vertical
presentation within +/- 5% of the full screen height.
Screen Height Linearity : Using a viscous couplant, a normal
beam probe is positioned at a suitable location of the block
to give a 2 : 1 ratio of amplitudes between two steady
signals. When the attenuator is changed in 2 dB steps, the
smaller amplitude signal must remain 50% of the larger
amplitude within +/- 5% of full screen height.
Amplitude Control Linearity : The accuracy of the amplitude
control of the ultrasonic equipment is also essential.
Using a viscous couplant, a normal beam probe is
positioned on the block to produce a 80% steady signal.
With the attenuator changing by 2 dB steps, the signal
amplitude shall change corresponding to the figure given
below. A deviation of +/- 5% is considered acceptable.
A 50% signal, when reduced by 24 dB, should be
clearly detectable. ( Dynamic range )
Signal to Noise ratio : After setting a signal to 20% screen
height, the gain is further increased till the base line noise
equals 20%. The difference in gain is the signal to noise
ratio and indicates the quality of the amplifier.
Beam exit point and effective angle :
Exit point is the location which marks the entry of the central
ray of the ultrasonic beam into the test specimen. A smaller
discontinuity produces maximum indication, when it is on this
central ray of the beam. Hence, the exact angle of the axis of
the beam can be determined by triangulation after maximizing
signals from known small reflectors. During angle probe
examination, the probe is moved backward and forward to hit
the discontinuity with the axis of the beam so that the location
of the reflector can be determined. All measurements for flaw
location utilize the exit point.
To locate the exit point, move the angle probe over the scale
marked on the IIW - V1 block to obtain the maximum signal
from the 100 mm radius curved surface. Mark the point on the
probe body which coincides with the central line of the scale
marked on the face of the block. This is the exit point of the
axis of the ultrasonic beam.
This check can be performed on the V2 calibration block
also. The 50 mm radius side should be used to avoid near
zone effect.
Refracted beam angle :
Place the exit point of the angle probe in the approximate
position of the angle marked on the face of the IIW - V1
calibration block, that corresponds to the nominal angle marked
on the probe faceplate. Move the probe to maximize the signal
obtained from the reflector hole. Correlate the exit point to the
corresponding angle marked on the calibration block to
determine the angle of refraction of the ultrasonic beam axis,
0 0
i. e. the exit point of a 60 probe should be on the 60 mark
when the signal becomes maximum. The angle thus obtained is
valid for steel only.
Angle can be determined with the V2 block also.
Accurate method :
Refracted angle of the axis of the beam can be accurately
determined by analyzing the maximum reflection signal obtained
from a small diameter side drilled hole at known depth in a
reference calibration block. Smaller hole size at higher depth
provides better accuracy. For deep holes, the maximum signal
should be carefully detected.
Refracted Beam angle is calculated as,
Cos inverse [ hole depth / ( beam path + hole radius )]
In Leg 2
[ after reflection from the
Undersurface ]
2 Thickness - ( Beam path X Cos A )
0 0 0 0
Angle 80 70 60 45
----------------------------------------------
Sin A .98 .94 .86 .7
Cos A .17 .34 .5 .7
Tan A 5.67 2.74 1.73 1.0
Sec A 5.88 2.94 2.0 1.4
[ Sec A = 1 / Cos A ]
Locating discontinuities :
Ultrasound beam is a diverging cone with maximum sensitivity along its axis. Consequently, a flaw will produce a
signal even when the beam axis does not pass directly through it. It is therefore necessary to shift the probe till the
flaw signal becomes maximum. The flaw is then on the axis of the beam. The angle marked on the probe is the
angle of this beam axis for steel testing. The location of the flaw is then calculated by recording the sound travel
path displayed on the CRT screen and using trigonometric relations.
The CRT screen is to be marked at half skip and full skip beam paths [ Thickness X Sec A, 2 X Thickness X Sec A ]
to separate Leg 1 and Leg 2 region.
The defects in a test part usually produce a clearly defined echo envelope [ rise and fall of the echo signal ]. Such
indications should be analyzed thoroughly.
Weld flaw signals :
Single Pore : produces low amplitude narrow based sharp echo. When the probe is orbited around the pore, the echo
is maintained with small amplitude variations. They can only be detected as points.
Porosity cluster : Produces low amplitude broad based indications with many peaks. When the probe is orbited around
the cluster, the echoes will be held with amplitude and range variations.
Isolated Slag : produces forked and broad based echo. When the probe is orbited, the echo is maintained with some
amplitude variation and retains the forked shape.
Slag lines : echo falls rapidly when the probe is rotated or orbited and held when moved lateral to the weld.
Cracks and bonding flaws along the weld seam : produce a sharply defined large echo when beamed at right angles.
Due to multi - faceted nature of an open crack, the echo will have multiple peaks and wide envelope.
Graphical plot of discontinuity :
Plotting a discontinuity on the actual image of the weld not
only gives information about the possible type of the
discontinuity but also reduces error of misinterpretation.
Indications caused by misalignment, excess penetration and
from the surfaces of the weld can be easily identified. When
the scanning cross section is an irregular curve, such as
scanning a nozzle from the shell body, graphical plotting is the
most appropriate method.
When a suspected discontinuity signal appears on the CRT
screen, the indication is to be maximized by probe
manipulation. The distance between the probe exit point and
the centerline of the weld or any other selected reference point Flaw detection by diverging sound beam of
is recorded. The sound beam path displayed on the CRT lower frequency probe.
screen at maximum amplitude is also recorded. 0
Drawing the weld cross-section : Root bead echoes : For a flat root bead, 60 and
0
An accurate cross section of the weld is to be drawn on a 70 probes will hardly pick up any contour
paper, at 1 : 1 scale, with the help of a profile gauge, mound of echoes. When the root bead penetration is 1 mm
0 0
modeling clay or a soft soldering wire. The weld drawing must or more, both the 45 and 60 probes will receive
reproduce, the root face, root gap and the fusion lines. root bead response. The response from the bead
0 0
Accuracy of flaw locating depends on the ability to reproduce is more for a 45 probe and less when a 60
0
the weld cross section as accurate as possible. It is essential probe is used and no response when a 70
to know, the weld process used, how it was fabricated and with probe is used at normal test sensitivity. The root
which type of weld preparation and materials. bead echoes are broad based echoes. The
It is the responsibility of the UT operator to physically see all echoes will plot slightly below the plate level.
complicated weld joint preparations [ fit up ] before welding. This Misalignment : large echoes detected from one
will help him to estimate the root gap and locate the fusion side only at the root usually indicate
lines during flaw plotting. misalignment.
Plotting : Backing bar : Where the backing bar is welded to
The plotting card is positioned on the weld image such that the parent material, the inherent gap known as the
the scale point representing the distance, which is equal to the nose tends to give a reflected echo which is
distance between the exit point and the weld centerline, not classified as a defect.
coincides with the centerline of the weld image. [ see fig ] Weld cap echoes : The irregular surface contour of
The horizontal line in the card shall overlay the scanning the weld cap produces lower amplitude broad
surface line. The reflector is then marked on the probe based indications when the probe is located near
scanning line, at the beam path distance indicated on the CRT the full skip distance. The response is maximum
0
screen. with a 45 probe. The echoes will plot outside the
The reflector position is then considered for possible existence top level of the plate. The signal may be strong if
0
of a discontinuity. the capping is excessive and a 45 probe is in
use. The echoes will respond well to finger
damping techniques.
Graphical plotting card : Draw two more lines starting from the
Graphical plotting card is used for locating an ultrasound reflector intersection of the perpendicular lines, such that
within a test specimen. It shows the sound beam path in the they meet the 20 mm line at a distance of 40
specimen and provide all details required for a triangulation mm and 28 mm respectively.
solution of reflector location. The card is extremely useful during The former line represents the scanning line
0
the weld examination with as welded condition and welds with of a 60 probe and the later line represents
0
curved surfaces. that of a 45 probe.
The graphical plotting card together with the drawing of the weld Now draw linear scale with 5 mm interval on
cross section helps to identify the possible type of the each of the lines on the card. Mark all
discontinuity. By showing actual reflection location within the weld necessary identification numbers.
volume, signal indications from misalignment of members and The graphical plotting card is now ready for
weld surfaces are correctly indicated. use.
Drawing a graphical plotting card : If the 20 dB beam profile is available for the
Draw two lines perpendicular to each other as shown in the probe, then the same can be plotted on the
picture above. card. In this case, prepare individual plotting
The horizontal line represents the scanning surface and shows card for each angle probe.
the distance from exit point to the reflector. The vertical line
shows depth of the reflector from the scanning surface. The
intersection point represents the probe exit point.
Draw a line parallel to and at a depth of 20 mm from the
horizontal line Draw another line starting from the intersection of
the perpendicular lines such that it meets the 20 mm deep line
0
at a distance of 59 mm. [ 20 X probe factor of 70 ]
0
This line represents the scanning line of a 70 probe.
DAC curve with normal beam Probe :
As sound energy propagates through a medium, energy conversion
takes place and the sound pressure decreases with distance from
the source. In addition, sound spreads out from a true parallel beam
and the intensity per unit area also decreases. Ultrasound energy
also gets scattered by grain boundaries. All these causes the signal
amplitude from a constant reflector to vary with distance. Therefore,
to evaluate reflected signals from discontinuities, Distance Amplitude
Correction [ DAC ] curve is used.
DAC is plotted from signals from reflectors of equal area at
different distances in the same material. Flat bottomed hole blocks
or side drilled hole blocks are used to plot the DAC curve.
Procedure :
At least three flat bottom hole blocks or three scanning locations
in a side drilled hole block are chosen, such that the length of the
curve is sufficient to evaluate discontinuities at any depth in the
material thickness to be tested. The size of the reference hole in
the DAC blocks must be as per the requirements of the test
procedure in use.
Maximum signal from the hole nearest to the scanning surface is
picked up [ pos 1 ] and amplitude of this signal is set to 80 %
screen height. The tip of this signal is marked on the face of the
CRT screen with a marker pen. The gain used in this condition is
the reference gain setting.
Without changing the gain control, the maximum signals from the
hole ( s ) at position 2, 3 etc are picked up and marked on the
CRT screen. The marked points are then joined with a smooth
curve to complete the DAC curve.
To draw a 50 % reference level, the gain setting is reduced by
6 dB from the reference gain setting at each maximized signal
location and the peaks of these reduced signals are marked and
joined to obtain the 50 % reference level.
Transfer correction for the reference gain setting should be made
if the sound attenuation in the block [s] are different from the test Mat FBH
material. Compare back wall signals from the test part and the Dist dia
block which is nearest to the part thickness and correct the gain 1 / 8 5 X 1 / 64
difference as necessary. 1/4 5
When a flaw signal equals the DAC curve, the flaw is generally 1/2 5
considered to be larger than the reference reflectors active 3/4 5
reflection area. 1.5 5
ASTM Flat Bottom Hole set of 10 / 19 blocks are used for 3.0 3, 5 , 8
distance amplitude correction and ultrasonic flaw detectors amplitude 6.0 5,8
linearity check. ASTM FBH blocks.
DAC Plot.
Normal beam probe for contact testing :
Normal beam probes are useful for detecting discontinuities with
reflecting plane parallel to the scanning surface. These probes are
used on relatively flat and smooth surfaces to introduce longitudinal
wave into the test material. The common applications are ; testing of
plates, forged and rolled products, castings, thickness and velocity
measurements.
Frequencies between 0.5 to 6 MHz is normally used in contact
testing, because the high frequency crystals are thin and fragile.
High frequency contact probes in smaller crystal sizes are available
with some additional protection. Standard test frequency is 2 - 2.25
MHz. Crystal size of 6.4, 10, 12.7, 19 and 24 mm are most
common. Lower frequencies and larger crystals, are used on long
parts and coarse grained materials. High frequencies and smaller
crystals, are used on thin or fine grained materials. Smaller, high
frequency probes are highly sensitive for short range flaw
detection.
A single crystal probe has a dead zone [ ringing time of the
active element / width of the initial echo on the CRT screen ] and
can not detect discontinuities located within this distance. Scanning
from the opposite parallel surface overcomes this problem.
The main components in the probe are,
Active element : The active element [ or the crystal ] is a piezo
electric ceramic which converts electrical energy received from the
flaw detectors pulser to mechanical vibrations for generating
ultrasound in the test material. It also converts mechanical
vibrations to electrical charge for detecting ultrasound reflections.
Silver conductive coating on the active faces serve as electrodes.
Backing medium : Backing medium is a highly attenuative, high
density material, attached to the back of the crystal to control the
vibration by absorbing the energy radiated from the back surface.
Tungsten powder / Epoxy mixture is often used. The purpose is to
eliminate unwanted and prolong vibration of the crystal. This is
called damping. Careful consideration of the characteristics
[ acoustic impedance ] of this backing material enable the designer
to produce either a very wide band, but lower sensitivity or a
narrow band, but higher sensitivity probe. High damping reduces
dead zone, improves resolution but reduces the overall sensitivity
and thickness penetrating power of the probe.
Wear plate : The wear plate protects the soft silver coated surface
of the crystal from corrosion and wear by friction during contact
testing. A permanently attached ceramic disc or a coating of
abrasive material on the front face is used as the rubbing face.
This offers only limited protection. Replaceable plastic membrane or
nylon wear cap is most popular. Delay line attachments are also
used to reduce dead zone and improve the ability to measure thin
materials and small flaws. Delay line can be contoured to match
curved test surfaces to improve sound transmission. Dry coupling
and short duration testing at high temperature [ 10 sec scan / 60 sec
0
off, 900 F ] delay line options are available. When using a delay
line, there will be multiple back reflections from the end of it.
Performance : The probe should produce a 75 % signal indication Crystal Size mm :
from the 1.5 mm diameter drilled hole in a standard IIW -V1 block 3 / 5 [ HF ] applications on small contact area.
with a reserve gain of 40 dB or more, when used with a standard 6.4 [ HF ] curves, corrosion, de-lamination, thk, tubing
flaw detector. [ sensitivity ] [ with delay line applications ]
The probe, with a standard flaw detector, should produce clearly 10 mm complex shapes, small parts, flat / round
separated 75% height indications from the three distances bars, tubing, thickness, flaw sizing.
[ 85, 91, 100 mm ] in the IIW-V1 block. [ resolution ] 19 / 24 mm plate, ingot, slab, billet, axels, rolls, big
The probe should have low dead zone and low noise. wheels and gears, large forgings and
Probe applications [ in metals ] : castings etc.
.5 / 1 MHz cast Iron, brass, mill rolls, copper, stainless steel, Paint brush [ multiple element ] for plate testing.
[ 24 dia ] sound scattering materials, long parts. Wheel type probe mounted in liquid filled rubber
2 / 2.5 MHz standard test applications. Tire with adjustment for normal, angular
4 MHz thinner parts, aluminium, thk chk, flaw measurements. and surface wave scanning of large
5 / 10 MHz fine grained materials, inclusions, thin matetrials, bonding parts such as plates, billets etc.
thickness measurement. Note : For curved surface, it is recommended to use
High frequency probe will completely miss a disoriented reflector a suitably designed contoured acrylic adapter. This
because the reflected beam is highly directional. will improve transmission of energy, reduce dead
zone. Length of the adapter to be used such that
the parts back reflection appear before the adapters
back reflection.
Notches :
For evaluating incomplete penetration in welds or discontinuities
forming a corner, such as a surface crack or weld undercut,
machined surface notches may be employed for sensitivity
calibration and size comparison, since they more nearly represent
the actual discontinuity. A Vee shaped notch is an useful reference
for evaluating side wall lack of fusion in vee welds. Square
notches are useful for evaluating Lack of penetration.
Reflection amplitude from Vee, square and U shaped notches of
comparable dimensions may vary widely depending on the angle,
frequency and vibrational mode of the interrogating sound beam.
These notches are best produced by Electric Discharge Machining
[ spark eroded ] process.
The notches are usually at least one inch long [ min two times
the probe crystal width is recommended ], with a depth
[ d ] of 2 to 10 % of thickness of the part for weld inspection.
The width [ w ] of the cut is usually 1/16". For base material
examination of tubular products, axial and circumferential notches of
the required dimensions on the outside and the inside surfaces, in
a calibration block made from the product being examined is used.
For plates, 3% of thickness depth notch is recommended.
[ always refer applicable test procedure for notch details ]
]
Z 1 and Z 2 are the acoustic impedances of the two mediums.
Acoustic impedance of a material is the opposition to displacement
of its particles by sound energy. Acoustic impedance for,
longitudinal wave = material density X long wave velocity.
During ultrasonic testing of steel using oil as couplant, only 10%
energy enters steel and on its return journey again only 10% is
transmitted to the probe. Hence, only 1% of the generated energy is
available for amplification and display on the CRT.
When the incidence of a longitudinal wave is perpendicular to the
interface, the transmitted wave mode does not change.
However, If the longitudinal wave hits the interface at an angle,
then mode conversion takes place and both the longitudinal and
the shear wave modes will be produced in the second medium.
The refracted wave is predominantly longitudinal. The refracted
angle of the longitudinal wave is always more than the refracted
shear wave because of higher velocity. With increase in incident
angle, the refracted angle of the waves also increases.
When the first medium is Perspex and the second medium is
0
steel, at 27.6 angle of incidence, the refracted angle of the
0
longitudinal wave becomes 90 [ along the interface ] and only
0
shear wave will be present inside steel at 33 . This is the first
Critical angle for Perspex to Steel transmission.
0
With further increase in incident angle, at 57.2 , the angle of
0
refraction of the shear wave also becomes 90 and the shear
waves converts to surface waves which propagates along the
interface, [ provided a gas or only a very thin layer of Couplant is
present above the second medium ] otherwise shear waves will be
reflected back into the first medium [ total reflection ]. This angle
0
when the shear wave is refracted at 90 is known as the second
Critical angle of the mediums. The value of these critical angles
are different for different combination of mediums.
If the first medium is a liquid, then there would be no reflected
shear wave in the liquid.
In common shear wave probes, which are designed for testing
steel and eliminates the refracted longitudinal wave in steel, the
0 0
incident angles usable are between 27.5 and 57 for refracted
0 0
shear wave angles between 33.3 and below 90 in steel.
The incident, reflected and refracted angles are related as,
In water
2
near field length, 24 / ( 4 X .75 )
or 192 mm.
Half
0
beam spread, Inv Sin ( 1.22 X .75 ) / 24 or 2.15
0 0
full spread, 2 X 2.15 or 4.30 .
Transfer Correction :
If the reference block used for setting up the
test sensitivity is not fabricated from the material
to be tested, the sound attenuation characteristic
of the block material may be different from that
of the test material. The differences in surface
conditions will also change sound attenuation.
A correction for test sensitivity is required to
compensate for the differences between the
reference blocks and the test specimen for
surface roughness, contact area and internal
sound attenuation. This is known as transfer
correction and must be considered while using a
DAC curve for flaw evaluation.
A SF
0 0
Tan 80 - 5.67 80 - 5.75
0 0
Tan 70 - 2.74 70 - 2.94
0 0
Tan 60 - 1.73 60 - 2.0
0 0
Tan 45 - 1.0 45 - 1.41
0
Cos 80 - 0.17
0
Cos 70 - 0.34
0
Cos 60 - 0.50
0
Cos 45 - 0.70