Bridge Repair Manual NSW PDF

Engineering Practices Manual
Civil Engineering
Bridge Repair Manual

RC 4300
Issue A, Revision 1
March 2006
Issue A Australian Rail Track Corporation

Revision 1 This document is uncontrolled when printed
March 2006 Page 1 of 245
Civil Engineering RC 4300
Contents
Part 1 General ................................................................................................................. 8
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 9
1.1. The purpose of this manual ...................................................................................... 9
1.2. Nature of the repair procedure.................................................................................. 9
1.3. Who should use this manual?................................................................................... 9
1.4. Aims of repair procedures....................................................................................... 10
1.5. The structure of this manual ................................................................................... 10
1.6. Format for repair procedures .................................................................................. 10
2. Selecting repair actions ....................................................................................... 11

2.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 11
2.2. Procedure for selecting repair action ...................................................................... 12
2.3. Testing for and measuring defects.......................................................................... 14
2.4. Engineering assessments....................................................................................... 15
2.5. Avoiding recurrence of defects ............................................................................... 16
2.6. Steel repair issues .................................................................................................. 16
2.7. Concrete repair issues............................................................................................ 18
2.8. Masonry repair issues ............................................................................................ 18
3. Health and Safety ................................................................................................. 18

3.1. General .................................................................................................................. 18
3.2. Work Safety............................................................................................................ 19
3.3. Public safety ........................................................................................................... 20
3.4. Health..................................................................................................................... 20
3.5. First aid .................................................................................................................. 21
3.6. Cleaning up ............................................................................................................ 21
3.7. Removal of lead based paints ................................................................................ 22
Part 2 Steel Repairs ....................................................................................................... 23
4. Introduction to standard steel repairs ................................................................ 24

4.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 24
4.2. Selecting the appropriate repair procedure ............................................................. 24
4.3. Sub-procedures...................................................................................................... 24
4.4. Avoid welding ......................................................................................................... 24
4.5. Drawings ................................................................................................................ 25
4.6. Repair materials ..................................................................................................... 25
4.7. Health and safety.................................................................................................... 25

4.8. References ............................................................................................................. 25
5. Sub-procedures .................................................................................................... 26
5.1. Arresting corrosion (Sub-Procedure) ...................................................................... 26
5.2. Removing rivets and replacing with bolts (Sub-procedure) ..................................... 27
5.3. Patch painting (including surface preparation) ........................................................ 30
5.4. Filling voids (Sub-procedure).................................................................................. 33
5.5. Sealing interfaces (Sub-procedure) ........................................................................ 35
6. Repairing corroded flanges and webs of girders............................................ 35

6.1. Repairing flange corrosion in riveted girders........................................................... 35
6.2. Repairing flange corrosion in rolled or welded girders ............................................ 39
6.3. Repairing web corrosion near bottom flange angles in riveted girders .................... 41
6.4. Repairing webs with localised corrosion ................................................................. 45
6.5. Repairing corroded bottom flanges of jack arch bridges ......................................... 47
7. Repairing stiffeners, bracing connections and bearings .................................. 51

7.1. Relief of corrosion site at the base of intermediate web stiffeners........................... 51
7.2. Repairing intermediate and bearing web stiffeners with localised corrosion............ 55
7.3. Repairing bearing web stiffeners with localised corrosion at base of outstand leg of
stiffener .................................................................................................................. 61
7.4. Relief of corrosion site at the base of splayed angle bearing end stiffeners ............ 62
7.5. Repairing corrosion at bottom flange bracing connection........................................ 64
7.6. Replacing bearing plates ........................................................................................ 68
7.7. Repairing cracked and broken wind brace welded connections .............................. 73
8. Repairing fatigue damage.................................................................................... 74

8.1. Intercepting fatigue cracks...................................................................................... 74
8.2. Repairing fatigue cracks at connections of coped I-sections................................... 76
9. Repairing impact damage .................................................................................... 78

9.1. Description of Defect .............................................................................................. 78
9.2. Engineering Discussion .......................................................................................... 79
9.3. Sub-procedures required ........................................................................................ 79
9.4. Procedure outline ................................................................................................... 80
10. Repairing stepways and footways structures .................................................... 87

10.1. Repairing steel risers and stringers in stepways ..................................................... 87
10.2. Repairing corroded angle colums ........................................................................... 93
10.3. Repairing corroded 4-angle colums ........................................................................ 96
11. Complete replacement of members .................................................................. 102

11.1. Replacing members or elements of riveted members ........................................... 102
12. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 105

12.1. General ................................................................................................................ 105
12.2. Health and safety.................................................................................................. 105
12.3. References ........................................................................................................... 105
13. Deterioration of concrete ................................................................................... 105

13.1. Factors affecting deterioration .............................................................................. 105
13.2. Causes of deterioration ........................................................................................ 106
14. Types of defects ................................................................................................. 113

14.1. Introduction........................................................................................................... 113
14.2. Cracking ............................................................................................................... 113
14.3. Spalling ................................................................................................................ 116
14.4. Scaling ................................................................................................................. 117
14.5. Delamination ........................................................................................................ 118
14.6. Leaching............................................................................................................... 118
14.7. Rust stains............................................................................................................ 119
14.8. Honeycombing ..................................................................................................... 119
14.9. Dampness ............................................................................................................ 120
14.10. Leaking joints................................................................................................... 120
14.11. Breaking up of repairs...................................................................................... 120
15. Assessment of deterioration ............................................................................. 120

15.1. General ................................................................................................................ 121
15.2. Assessment procedures ....................................................................................... 121
15.3. Other detection methods ...................................................................................... 123
16. Repair materials.................................................................................................. 123

16.1. Introduction........................................................................................................... 123
16.2. Material properties................................................................................................ 124
16.3. Types of Repairs .................................................................................................. 124
16.4. Questions to consider before choosing a repair material ...................................... 137
17. Repair options .................................................................................................... 139

17.1. Establish need for repairs ..................................................................................... 139
17.2. Repair options ...................................................................................................... 139
17.3. Selection of repair methods .................................................................................. 139
18. Introduction to concrete repair procedures ..................................................... 140

18.1. General ................................................................................................................ 140

18.2. Repair methods .................................................................................................... 140

18.3. Sub-procedures.................................................................................................... 140
18.4. Steps in repair work.............................................................................................. 140
19. Sub-procedures .................................................................................................. 141

19.1. Removing damaged concrete (sub-procedure)..................................................... 141
19.2. Removing concrete at joints (Sub-procedure)....................................................... 143
19.3. Cleaning concrete substrate for patch repairs and re-casting (sub-procedure) ..... 145
19.4. Cleaning Concrete Surface for Overlays............................................................... 145
19.5. Cleaning reinforcement (Sub-procedure).............................................................. 146
19.6. Adding reinforcement (Sub-procedure)................................................................. 146
19.7. Applying bonding coat to concrete (Sub-procedure) ............................................. 147
19.8. Coating reinforcement (Sub-procedure)................................................................ 148
19.9. Formwork for re-casting concrete (Sub-procedure)............................................... 148
19.10. Curing (Sub-procedure) ................................................................................... 149
19.11. Surface preparation for external coatings (Sub-procedure) .............................. 150
20. Repairing cracks................................................................................................. 151

20.1. Types of cracks .................................................................................................... 151
20.2. Repair methods for cracks.................................................................................... 151
20.3. Cracks that should be repaired ............................................................................. 152
20.4. Epoxy injection ..................................................................................................... 153
20.5. Grouting ............................................................................................................... 154
20.6. Routing and sealing.............................................................................................. 155
20.7. Drilling and plugging ............................................................................................. 156
20.8. Stitching ............................................................................................................... 157
20.9. Adding reinforcement ........................................................................................... 158
20.10. Surface treatments........................................................................................... 160
20.11. Flexible sealants for live cracks........................................................................ 161
21. Patch repairs....................................................................................................... 163

21.1. Engineering discussion......................................................................................... 163
21.2. Repair procedure with cement-sand mortars ........................................................ 163
21.3. Repair procedure with polymer modified cementitious mortars ............................. 164
21.4. Repair procedure with epoxy mortars ................................................................... 164
22. Recasting with concrete .................................................................................... 165

22.1. Engineering discussion......................................................................................... 165
22.2. Concrete mix design............................................................................................. 166
22.3. Repair procedures ................................................................................................ 168

22.4. Replacing bearing pads ........................................................................................ 169
23. Repairs for corrosion ......................................................................................... 170
24. Sprayed concrete ............................................................................................... 170

24.1. Repair procedure.................................................................................................. 171
25. Protective coatings ............................................................................................ 172

25.1. Engineering Discussion ........................................................................................ 172
25.2. Repair procedure for chloride build up .................................................................. 173
25.3. Repair procedure for carbonation ......................................................................... 174
26. References .......................................................................................................... 175
27. Introduction to masonry repairs........................................................................ 179

27.1. General ................................................................................................................ 179
27.2. Health and safety.................................................................................................. 179
27.3. Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 179
28. Deterioration of Masonry ................................................................................... 179

28.1. Causes of deterioration ........................................................................................ 179
29. Types of defects ................................................................................................. 182

29.1. Cracks .................................................................................................................. 182
29.2. Fretting ................................................................................................................. 183
29.3. Spalling ................................................................................................................ 183
30. Assessment of deterioration ............................................................................. 183

30.1. General ................................................................................................................ 183
30.2. Assessment procedure......................................................................................... 183
31. Repair materials.................................................................................................. 185

31.1. General ................................................................................................................ 185
31.2. Function of mortar ................................................................................................ 185
31.3. Problems with strong mortars ............................................................................... 185
31.4. Importance of lime in mortars ............................................................................... 186
31.5. Basic principles .................................................................................................... 186
32. Methods of repair ............................................................................................... 186

32.1. General ................................................................................................................ 186
32.2. Steps in repair work.............................................................................................. 187
32.3. Strength and stability ............................................................................................ 187
32.4. Repairs of cracks.................................................................................................. 187
32.5. Fretting ................................................................................................................. 189

32.6. Impact damage..................................................................................................... 191

32.7. Corrosion of embedded iron or steel..................................................................... 191
32.8. Miscellaneous repairs........................................................................................... 191
Appendix A Repair materials ...................................................................................... 193
Appendix B Guidelines for Management of Lead Paint on Steel Structures ........... 196
Appendix C Guidelines for welding old steels .......................................................... 231
Appendix D Techniques for removing rivets using oxy-fuel equipment ................. 244

Part 1
General

1. Introduction
1.1. The purpose of this manual
The purpose of this manual is to describe and detail standard repair procedures for
defects commonly found in bridges owned and maintained by ARTC. Both new
procedures and those that have been previously used successfully on ARTC's
bridges are included.
Several advantages result from standardising repair procedures:
The standard repair procedures included have been developed to be both

structurally sound and practically achievable. Adherence to standard repair
procedures reduces the incidence of inappropriate and ineffective repairs
and repairs that have adverse effects on the bridge.
Repairs will be undertaken in a consistent fashion throughout ARTC, whether

carried out by day labour or under contract.
The engineering input into detailing sound repairs is minimised and

duplication of effort in developing repair procedures is avoided.
The cumulative knowledge and experience gained in carrying out repairs can
be incorporated into the repair procedures and details. This is an effective
means of passing on the knowledge.
Relevant engineering information about the repair procedures is included in

the manual to assist those responsible for selecting appropriate repair action.
1.2. Nature of the repair procedure
The repair procedures given are generic in nature; that is, they apply to a range of
similar solutions, with varying member size, position and arrangement. As such it is
not possible to completely detail the repair. Additional information such as the size
and connections of strengthening elements and their precise position needs to be
supplied to enable the repair to be completed.
Notwithstanding the above, guidelines for the selection of size, position and
connections of strengthening elements etc, are given wherever possible to minimise
the amount of engineering input required. Such guidelines are often conservative
and savings may be made in materials and labour requirements for the repair if the
engineering details of the repair are determined by design for the specific case at
hand. The savings may be significant and worthwhile if the extent of repair is great.
1.3. Who should use this manual?
This manual should be used by those responsible for:
selecting repair actions for bridges;
implementing repairs either using day labour or under contract;
inspecting repair work carried out by either day labour or

contractors;
carrying out routine or special maintenance on bridges that have been

repaired.
1.4. Aims of repair procedures
The aim of the repair procedures is to restore the strength and serviceability of the
bridge structure, either to the "as new" condition, or to the condition that is required
for current or envisaged use.
In developing repair details the normal design practices, as specified in the

Australian Bridge Design Code, are applied. It is reasonable that there will be the
same level of confidence in the repaired bridge as in a new structure. For steel
structures, the fatigue life of the repaired bridge should not be less than the life that
would have remained had the defect not occurred.
Some of the repair procedures, such as concrete etching, aim to restore the original
integrity of the member. Other repairs, typically when used in steel structures, aim to
compensate for the defect by the attachment of additional structural elements.
A few procedures that are included are not repairs as such, but rather actions that
can be taken to reduce or arrest further deterioration of the structure, or make the
structure easier to maintain.
1.5. The structure of this manual
The manual is divided into five parts.
Part 1 provides an introduction to the manual, discusses the process of

selecting repair actions and presents information on environmental
safety and occupational health as related to bridge repairs.
Part 2 covers standard repairs to steel bridges.
Part 3 covers standard repairs to concrete bridge superstructures and

substructures.
Part 4 covers repairs to masonry.
Part 5 covers repairs to timber bridges. (not yet written)
Additional information such as specifications for repair materials and further

technical information are included in the Appendices.
1.6. Format for repair procedures
Each repair procedure is presented in a consistent format comprising the following

parts.
1. Description of defect.
2. Description of repair.
= A brief statement describing the form of the repair.

3. Engineering discussion.
= A discussion of engineering aspects of the repair.
4. Sub-procedures required.
5. Procedure outline.
= The main steps in implementing the repair are described. This is to be
read in conjunction with drawings detailing the repair. Separate procedure
outlines may be given for different cases.
6. Alternative details.
= Describes possible alternatives to part, or all, of the repair.
7. Action to avoid recurrence.
= Describes action that can be taken to avoid or minimise recurrence of the
defect.
8. Special considerations and effects of repair.

= Describes special considerations required, such as traffic restrictions, or
effects of the repair on the structure.
9. Follow-up inspection and testing.

= Indicates requirements for follow-up inspection or testing to confirm the
ongoing performance of the repair.
10. Drawing List.

= Lists the drawing(s) that describe and detail the repair.
Some of these parts are omitted if they are not relevant.
2. Selecting repair actions
2.1. Introduction
The aim of repairing a bridge is to extend its life. It is most important that the repair
actions selected satisfy this aim at a cost commensurate with the benefits derived.
Inappropriate repair action may actually reduce the life expectancy of a bridge. It is
also possible that money spent on extensive and costly repair will not extend the life
of the bridge significantly and would be better put towards a new bridge.
Selection of appropriate maintenance, rehabilitation and replacement (MR & R)

actions for a bridge is part of the function of a Bridge Management System. The
principles of Life Cycle Costing are applied in Bridge Management Systems to
determine the optimum MR & R strategy that will result in minimum annual cost of
providing a bridge at a site.
If a Life Cycle Costing analysis cannot be carried out, the next best thing is to
determine the appropriate repair action by applying a process of logical assessment
to the bridge as a whole.
Section 2.3 below presents a series of questions to be considered in the process of

selecting appropriate repair action.

2.2. Procedure for selecting repair action
In determining the appropriate repair action to be carried out on a bridge, the

following questions should be answered:
2.2.1 What is the nature, severity, location and extent of each defect?
To enable a considered logical assessment of repair actions, full data about each
defect must be known and recorded from site inspections, measurements and
testing. Clause 2.3 deals with testing for and measurement of defects.
2.2.2 Is a repair to restore full strength necessary?
The underbridge, overbridge, footbridge or stepway may have been designed with a
load capacity greater than currently required or envisaged. In this case the strength
reduction caused by the defect may be acceptable.
Even if the full design load capacity is needed, a small overstress say 10% -
resulting from the defect can usually be accepted.
Some elements may be able to tolerate considerable deterioration before repair or
strengthening is needed. For example, the full flange area of a rolled girder may not
be necessary near the end of a span where the bending moment is small.
The necessity for and extent of a repair should be determined, where appropriate,
by a full engineering assessment. The time and effort required for such a task may
be repaid by minimising the extent of repairs needed or by determining that the
repairs are not structurally necessary. Clause 2.5 discusses the role of engineering
assessments.
If it is found that repair or strengthening is not needed, then the only action
requirement is to protect the structure from further deterioration.
The serviceability requirements, particularly fatigue in steel, should be considered in

a similar manner to strength.
Note that a repair may be warranted to improve the appearance of a bridge, even if
it is not structurally essential.
2.2.3 Is a standard repair procedure available for each defect?
It is not normally appropriate to repair one defect in a bridge if other signifiant

defects are left unrepaired because satisfactory or cost effective repair procedures
are not available.
It should be confirmed that a standard repair procedure envisaged is actually

appropriate to the defect. The engineering discussion accompanying each repair
procedure will describe where the procedure should and should not be used.
2.2.4 What is the total cost of repairing all defects?
The total cost of repairing all defects in a bridge, even if only determined crudely,
should be estimated and compared with the expected benefits. The benefits are
usually either extending the life of the bridge or eliminating an immediate dangerous
situation. The costs of any track possessions etc. that are required should be
included.
If the costs of repair are substantial and the repairs are non-urgent for safety, then it

may be better to replace the bridge and divert repair funds to more appropriate
cases.
The initial cost estimate will be a factor in deciding if a detailed engineering

assessment is worthwhile. When the total cost is high say more than 5% to 10% of
the bridge replacement cost -a detailed engineering assessment must be carried
out. The extent of repair is likely to be minimised as are sizes and numbers of
connections for strengthening elements.
2.2.5 How significant will the repair be in extending the life of the bridge?
The proposed repair may not provide value for money if the life of the bridge is not
extended because of other factors.
Most steel bridges have a finite life, governed by fatigue of the steelwork. It may not
be appropriate to spend large amounts of money on repairs if the bridge is near the
end of its predicted fatigue life. Replacement is probably a better option.
In concrete structures, defects such as corrosion of reinforcement may not be

apparent at the present time, but the effects may show up in the form of concrete
cracking and spalling in the near future. It may not be appropriate to spend money
on repairing some localised defects if much more extensive defects are likely to
show up in the near future. Investigation by specialists into the complete structure
may be warranted prior to undertaking costly repairs of concrete.
As another example, the benefits of repairing corroded bottom flanges of jack arch
bridges may not be certain because the condition of the remainder of the steel
section is usually not known. The effort in repairing the bottom flange would be
wasted if the top flange and web were also severely corroded.
2.2.6 Can the cost of the repair be justified on the basis of benefits derived?
The answer to this question will normally be evident from the answers to questions
2.2.2 to 2.2.5. For some bridges there may be additional factors that influence the
decision on whether to implement a particular repair.
Taking advantage of planned track possessions may often be a significant factor in

deciding whether to implement a repair or not. In many repairs, particularly smaller
ones, the cost of the track possession is the major component. If the repair can be
carried out under a possession provided for other reasons, the actual cost of the
repair drops significantly for the same benefit. A repair that could not normally be
justified on a cost/benefit basis may become cost effective as a result.
2.2.7 Is a detailed engineering assessment needed?
The reasons for, and benefits of, an engineering assessment are discussed in Part 2
Section 2.4 of this manual. The decision to undertake an engineering assessment
will be based on the cost of the assessment versus the possible benefits.
A longer lead time to implement a repair will usually be required if an engineering

assessment is to be undertaken.
2.2.8 Has partial replacement of the bridge been considered?
As an alternative to repairing defects or strengthening members, consideration

should be given to partial replacement of the structure.

This may involve merely replacement of damaged bracing members, stiffeners,

stringers, cross girders etc. up to complete replacement of main girders.
The decision will be based on time, cost and effectiveness of the repair compared to
that of a complete replacement. If the effectiveness or life expectancy of repairs or
strengthening is limited, then complete replacement of an element may be a better
option, particularly if the cause of the defect can be eliminated at the same time.
2.2.9 Will the repair have any adverse effects on the structure?
Consider any adverse effects that the repair may have on the performance of the
bridge.
Will traffic clearances be reduced?
Will the structure become more vulnerable to damage or deterioration?
Will other potential defects be hidden by the repair?
2.3. Testing for and measuring defects
2.3.1 General
As stated in 2.2.1 above, it is necessary to determine the nature, severity, extent

and location of defects to determine appropriate repair actions. Most defects are
initially detected by visual inspection. The severity, extent and location are
determined by subsequent measurements and tests.
2.3.2 Measuring section loss in steel
In steel structures, corrosion of steel leading to a loss of section is a common defect.

Measurements are to be taken to determine the thickness of remaining sound steel
for comparison with the original thickness. All loose rust and corrosion product must
be removed at the point of measurement to allow an accurate reading. Vernier
calipers or preferably a micrometer should be used to obtain accurate
measurements to at least an accuracy of 0.25mm.
The number and location of measurements required will depend on the defect under
consideration. Usually the minimum requirement is to measure the remaining cross-
sectional area of an element (flange, web, stiffener) at the location of the greatest
corrosion loss and location of greatest stress.
2.3.3 Testing for and measuring cracks in steel
Although many cracks in steel can be detected by visual inspection, it is usually

necessary to use techniques such as magnetic particle testing to determine the
exact extent of cracks. This is particularly important in mapping fatigue cracks where
the end point must be found.
Examination for cracks and other defects in new welds will require the use of non-
destructive techniques such as ultrasonic or X-ray examination.
Further discussion of N-D examination methods is beyond the scope of this manual,
but reference is made to the appropriate Australian Standards.

2.3.4 Observation under load
The severity of some defects is best determined by observing the structure during
the passage of a heavy load. Loose rivets and bolts may be detected by this
means. The behaviour of girder bearing plates and bed plates under load will aid in
determining the necessity for repair or replacement.
2.3.5 Detecting defects in concrete
While most defects in concrete, such as cracking, spalling and rust staining are
detected by visual examination, the likelihood of further deterioration can be
determined using specialist testing techniques. Tests to determine extent of
carbonation, chloride penetration, cover to reinforcing etc. can be carried out to
determine the life expectancy of concrete. As outlined above, this information is
useful in planning the long term maintenance and repair strategy for a concrete
structure.
Refer to Part 3 of this manual, dealing specifically with concrete repairs, for more
information on testing of concrete.
2.4. Engineering assessments
An engineering assessment or investigation into a proposed repair must be carried

out and is essential to determine the appropriateness of the repair and the repair
details. The engineering assessment is based on measured and recorded defects
found on the bridge during inspections, the structural drawings of the bridge and the
load capacity requirement of the bridge.
The aims of an engineering assessment are to:
determine the effect of the defects on the strength of the structure,
determine the effects of the defects on the serviceability of the bridge,

including its fatigue performance,
determine or confirm that each proposed standard repair is both necessary

and suitable to address the defect,
determine the extent of all the required repairs,
determine the engineering details of the repairs where required these include
plate sizes, fastener sizes and types, new connection details etc.
A detailed engineering assessment is not always required. The repair procedures

include, where possible, guidelines for determining the above data, albeit adopting a
conservative approach. A detailed engineering assessment is required where the
estimated total cost of repairs is more than 5% to 10% of the replacement cost of
the structure. In such cases, the cost of the investigation could be more than saved
in the reduced extent of repair.

2.5. Avoiding recurrence of defects
In conjunction with carrying out the repairs, action should be taken where possible to
avoid recurrence of the defects. This has been considered in devising repair
procedures. To protect against recurrence of the defect, the original cause must be
known and eliminated where possible.
The causes of defects are often built into the structures and are difficult to eliminate.
Deterioration of concrete, for example, due to insufficient cover to reinforcing or poor
concrete compaction, cannot be easily addressed. Details in steel structures which
are prone to corrosion because of collection of water and dirt cannot be readily
eliminated without changing the structure significantly.
Often the only effective means of avoiding recurrence of the defect is preventive
maintenance of the structure to remove dirt and debris and to maintain the integrity
of the paint system.
Where possible galvanised strengthening or replacement elements should be used

to ensure long term corrosion protection with minimum maintenance requirements.
The standard repair procedures specify galvanised elements where possible.
2.6. Steel repair issues
2.6.1 Methods of connection
In addressing defects in steel bridges resulting from steel corrosion, it is clearly not
possible to reinstate the steel to its original condition. Similarly, restoring physically
damaged steel to its original condition is often difficult. Most repairs therefore involve
fitting new steel elements to compensate for the reduction in strength or
serviceability caused by the section loss.
The two standard methods of connecting new elements are welding and mechanical
fastenings (bolts etc.). Of the two, mechanical fastenings have the least potential
problems although welding is usually easier and cheaper. Mechanical fasteners
have been adopted as the standard method in all steel repair procedures.
The two main potential problems with field welded connections are:
1. satisfactory welds may be difficult or impossible to achieve in steels of older

bridges because of their metallurgical properties; and
2. the fatigue life of the structure may be adversely affected by welding. The
effect may be severe.
Refer to 2.6.2 and 2.6.3 below.
Connection by welding can only be permitted if satisfactory welds are proven to be

achievable and any effects on fatigue life are acceptable. Most standard repairs,
detailed with bolted connections, can be readily adapted for welded connections.
2.6.2 Weldability of steel
While modern steels can be readily repaired by welding using appropriate

procedures, the steels found in older steel bridges are often considered "not

weldable" or very difficult to weld because of their metallurgical properties. The high
sulphur and phosphorous contents largely contribute to difficulty in welding.
Unfortunately, it is not possible to classify steels as weldable or "not weldable"

based on their age. From the 1940's to the 1960's some imported steels were from
plants producing steels designed to be weldable, while others were from plants
producing unweldable steels.
It is essential that, where a welded repair is proposed on steels of unknown

weldability, the steels be tested to determine whether or not they are weldable by
normal welding procedures. The necessary tests can be carried out by NATA
Accredited Laboratory.
It is sometimes technically possible to achieve satisfactory welds in older style (non-

weldable) steels, but only by careful adherence to particular welding procedures
designed for such steels. A high level of operator skill and good welding conditions
are required. Unfortunately, most steel repairs must be carried out in conditions
which are anything but conducive to good welding.
Appendix C provides details of techniques for welding so-called "nonweldable"

steels. The information is intended for accredited welders/boilermakers already
skilled in normal welding techniques. If such welding is attempted, it is essential to
carry out test welds to confirm that acceptable results can be achieved under site
conditions. It is also necessary to carry out non-destructive testing of the completed
welds to confirm their integrity.
Also, careful consideration must be given to the ramifications of a failed attempt at a

welded repair on "non-weldable" steels. The cost of undoing the damage may be
significantly greater than if a bolted connection repair had been carried out.
2.6.3 Effect on fatigue life
As in the design of new steel bridges, the details of welded connections used in
steel repairs may have an effect on the fatigue life of a bridge. Although the
remaining life of a bridge that has been in service for many years is not expected to
be as great as a new bridge, it is best to avoid any repair actions that would
adversely affect fatigue life. This is particularly so if viable bolted connection
alternatives are available.
Properly maintained riveted girder bridges with low stress levels may never fail by
fatigue. Repairs involving welded connections on such bridges often set a finite
fatigue life and so should be avoided.
If a welded repair is proposed, it should always be accompanied by an engineering

assessment of the effect on the fatigue life of the weldment. The AREA Manual for
Railway Engineering should be used to assess the effects. The proposed welded
repair should only be implemented if the effects on fatigue life are acceptable.
2.6.4 Redundancy of riveted girders
Riveted girders, comprising multiple elements for flanges, have beneficial

redundancy that should not be removed by the repair process. Redundancy means
that if one of the plate or angle elements of a flange fails, say by a fatigue crack, the
whole girder will not immediately fail as the fatigue crack cannot propagate to other
elements. Inspection can detect the failed component for repair prior to complete

failure of the girder. The stress levels in the uncracked elements obviously
increase, causing overstress and reducing the overall fatigue life, but the situation is
better than in welded or rolled girders where a crack in a flange can quickly
propogate all the way through the section, leading to collapse.
The elements of riveted girder flanges must not be joined by welding as this would
create paths to allow fatigue cracks to propagate from one element to another.
Redundancy is of particular benefit in bridges of a considerable age because it

provides a degree of protection against sudden failure. The redundancy must be
preserved.
2.7. Concrete repair issues
The most important issue in the repair of any structure is to ensure adequate
strength and stability at all times. This is particularly relevant in repair to reinforced
concrete elements where significant areas of concrete are to be removed. In such
cases the strength or stability of the structure with the concrete removed should be
checked by a structural engineer before commencing repairs. Also, load restrictions
should be applied and the structure temporarily supported as necessary.
The repair of concrete structures requires a knowledge of the following issues:
1. Types of defects which can occur due to deterioration, e.g. cracks, spalls,
delamination, scaling, honeycombing etc.
2. Causes of deterioration, e.g. chloride penetration, carbonation, alkali -

aggregate reaction, shrinkage and thermal effects, foundation movements
etc.
3. Test methods for assessing the severity of deterioration.
4. Selection of appropriate repair materials, from ordinary Portland cement to
synthetic polymers, resins and acrylics according to particular
requirements of a repair project.
5. Selection of appropriate repair procedure.
Part 3, Concrete repairs, contains detailed discussion of all the above issues.
However, it does not include complex and advanced repair methods such as
cathodic protection, re-alkalisation etc., which should only be entrusted to
organisations specialising in this work.
Also, the repair methods are for reinforced and plain concrete only, not prestressed
concrete.
2.8. Masonry repair issues
The repairs of masonry structures generally involve the same issues as for concrete
structures. Methods and materials for masonry repairs are included in Part 4.
3. Health and Safety
3.1. General
For the protection and safety of workmen, public and environment, safe work
practices are essential on every work site. The following safety aspects are

common to most types of ARTC work and must be considered prior to

commencement of any construction or repair project:
Work safety
Public safety
Environmental safety
Health
Health and safety have a high priority at all times during field operations. All
statutory rules and regulations under various Occupational Health and Safety Acts
and saf ety pr acti
ces det ail
ed i n ARTC s Saf ety ManagementSy stem ar ef or
guidance in planning for safety at all the worksites. Commonsense should be used
in anticipating the particular safety requirements for each and every project to be
undertaken.
3.2. Work Safety
Work safety must be planned ahead. Before commencing work the supervisor
needs to attend to the following:
1. Familiarise yourself with full requirements of the repair work including

formwork, falsework, demolition, repair materials, repair method, and safety
requirements of handling repair materials and equipment.
2. Arrange personnel who are skilled in the particular type of repair.
3. Ensure that all tools, plant and equipment are available and in good working
order.
4. Arrange all repair materials including materials necessary for cleaning tools
and plant after completion of work.
5. Arrange safety harnesses, clothing, footwear, gloves, ear muffs, eye

protection glasses, masks, helmets, welding shields, and any other items
necessary for personal safety of the workers. Supply washing soap, towels
and barrier creams for worker hygiene.
6. Identify and locate all the utilities existing at site, such as water, sewerage,
electricity, signals, communications, gas etc. If any utilities are affected by
work take measures in advance to protect them or get them relocated as
necessary through appropriate authorities. If any risk is foreseen, inform the
authorities to stand by for any emergencies.
7. Ensure that first aid equipment is available at site and that at least one of the
personnel at site holds a valid qualification for giving first aid.
8. If necessary, plan and arrange for standby oxygen administering equipment

and fire-extinguishers. Under such circumstances workers should be trained
beforehand in how to use them.
9. All work must be carried out in well ventilated and well lit areas. If necessary
make prior arrangements for exhaust fans and artificial lighting.

10. If scaffolding and falsework are required for supporting the structure, arrange
this to be designed by qualified structural engineers. Erection and stability of
falsework must be supervised by qualified technical persons.
11. Persons who are not qualified for carrying out a particular task or operating a
particular equipment must not be allowed to do that task or operate the
equipment.
12. Generally, all the work should be carried out as per industry's normal
standards of practice and/or in compliance with the Australian Standards.
13. All repair work using proprietary materials must be carried out strictly
according to the manufacturer's printed instructions. The manufacturer's
product data sheets for health and safety precautions must be carefully read
and followed.
3.3. Public safety
There are legal obligations to take all necessary precautions and adequate
measures for safety of public in and around the working area. The following steps
should be taken to safeguard the public against any injury, loss of life or property:
1. Attend immediately to any damage and deterioration which may cause loss
of strength and stability of a structure and thereby may result in injury, loss of
life or property to public.
2. Take steps to support the structure against instability and collapse, as well
as protect the adjacent properties, plant and utilities from possible damage.
3. Until the structure is made safe, close off access to it and prohibit its use by
the public by setting up suitable fences and barriers. With the assistance of
police and Road and Traffic
Authority arrange to divert the pedestrian and vehicular traffic by alternative
routes. Provide warning signs and hazard lights as necessary to caution the
public of danger.
4. During progress of the work, take all necessary precautions to safeguard the
public from suffering excessive hardship and inconvenience which may be
caused by equipment, materials and procedures. Minimise noise, dust,
flooding, blowing of sand and grit in blasting operations, toxic fumes, debris
and so on.
5. At the completion of the repairs, clean up all dirt and debris, remove all plant,
equipment and materials and restore the facility to public.
Caution:
In construction and repair work on railway sites, use is frequently made of
explosives, detonators and hazardous materials. The issue and use of such
materials must be strictly controlled. Particularly, all explosives and detonators must
be accounted for in order to prevent their falling into hands of children and
undesirable elements. Many a loss of life and limb has been caused by detonators
picked up by children and adolescents and used for "fun".
3.4. Health
All personnel engaged at a work site must be protected against sickness and
personal injury caused by work conditions, repair materials and methods of repair.
Accidents, injury and sickness can be minimised by taking the following precautions:

1. Do not work in unventilated or poorly ventilated areas. Many repair

materials and procedures give off unpleasant vapours or toxic fumes that
can cause nausea or breathing difficulties. If necessary, wear respirator
masks. Do not smoke while working, as you may inhale vapours and
fumes too.
2. Handling of polymers, epoxies, acrylics and other cementitious materials
often causes skin and eye irritations. Before mixing and using these
materials, read all label warnings on the packages as well as the
manuf actur erspr oductl i
terature and f ollow t he handl ing instruct ions
carefully. Avoid physical contact with the materials by wearing protective
clothing, shoes, gloves and protective eye wear at all times.
3. Apply protective barrier cream on exposed skin. (However, do not use
barrier creams as substitute for protective clothing).
4. If any material comes into contact with skin or enters the eyes, give first aid
immediately, as described herein later.
5. If overalls or inside of shoes and gloves become contaminated, remove
them as soon as practicable and replace them with clean ones.
6. Wash thoroughly with warm soapy water before eating, drinking or smoking
and after finishing work.
3.5. First aid
The following first aid procedures should be followed:
Eyes
If any material enters the eyes or irritation persists, hold eyes open, flush with low
pressure water for at least 10 minutes and seek immediate medical aid.
Skin
If skin contact occurs, remove contaminated clothing and wash skin thoroughly with
warm soapy water. If irritation persists or skin rashes or allergic responses such as
wheezing and swelling occur, seek immediate medical aid.
Inhalation
Personnel affected by inhalation of vapour etc. should be removed from the
contaminated area into fresh air. Apply artificial respiration if not breathing and seek
immediate medical aid.
Ingestion
Immediately rinse the mouth repeatedly with water. If swallowing occurs, do not
induce vomiting. Drink plenty of water and seek immediate medical aid.
Fire
Use a fire extinguisher appropriate to the type of burning material. Avoid breathing
products of combustion.
3.6. Cleaning up
All leaks or spillages should be cleaned up as they occur and before they set. The
material should be soaked up in suitable absorbents such as dry sand or sawdust,
or swept up if it is powdered material. The material should be disposed of quickly
and safely into waste drums.

Tools and equipment can be cleaned with proprietary solvents or warm water and
detergent before the adhesive has had time to set.
3.7. Removal of lead based paints
The large majority of rail bridges are primed with red lead primer. Lead in any form
is toxic to humans and animals when ingested or inhaled.
Particular attention therefore must be paid to environmental safety and worker and
public health and safety in the process of removing lead based paints. Reference is
made to Appendix B containing the "Guidelines for Management of Red Lead Paint
on Steel

Part 2
Steel Repairs

4. Introduction to standard steel repairs
4.1. Introduction
Part 2 of this manual gives details of standard repair procedures for defects
commonly occurring in steel bridges and other structures within the ARTC system.
Documenting standard repair procedures assists in ensuring that common defects
are repaired in a consistent and structurally satisfactory manner by both ARTC staff
and sub-contractors.
It must be emphasised that the information given on each repair is not a full
specification (in the contractual sense) but a description of the form of the repair and
the steps required to implement the repair for each generic type of defect.
Additional information, such as size and thickness of plates, numbers and
arrangement of new bolts, extent of repair etc. must be determined by an
engineering assessment and provided to the repairer in conjunction with information
in this manual. Guidelines for determining this additional information are given with
the procedure, where possible.
4.2. Selecting the appropriate repair procedure
Chapter 2 of Part 1 deals with selecting the appropriate repair actions or strategies
for the bridge, looking at it as a whole. Reference is made to that section.
Because of the generic nature of some of the repair procedures given, it is also
necessary to ensure that the procedure proposed is appropriate and applicable for
the particular defect. Careful engineering assessment of the defects, on a case by
case basis, is strongly recommended to assist in ensuring that the appropriate repair
procedure is selected.
Discussion of the engineering considerations of each repair is given within the

procedure. Where appropriate, the discussion includes guidelines for determining
the necessity for the repair based on the severity of the defect.
4.3. Sub-procedures
Some actions in the repair process are common to more than one repair procedure.
For example, the process of replacing a rivet with a high strength bolt is to be
carried out in many of the repair procedures. These actions or sub-procedures are
described and detailed in Chapter 5.2. Required sub-procedures are referred to in
the main repair procedures.
4.4. Avoid welding
The repair procedures presented generally use bolted connections instead of site
welding for the following reasons:
High quality site welds are difficult to achieve.
Many of the repairs are to be carried out on old bridges in which the steels
are considered unweldable.
The addition of weldments to members with calculable stresses can often

reduce the fatigue life significantly.

Welded repairs can remove or reduce the inherent structural redundancy of

built up riveted sections.
Alternative connection details involving site welding may be possible but
should only be implemented after:
carrying out a full engineering investigation of the effects on strength, fatigue

life and degree of redundancy; and
determining by analysis and tests that site welding the existing steels is
achievable and practicable.
Refer to Chapter 2 of Part 1 for more information on the suitability of site welded
repairs.
4.5. Drawings
Each repair procedure is detailed on one or more drawings. It is envisaged that

these drawings, together with the text of the procedure outline and the additional
information from the engineering assessment referred to in 4.1, will provide all the
engineering detail required by site personnel to implement the repair.
As the drawings often include several alternative details, instructions on which

alternative to use may also be required.
4.6. Repair materials
In the repair procedures, repair materials are referred to by their generic name.
Specific brand and material names of epoxies, paints etc. are usually avoided as
availability may vary from time to time and new, superior materials may become
more appropriate. Lists of suitable brand and material names are given in Appendix
A, together with the specifications for standard repair materials such as steel and
high strength bolts.
Where new steel parts are to be fitted as part of the repair, it is generally
recommended that those parts be galvanised. Use of galvanised steel can reduce
long term maintenance requirements and minimise the amount of on-site painting
required. Where the appearance of galvanised steel is not acceptable, and painting
over galvanised surfaces is impractical, the steel parts may be painted instead using
one of the high quality paint systems used in bridge repainting. Refer to sub-
procedure 5.3 for further information.
4.7. Health and safety
Attention is drawn to Chapter 3 of Part 1 on "Health and Safety" which highlights the
precautions required when handling specialised and hazardous materials during
maintenance and repair work.
4.8. References
The following references were used in the preparation of Part 2 -Steel Repairs.
1. Australian Bridge Design Code
2. AREA Manual for Railway Engineering

3. AS4100-1990 Steel Structures
4. AS1252-1983 High Strength Steel Bolts with Associated Nuts and

Washers for Structural Engineering.
5. Bridge Fatigue Guide - Dr J W Fisher - AISC New York 1977
6. Guidelines for Evaluation and Repair of Damaged Steel Bridge

Members - National Co-operative Highway Research Program Report
271.
7. Importance of Redundancy in Bridge - Fracture Control. R R P Sweeny

- Canadian National Railways.
5. Sub-procedures
5.1. Arresting corrosion (Sub-Procedure)
5.1.1 Description of action
Any action that will prevent further deterioration and loss of section in steel due to
corrosion.
5.1.2 Engineering discussion
Arresting of corrosion may be the only repair action that is required or possible for a
bridge, or it may be required in conjunction with other repair actions. The most
effective method of arresting corrosion is abrasive blast cleaning followed by the
correct application of a high quality paint system and its ongoing maintenance.
If that form of corrosion arrest is appropriate, refer to sub-procedure 5.3, patch

painting, for information on preparing for and carrying out patch painting. Note that
the use of so called "rust converters" prior to painting is not permitted.
In addition to painting, action can be taken to avoid conditions which promote

corrosion. Action to avoid collection and entrapment of water may be worthwhile. In
some locations, holes may be drilled to allow water to drain away. Voids and
depressions which catch water may be filled with epoxy. Epoxy fillers may also be
used to profile a surface to promote free drainage of water. Advice on appropriate
epoxies should be sought from the recognised manufacturers. Epoxies should be
durable, paintable, and should bond adequately to the substrate. Epoxy with some
flexibility may be appropriate for the purpose described.
Denso Tape covering of steel elements may be a suitable alternative to painting.

Denso tape could be used at the interface between concrete and steel or timber and
steel. These locations are typically difficult to protect by painting. The interface
between steel beams and other metal elements such as steel decking may be
treated similarly.
One advantage of Denso tape is that the amount of surface preparation required is
minimal. All that is usually required is the removal of loose rust, dirt, paint etc. from
the surfaces. The primers and fillers can then be applied.

Guidance on the appropriate Denso Tape treatment and its correct application
should be sought from the manufacturer.
Caution:
Corrosion protection systems such as Denso Tape wrapping and epoxy filling may
hide critical defects such as fatigue cracks. Such defects may be difficult to detect
during normal inspections and may result in collapse of the structure.
Corrosion protection systems such as these should not be used on fatigue-critical
elements unless appropriate procedures to regularly check for and detect cracks are
implemented.
5.1.3 Procedure
Prepare for and apply Denso Tape, epoxy fillers etc. in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations.
Where patch painting is to be used for corrosion arrest, refer to sub-procedure 5.3.
5.1.4 Materials
Refer to the manufacturers of Denso Tape systems and epoxy resins for advice on
suitable materials for each particular case.
5.1.5 Alternative details
None
5.2. Removing rivets and replacing with bolts (Sub-procedure)
This sub-procedure covers the removal of existing rivets and replacement with high
strength friction grip bolts and also installation of new high strength bolts. Often the
bolts also attach new steel elements.
5.2.2 Procedure:
5.2.2.1 Remove one head of the rivet:
To remove rivet heads, one of three methods are usually used:
cutting using oxy-fuel equipment;
grinding off all or part of the head; or
drilling through the centre of the rivet head.
Oxy-fuel cutting:
Because of the possibility of creating heat affected zones in tension regions of

main members and adversely affecting their fatigue life, avoid using oxy-fuel
cutting to remove the head except where it is adjacent to:
1. any steel that is to be removed and discarded as part of the repair process;
2. intermediate web stiffeners; or

3. minor bracing members that are not subject to dynamic or cyclic loading.
Do not allow the oxy flame or molten steel to touch any other steel element
except those listed above.
In cases 2) and 3) above, where the steel adjacent to the rivet head is to remain
in place, take care to avoid or minimise flame effects on that steel, to leave a neat
hole for installation of the bolts.
If the use of oxy-fuel cutting cannot be avoided in cases other than those above,
take great care to avoid flame effects on the adjacent steel. Any flame affected
steel around the hole must be completely removed by reaming prior to installing
the bolt.
Grinding:
If removing the head by grinding, it is only necessary to remove the portion of the
head outside the shank diameter.
Take care to avoid creating grooves and indentations in steel that is to remain in
place. If such indentations and grooves occur, remove them by grinding the
surface smooth after removing the rivet.
Where large numbers of rivets are to be removed, consideration should be given

to procuring a grinding bit such as a broaching bit which, when positioned
centrally on the domed head will grind away material outside the shank diameter.
Drilling:
Rivet heads may be removed by drilling along the axis of the rivet with a drilling
bit larger in diameter than the shank.
5.2.2.2 Remove the rivet
After the head of the rivet has been removed, force the remaining part out of the
hole by punching or using hydraulic rams etc. The rivets are often not easily
removed by punching because of deformation of the shaft in slightly misaligned
holes.
Alternatively, remove the rivet head and shank and prepare the hole to accept
the new bolt in one operation by drilling all the way through the rivet. The drill bit
size must be slightly larger than the rivet hole size and must be of a size to suit
installation of a high strength bolt.
First drill a small hole through the rivet. Where the remainder of the rivet cannot
be removed by the above means, it is permissible to burn a hole through the
centre of the shank using oxy-fuel equipment to assist in the removal process.
As stated above, extreme care is required to avoid any flame effects on the
surrounding steel. This operation is only to be carried out by experienced
operators. Any flame-affected areas of steel must be completely removed by
reaming the hole prior to installing the bolt.
Refer to Appendix D for further information on techniques and equipment for safe
removal of rivets using oxy-fuel and other equipment.

5.2.2.3 Prepare the hole for the bolt:
Prepare the hole to accept the bolt by reaming out the hole to the required
diameter, then removing burrs etc. at the edge of the hole and creating a smooth,
level surface on both sides for bedding the washer and bolt head. Grinding, wire
brushing and scraping may be used.
The hole diameter after reaming must be no more than 2 mm larger than the
diameter of the bolt to be installed unless a plate washer is to be installed in
accordance with detail A on Fig 5.2.1. In the latter case the hole diameter may
be up to 10 mm greater than the bolt diameter.
Use reaming to remove any areas of steel around the hole that have been
flame affected during the removal of the rivet.
The minimum and maximum edge distances and spacings for new bolt-holes in
existing or new steel are to comply with the requirements of the Australian Bridge
Design Code.
5.2.2.4 Install the bolt:
Install the replacement bolt in accordance with the following specification. Table
5.2.1 specifies minimum replacement bolt sizes. The arrangement for oversize
holes is shown in Detail A of Fig 5.2.1.
Specification for New or Replacement Bolts
1. All bolts are to be high strength structural bolts of grade 8.8 to AS 1252,
fully tensioned to AS 4100 as a friction joint. Tension is to be controlled by
load indicating washers or turn of nut method.
2. Swage bolts installed in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions,
may be used as an alternative.
3. All bolts, nuts and washers are to be galvanized.
4. Swage bolts, pins and washers are to be galvanised and the steel surface
exposed after separation of the pintail is to be painted.
5. Nominal maximum hole diameter to be the diameter of the fastener +2mm
unless plate washers, as illustrated in Detail A are used, unless otherwise
specified for swage bolts.
6. For each standard rivet size the minimum size of replacement bolt to give
equivalent shear capacity is given in Table 5.1. Larger bolts may be used.
7. For Huck BOM blind fasteners, sufficient room must be available on the
blind side to accommodate the expanded head. Refer to Detail B.
Rivet size Bolt size Huck Bolt Huck-Fit Huck
8.8 T/F C50L Grade 10.9 BOM
3/
4 M20 3/
4 20mm 3/
4
7/
8 M24 7/
8 22mm -
1 M27 1 27mm -

Table 5.1 Minimum replacement bolt sizes
If Huck bolts are used, the HUCK-FIT fastening system is recommended as the pins
are available in standard metric sizes including non-preferred sizes (M20, M22,
M24, M27 etc.). The HUCK-FIT system allows fit up and snug tightening of bolts
prior to tensioning. Huck bolts are to be installed in accordance with the
manuf ac t
ur ersinstr
uctions.
If there is only access to one side of plates to be bolted, use Huck BOM blind
fast eners,instal
ledinaccor dancewi thmanuf
act
urer
sinst r
uc t
ions.Use galvanised
BOM fasteners. Make sure there is adequate room for the enlargement of the blind
side head. Refer to detail B in Fig 5.1.
Note that Huck BOM fasteners are not friction grip connectors and may not be
suitable for all situations. Bolt slip may occur to the limit of the hole clearance. Slip
canbemi nimi sedbydr ill
ingcl oset ol
erancehol es( 19t o20mm f orasshowni n
Fig 5.1.
A similar blind fastener for high strength friction grip applications is available from
Huck on special order. It is known as the USBB (Ultra Strength Blind Bolt). Use
these fasteners when blind friction grip connections are essential.
5.3. Patch painting (including surface preparation)

(Sub-procedure)
Patch painting is required in conjunction with steel repair as a corrosion protection

system for new and existing steel in the vicinity of the repair, and to restore a
uniform appearance to the bridge.

Patch painting to arrest corrosion may be the only form of repair required.
This sub procedure only covers painting to small areas where hand and power tool
preparation is the only feasible method.
Large areas, where the cost of abrasive blast cleaning can be justified, should be
paint
edi naccordancewi t
hARTC ss t
andar dpr ac ti
ces.
Paint systems for patch painting should ideally have the following characteristics:
Formulated to provide good adhesion and protection to poorly prepared steel

surfaces (hand or power tool preparation).
Formulated to bond to sound existing paints of the types typically found on
bridges.
High build, single coat systems to minimise total painting time
(i.e. adequate film thickness applied in one coat).
Available in a large range of colours to blend with colour of existing paint and
avoid the necessity for a colour matched top coat.
Able to bond adequately to galvanised steel.
Suitable for top coating where a top coat is required.
Leading paint manufacturers have paint systems with most of the above
characteristics. One system specifically developed for this application is a two part
surface tolerant epoxy mastic.
ALKYD systems are not suitable for application to galvanised surfaces because the
long term bond cannot be guaranteed. Where galvanised parts have been fitted as
part of the repair and the selected patch paint system is not suitable for galvanised
surfaces, the following options exist:
1. Leave the galvanised surface unpainted. Painting is normally only

necessary to achieve a uniform appearance with the rest of the steel.
Or
2. Use different single coat systems for galvanised and ungalvanised surfaces.
Systems for galvanised surfaces are readily available. Galvanised parts can
be painted prior to installation.
Or
3. Apply the standard single coat patch paint to ungalvanised surfaces then
apply a suitable top coat to both galvanised and patch painted surfaces. Top
coat systems suitable for such situations are available.
Or
4. Paint new steel parts instead of galvanising them. Use the patch paint
system on site or, where parts can be prepainted, use the paint system
adopted for repainting of bridges. Abrasive blast cleaning is required for the
latter.
The minimum surface preparation for small areas is usually specified by paint
manufacturers as hand or power tool cleaning to AS 1627.7 or 1627.2 Class 2. The
Australian Standard referred to provides a full description of the methods and
equipment to be used and the quality of surface finish required.
For rough surfaces, such as the surface of site fillet welds, special preparation and
application procedures are required. Unless precautions are taken, the paint

thickness on sharp ridges will be considerably less than the minimum required and
premature breakdown of the paint system may occur.
5.3.3 Procedure
5.3.3.1 Prepare the surface
For normal steel surfaces
Prepare the surfaces for painting in accordance with the

recommendations of the paint manufacturer for the paint system to be
applied. Hand or power tool cleaning to AS1627.7 or AS1627.2 Class 2 is
the minimum requirement.
For rough surfaces
Remove sharp ridges and deep narrow grooves or pits from the steel
surface by power grinding. Alternatively, for the surface of site fillet welds,
fill the surface to a smooth even finish using epoxy resin fillers such as
those used for void filling described in 5.4.
Where the depth of the roughness is less than 0.5mm, an adequate and
durable paint system can be achieved without the above surface levelling
by applying multiple coats of the paint. Each coat is to be no more than
the maximum film thickness recommended by the manufacturer. Enough
coats are to be applied so that the minimum required dry film thickness
(typically 150 microns) is achieved at all sharp ridges.
For galvanised surfaces
Prepare the galvanised surface for painting in accordance with the paint
manuf acturer
s r ecommendat i
ons . Coat ing manuf ac turer
s usual l
y
recommend degreasing and abrasion, acid etching or pretreatment with
etch (wash) primers prior to painting. Light abrasive blast cleaning (brush
blasting) is the most reliable means of achieving satisfactory coating
adhesion. However, where light abrasive blast cleaning is impractical due
to the small areas involved, power wire brushing/hard scouring with
aluminium oxide impregnated nylon pads to remove the shiny patina on
new galvanised steelwork and the white soluble zinc salts on old
(weathered) galvanised steelwork is preferred to acid etching or
pretreatment with etch primer.
5.3.3.2 Apply the paint
Mix the paint components and apply in accordance wi ththe manuf acturers
instructions. The paint should be applied immediately after surface preparation,
preferably within 4 hours, and certainly on the same day. The minimum total dry
film thickness of the system should not be less than 125 micrometres.
5.3.4 Repair materials
Paint systems suitable for patch painting are listed in Appendix A. They are typically
2 part epoxy based, high build systems.

None.
5.4. Filling voids (Sub-procedure)
When new steel plates or sections are fitted to existing steel as part of repair
procedures, voids may be created, usually as a result of the existing steel being
heavily corroded or pitted. The voids may need to be filled with epoxy resin for one
or both of the following reasons.
1. To preclude the ingress of air and moisture which would lead to further
corrosion, and/or
2. To provide a smooth, level surface on to which the new steel elements can
be fitted. Engineering discussion
Where the latter is the reason for void filling, the epoxy filler is often structural. It
may be required to resist the compressive forces created by the tensioning of bolts
or, in the case of bearing plates, transfer bearing forces.
The necessity for void filling depends on the severity of corrosion and uniformity and
general profile of the corroded surface (after preparation). If the surface is uniformly
pitted so that the surface remains generally flat and steel attachments would not
distort when fixed by tensioned bolts, void filling is not necessary. The steel surface
would still be able to transfer forces described above. (Sealing the steel to steel
interfaces, however, may be required refer to sub-procedure 5.5.)
On the other hand, severely corroded surfaces that are uneven normally require
filling prior to covering with new steel parts to prevent distortion of those parts.
Notwithstanding the above, it may be worthwhile applying epoxy fillers to any deeply
corroded surface prior to attaching new parts. As well as filling voids, the epoxy acts
like a primer paint and also seals the interface between new and existing steel ready
for painting. The requirement for sealing interfaces prior to painting is discussed in
sub-procedure 5.5. The adhesive quality of epoxies may also be useful in some
repairs.
Two alternative procedures for applying filling epoxies are described below. In the
first, the covering steel member is fitted before the epoxy has hardened and excess
epoxy is squeezed out during bolt tightening. Squeezing out excess epoxy ensures
the void is completely filled. In the second procedure, the epoxy is trowelled or
screeded smooth and flat and allowed to harden prior to fitting the steel member.
Select the procedure which best suits the repair being carried out. Consider
particularly the hardening time for the epoxy.
5.4.3 Procedure
5.4.3.1 Alternative 1 New steel elements fitted before epoxy hardens

1. Prepare the existing steel surface by abrasive blast cleaning to Class 2 in

accordance with AS 1627.4. If abrasive blast cleaning is impractical due
to small areas involved power tool clean to Class 2 in accordance with AS
1627.2.
2. Mi xt heepox yaccor dingt ot hemanuf acturer
sdi rect i
onsandappl yt ot he
steel surface. Trowel and screed into position to the approximate surface
required. Ensure that there is a slight excess of epoxy that can be
squeezed out when the steel part is fitted. Make sure there is an
adequate escape path for excess epoxy.
3. While the epoxy is still plastic, position the new steel part and install the
fixing bolts. Use the tightening of the bolts to bring the steel part into the
correct position and squeeze out excess epoxy. Bolts may only be fully
tensioned prior to curing if the
4. member would not distort and be forced out of position by such action. If in
doubt about the effects of bolt tensioning, wait until the epoxy has cured
5. Clean away excess epoxy and make sure all steel to steel interfaces are
effectively sealed at the perimeters ready for painting. (Refer to sub-
procedure 5.5 for sealing requirements).
6. Tension the bolts after the epoxy has cured.
5.4.3.2 Alternative 2 New steel elements fitted after epoxy hardens
1. Prepare the existing steel surface by abrasive blast cleaning to Class 2

in accordance with AS 1627.4. If abrasive blast cleaning is impractical
due to small areas involved power tool clean to Class 2 in accordance
with AS 1627.2.
2. Mixt heepox yaccor dingt hemanuf act
ur er
sdi rect ionsandappl yt ot
he
steel surfaces. Screed the epoxy to the smooth, flat surface required
using a straight edge screed. If necessary to achieve a flat surface, apply
the epoxy in two or more coats with each successive coat filling any
valleys until the required flatness is achieved.
3. Clean away excess epoxy. Ensure that empty bolt holes are not
obstructed by epoxy.
4. After the epoxy has cured, fit the steel part and fully tension any bolts.
5. Seal any remaining gaps at interfaces in accordance with sub-procedure
5.4.4 Repair materials
Use high strength, two part epoxy fillers or adhesives. Epoxies should have high
strength and non-sag properties if they are to be applied to overhead or vertical
surfaces. Select an epoxy with a work time appropriate to the repair being carried
out. Refer to Appendix A for suggested products.
When application procedure 2 is to be used, choose an epoxy which is suitable for

working and screeding.
Seek advice from recognised manufacturers to select the best epoxy and application
procedure for the particular repair.
Where the thickness of epoxy filler to be applied is significant, a combination of both

procedures described above may be used. Use procedure 2 to apply the bulk of the
filler, and leave the surface at or below that required, and approximately even. Then
use procedure 1 to fill the remaining dips and valleys in the surface.

5.5. Sealing interfaces (Sub-procedure)
In repairing steel, gaps may occur at the interface between new and existing steel,
often as a result of the existing steel being corroded. In these and similar situations
the gaps are to be sealed with a single component polyurethane sealant prior to
painting when they are greater than a specified width.
Paint manufacturers recommend against painting over large gaps.
While the applied paint may initially span these gaps, it may subsequently crack due
to drying shrinkage or it may not cure properly because of the excess film thickness.
Gaps of width more than twice the maximum recommended film thickness or 0.5mm
are to be sealed as described.
5.5.3 Procedure
1. Prior to fitting new steel elements, prepare existing steel surfaces by

abrasive blast cleaning to Class 2 in accordance with AS 1627.4. If
abrasive blast cleaning is impractical due to small areas involved power tool
clean to Class 2 in accordance with AS 1627.2.
2. Identify areas to be sealed. Interfaces where the gap exceeds 0.5mm or

twice the maximum recommended dry film thickness are to be sealed with a
single component polyurethane sealant. Sealing is required whether the
concealed steel surfaces are painted or bare steel.
3. Break inner seal at extrusion end of cartridge, affix nozzle, cut tip to suit joint
size, install in caulking gun and apply in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions.
5.5.4 Materials
Use a single component polyurethane sealant suitable for being painted over with
solvent-based paints. Refer to Appendix A for use of appropriate products.
Where voids between steel elements are to be filled (refer sub-procedure 5.4),
extending the void filling epoxy to the edges of the steel will generally avoid the
necessity to seal interfaces as a separate operation. Refer to sub-procedure 5.4.
6. Repairing corroded flanges and webs of girders
6.1. Repairing flange corrosion in riveted girders
6.1.1 Description of defect
Loss of cross-sectional area of top or bottom flange plates in a riveted plate web
girder resulting from significant corrosion.

This repair is also to be used where loss of cross-sectional area of flange angles
has occurred.
6.1.2 Description of repair
Fit a galvanised cover plate, sufficient in nett area to compensate for the lost cross-
sectional area.
It will be necessary to carry out an engineering assessment to determine the

necessity for, and extent of, cover plating required. The assessment should
determine the cover plate section size and the number and location of rivets that are
to be replaced by bolts.
As a guide, up to 10% section loss is permissible before the repair is necessary. The
nett cross-sectional area of the cover plate should be at least twice the maximum
area of corrosion loss. The minimum plate thickness is to be 10 mm.
If a significant proportion of the section loss has also occurred in the flange angle(s),
the engineering assessment should determine if the angle(s) is capable of
transferring shear force to the flanges. If not, the corrosion of the flange angle(s)
should first be considered as a separate defect.
Consideration could be given to replacement of the continuous flange angle(s) by

flange angle segments between web stiffeners. In this case the nett area of the
cover plate must be sufficient to also compensate for the discontinuity of flange
angle(s).
In determining the extent of cover plating, the transfer of load (development of

stress) into the plate must be considered. Conservative guidelines for the number of
fasteners required to develop maximum permissible stress in the plate are detailed
below.
1. The number of bolts in the cover plate must be sufficient to develop the
maximum permissible strength in the cover plate
2. The number of bolts to achieve the above requirement is given in Table

6.1, based on the nett area of the cover plate (Can) and the bolt size
Bolt size No. of bolts

M20 5.4 x Can 1000
M22 4.4 x Can 1000
M24 3.7 x Can 1000
M27 2.9 x Can 1000
Table 6.1 Number of bolts in cover plate
Because only a few fasteners are removed at any one time, theoretically the girder
remains at near full strength throughout the repair. Nearly all existing rivets can be
replaced by bolts if necessary. Bracing connected by flange rivets must remain
adequately connected.

To avoid unnecessary work however, only the minimum number of rivets, as shown
by engineering assessment, should be replaced by bolts.
The maximum edge distance and fastener spacing given in sub-procedure 5.2
should be observed so that the interface to the cover plate is tight and crevice
corrosion is avoided.
6.1.4 Sub-procedures required
Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts
Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation)
Ref 5.4 Filling Voids
Ref 5.5 Sealing Interfaces
6.1.5 Procedure outline
1. Remove heads of rivets that are to be replaced by bolts. Remove the under
side heads for bottom flanges and the top side heads for top flanges. For
top flange rivet removal, fit clamps to the under side to prevent rivets falling
out. Removal of rivets is to be in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2
2. Prepare the flange surface for cover plating by removing all loose rust and
dirt and by grinding where necessary to create a smooth surface. Fill any
deep pitting (>1mm deep) or any area of unevenness in accordance with
sub-procedure 5.4 to create a flat surface for seating the cover plate.
3. Position the pack plates and cover plate, holding them in place with
clamps.
4. Progressively remove rivets to be replaced and fit and tension replacement

bolts, all in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2. No more than 10% of
rivets, evenly distributed along member, are to be removed at any one
time.
5. Seal open interfaces to new steel where required in accordance with sub-
procedure 5.5. Fill exposed rivet head holes on the top flange in
accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 to prevent collection of water.
6. Prepare for and paint new steelwork and areas of existing steelwork to the
extent directed, in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.

6.1.6 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence
1. Routine maintenance to remove built-up dirt and debris on the upper

surfaces.
2. Routine maintenance to the paint system.
None
6.1.8 Special considerations and effects of repair.
The engineering assessment may determine that speed restrictions or a track

possession is required while this repair is being carried out.

6.1.9 Follow-up inspections and testing
Programmed inspections only.
Pay particular attention to new steel to steel interfaces to detect early signs
of paint system breakdown and steel corrosion.
6.1.10 Drawings List
Figure 6.1
6.2. Repairing flange corrosion in rolled or welded girders
Loss of cross-sectional area of top or bottom flange plates in a welded or rolled

girder resulting from significant corrosion.
Fit a galvanised cover plate sufficient in nett area to compensate for the lost cross-
sectional area.
It is usually necessary to carry out an engineering assessment to determine the

necessity for and extent of cover plating required. The assessment should
determine the cover plate section size and the number, size and location of
connection bolts required.
As a guide, up to 10% section loss is permissible before the repair is necessary.

The nett cross-sectional area of the cover plate should be at least twice the
maximum area of corrosion loss. The minimum plate thickness is to be 10 mm. The
nett area of cover plate must also compensate for the existing flange area lost in
drilled holes.
In determining the extent of cover plating, the transfer of load (development of

stress) into the plate must be considered.
Conservative guidelines for the number of fasteners required to develop maximum

permissible stress in the plate are detailed below.
The number of bolts in the cover plate must be sufficient to develop the maximum
permissible strength in the cover plate
The number of bolts to achieve the above requirement is given in Table 6.2, based
on the nett area of the cover plate (Can) and the bolt size.
Bolt size No. of bolts

M20 5.4 x Can 1000
M22 4.4 x Can 1000
M24 3.7 x Can 1000
M27 2.9 x Can 1000
Table 6.2 Number of bolts in cover plate

The strength of the girder is reduced during the repair because of the holes drilled in
flange. Appropriate load and/or speed restrictions must be applied.
The maximum edge distance and fastener spacing given in sub-procedure 5.2
should be observed so that the interface to the cover plate is tight and crevice
corrosion is minimised.
1. Mark and drill holes in the flange to suit the cover plate
dirt and by grinding where necessary to create a smooth surface fill any
deep pitting (>1mm deep) or any area of unevenness in accordance with
3. Position the cover plate, holding it in place with clamps.
4. Fit and tension all bolts.
5. Seal open interfaces to new steel where required in accordance with sub-
procedure 5.5.
extent directed in accorance with sub-procedure 5.3.
None.
Routine maintenance to remove built-up dirt and debris on the upper surfaces.
Routine maintenance to the paint system.
6.2.8 Special considerations and effects of repair

6.2.9 Follow-up Inspections and testing

Pay particular attention to new steel to steel interfaces to detect early signs of paint
system breakdown and steel corrosion.
6.2.10 Drawings
Figure 6.2.
6.3. Repairing web corrosion near bottom flange angles in riveted girders
Severe Corrosion of the web of a riveted girder at the junction of the upper toe of the
bottom flange angle(s). Loss of web section in plan view results.
Fit galvanised cover plates over the region of corrosion loss. The cover plates are to
be in discrete lengths between web stiffeners.
It is recommended in most cases that an engineering assessment be carried out to

determine the necessity of repair and the locations where cover plate segments are
required.

In the absence of engineering assessment, the following guidelines should be

applied: Cover plate the segment of web between stiffeners where the average loss
of web area in the panel in plan view exceeds 15%.
In the engineering assessment, the necessity for a cover plate should be based on
the ability of the remaining web area (plan view) to transfer the shear stresses to the
flange.
This repair may not be satisfactory at the girder bearing location where stresses
additional to shear stresses occur.
It should be recognised that the shear transfer stresses are often low, particularly in
the middle half of the span, so considerable section loss may be tolerable.
Corrosion arrest may be all that is required. Irrespective of shear transfer stress
levels, the web panel should be repaired where section loss exceeds 40%.
Alternative repair details involving site welded cover plates are not normally
acceptable because of the significant reduction in fatigue life that results from
welding fitments in this tensile zone.
If a detailed engineering assessment is not carried out the cover plate should
incorporate all rivets through the vertical leg of the flange angle. The upper part of
the cover plate should be attached by bolts of the same number and size as the
lower part.
An engineering assessment may determine that a reduced number of bolts is

adequate for a particular web panel.
Ref 5.1 Arresting Corrosion


1. Remove all loose rust from the surface to be plated by mechanical wire
brushing and scraping. Scrape or grind smooth the vertical face of flange
angles.

Working on only one panel of web at a time:
2. Drill holes in the web above flange angle to match the holes in the
prefabricated, galvanised cover plate and pack plate.
3. Remove the rivets through vertical legs of angles in accordance with Sub-
procedure 5.2.
4. Position the pack plate and fill the void between the pack and the flange
angle in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4.
5. Fit the cover plate and install and tension all bolts. Repeat steps 2, 3, 4 and
5 for each web panel requiring plating, then
6. Prepare for and patch paint new steelwork and areas of existing steelwork
to the extent directed, including the region of corrosion on the unplated
side. Patch painting to be in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
Caution:
Rivets must NOT be removed from more than one panel of web at any one time.
Cover plates may be fitted to both sides of web to improve appearance by covering
the area of web corrosion.
Routine maintenance of paint system particularly at crevices and steel to steel

interfaces.
The repair detail presents a similar situation to the original corrosion prone details so
proper maintenance of paint system is essential to avoid recurrence of the defect.


6.3.10 Drawings
Figure 6.3
6.4. Repairing webs with localised corrosion
Localised severe corrosion of a web leading to significant loss of web section in plan
view. Typically this defect occurs where concrete ballast troughs have been in
direct contact with the girder web.
Fit galvanised cover plates over the regions of web where the section loss has
occurred. The cover plates are to be in discrete lengths between web stiffeners.
It is recommended that an engineering assessment be carried out to determine the

effect of the section loss on the girder shear capacity and hence the necessity of
repair and the location, size and bolt arrangement of cover plates.
In the absence of an engineering assessment, the following guidelines may be

applied: Segments of web between stiffeners are to be cover plated where the loss
of area in sectional view exceeds 10% of the total web area or where the loss of
area in plan view exceeds 15%. Guidelines for the size and spacing of attachment
bolts are given in Figure 6.4
It should be recognised that, where the web thickness is constant for the girder,
there is often an excess of shear capacity, particularly near mid span. A
considerable loss of section may be tolerable at these locations before the repair is
required. The assessment may show that only corrosion arrest is required in some
panels where section loss exceeds the above guideline figures.
The engineering check on the reduced shear capacity of the web must, of course,
consider web buckling as well as shear stresses.
Alternative repair details involving welded cover plates may be permissible if testing
indicates that the steel is weldable and welding does not reduce the fatigue life
unacceptably.
Corrosion loss, localised near the mid-height of the girder in panels near mid-span,
may be repairable by using welded cover plates, as tensile stresses in these areas
are low. Do not weld to web stiffeners.
It is important to note that significant principal tensile stresses occur at mid-height of

girders near the span ends as a result of shear forces. Welded cover plates are not
normally permitted here because of the adverse effect on fatigue life.

1. Cut back reinforced concrete etc. that is causing corrosion as directed.
2. Remove all rust, dirt, adhering concrete, old paint etc. from the area to be
plated by mechanical wire brushing and scraping.

3. Mark and drill bolt holes in the web to match the holes in prefabricated,
galvanised cover plates.
4. Fill voids and surface pitting with epoxy resin filler over area of web to be
covered in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4
5. Position cover plates and fit and tension bolts. Seal with epoxy any open
interfaces around the perimeter of the cover plates in accordance with sub-
procedure 5.5.
to the extent directed.
None.
Remove concrete cast directly against or in close proximity to web. Reconstruct

accessways etc. to approved details, e.g. using gridmesh.
Routine maintenance of paint system, particularly at crevices and steel to steel

interfaces.
None
6.4.10 Drawings
Figure 6.4
6.5. Repairing corroded bottom flanges of jack arch bridges
Severe corrosion of the bottom flange of jack arch bridge girders resulting in a
significant loss of cross-sectional area.
Fit a galvanised cover plate to the bottom flange sufficient in cross-sectional area to
compensate for the loss of cross-sectional area. If the existing steel is weldable,
connect the cover plate by welding (Case B). Otherwise use Huck BOM blind
fasteners. (Case A)
Thi sr epai
risonl yef fect i
vei nr est oringf ul
lstr
engt hifther emai nderoft he -section
is in good condition. It is difficult to determine the condition of the girders in a jack

arch bridge as only the underside of the bottom flange can be readily inspected for
loss of section.
An engineering assessment should be carried out to determine:
the necessity of the repair;
if the repair is likely to be effective in restoring full strength;
if the steel is weldable;
the size and extent of the cover plate and, if bolted connections are to be
used, the arrangement of connection bolts.
Use bolted connections if the steel is not weldable or the existing flange edge is
severely feathered, precluding welding. Feathered edge to be ground to provide
minimum 5mm thickness.
As a guide, the repair should be carried out if loss of bottom flange cross section
exceeds 15%. The nett area of the cover plate should be at least twice the
maximum area of cross-sectional loss, plus the area removed by drilling for fixing
bolts. The minimum plate thickness is to be 10mm and the width selected to suit the
bolt gauge and edge distance or weld details. Extend the cover plate as close to the
bearings as possible (within span/10) so the termination weld is in a region of low
stress.
An engineering assessment may show that other details are acceptable.
Where bolted fixings are used, the spacing and edge distances must comply with
the requirements of the Australian Bridge Design Code. Refer to sub-procedure 5.2.


6.5.5.1 Case A Bolted Cover Plate
deep pitting (>1mm deep) or any area of uneveness in accordance with
2. Mark and drill holes in the bottom flange to suit the cover plate. For each
hole, excavate a small pocket in the concrete or masonry on the blind side
to accommodate the expanded blind side head of the Huck BOM fastener.
A suitable grinding bit on power drill can be used. Refer to Figure 5.1.
3. Fit the galvanised cover plate and attach with Huck BOM blind fasteners all
in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2.
4. Seal open interfaces to the cover plate where required in accordance with
sub-procedure 5.5.

6.5.5.2 Case B Welded Cover Plate
deep pitting (> 1mm deep) or any area of uneveness in accordance with
2. Fit the cover plate and hold in place. Weld longitudinally in accordance with
the details on Figure 6.5. Note the alternative welding arrangements
detailed one permitting overhand welding but requiring good access, the
other requiring down hand welding, but with restricted access. Epoxy seal
transverse joint, no weld.
3. Prepare the surface of the fillet weld for painting in accordance with sub-
procedure 5.3.
Bolted and welded cover plate alternatives are detailed.
For welded cover plate, alternative arrangements for the welding are detailed.
Routine maintenance.
Check for debris build up and corrosion of cover plate overhangs.
Special consideration and effects of repair
Traffic restrictions may be required if drilling holes removes a significant amount of

cross-sectional area.
None
6.5.9 Drawings list
Figure 6.5a and Figure 6.5b.
7. Repairing stiffeners, bracing connections and bearings
7.1. Relief of corrosion site at the base of intermediate web stiffeners
Severe corrosion at the base of riveted angle type intermediate web stiffeners and in
the adjacent bottom flange where
the local corrosion of the web stiffener is not structurally significant, but

corrosion and loss of section of the flange is significant or potentially

significant. Corrosion of bearing stiffeners and stiffeners at connections of
cross-girders and bracing are not covered by this procedure.
The repair involves removal of the unnecessary portion of stiffener to result in a

detail that can be readily cleaned, painted and maintained to prevent further
corrosion but is structurally satisfactory. Intermediate web stiffeners may be
terminated 50 to 100 mm from the bottom flange and still perform their required
function.
The removal of the lower portion of true intermediate web stiffeners is normally
structurally acceptable. It is often not acceptable for stiffeners that form part of the
connection or force transfer system of cross-girders or bracing.
If the stiffener is to be cut using oxy-fuel equipment, extreme care is required to

ensure that there are no flame effects on the web, flange or flange angles. Even
small flame strikes can create fatigue initiation sites. The recommended locations
for cutting stiffeners have been chosen to minimise the chances of oxy flame effects
on the girder.
Where necessary, an angle grinder should be used to cut the segment of stiffener
closest to the girder.
If corrosion at the base of the stiffener has already resulted in significant corrosion
loss in the flange or flange angle, repair the flange using repair procedure 6.1 if
necessary and appropriate.
Ref 5.1 Arresting corrosion
Ref 5.2 Removing rivets and replacing with bolts
Ref 5.3 Patch painting (including surface preparation)
1. Remove any rivets securing the lower portion of the web stiffener that is to
be removed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2.
2. Cut off the lower portion of the stiffener to the extent shown on Figure 7.1a
or Figure 7.1b by flame cutting and/or with an angle grinder. Several
possible arrangements of web stiffeners are shown on the drawing. The
appropriate location for the cut is shown in each case.
To avoid accidental creation of heat affected zones (fatigue sites) in the

adjacent web and flange, do not use flame cutting to remove portions of
intermediate web stiffeners in direct contact with the web or flange. Use an
angle grinder to cut these portions. Take care to avoid grinding a groove
into the web or flange.

3. Dress any flame cut edge to the stiffener by grinding smooth and fit and
tension bolts to any holes formerly occupied by rivets.
4. Prepare for and patch paint the exposed steel of the web stiffener and the
local area of bottom flange and flange angle now exposed in accordance
with sub-procedure 5.3.
None.
Not applicable.
The removal of the lower portion of web stiffeners as detailed is only permissible in
true intermediate web stiffeners performing no other structural functions. Some
stiffeners also form part of the connection of cross-girders or bracing. Similarly, the
procedure must not be applied to bearing stiffeners.
7.1.9 Follow-up inspection and testing
7.1.10 Drawing list
Figure 7.1a and Figure 7.1b.


7.2. Repairing intermediate and bearing web stiffeners with localised corrosion
Severe corrosion of web stiffeners over a limited area leading to loss of cross-
sectional area in plan view. The repair procedure is intended to cover riveted angle
stiffeners but may be adapted to other situations.
Two cases are covered by this repair procedure:
Case A Corrosion away from end of stiffeners
If the region of severe corrosion loss is away from both ends of the stiffener, the
repair procedure involves lap splicing a new segment of stiffener angle, connected
to the existing stiffener above and below by bolting. A sufficient length of
uncorroded stiffener must be available above and below to effect the bolted
connection.
Case B Corrosion near end of intermediate stiffener
If the region of severe corrosion loss is at one end of the stiffener only, the repair
procedure involves removing the corroded segment of stiffener, fitting a replacement
segment and splicing it to the existing stiffener in a similar manner to Case A. A
sufficient length of uncorroded stiffener must be available at one end to effect the
bolted connection.
Corrosion may occur at the bottom end of web stiffeners because of entrapment of
water by the detail. It may occur away from the ends where concrete or timber
elements are in close contact with the steel (crevice corrosion). When repairs are
carried out, the cause of the corrosion should be eliminated if possible.

The repair procedure addresses corrosion of stiffeners over a localised area. If the
web stiffener is severely corroded over its entire length, it can be completely
replaced as described in Section 11.1
If the corrosion is limited to a small non-essential part of the stiffener at the base, the
procedure described in 7.1 may be appropriate.
Isolated Web Stiffeners:
Isolated web stiffeners (ie. Those not associated with the connection of bracing or
cross-girders etc.) can sustain substantial loss of cross-section before repair is
required. As a guide, the repair should be carried out if the loss of section exceeds
30% (evenly spread). If the loss is localised to the outer edge, the repair should be
carried out if the section loss exceeds 15%.
An engineering assessment may be carried out to determine if greater section

losses are acceptable without repair.
If corrosion loss is acceptable, sub-procedure 5.1 for arresting corrosion should be

carried out and the cause of corrosion should be eliminated if possible.
Web Stiffeners at Bracing Connections:
Web stiffeners, located at the connections of bracing members, are often an integral
part of the system of transferring bracing forces. In such cases the amount of
section loss that can be accepted is less. Unless otherwise shown by an
engineering assessment, the repair should be carried out if the section loss exceeds
10%.
The repair details require an adequate length of existing stiffener to remain to effect
the bolted connection. These remaining sections must have no more than 10% loss
of section. Guidelines for the number of bolts to connect the stiffener are given in
Table 7.1 below.
Size of outstand leg of No. of connecting Size of connecting

stiffener bolts bolts
Up to 75 x 10 2 M20
Up to 100 x 10 3 M20
Up to 125 x 10 3 M24
Up to 150 x 6 4 M24
Table 7.1 Bolt details for stiffener repair
In Case A, the segment of stiffener with excessive corrosion may remain in place
provided the corrosion is arrested. Feathered edges to be ground to 5mm minimum
thickness.
Connection of the replacement stiffener piece by bolting rather than welding is

proposed as the standard repair. Steels of stiffeners are often not weldable and,
even if weldable, the welding process may create fatigue initiation sites in the web at
the new butt welds in the stiffener angle.
Where it can be shown by engineering assessment that the effects on the web of
welding the stiffener do not result in an inadequate fatigue life, the welded splice
detail shown in Figure 7.2b may be adopted. Where there is a pack plate between

the stiffener and the web, the web is adequately protected and the welded splice
detail may be adopted. The stiffener steel must be weldable, as determined by
appropriate tests.
Note that the mid-height region of webs is not an area of low tensile stress if there is
significant shear stress at the section (resulting in principal tensile stress, e.g. near
bearings).



Case A - Corrosion away from end of stiffener

1. Mark and drill holes in the existing stiffener and web to suit the
prefabricated splicing angle. Refer to Figure 7.2a.
2. If directed, cut away the severely corroded portion of stiffener by flame

cutting and by using an angle grinder. Avoid flame effects and grinding of
grooves in the web plate. Dress any flame cut edges.
3. Clean existing steelwork where new steel is to abut. Fill pitting and
depressions in the surface in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 so there
is no void between the web and the new stiffener segment.
4. Bolt in place the new galvanised stiffener segment, installing new bolts in
accordance with the appropriate part of sub-procedure 5.2.
5. Seal any gaps at the interface between new and existing steel in
accordance with sub-procedure 5.5.
6. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steel to the extent directed in
Case B - Corrosion near end of stiffener
1. Remove rivets connecting the part of web stiffener to be removed in

2. Cut away the corroded portion of stiffener by flame cutting and by using an
angle grinder. Avoid flame effects and grinding grooves in the web plate.
Dress any flame cut edges.
3. Clean existing steelwork where new steel is to abut. Fill pitting and
depressions in the surface in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 so there
is no void between the web and the new stiffener segment.
4. Fit the prefabricated, galvanised replacement segment of stiffener in

accordance with the details in Figure 7.2b and sub-procedure 5.2. Fit only
for "bracing connection" stiffeners, otherwise just remove.
5. Mark and drill bolt holes in the web to match the holes in the splicing angle.
6. Fit the prefabricated galvanised splicing angle in accordance with details on

the drawing and sub-procedure 5.2.
7. Seal any gaps at the interface between new and existing steel in
8. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steel to the extent directed in
None.

Corrosion at the base of stiffeners can be addressed by stopping the new stiffener
segment above the bottom flange (if structurally acceptable) (Case B only). Refer
also to sub-procedure 5.1 Arresting Corrosion.
None.
7.2.10 Drawing list
Figure. 7.2a and Figure 7.2b.
7.3. Repairing bearing web stiffeners with localised corrosion at base of outstand
leg of stiffener
Severe corrosion and perforation to the outstand leg of riveted angle bearing
stiffeners at base, where the remaining leg is in good condition.
The repair involves the removal of the severely corroded and perforated portion of
the outstand leg of bearing stiffener and bolting a new plate to the outstand leg. The
new plate must bear hard on bottom flange.
See 7.1.3.
1. Cut away the corroded portion of outstand leg of stiffener by flame cutting
and by using an angle grinder. Avoid flame effects in the remaining leg of
stiffener. Dress any flame cut edges.
2. Clamp new plate with holes drilled to outstand leg. New plate must bear
hard on bottom flange.
3. Drill existing stiffener and grind smooth all burrs.
4. Bolt new plate to existing stiffener.
5. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steelwork.
7.3.5 Sub-procedure required
Ref 5.1 Arresting corrosion.
Ref 5.2.2.1 Oxy-fuel cutting.

Ref 5.2.2.3 Preparing the hole for the bolt.
Ref 5.2.2.4 Install the bolt
Ref 5.3 Patch painting.
7.4. Relief of corrosion site at the base of splayed angle bearing end stiffeners
Severe corrosion or conditions conducive to corrosion at the base of a splayed

angle bearing stiffener in riveted girders. Refer to Figure 7.4.
The "repair" involves a modification to the stiffener so that the area can be readily
cleaned, painted and maintained to prevent further corrosion.
The modification is to remove a triangular section of the splayed segment of the

bearing stiffener.
While the removal of the section of stiffener theoretically reduces the girder's
bearing capacity, the reduction is usually only marginal. However, engineering input
should be sought before undertaking this repair. Note that the splayed section of
stiffener is usually connected by only one rivet. This gives an indication of the small
upper limit to the compression load in the stiffener.
The splayed angle bearing stiffeners are significantly less effective than end bearing
type stiffeners used in modern practice. If the bearing detail is performing poorly
under live load (eg excessive flexing of bearing or bed plates etc.) then
consideration should be given to replacing the splayed angle bearing stiffener with
an end bearing type stiffener.
1. Remove the section of stiffener as illustrated in Figure 7.4 by oxy-fuel

cutting. Avoid or minimise flame effects on the steel of the girder section.
2. Dress the flame cut steel edges by grinding. Clean the area at the base of
the stiffener of dirt and debris by power wire brushing, grinding etc.
3. Prepare for and patch paint the area in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
None

Corrosion at the base of stiffeners can be addressed by:

Applying epoxy filler to the area to produce a contour that will readily drain
water away, or
Protecting areas vulnerable to corrosion with denso tape.
Refer to sub-procedure 5.1 - Arresting Corrosion.

None.
Pay particular attention to maintenance of the paint system in the vicinity of the
bearing.
7.4.10 Drawing list
Figure 7.4
7.5. Repairing corrosion at bottom flange bracing connection
Severe corrosion in riveted girders at the intersection of bracing, web stiffeners and
the bottom flange leading to significant loss of section in one or more of the
components.
The repair involves a replacement of severely corroded elements and possibly

adjustment of the detail, in a structurally acceptable manner, to avoid recurrence of
the defect.
The repair procedure in 7.2 may be appropriate for the repair of web stiffeners.
Bracing members, damaged by corrosion, can be replaced in accordance with repair

procedure 11.1.
Where significant corrosion of the bottom flange has occurred, the repair procedure
in 6.1 may be required.
Where the loss of section due to corrosion is less than that at which repair is
required, sub-procedure 5.1 for arresting corrosion may be appropriate.
At the location under consideration, all the elements - the bottom flange, the web
stiffeners and web, the braces and connection gusset
may be active parts of the bracing system.
It should be noted that in a sway bracing system, a bending moment will be applied
to the web stiffeners if the intersection of the centroids of the horizontal and diagonal
braces is not on the web centreline.
As a consequence, changes to the details to avoid further corrosion should not be

made in conjunction with the repair without an engineering assessment to determine
if the resulting detail will be structurally satisfactory.
The standard repair procedure involves reinstatement of the detail, arrest of

corrosion and protection against corrosion by an appropriate means.

To assess the necessity for component repair or replacement, the following

guideline should be used: Repair or replace a component if the section loss,
uniformly spread, exceeds 10%.
Notwithstanding the need for an engineering assessment, details of a possible

modification of a typical connection are shown in Figure 7.5. The modification to the
detail involves cutting back of the horizontal leg of the brace angle to eliminate the
horizontal interface with the flange. If no rivets are removed by this modification it is
likely to be structurally acceptable. If the degree of corrosion requires, the web
stiffener is to be repaired in accordance with procedure 7.2 and the gusset plate
replaced in accordance with procedure 11.1.
If the engineering assessment for the particular case indicates that the proposed
modification is not structurally satisfactory, consideration should be given to
compensating for the cut away leg of the brace angle by increasing the size and
thickness or steel grade of the gusset plate and the number of connecting bolts.
Warning:
Bracing should be removed at only one location at a time and temporary bracing to
compensate must be installed if suitable load restrictions are not placed on the structure.
1. Install temporary braces as required to compensate for the braces that are to be
disconnected.
2. Remove rivets as necessary and remove the gusset plate.
3. If structurally acceptable, modify members as detailed by flame cutting or with

an angle grinder. Avoid flame effects and grinding grooves on the flange and
web of main girder. Completely remove the brace if necessary to avoid these
effects.
Dress any flame cut edges by grinding.
4. Repair the web stiffener if required in accordance with procedure 7.2.
5. Clean all steel surfaces of loose rust and paint by scraping and power wire
brushing.
6. Reassemble the connection with a new prefabricated galvanised gusset plate if

required. In the process fill voids, including surface pitting, as required by the

detail in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4. Install new bolts in accordance

with sub-procedure 5.2.
7.
Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steel to the extent directed in
Consider complete replacement of connected bracing members.
Included in procedure
As stated in 7.4.3, 7.5.3, 7.6.3, modification to the detail should only be made if an
engineering assessment shows that it is structurally satisfactory.
7.5.10 Drawing list
Figure 7.5.


7.6. Replacing bearing plates

(See 22.4 for bearing pad replacement)
Severe corrosion of bearing plates and attachment bolts in riveted girder bridges.
The method of repair is to replace the bearing plate with a new galvanised
equivalent. The repair procedure describes methods of installing the new bearing
plate with a minimum lift of the girder.
Weather conditions, in particular, buckling of track in hot weather must be

considered before disturbing the bridge.
A severely corroded bearing plate should be replaced.
It may be prudent to replace a severely corroded bearing plate, even if it appears to

function properly, to ensure the ongoing performance of the bridge.
Girder attachment bolts should be replaced if they are corroded to the extent that
they are unable to restrain the girder against upward movement and/or if they
prevent longitudinal movement at the expansion end.
Restore the capacity of the girder to move longitudinally at the expansion end if
severe corrosion and obstructions have removed this capacity.
If the repair is to be carried out with the bridge open to traffic, temporary support to
the girder including jacks, brackets, struts etc. are to be designed or selected to suit
the load that will be applied.
Where screws in tapped holes are used to attach the bearing plate, fabricate the
plate from steel of grade 350 or higher. The screws then can be sufficiently
tensioned.
1. Remove existing attachment bolts between girder and bed plate. If

necessary drill out the bolt shank to a larger diameter and tap the hole in the
bed plate to suit the new attachment bolt. Alternative attachment
arrangement 2 or 3 shown in Figure 7.6b is to be adopted, drill and tap new
holes in the bed plate to suit.

2. Raise the girder(s) by jacking the minimum amount required to enable

completion of the replacement operation. Raise all girders at one end,
simultaneously if necessary, to avoid overstressing cross-connecting
members. Lock jacks or pack under the girders to prevent accidental
dropping of the girders. If the bridge is to remain open to traffic, restrain the
girders longitudinally by blocking against the abutments, unless they are
suitably restrained at the remote end bearings.
3. Remove rivets connecting the bearing plates in accordance with sub-

procedure 5.2 and remove the bearing plate.
4. Clean the bed plate and underside of the girder flange to remove loose rust,
dirt etc. Use wire brushing if possible. Prepare the existing holes for new
bolts by reaming, dressing etc. as required by sub-procedure 5.2.
5. If the underside of the flange is severely corroded, pitted or uneven, apply an

even coat of epoxy filler to the underside of the flange over the bearing plate
contact area. Apply sufficient epoxy to fill any pitting voids on the underside
of the flange. Refer to sub-procedure 5.4 - Filling Voids.
Preferred Option
6. a) Fit new prefabricated galvanised bearing plate with holes pre drilled
to suit fixed and expansion ends as required. Length of new bearing
plate to allow fitting of 3 bolts past bed plate.
b) Weld bearing plate to bottom flange. Weld not to extend past bed
plate.
c) Drill bottom flange and grind smooth all burrs.
d) Install new bolts.
e) Plug and weld up rivet holes.
f) Prepare for patch painting.
See detail D shown in Figure 7.6c.
Alternative Option
Fit the new, prefabricated, galvanised bearing plate. Fixing bolts are to be in
accordance with one of the alternative details shown in Figure 7.6a. Tighten the
fixing bolts.
If epoxy filler was applied, use the bolt tightening to squeeze the epoxy into any
voids. Ensure that the bearing plate remains precisely parallel to the girder flange
so that it will sit evenly on the bed plate when the girder is lowered.
Ensure that the bearing plate edges and attachment bolt holes align precisely with
the guides and bolt holes of the bed plate.
7. At the expansion end only apply a liberal layer of lithium disulphide grease to
the underside of the bearing plate.
8. Lower the girder(s) onto the bed plates, checking for proper fit. If epoxy filler
was used, do not lower the girder(s) until the epoxy has cured.

9. Fit new attachment bolts in accordance with one of the alternative details
shown in Figure 7.6a, Figure 7.6b and Figure 7.6c.
Several alternative arrangements for securing the new bearing plate and for the
attachment bolts are shown in Figure 7.6a, Figure 7.6b and Figure 7.6c.
The use of stainless steel for the new bearing plate and fixing bolts could be
considered if the environment is aggressive. Using stainless steel will also avoid the
minor problems associated with galvanising zinc entering tapped holes.
For 350 grade bearing plate, a long thread engagement in a tapped hole (1.5 x
diameter) is required with high strength bolts to develop adequate tension capacity.
Where the thickness of the bearing plate is less than the required thread
engagement and cannot be increased, use a high strength structural steel such as
Bisalloy 80 for the plate. With this material the thread engagement is to be equal to
the screw diameter.
Routine maintenance to the paint system and to clean dirt and debris from the
bearing area. Ensure that longitudinal movement of the expansion end is not
prevented.
None.
Check all bolts for tightness during routine inspections.
7.6.10 Drawing list
Figure 7.6a, Figure 7.6b and Figure 7.6c.



7.7. Repairing cracked and broken wind brace welded connections
Cracked and broken wind brace members that have been welded at end and centre
(main girder) connections.
The repair involves removing welded area of wind brace and connecting new wind
brace using gusset plates and bolting.
If broken wind brace is in good condition it may be re-used.
In bridges with flat bar wind braces consideration should be given to replacing flat
bars with angles.
If flat bars are to be replaced with angles, carry out design check to determine size
of angles to be used.
Design new gusset plate to suit end connection bolts.

1. Prepare new gusset plates.
2. Remove cracked/broken wind brace member by oxy-fuel cutting. Do not

allow the cutting flame to damage the main girder flange. Leave cut area
proud if necessary.
3. Grind smooth after removing brace member.
4. Mark flange for location of bolts.
5. Drill flange and grind smooth all burrs.
6. Mark and drill new wind brace, grinding smooth all burrs.
7. Install new wind brace. Fill voids and pitting -see sub procedure 5.4. Fit
new bolts in accordance with sub procedure 5.2.
8. Prepare for patch paint.
7.7.5 Sub procedures required
Ref 5.2.2.1 Oxy-fuel cutting.
Ref 5.2.2.3 Prepare the hole for the bolts.
Ref.5.2.2.4 Install the bolt.
7.7.6 Drawing list
Figure 7.5 Detail B
8. Repairing fatigue damage
8.1. Intercepting fatigue cracks
Fatigue cracks in any steel element.
Drill a hole at the tip of a fatigue crack and install a tensioned bolt in the hole. This
procedure is not a repair as such, but a course of action that may delay propagation
of fatigue cracks.
Fatigue cracks occur in a properly designed structure when it nears the end of its
design life or in poorly designed details where unanticipated high stress levels or
fatigue initiation points occur.

The progress of fatigue cracks is not easily halted other than by changing the
structural behaviour of the part to dramatically reduce or eliminate the tensile
stresses at the crack location. (Refer to procedure 8.2 for an example.) The pre-
compression of the region near the crack tip by the tensioning of a bolt has been
found to inhibit crack propagation.
Warning:
Procedure 8.1 may be used to delay propagation of a fatigue crack, but is unlikely to
be a permanent solution.
After carrying out this procedure, the crack site must be regularly monitored to
detect new cracks emerging from the hole perimeter. This is particularly important in
non-redundant structures where sudden propagation of a crack will lead to collapse.
None.
1. Determine the position of the end of the fatigue crack by magnetic particle
testing, close visual inspection or other suitable means.
2. Drill a hole of at least 20mm diameter to intercept the crack. Locate the
centre of the hole at the observed crack tip. The preferred hole size is 25 to
26mm to suit an M24 Bolt.
3. Use magnetic particle testing on the inside of the hole to confirm that there
are no other cracks around the perimeter of the hole other than the entry
crack, i.e. confirm that the tip of the crack has been drilled out.
4. Install and fully tension a high strength galvanised bolt in the hole. The bolt
is to have standard washers under both head and nut.
None.
Not applicable.
Do not paint the inside of the hole or the surrounding area as this may hide new
cracks forming at the hole edge.
As there is no guarantee that the above procedure will be effective in inhibiting the
crack propagation, inspections of the defect should continue on the same basis as if
the procedure had not been carried out.
8.1.10 Drawing list
Refer to detail B in Figure 8.2.

8.2. Repairing fatigue cracks at connections of coped I-sections
Fatiguec rac
ksi nan -section web, commencing from the tensile edge adjacent to
the point where the flange has been stopped. Refer to the detail in Figure 8.2.
The repair comprises:
1. Drilling a hole at the end of the fatigue crack and subsequently installing a
high strength bolt fully tensioned.
2. Fitting extended connection brackets that bolts to the girder web.
The brackets are to relieve the tensile stresses at the crack and bridge between the
connection bolts and the sound portion of the -sections.
Fatigue cracks occur in a properly designed structure when it nears the end of its
design life or in poorly designed details where unanticipated high stress levels or
fatigue initiation points occur.
A common instance of the latter is the subject of this repair and is illustrated in
Figure 8.2.
Wher et he f l
angesofan -section are curtailed at a distance from the point of
effective pinned support, or where there is rotational restraint to the girder end, the
bending moment may be significant. With only the web to resist the moment, high
levels of stress result. Furthermore, coping of the web or termination of the flange to
web weld may create a fatigue initiation site.
Drilling a hole at the fatigue crack tip is only a temporary measure. It may or may
not delay further crack propagation.
This repair procedure aims to significantly reduce the tensile stress at the crack site
by fitting steel brackets to bridge between the end connection and the sound section
of-girder.
The procedure described and the details shown in Figure 8.2 are intended to
illustrate the principles of the repair rather than any specific case.
A thorough engineering design and the detailing of the steel bracket and its
connections are required for each particular case. Note that it may not always be
possible to devise a suitable bracket. As a general principle, new brackets should
be substantial in section to keep stress levels low.
The design, fabrication and installation effort required by the repair procedure may
be substantial. Close consideration should be given to complete replacement of the
-section (in accordance with procedure 11.1) particularly when the member size
and/or length is small.

A bridge possession is normally required to implement this repair as the member is

to be disconnected.
Only the principles of the repair are given. Any of the sub-procedures may or may
not be required, depending on the designed details.

1. Determine the position of the end of the fatigue crack by magnetic particle
testing, close visual inspection or other suitable means.
2. Drill a hole of at least 20mm diameter to intercept the crack. Locate the
centre of the hole at the observed crack tip. The preferred hole size is 25 to
26mm to suit an M24 Bolt.
3. Drill other holes in the member to suit the brackets to be installed.
4. Temporarily support the end of the member under repair.
5. Disconnect the end of the member by removing rivets etc. as required to fit
the new brackets.
6. Fit new prefabricated, galvanised brackets in accordance with the design

details. Install and fully tension all bolts including the bolt through the hole
at the crack tip.
to the extent directed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
None.
Avoid similar design details in new bridges.
Depending on the details of the new bracket(s), the fatigue crack may be hidden,
preventing ongoing monitoring. The member should be inspected regularly for
adequate performance under load.
Note that it may not be possible to design brackets with a long fatigue life.
Programmed inspections to monitor the performance of new connection, the

progress of the original crack if possible and check for cracks in the new brackets.
8.2.10 Drawing list
Figure 8.2.
9. Repairing impact damage
9.1. Description of Defect
Any damage to bridge elements caused by impact from road or rail vehicles.

9.2. Engineering Discussion
The comments of Section 9 are, in the main, drawn directly from the National Co-
operative Highway Research Program Report 271 -"Guideline for Evaluation and
Repair of Damaged Steel Bridge Members". It is recommended that this document
be referred to for further detailed comment on the issues and techniques discussed
hereunder.
Steel bridge elements including major components such as girders or truss

members and minor components such as bracing members are frequently damaged
by vehicle impact. Once the damage has been detected repair of the damaged
components must be undertaken.
In order to ensure that the repair method adopted is cost effective and restores the
required bridge capacity, the following sequence of actions is required:
1. Inspection of damage
2. Assessment of damage
3. Selection of repair method
A range of repair methods is currently available. These are shown in Table 9.4 that
compares appropriateness of repair method with type of impact damage.
It can be seen from the table that many of the repair methods are excluded for
"Fracture-Critical Members" (FCM's). These are defined as:
"(a) ...those tension members or tension components of members whose

failure would be expected to result in collapse of the bridge or inability of
the bridge to perform its design function.
(b) Tension components of steel bridges include all portions of tension members
and those portions of flexural members subjected to tension stress. Any
attachment having a length in the direction of the tension stress greater than
100mm that is welded to a tension component of a FCM shall be considered
part of the tension component and, therefore, shall be considered Fracture-
Critical."
(AREA Chapter 15, Section 1.14.2.)
The majority of cases of impact damage encountered by ARTC would be to

FCM's, i.e. tension flanges of girders and truss tension members.
The applicable range of repairs in most cases will therefore be reduced to full or
partial replacement of the damaged member, or flame straightening of the member
followed by installation of bolted cover plates to fully replace the damaged section.
9.3. Sub-procedures required
Repairs to impact damage can involve all of the sub-procedures defined in Chapter
5. Techniques associated with the following procedures may also be appropriate
with minor modification, depending on the form of the impact damage:
Ref 6.1 Repairing flange corrosion in riveted girders.
Ref 6.2 Repairing flange corrosion in rolled or welded girders.

Ref 6.4 Repairing webs with localised corrosion.
Ref 6.5 Repairing corroded bottom flanges of jack arch bridges.
Ref 7.2 Repairing intermediate web stiffeners with localised

corrosion.
Ref 7.5 Repairing corrosion of bottom flange bracing connection.
Ref 8.1 Intercepting fatigue cracks.
Ref 10.2 Repairing corroded angle columns (temporary support

available).
Ref 10.3 Repairing corroded 4-angle columns (no temporary

support).
Ref 11.1 Replacing members or elements of riveted members.
Further information on the specific repair techniques relating to impact damage is

contained in the previously referenced Report 271.
9.4. Procedure outline
9.4.1 Inspection of damage
Initial inspection and action
Carry out an initial inspection to ensure safety to the user and to reduce further
damage to the bridge. When damage is severe, an experienced structural engineer
should make the initial inspection and determine whether to restrict traffic or close
the bridge. Preliminary strengthening should be made immediately to prevent
further damage. Preliminary strengthening may also be made to allow traffic on the
bridge. These preliminary actions are normally based on judgment supplemented by
brief calculations. If a severely damaged member is fracture-critical, immediate
steps should be taken to prevent bridge collapse. When a member is damaged
beyond repair, the engineer may recommend at this time to partially or wholly
replace the member. When safety of the user is in question, the bridge should be
closed until it is conclusively determined that traffic can be safely restored.
Inspection sequence and record
Commence inspection with the most critically damaged area first, followed by
inspection of other damage in descending order of severity. Inspect the main
supporting members first. Tension members should be inspected for indication of
cracking. Compression members should be inspected for indications of buckling.
When more than one member has been damaged a complete description of
damage for each member should be given.
Painted surfaces should be visually inspected for cracks. Cracks in paint and rust
staining are indications of cracking in the steel. Heavy coatings of ductile paint may
bridge over cracks that are tight. When there is any doubt about ability to inspect for
cracks, the paint should be removed. Damaged fracture-critical members should be
blast cleaned and magnetic particle inspected.

All areas inspected, including those areas inspected that did not suffer damage,
should be recorded. This procedure aids the decision-making process of what, if
anything, should be done to repair a member.
Monitoring of repairs
Follow-up inspection of repairs shall be made on a regular basis. Members that

have complete restoration should be inspected with the same frequency as the
complete bridge. Member repairs where there is some doubt regarding strength and
durability should be inspected at more frequent intervals. Repairs to fracture-critical
members should receive close consideration with respect to inspection frequency.
9.4.2 Assessment of damage
General
Preliminary assessment of damage shall be made during inspection of damage as

described under Section 9.4.1. Final assessment of damage shall involve at least
one experienced engineer.
Strength of damaged member
During assessment of damage, a complete evaluation of strength shall be made.

This analysis should determine stress levels in the damaged member, and these
stresses shall be compared to the design stresses. This analysis shall allow for all
damage effects such as reduction of section, member distortion etc. Service load
stress should always be computed. Overload, ultimate load, and fatigue stresses
should be calculated as appropriate. Calculations should consider the effect of
stress range and the fatigue category of the member. All preliminary calculations
and decisions made during the inspection phase shall be reviewed.
Fracture-Critical Members
Fracture-critical members shall receive a more rigorous assessment of damage than

non fracture-critical members. Selection of repair procedures for fracture-critical
members shall be more conservative than selecting repair procedures for non
fracture-critical members. In general, crack repairs shall be made with bolted
cover plates. If other methods are used, such as welding or flame
straightening, elements shall be fully strengthened by adding new bolted
cover plates. Enough new material shall be added so that the damaged
material can be neglected in computing strength.
Primary members
Primary members can be classified as compression or tension members. Primary

members in tension shall be considered to be (classified as) Fracture-Critical
Members. Tensile areas of members such as tensile portions of girders in bending
are treated as tensile members. Many of the limiting restrictions in this manual apply
only to tension members.
To qualify as a compression member, no combination of loading shall produce

tension in the portion of the member being repaired. Compression members are not
fatigue critical and, therefore, stress range limitations used for tensile members do
not apply. Charpy impact toughness requirements apply to tension members only.

Most crack repairs and partial replacements in compression areas may be

satisfactorily done by welding
Secondary members
Secondary members are stressed because of deflection of primary members and/or

are stressed because of secondary loads such as wind and earthquake. Secondary
members that carry compression only shall be assessed and repaired in the same
manner as primary compression members. Tension secondary members may be
repaired by flame straightening and hot mechanical or cold mechanical
straightening. Cracks can be repaired by straightening and welding provided the
steel is weldable. No limitation on maximum strain shall be placed on secondary
members, provided they can be straightened to allowable alignment.
Straightening of FCMs
Any primary tension member may be straightened but all affected fatigue-critical
areas are to be plated except those areas where straightening has been achieved
without mechanical assistance.
Edge strain (amount of yielding) can be estimated from table 9.1
Maximum versines (2% yielding on edge)

Flange width - mm 300 chord 600 chord 1200 chord
100 4.5 18 72
120 3.8 15 60
140 3.2 13 51
160 2.8 11 45
180 2.5 10 40
200 2.3 9 36
250 1.8 7 29
300 1.5 6 24
350 1.3 5 21
400 1.1 5 18
450 1.0 4 16
500 0.9 4 14
Table 9.1 - Edge strain (amount of yielding)
Assuming the measured distortion is a circular curve, the edge strain (percent) is
given by
400wv
S
C2
where
w = flange width,
v= versine
C = chord (all in mm)

and the radius of curvature by

L2
R
8v
where
L = chord length
V = versine (gap)
Sufficient area is to be added to compensate for the damaged section (in the
unlikely event that the damaged member/component happens to fracture). As a
minimum, 50% additional area is to be added. This minimum addition is based on
the simple premise that if the member is initially designed for a working stress of
about 0.5 Fy, the straightened member element could be neglected entirely and the
maximum stress would not exceed Fy.
Straightening of compression members
Compression members are not generally subject to fatigue failure but it is critical to
ensure that buckling does not occur.
Calculation of damage curvature
The assessment of damage to a member and selection of the repair method can
best be accomplished from accurate inspection information. A sufficient number of
measurements must be made to apply the proposed guidelines. The assessment
process should provide information that can be used to select the appropriate repair
procedure.
The best way to estimate curvature is by measuring versines of short chords.

Straight edges (or spirit levels) 600mm or 1200mm long held against the inside of
the curvature are more convenient than using string lines.
Nicks and Gouges
Nicks and gouges shall be carefully described and photographed. Superficial nicks
and gouges can be repaired by grinding smooth. More serious damage to weldable
steel in compression members and secondary members can be repaired by welding.
Other cases can usually be repaired by adding bolted cover plates. Requiring partial
replacement due to nicks and gouges is rare.
The distinction between superficial and serious shall be made by stress

calculations. As a guide, superficial nicks or gouges can be taken as those
resulting in less than 10% loss of section of the affected element.
Cracks
Crack assessment must be preceded by a detailed inspection to locate the cracks

and determine their length and width, including visual inspection supplemented with
magnetic particle, or dye penetrant testing. Impact cracks are usually surface
connected and ultrasonic testing is not generally necessary. The stress and shock
of impact will sometimes cause cracking well away from the area of principal
damage.

Look for spalling of paint or scale as an indication that some unusual strain has
occurred at such locations and use as a guideline for areas of detailed inspection.
Visual examination is not to be limited to these areas, however, since a crack may
occur in areas that were shock loaded but were not strained enough to spall the
paint or scale. Visual inspection shall be supplemented with magnetic particle
inspection in suspect areas.
Particular attention should be given to the examination of the toes of butt and fillet
welds in areas subjected to damage as this is an area where cracks often occur.
Field inspection for cracks is done by magnetic particle, dye penetrant and
occasionally ultrasonic inspection.
9.4.3 Selection of repair procedure
General
Repair solutions can be selected from the following range. A combination of repair
procedures may result in the best repair solution. Refer to Table 9.2.
Straightening procedures need to done with care to prevent over-straightening (ie

creating bending in opposite direction) and damage from straightening forces and
devices. Also distortions due to yielding must not be confused with those due to
restraints from other members.
Flame straightening
This repair method does not significantly degrade steel properties, but is not
generally effective where yielding has exceeded about 1%. It may be considered for
the repair of all bent members with the following exceptions:
Do not flame straighten fracture-critical members unless the flame-

straightened area is fully supplemented by bolted cover plates.
Do not attempt to flame straighten excessively wrinkled plates or plate with

excessive kinks. It is nearly impossible to flame straighten this type of
damage.
Hot mechanical straightening
This is a process where heat is applied to all sides of a bent member, and while the
member is still hot it is straightened by applying force. Agencies that use this
o
method restrict the maximum temperature to 640 C. The results of this type of
straightening are highly dependent on operator skill. Lack of skill (or care) is
frequently indicated by waviness of edges (especially the convex side of the
damage) and local indentations due to local hot yielding under jacking loads.
It is believed that flame straightening is a superior method and should be used in

lieu of hot mechanical straightening for all primary tension members, where
practical. Hot mechanical straightening may be used on primary compression
members or secondary members provided the operators have the skill to produce
results that are free of wrinkles, cracks, bulges, and poor alignment.

Cold mechanical straightening
Cold mechanical straightening is a process where an accidentally bent member is

straightened by applying force. No heat is used. It is believed that a bridge member
can be cold straightened once without causing significant degradation, provided the
plastic strain is limited to 5% nominal strain.
Cold mechanical straightening shall not be applied to member areas that have
cracks, nicks, or gouges, or to fracture-critical members. Cold mechanical
straightening should not be applied to members with low Charpy impact values. It is
not recommended that twisted or rotated members be cold straightened.
Welding
Welding may be used for several types of repair, including defect or crack repair,
welding replacement segments into place, and adding straightening plates by
welding. Poorly executed weld repairs in tensile areas can be very dangerous and in
some instances may do more harm than good. Fracture-critical members shall not
be repaired by welding unless fully strengthened by additional bolted material.
The steels to be repair welded shall be weldable steels.
Do not weld members with low Charpy impact values unless plated in addition.
Bolting
Bolting may be used as a repair method or as a supplement to other repair methods.

Replacement of a damaged element with a new piece of steel fastened with fully
tensioned high-strength bolts is regarded as the safest method of repair. Replacing
damaged riveted elements with bolted material may not be excessively difficult and
should be considered.
Fracture-critical members shall be repaired by bolting or repaired by other methods

and fully strengthened by adding new bolted material.
Partial replacement
In some instances damage will be so serious that partial replacement is necessary.

This damage includes excessively wrinkled plates, excessive deformation and
bends, tears in member elements, and large cracks.
Partial replacement will normally consist of removing the damaged area and
replacement with either a welded insert or a bolted splice insert.
Welded inserts are not recommended for fracture-critical members. Partial

replacement by bolting and welding is an acceptable method, provided the
longitudinal web weld is located in a compression area.
Partial replacements can be used in conjunction with other repair methods, such as
flame straightening. For example, a bent member with a crack could be flame
straightened and the crack repaired by bolted cover plates.

Complete replacement
Complete replacement of a member is normally the most expensive method of

repair.
If a member is excessively damaged throughout its full length, replacement may be

the only alternative. Other less difficult methods of repair should be carefully studied
prior to selecting complete replacement.
Repair Method to Consider

Damage Assessment Factors
Partial Replacement
Flame Straightening
Flame Straightening
Full Replacement
supplemented by
supplemented by
Cold Mechanical
Hot Mechanical
Field Welding
Straightening
Straightening
Welding
Bolting
Bolting
Bolting
Weldable Steel
Non-Weldable Steel
Low Charpy Impact Values
Adequate Charpy Impact
Values
Fracture-Critical Member
Primary Tension Member * *
Secondary Members
All Compression Members
Tearing and Excessive Wrinkles
Primary Tension Member
Curvature Strain Meets * *
Guidelines
Primary Tension Member
Curvature Strain Does Not Meet
Guidelines
Member Curvature Radius More Member will return to correct position when adjacent members
than or joints are straightened
Cracks - Weldable Steel
Non Weldable Steel
Superficial Nicks and Gouges Grind Defect Smooth
Nicks and Gouges Weldable
Steel
* Flame straightening is recommended
Table 9.2 - Selection of repair method for impact damage
Strength of repair method
Fracture-critical members should be repaired by methods that unquestionably

restore full strength. These methods may include bolted splices, partial replacement
by bolting, and full replacement. All loading capacities, including service load,
overload, and ultimate load, should be fully restored, and the service life should be
fully regained.

Nonfracture-critical members may be repaired by the same methods used for

fracture-critical members. However, other less costly methods should also be
considered and used as appropriate.
Durability of repair
Durability of repair must be given a high priority. All methods of repair should have
durability equal to or better than the original member. The accessibility of all parts of
a repaired structure for inspection, cleaning, and painting shall be accomplished by
the proper proportioning of repairs and the design of their details. Closed sections,
and pockets or depressions that will retain water, shall be avoided. Pockets shall be
provided with effective drain holes or filled with waterproofing material.
Install low clearance warning signs and alternative route signs.

Install loading gauges remote from bridge site to warn oversize vehicles.
Install crash beams to protect superstructure elements and kerb barriers to
protect substructure elements.
Refer to Section 9.2.
Refer to Section 9.4 Point 3.
Check for growth of cracks where cover plates for repair are less than full section
requirements.
10. Repairing stepways and footways structures
10.1. Repairing steel risers and stringers in stepways
Severe corrosion of steel risers and stringers and their connections leading to a
significant loss of cross-sectional area and consequent reduction in strength.
Stringers with severe corrosion to flanges should be replaced. Where severe

corrosion is limited to the web, a web cover plate may be welded in lieu of complete
replacement.
Risers with severe corrosion are to be replaced entirely with galvanised steel
channels, site welded to stringers.
Members should be repaired or replaced when loss of section results in a strength

or stiffness reduction below 75% of which is required at any particular location.

A simple design check should be carried out to check the strength loss, but the
following guidelines may be applied:
Risers: Replace members exhibiting in excess of
= 20% loss in cross-sectional area of both flanges combined,

or
= 40% loss in cross-sectional area of the web.
Stringers: Replace members exhibiting in excess of 20% loss in cross-sectional

area of both flanges combined or 30% loss in cross-sectional area of
web plate. Fit cover plates to webs of members exhibiting between
10% and 30% loss in cross-sectional area of the web.
Consideration should be given to complete replacement of all risers or all risers and
stringers in stepways where a significant proportion of individual elements would
require replacement.
Although bolted connections have generally been used in this manual as the
standard for steel repair, site welding is the proposed method of connection of new
steel elements in this repair procedure. The locations where welding is required are
typically low stress areas in stepways and fatigue is not usually critical as live load
stress ranges and cycles are small.
Notwithstanding the above, the weldability of the steel is to be checked by

appropriate tests or scientific investigations and all completed welds are to be
checked for defects.
Where stringers are to be replaced, adopt the lower end support arrangement
illustrated in detail D of Figure 10.1b to keep the structure clear of the ground.
Case A - Stringers and risers to be replaced
(Only if cost evaluation shows that total stepway renewal is not the cost effective
solution).
1. Remove precast treads and handrails etc.
2. Remove stringers and risers. Remove rivets securing stringers in

3. Install new galvanised stringers, fabricated to existing steelwork, except

use the lower end support detail as shown in Figure 10.1b. Use galvanised
splice plates where required to connect stringer segments. Use galvanised
bolts in lieu of rivets.

4. Prepare new galvanised risers for installation by cutting and trimming

flanges at the ends, all as detailed in Figure 10.1a.
5. Site weld the new risers to the stringers at positions and levels to suit the
precast step units to be used.
6. Prepare for and patch paint at the riser connections and other areas of
steel to extent directed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3. Note the
special preparation required for rough surfaces such as site fillet welds.
Where galvanised surfaces are to be painted, use the appropriate paint
system and surface preparation as described in sub-procedure 5.3.
7. Refit precast treads and handrails using new galvanised or stainless steel
bolts and fittings.
Case B - Risers only to be replaced
2. Remove risers to be replaced by oxy-fuel cutting adjacent to the

attachment to the stringers. Do not allow the cutting flame to burn or
otherwise affect the stringers that are to remain. Remove other
attachments supporting risers.
3. Grind smooth the face of the stringer web and expose the base metal for
welding.

flanges at the ends, all as detailed on in Figure 10.1a.
5. Site weld the new risers to the stringers at positions and levels to suit
bolts and fittings.
Case C - Risers to be replaced and stringer web to be plated
2. Remove risers to be replaced by oxy-fuel cutting adjacent to the

attachment to the stringers. Do not allow the cutting flame to burn or
otherwise affect the stringers that are to remain. Remove other
attachments supporting the risers.
3. Grind smooth the inner face of the stringer web to remove any remaining
steel from the cross member and any other protrusion that would interfere
with the cover plate. Where rivets project through web, provide holes in the
cover plate.

4. Remove all loose rust from the face of the web to be plated by mechanical
wire brushing. Fill all areas of pitting and all depressions with epoxy filler to
create a smooth even surface for mounting the cover plate, all in
5. Fit prefabricated, galvanised 8mm web cover plates and fix to the stringers
by site welding, all in accordance with the details in Figure 10.1b.

flanges at the ends, all as detailed in Figure 10.1a.
7. Site weld the new risers to the stringers at positions and levels to suit
bolts and fittings.
None.
Routine maintenance to remove build up of dirt and debris, particularly at locations

of site welds.
None.
Pay particular attention to inspection for corrosion at site welds.
10.1.10 Drawing List
Figure 10.1a and Figure 10.1b



10.2. Repairing corroded angle colums

(temporary support available)
Severe corrosion of multiple angle columns resulting in significant loss of cross-

sectional area. This procedure covers the case where the structure can be
temporarily supported, allowing complete removal of the column.
The repair involves complete or partial replacement of the column with a galvanised
Universal Column (UC) section that is less prone to corrosion damage. Concrete
footings with significant damage are to be repaired or rebuilt in conjunction with this
repair.
An engineering assessment to determine the necessity of the repair and the extent
of column replacement should be carried out.
In the absence of an engineering assessment, adopt the following guideline.
Replace columns or segments of columns where the maximum loss of cross-

sectional area exceeds 20%.
It should be noted that columns comprising 2 and 4 angles often have a much
greater axial load capacity than is required, provided they are adequately braced.
On the other hand, columns supporting structures that have had concrete overlay
decks added may be highly loaded.
If severe corrosion has occurred over a significant portion of the existing column,
complete replacement is recommended. Partial replacement of the lower part of the
column should only be adopted if severe corrosion is limited to the lower quarter,
with the remainder in good condition and likely to remain so.
The top connection of the replacement column to the supported structure or the
remainder of the column must be detailed to ensure proper load transfer.
Where concrete footings to columns have deteriorated significantly and are not
repairable, they should be rebuilt in reinforced concrete. The ground bearing area is
not to be less than that of the existing footing.
Temporary support must be provided at adjacent columns that become unbraced

during the repair. The axial load capacity of such columns is significantly reduced
by the disconnection of braces.
Refer to Table 10.1 for replacement column sizes.

To replace angle size

UC size
2 Leg 4 Leg
150 UC 23 102 x 108 x 8 76 x 76 x 5
150 UC 30 127 x 127 x 8 76 x 76 x 8
150 UC 37 127 x 127 x 10 76 x 76 x 10
200 UC 46 127 x 127 x 16 89 x 89 x 10
200 UC 60 152 x 152 x 12 102 x 102 x 12
250 UC 73 152 x 152 x 16 102 x 102 x 12
310 UC 97 200 x 200 x 16 127 x 127 x 12
Table 10.1 - Replacement UC sizes
10.2.5 Procedure Outline
1. Install temporary supports to allow removal of the column.
2. Remove the rivets connecting bracing to the column then remove the
column. If the concrete footing is to remain, cut a pocket at the base of the
columns to permit oxy-fuel cutting of the steel 50mm below the concrete
surface.
3. Repair the existing footing or build a new footing in reinforced concrete if

required. Drill holes for hold-down bolts.
4. Install the new column and complete the base detail as shown in Figure
10.2. Connect to structure or remainder of column above
5. Trim bracing members to size and drill new holes for connection to the new
bracing cleats.
6. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steel to the extent directed all
None.
The proposed details minimise future corrosion if routine maintenance is carried out.
None.
Routine inspections only.

10.2.10 Drawing list
Figure 10.2.

10.3. Repairing corroded 4-angle colums

(no temporary support)
Severe corrosion of 4-angle column resulting in significant loss of cross-sectional

area. This procedure covers the case where the column must continue to carry load
during the repair as temporary support of the structure is not possible.
The repair involves progressive replacement of each angle of the column, in part or
in full. Only one angle is removed from the column at any time. The remaining
angles support the dead load of the structure. Partial replacement involves splicing
new, galvanised angle segments to the existing steelwork by bolting or, where
permissible, welding.
An engineering assessment to determine the necessity of the repair and the extent
of column replacement should be carried out
In the absence of an engineering assessment, adopt the following guideline.
Replace columns or segments of columns where the maximum loss of cross-

sectional area exceeds 20%.
It should be noted that columns comprising 2 and 4 angles often have a much
greater axial load capacity than is required, provided they are adequately braced.
On the other hand, columns supporting structures that have had concrete overlay
decks added may be highly loaded.
It must be recognised that the bracing system interconnecting columns is often

essential to achieve the required axial load capacity in the columns. The repair
procedure has been devised to ensure that the column under repair remains braced
at all times. Only by an engineering assessment of the particular case can it be
determined if bracing can be disconnected during the repair.
Where concrete footings to columns have deteriorated significantly and are not
repairable, they should be rebuilt in reinforced concrete. The ground bearing area
and founding level are not to be less than that of the existing footing.
Bolting is the preferred method of connecting new, galvanised angle segments to
existing steelwork. Welded splices, involving full penetration butt welding of the
angles, may be used where it can be determined by analysis and testing that
existing steels are weldable.
The preferred location for bolted splices is immediately above or below bracing
connection points.

1. Cut a pocket in the concrete footing around the base of the column as
shown in Figure 10.3b. If welded splices are to be adopted, excavate
sufficient to expose an uncorroded section of column.
2. Drill holes for hold-down bolts. Commence the procedure described in

detail in Section 10.3.6 to replace the angles (segments) one by one.
As each of the 4 angle segments is positioned, complete the base connection (HD
bolt and base plate or welded splice) and the upper splice connection (bolted or
welded). The bolts in the bolted splice connection will need to be removed and
reinserted as described for bracing and packing bolts during the procedure.
Mortar is to be packed under each individual base plate before the next angle is
removed to ensure adequate transfer of load.
Fill voids at the heel of splice angles as they are installed. Refer to Section D of
Figure 10.3a.
3. Seal any open interfaces between individual base plates and at splice
angles or at backing bars as required. Refer to sub-procedure 5.5.
4. Apply epoxy filler between the angles at the base, profiled as shown in
Figure 10.3c to promote free drainage of water from column base.
extent directed in accordance with Sub-procedure 5.3.



10.3.6 Procedure for removing angles one-by-one


Details of bolted and welded splice alternatives have been provided.
Routine maintenance to remove built-up dirt and debris between angles, at the base
and at packs etc. fitted between angles.
Epoxy fill between the angles at the base as illustrated in Figure 10.3c to promote
free drainage of water from column base.
None.
10.3.11 1 Drawing list
Figure 10.3a, Figure 10.3b, Figure 10.3c.
11. Complete replacement of members
11.1. Replacing members or elements of riveted members
Any impact damage, severe corrosion or fatigue cracking of a member where

complete replacement of the member or, in the case of riveted members, one or
more components of that member is feasible.
Complete replacement of the member or element of a riveted member.
An engineering assessment to select the appropriate repair for a defect may

determine that the best option is the complete replacement of the members or the
element of a riveted member.
1. Determine the size, shape and layout dimension for bolt holes by careful
measurement on site.
2. Fabricate and galvanise the replacement member or elements.
3. Fit any temporary bracing or support members required.
4. Unbolt connecting bolts or remove connecting rivets in accordance with sub-

procedure 5.2. Remove the member or component.
5. Prepare the area of interface to the new member or element by cleaning,

grinding and painting if required.
6. Fit the new member or element and complete the bolted connections in
7.
7. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steelwork to the extent directed
The new member and its connections may differ in detail from the member it
replaces provided it has been designed for the appropriate loads and effects and
that the capacity of the structure or part of the structure is not reduced.
HUCK BOM blind fasteners may be used where there is access to only one side of
the connection.
None
Special considerations and effects of repair
None.
11.1.9 Drawing list
None.

Part 3
Concrete Repairs

12. Introduction
12.1. General
This Section aims to provide a simple guide to understanding the causes and
mechanism of concrete deterioration, identification of common types of defects and
selection of suitable repair materials and techniques. It is limited to repair methods
that can be easily carried out by maintenance personnel and general contractors. Its
application is limited to reinforced concrete structures only. The methods given
herein should not be used for repairing prestressed concrete structures.
Repairs that appear to be difficult and extensive due to severe deterioration and that
may require technical investigation and special equipment should be arranged
through organisations experienced and skilled in testing and repair of concrete.
Almost all concrete structures are subject to some kind of deterioration. The damage
caused by the deterioration may be minor, that need not even be repaired, or it may
be very significant requiring immediate attention. Some defects may appear minor
in the beginning but if left untreated could grow into major repair operations later.
It is therefore important to understand the mechanism of deterioration, what types of

defects can develop, how to assess whether a defect is minor or significant and then
to decide how to repair the defect and what are the most appropriate materials and
repair methods.
It must be emphasised that in all types of repair and construction work, health and
safety of all personnel is of paramount importance.
Attention is therefore drawn to Chapter 3 "Health and Safety" that highlights the
procedures for ensuring the safety of workers, and public as well as the
environment.
12.3. References
The subject matter of concrete repairs has been obtained from a number of sources.
These, as well as other references that could be useful for additional and detailed
information, are given at the end of the Section. The assistance obtained from the
various references is gratefully acknowledged.
13. Deterioration of concrete
13.1. Factors affecting deterioration
Deterioration of concrete is affected by the following factors:
Quality of the constituent materials (cement, sand, aggregate, admixtures

and water used in the manufacture of concrete).
Environmental conditions (exposure to air, water, chemicals, industrial

pollutants, marine condition, frost etc).

Physical properties of concrete (permeability, compressive strength, density,

cement content, shrinkage characteristics).
Standard of workmanship during construction (fixing of formwork and

reinforcement, placing, compaction and curing of concrete).
Concrete cover to steel reinforcement.
Design practice (mix design, detailing of reinforcement and concrete cover,

practicality of construction).
13.2. Causes of deterioration
The main causes of deterioration of concrete are summarised below:
13.2.1 Corrosion of reinforcement
Rusting or corrosion of reinforcement is one of the major causes of deterioration of

reinforced concrete. Corrosion involves a combination of processes, mainly
carbonation and chloride contamination, leading to de-passivation of steel and its
subsequent corrosion by electrolytic reaction.
In theory, the steel reinforcement is protected from rusting by a film of oxide that is
stable in the alkaline environment of the concrete surrounding it. The alkalinity is
provided by the free calcium hydroxide (lime) present in the Portland cement. The
process of corrosion is initiated by de-passivation of the steel, i.e., breakdown of the
protective oxide layer due to degradation of the alkaline environment. The alkalinity
in concrete may be reduced by either of the following causes:
Leaching out of the free lime by water if the concrete is porous.
Carbonation: Penetration into concrete of carbon dioxide present in the

atmosphere. The carbon dioxide dissolves in the pore water of the concrete
and reacts with the free calcium hydroxide to form neutral calcium carbonate.
This reaction progressively lowers the alkalinity of concrete that results in
removal of the passive oxide layer from the steel. The carbonation rate is
very dependent on the concrete quality. Concrete with high water/cement
and high porosity carbonates very rapidly.
Chloride contamination: The chlorides can come from a number of sources

including contaminated aggregates, admixtures such as calcium chloride and
exposure to sea water, salt spray or saline water. The chlorides in the pore
water within the concrete form an electrolyte and the chloride ions locally de-
passivate the steel reinforcement by breaking down the protective oxide
layer even in highly alkaline concrete.
The depassivation of steel creates the environment that leads to corrosion of steel in
presence of moisture, oxygen and an electrolyte. An electrolyte can be formed by
very small quantities of carbon dioxide, sulphates or chlorides in the pore water.
The electrolytes set up an electrolytic cell action between anodic and cathodic
++
regions formed on the steel. The electrons from the Fe ions flow from the anode
- -
through the steel to the cathode where OH ions are formed. The OH ions flow from
++
cathode through the concrete to the anode where they combine with the Fe ions to

form the complex hydrated iron oxides and hydroxides known as rust. (See Fig.
13.1).
The corrosion process is usually slow but always progressive. The products of
corrosion occupy a volume greater than the parent metal. This volume increase
generates high internal pressures that cause debonding, cracking and eventually
spalling of the concrete.
The corrosion is therefore primarily an electrical process that results in formation of

rust at the anode regions on the reinforcement bars. (See Fig. 13.2).

13.2.2 Sulphate Attack
Sulphate attack is initiated by sulphates that may be present in ground water or are
formed by penetration into concrete of sulphur dioxide from the air, particularly in
areas of industrial pollution. The sulphates react with calcium hydroxide to form
gypsum (CaSO4) that subsequently reacts with tricalcium aluminate (C3A) of the
cement to form a swelling sulphoaluminate substance known as ettringite. Concrete
affected by sulphate attack expands, initiating cracking and spalling that provides
access to reinforcing steel for the very aggressive sulphate ions resulting in
corrosion of steel.

13.2.3 Alkali aggregate reactivity
Certain aggregates can react with the alkali present in cement to form a gel that
swells by absorbing moisture and cracks the surrounding concrete. As the reaction
advances cracks extend over the surface in a random "mud crack" pattern and
popouts, appearing first on the most weathered surfaces. Alkali aggregate reaction
(AAR) also manifests as closing up of gaps in concrete and development of cracks
along stress lines in the vicinity of concentrated loads such as bearings and
prestressed anchorage zones. In the long term the gel exudes through the cracks
as white efflorescence and the concrete shatters into small blocks or along stress
lines, but may be held together by steel reinforcement. The effects of AAR are
unsightly and structurally debilitating.
13.2.4 Shrinkage, thermal and load effects
Cracking is induced in concrete structures when free movement due to shrinkage of

concrete and thermal expansion and contraction is restrained, even under simple
loads. Thermal effects include those occurring during the heat of hydration in fresh
concrete poured in restrained locations (eg against "cold" joints). Cracking results
when the new concrete cools and shrinks.
In continuous structures temperature gradients may also cause flexural cracking due
to large sagging moments produced over the supports. Similarly, differential
shrinkage between precast girders and cast-in-place deck of continuous bridges
may result in cracks in the region of hogging moments.
Cracks produced by these effects should have been allowed for in the design, and
are most likely to occur due to bad design, poor detailing and poor construction. The
structural significance of these cracks should be checked by a structural engineer
prior to any treatment that may range from no action to external strengthening. If the
concrete is sound such cracks should have little effect on corrosion unless they run
along reinforcing steel or are very large.
13.2.5 Frost and salt attack
Frost attack is unusual in Australia but salt attack is more common and will occur
where concrete is in intimate contact with sea, salt lakes or high salinity soils.
Under frost the water in the pores of concrete freezes and expands generating high
internal pressures that shatter the concrete surface. Salt in a saturated solution can
also seep into concrete pores and crystallise by evaporation of the water. The
crystals expand and generate high pressures that spall the surface of the concrete.
Both effects are pronounced in poor quality concrete and lead to corrosion of steel.

13.2.6 Impact forces
Impact damage can be caused in bridge structures by:
Collision of, or glancing blows from, motor vehicles against piers,

abutments and parapets.
Derailment of trains.
Overheight vehicles striking against the underside of the bridge

superstructure.
Impact of heavy floating logs carried by rapid flowing streams against the
bridge structure.
This type of damage generally causes cracking and spalling of concrete with or
without exposure of reinforcing steel. Severe impact may also result in rupture or
fracture of members and collapse of the bridge.
Impact damage should be repaired promptly before the reinforcement has started to
rust and before the damaged surfaces are affected by carbonation or contamination.
(See Fig. 13.5).

13.2.7 Overloading
Overloading of bridge structures may occur due to vehicles with above legal limit
weight, increase in train loads since the construction of bridges, extremes of
temperature causing excessive movements, high temperature differentials within the
structure, high winds, excessive build up of road metal or ballast on the deck or build
up of flood debris against the structure. Overloading can cause cracking of concrete
members. Excessive overloading may result in fracture of members and collapse of
bridge. Cracks that have formed as a result of accidental overload will tend to be
very fine after the load has been removed and often need no treatment. Cracks
wider than 0.3 mm may need to be sealed.
For increased train loads, strength of all components of the bridges should be
assessed by structural calculations.
13.2.8 Faulty construction
Faulty construction is one of the most common causes of early deterioration.

Common construction faults include:
14. Formwork not cleaned out properly (pieces of timber, nails and debris
embedded in finished concrete).
Formwork not made watertight (honeycombed concrete due to loss of

cement grout).
Inadequate compaction (voids in concrete). (See Fig. 13.6).
Over compaction (laitance on top surface leading to scaling).
Lack of sufficient concrete cover to steel either by failure to fix the

reinforcement correctly or due to poor design.
Inadequate and insufficient curing.
14.1.1 Deterioration at joints
Joints in structures are specially vulnerable to deterioration for several reasons:
They can be difficult to construct and the concrete at a joint may lack
compaction.
They may act as paths for the entry of salty water or carbon dioxide.
They may fail to work as joints forcing the concrete to crack at an adjacent
plane of weakness (eg at the end of dowels or at the fin of a waterstop).
They may not be intended to be active joints (eg construction joints) but may
subsequently become active without having any provision for sealing.
These faults will eventually result in rusting of reinforcement after the concrete has
become carbonated. If repair action is taken quickly, before the reinforcement has

started to corrode, it is possible to prevent or greatly reduce the extent of damage

from these causes.
15. Types of defects
15.1. Introduction
Common defects that occur in concrete structures and need repair action are as
follows:
Cracking
Spalling
Scaling - Cement rendering breaking away
Delamination
Leaching
Rust stains
Honeycombing
Fire damage
Dampness
Leaking joints
Breaking up of repairs
Shattering - Bearing pads common in all bridges
Crushing - Bearing pads common in all bridges
15.2. Cracking
Cracking can be an important indicator of deterioration taking place in concrete and

possible corrosion of reinforcement steel depending on the size, extent and location
of the cracks. Because the significance of each type of crack is different, it is
important to distinguish between them. Seven types of cracks generally occur.
Longitudinal cracks (formed in hardened concrete)
These cracks run directly under or over and parallel to reinforcing bars and are
caused by build up of rust on the reinforcement. Eventually they will lead to spalling
and complete loss of concrete cover. Longitudinal cracks cannot be treated without
removal of the deteriorated concrete and renewing the cover. (See Fig. 14.1).
Transverse cracks (formed in hardened concrete)
Cracks transverse to the reinforcement are caused by concrete shrinkage, thermal

contraction or structural loading. The width and distribution of these cracks is
controlled by the amount and disposition of the reinforcement.

Where there is no secondary reinforcement (as in beams), these cracks will only be
transverse to the main reinforcement and are harmless unless they are very wide or
the environment is exceptionally aggressive. (See Fig. 14.2).
Where reinforcement runs in two directions at right angles (as in slabs), cracks that
are transverse to secondary bars will tend to coincide with the main bars because
reinforcement of the larger size tends to act as a crack inducer. Unless these
cracks are treated soon after they appear they could cause rusting of reinforcement
and further deterioration.

Shear cracks (formed in hardened concrete)
Shear cracks are caused by structural loading or movement of supports (eg due to
foundation settlement) or lateral displacement of frames and columns. Occurrence
of shear cracks will result in reduced strength of a member. They may also cause
rusting if left untreated.
Plastic shrinkage cracks (formed in unhardened concrete)
In the construction of concrete surfaces such as floor slabs or decks, loss of

moisture from the surface due to rapid evaporation causes cracks on the surface.
These cracks are harmless unless the concrete slab will later be exposed to salt or
other contamination that would result in deterioration. (See Fig. 14.3).
Plastic settlement cracks (formed in unhardened concrete)
These cracks develop during construction when high slump concrete is used,
resulting in settlement of the solids and bleeding of water to the top especially in
deep sections. Settlement cracks form at the top where the reinforcement has
supported the aggregate and stopped it from settling, while water collects under the
reinforcement displacing the cement grout and leaves the steel unprotected. The
cracks form longitudinally over the reinforcement and are a common cause of
serious corrosion. (See Fig. 14.4).
Map cracks
Map cracking is caused by alkali-aggregate reaction over an extended period of

time. The cracks are internal in origin and result in breaking up of concrete and loss
of strength.
Surface crazing
Craze cracks are fine, random cracks or fissures that develop on concrete surfaces.
They result from shrinkage of the concrete surface during or after hardening and are

caused by insufficient curing, excessive finishing or casting against formwork. Their

significance is mainly aesthetic. (See Fig. 14.5).
15.3. Spalling
Spalling is defined as a depression resulting from detachment of a fragment of

concrete from the larger mass by impact, by action of weather, by overstress or by
expansion within the larger mass. The major cause of spalling is expansion resulting
from corrosion of reinforcement. Spalling caused by impact can weaken the
structure locally and expose the reinforcement to corrosion. (See Figs. 14.6 and
14.7).

15.4. Scaling
Scaling of concrete surfaces is defined as local flaking or peeling away of portions of

concrete or mortar near surface. As the deterioration continues, coarse aggregate
particles are exposed and eventually become loose and are dislodged. (See Fig.
14.8).
Scaling occurs where the surface layers of concrete are not finished dense and
homogenous. Poor finishing practices result in weak layers of grout at the top of
concrete surfaces that easily peel away by weathering or abrasion.
Light scaling refers to the loss of surface mortar only without exposing coarse
aggregate. Medium and severe scaling involves loss of mortar with increasing
exposure of aggregate. Very severe scaling refers to loss of coarse aggregate
together with the mortar.

15.5. Delamination
Delamination refers to separation of layers of concrete from bridge decks, beams or

walls at or near the level of the top or outermost layer of reinforcing steel and
generally parallel to the surface of the concrete member. The delamination is not
possible to identify visually as the concrete surface appears intact on the outside. It
can, however, be detected by tapping the surface with a heavy rod or hammer when
a hollow or drumming sound is given off indicating the separation of concrete from
the reinforcement.
With practice, this sound can be identified accurately enough to mark the affected
area on the surface of the concrete.
The major cause of delaminations is the expansion resulting from corrosion of

reinforcing steel. As soon as delamination is detected steps should be taken to
ascertain the cause of corrosion including laboratory testing of concrete samples
and appropriate repair action initiated. If a successful repair is not made, concrete
above the delamination interface will eventually become dislodged and a spall will
result.
15.6. Leaching
Leaching or efflorescence is the white deposit of salts or lime powder formed

commonly on the underside of deck slabs or vertical faces of abutments, piers and
wingwalls. It is caused by surface or subsoil water leaching through the cracks and
pores in the concrete. The water dissolves the lime and other salts in concrete (or,
may already be contaminated with salts from the subsoil). The dissolved substances
are deposited as white powder on concrete surface after the evaporation of water.
(See Fig. 14.9).

15.7. Rust stains
Brown or rust coloured stains on concrete surface indicate corrosion of steel

reinforcement. (See Fig. 14.10).
15.8. Honeycombing
Honeycombing is lack of mortar in the spaces between coarse aggregate particles.

It is caused by insufficient compaction or vibration during placement of concrete and
results in porous and weak concrete. The voids also provide channels for ingress of
water, oxygen and corrosive agents such as carbon dioxide, chlorides and sulphates
that will eventually cause corrosion of steel reinforcement. (See Fig. 14.11).

15.9. Dampness
Moderately wet or moist areas of concrete indicate penetration of moisture and will
eventually lead to corrosion of reinforcement and deterioration of concrete. The
source of moisture is often from ponding or improper drainage over or in the vicinity
of the structure. This should be investigated and remedial measures taken as
appropriate.
15.10. Leaking joints
Deterioration or loss of sealants and jointing materials from the joints and/or
deterioration or lack of waterproofing membranes results in penetration of water
through the joints. Apart from being a nuisance, it causes ugly stains and growth of
algae around the joints. The penetrating water along with dissolved contaminants
will also find a way into porous or weak concrete leading to deterioration of the
structure.
15.11. Breaking up of repairs
Past repairs are indicative of problems in the structure. The repairs should be
monitored during inspections. The condition of the repair or patch will usually
indicate whether the underlying problem has been solved or is still continuing.
Cracking, delamination, spalling or rust stains in or around the repair indicate that
the problem still exists and further investigation and repair are needed.
16. Assessment of deterioration
IMPORTANT NOTE:
The most important matter in any assessment of damage is to establish if the strength and
stability of the structure are adversely affected. Where safety of a structure is in question,
professional advice should be sought immediately for the protection of the structure as
well as its users against further damage, collapse or injury. (See Fig. 15.1).

Warning
Even the most basic joint depends on the concrete cover for its strength.
Before removing any concrete from a load bearing structure consider carefully whether
the concrete you propose to remove is providing essential support for the structure.
If it could be, support the structure first.
16.1. General
To successfully repair a deteriorated concrete structure it is essential to identify the

cause, extent and rate of deterioration of concrete and whether or not the cause is
still active.
A step by step procedure for assessing deterioration is given below. This procedure
includes a number of simple tests that can be easily carried out on site. It is not
essential to carry out all the tests and judgement should be used in applying the
tests according to the severity of the problem at hand.
It is also recognised that resources for carrying out these tests may not be available
and detailed investigation may have to be entrusted to specialist firms or consulting
engineers who have appropriate expertise to establish the causes of deterioration
and advise on what repair action should be taken.
16.2. Assessment procedures
1. Before proceeding, assess if detailed examination of the damage or

deterioration will require track closure, power outage, pedestrian and traffic
restrictions, assistance from police and utility authorities (Gas, Electricity,
Telecom, Water Board), worksite protection, special equipment (ladders,
cherry pickers) and any special safety measures.
2. Study previous investigation and repair reports available, if any. Examine

the condition of the past repairs to determine whether they have been
successful or if the deterioration is growing worse.

3. Carry out a visual inspection of the structure and, if necessary, use hand
magnifiers, binoculars and telephoto photography to record the type and
extent of deterioration. Estimate the crack widths. If possible, ascertain the
obvious causes of deterioration such as reinforcement corrosion, poor
drainage, environmental conditions, accidental damage etc.
4. Examine for hollowness and delaminations by tapping with a hammer,

medium size spanner or a steel rod. Use chain-drags on slabs. Assess and
mark out suspected areas of hollowness and delaminations.
5. Ascertain if the cracks are "live", that is, their width changes under thermal or
structural loading. This can be detected with a mechanical strain gauge held
on gauge discs glued to the concrete surface. Cracks that are due to applied
load will move immediately the load is changed (eg. under traffic passing
over the bridge). Cracks due to thermal movement move when the
temperature of the element alters. Measurements made three or four times a
day should establish whether a crack is live or not.
6. Estimate the concrete cover to reinforcement using electromagnetic cover

meters or by actual measurement where concrete is broken and
reinforcement is exposed. Check if the cover provided is adequate for the
exposure conditions, or is as per drawings (if the drawings are available).
7. Testing for carbonation: Break off small pieces of concrete from different
areas of the structure using hammer and cold chisel and test freshly exposed
concrete surfaces by spraying with 2 percent solution of phenolphthalein in
alcohol. This pH indicator solution will change colour according to the
alkalinity of the concrete. The solution remains pink and is easily visible on
concrete that has retained its alkalinity but becomes colourless on concrete
that has lost its alkalinity by carbonation. The test will thus indicate the depth
to that the concrete has been carbonated from the surface.
8. Testing for chloride contamination: To determine the chloride content of

concrete, samples are obtained by drilling holes in the concrete and
collecting the dust produced. (If there is any surface salt built up, it must be
removed before drilling). The dust samples are collected at a range of
different depths, eg. 0-10 mm, 10-25 mm, 25-50 mm and so on to determine
how the chloride content changes with depth from the surface. It also helps
to establish whether the chloride was present in the concrete when it was
cast, or whether it penetrated the concrete from the surroundings. (See Fig.
15.2).
The concrete samples are treated with acid to dissolve the cement and the chloride
content is determined by titration against silver nitrate.

16.3. Other detection methods
Listed below are additional tests that require special equipment and significant skills
and experience to obtain usable results. Such testing methods would have to be
undertaken by specialist personnel skilled in the field of diagnostic testing.
Half-cell potential measurements to assess corrosive activity in concrete and

the probability of corrosion in steel reinforcement.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements to locate areas of delaminations and

honeycombed concrete.
Electrical resistivity measurements to assess qualitatively the rate of

corrosion.
Permeability tests to measure the water absorption of concrete.
In-situ compressive strength measurements using Schmidt Hammer.
Core sample testing for strength, permeability, contamination, composition

and density.
Measuring deflection of structural members under known applied loads.
17. Repair materials
17.1. Introduction
No matter how carefully a repair procedure is carried out, using the wrong material
will most likely lead to early repair failure. Therefore, selection of appropriate
materials is an absolute requirement for obtaining durable repairs.
The basic criterion for selecting a repair material is that its material properties match
the properties of the base concrete and a good bond is achieved and maintained at
the repair interface.

17.2. Material properties
17.2.1 Factors affecting repairs
The material properties that affect the quality of a repair are:
Dimensional stability
Bond failure between new and old concrete is usually caused by relatively large
shrinkage of the new concrete (or mortar) while the old concrete does not shrink
further. Therefore, the repair material must be either shrinkage free or else be able
to shrink without losing bond.
Coefficient of thermal expansion

When a composite of two materials of widely varying thermal coefficients undergoes
a significant temperature change, differences in volume changes can cause failure
either at the bond line or within the section of the lower strength. Therefore, when
making large or thick patches or when placing an overlay, it is important to use a
material with a coefficient of thermal expansion similar to that of the concrete being
repaired.
Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of a material is a measure of its stiffness. High modulus
materials do not deform under load as much as the low modulus materials.
Consequently, when materials with widely differing moduli are in contact with each
other and subjected to a common load, the lower modulus material would tend to
yield or bulge transferring the load to the stronger material that if overloaded may
then fracture. For this reason, a wall or section made of relatively flexible (low
modulus) material should not be patched with a stiff (high modulus) material.
Permeability
Permeability refers to the capability of a material to transmit liquids or vapours.
Good quality concrete is relatively impermeable to liquids but freely transmits
vapours. If impermeable materials (such as epoxies) are used for large patches,
overlays or coatings, moisture vapour that passes up through the base concrete can
be entrapped between the concrete and the topping. Entrapped moisture can cause
a failure either at the bond line or within the weaker of the two sections.
Impermeable materials should also generally be avoided in patching concrete that

has been damaged due to corrosion of reinforcing bars as it may accelerate the rate
of corrosion.
For the above reasons, whenever possible cementitious materials should be used
for repairing concrete structures due to their compatible physical properties with the
parent concrete. Cementitious mortars and concretes may be modified by the
addition of polymers but are always preferable to resin mortars if circumstances
make it practical to use them.
17.3. Types of Repairs
17.3.1 General
A large variety of materials are used in the repair of concrete structures. These
materials may be used singly or in combination to achieve the best results according
to the circumstances of a particular repair job. It is therefore essential to know the

characteristics and application requirements of different materials so that an

appropriate selection can be made for the repair in hand.
The materials commonly used for concrete repairs are:
Polymers (synthetic latexes) and polymer modified cement mortars and

concretes.
Synthetic resins and resin based material.
Unmodified cement based mortars and concretes.
Steel reinforcement coatings.
Substrate bonding coats.
Acrylic concretes.
Non-shrink hydraulic cement mortars.
Sprayed concrete.
Protective coatings.
Flexible joint sealants.
17.3.2 Polymers (synthetic latexes) and polymer modified cement mortars and
concretes
Synthetic latexes are made by dispersing polymer particles in water to form a

polymer emulsion. When these emulsions are added to Portland cement
concrete/mortar, the spheres of polymer coalesce to form a film that coats the
aggregate particles and hydrating cement grains and seals off the voids.
The polymer modified cementitious mortars and concretes are high performance
repair materials that work monolithically with parent concrete due to their similar
physical properties such as modulus of elasticity and coefficient of thermal
expansion. Their other good attributes are:
increased workability (therefore, less water-cement ratio),
excellent bond to existing concrete and steel in dry, damp or wet conditions,
low shrinkage,
high impermeability to water,
higher resistance to chloride ion and carbon dioxide penetration,
inherent alkalinity to passivate the steel reinforcement,
higher strength,
increased resistance to freeze-thaw damage and chemical attack,

higher abrasion resistance.
The three basic polymers used as latex modifiers for concrete are:
polyvinyl acetates (PVA)
acrylics
styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR).
PVAs are not recommended for use in wet environments because some types may
hydrolyse and break down.
SBR latexes develop a brownish coat after being exposed to sunlight and this may
make them unsuitable for patching applications where colour matching is important.
16.3.2.1 Limitations
The working life of polymer modified mixes is relatively short. Therefore, the
quantity of mix for a particular job should be limited according to the placing and
finishing time - about 20 minutes. If the mortar or concrete is manipulated after
the latex has coalesced, cracking may occur on drying.
Application of polymers is also sensitive to temperature. At low temperatures the

polymer spheres will not coalesce to form a durable film around cement and
aggregate particles. At high temperatures their working time is too short allowing
little time to finish the repair. Manufacturers' instructions in this regard should be
carefully followed.
16.3.2.2 Bonding coat
To obtain a high bond between the latex concrete overlay or mortar patch and
the base concrete, a bond coat is brushed or broomed onto the prepared
concrete surface. This bond coat can be the mixture used for the overlay or
patch, or made by mixing undiluted latex with Portland cement. The surface is
first thoroughly wetted with clean water for not less than one hour prior to
placement. After removing all free water but with the surface still damp, sufficient
mixed material to coat all bonding surfaces is then placed and vigorously
broomed to assure maximum contact with the old concrete. The rate of
application of bonding material should be limited so that the bond coat does not
dry before being covered with repair mortar or concrete.
16.3.2.3 Curing
The curing procedure of polymer modified concrete is different from normal

concrete. Wax or resin found in most curing compounds are incompatible with
latex and should not be used without prior evaluation.
The polymer film formed in polymer modified concrete helps to maintain high
levels of internal moisture in the concrete. Because of this, prolonged curing is
neither necessary nor recommended. To prevent shrinkage cracking before the
film has formed, however, all finishing operations must be completed and the
surface covered with a single layer of wet burlap as soon as the surface will
support it. The curing cover is completed by placing a layer of polyethylene film

over the wet burlap. This is left in place for 24 hours after that the burlap and
polyethylene are removed and the surface is permitted to dry for 3 to 5 days.
17.3.3 Synthetic resins and resin based materials
Epoxies are frequently used as repair materials because they bond well to almost all
materials, cure rapidly, are high in both tensile and compressive strengths, exhibit
good chemical resistance, and they shrink very little during curing. Applications
include use in bonding concrete (hardened to hardened, and hardened to fresh) and
in patches, overlays and protective coatings.
However, there are significant differences between the physical properties of resins
and concrete. In particular, resins have an elastic modulus that is about one-tenth
that of the concrete and coefficient of thermal expansion 5 to 8 times higher than
that of concrete. The strength of resin based materials in compression is usually
higher than the strength of concrete, in tension it is much higher. These differences
result in excessive stresses at the bond interface so that delamination of the epoxy
repair is likely to occur either at the interface or just within the concrete substrate.
As a result, epoxy mortar repairs are more suitable for thin and small volume
repairs.
Further, in contrast to the cementitious materials that re-passivate the steel

reinforcing bar, epoxy resin materials do not passivate the bar but rather arrest
corrosion only by excluding the oxygen due to their low permeability to moisture and
gases. In fact, in marine environments epoxy repair materials are likely to trap
chloride spray against reinforcement and introduce in-built potential chloride attack
on the steel.
Epoxy resins offer excellent repairs in the following situations:
- Repairs of cracks up to 6 mm width by injection with low viscosity unfilled

epoxy resin that has the potential to penetrate and seal cracks down to 0.02
mm width. Crack injection is normally associated with dead cracks that are
basically inactive and do not move.
(If the cracks are live and continue to move with changing loads or
temperatures, they cannot be repaired with resins. In such cases, cracks are
treated as expansion joints and sealed with flexible materials).
- Bonding of new concrete to old concrete. Epoxy resin formulations provide

excellent adhesives and can give long drying times prior to placing of repair
materials. This is particularly useful where complicated formwork has to be
assembled.
- Bonding of steel, brick, concrete blocks and other materials to existing

concrete (i.e., use as adhesive).
- Epoxy resin grouts, mortar and concretes for reinstating deteriorated

concrete or patching in thin layer applications without problems of drying
shrinkage associated with cementitious repairs.
- Resin mixtures can be made fluid enough to flow into places by gravity so
that inaccessible places can be filled with them and compaction is

unnecessary. This is valuable for packing bearings, machine bases and so

on.
Epoxy compounds consist of a resin, a curing agent (hardener) and modifiers that
make them suitable for specific end uses. Modifiers include accelerators that make
the rate of cure depend less on temperature, dilutents that reduce viscosity and
improve workability, and fillers such as sand and aggregate that lower cost,
decrease shrinkage and reduce the volume change due to thermal expansion.
The resin generally consists of two components that are batched by volume and
thoroughly mixed before the incorporation of aggregate. Chemical reactions start as
soon as the resin components are combined and the working time will depend on
the system, the temperature and the handling procedure.
Accurate batching and proper mixing of the components is crucial for attaining
maximum strength and other properties of the epoxy materials. For this reason they
should be mixed in whole batches that are obtained pre-proportioned from the
supplier.
If formwork is used with epoxy materials or epoxy modified concrete, the form
surfaces should be coated with a release agent compatible with the epoxy.
Surfaces of base concrete and steel should be primed with neat resin. Placement
and consolidation should be done in layers of limited thickness as recommended by
the epoxy formulator.
Considerable skill and experience are needed for the successful application of
epoxy resin materials. They have to be applied within a very limited time before they
harden and have to be handled cleanly to avoid contamination of both the resin
mixture and the people working with them. Therefore, it is advisable to employ
specialists to supply them as well as apply them.
17.3.4 Unmodified cement based mortars and concretes
To match properties of the base concrete as closely as possible Portland cement

mortar and concrete are frequently the best choices for the repair material.
However, if there is a difference in aggregate source, maximum aggregate size or
water content, properties will differ. Also, the in-place concrete probably will have
undergone considerable drying shrinkage so that differential volume changes
between a repair and the in-place concrete will almost certainly occur. Effects of
differential volume change can generally be minimised by maximising aggregate
size, minimising the water content and by following good curing procedures.
The concrete mix used for repairs must be capable of producing highly impermeable
concrete. Additives such as ground granulated blast furnace slag, pulverised fuel
ash or microsilica can be used in repair mixes to increase impermeability in the
same way as in new concrete. The use of accelerating admixtures may be
advantageous but the admixture itself should not contain more than 1 percent
chloride ion by weight and the resulting total concrete should not contain more than
0.1 percent chloride ion by weight of cement.
The nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate should be less than of the
patch or overlay depth, but not more than 10 mm, bearing in mind that the concrete
may have to get into fairly tight locations.

The water-cement ratio should not exceed 0.4 by weight, lower ratios being
preferred. Slump of mixes for shallow patches and overlays should not exceed 25
mm. The slump of mixes that are to be consolidated around reinforcing steel by
internal vibration should not exceed 75 mm.
Accurately batched and properly mixed concrete is essential to the success of

repairs. To avoid variability in site mixed concrete due to difficulty of accurate
proportioning, pre-packaging at the maintenance shop or other suitable location
should be considered. If the aggregate cannot be completely dried it must be
packaged separately from cement.
A number of proprietary pre-packaged cement based mortars and grouts

incorporating special cements, chemical additives and admixtures, specially
formulated to exhibit high bond, high strength and non-shrink properties are also
available in the market. Prior to using any proprietary material its suitability for a
particular job must be verified from the manufacturer's printed literature.
Cement based unmodified materials do not always adhere successfully to old

concrete and it is important that the old concrete be kept wet for a period of 12 to 24
hours prior to repair to ensure that the old concrete does not suck away water from
the new concrete thus preventing full hydration of the cement at the critical interface.
However, prior to placing the new concrete the surface of the parent concrete must
be dry and without free water so that the water-cement ratio at the interface is not
increased.
The other alternative is to prime the repair areas with Portland cement or latex
modified Portland cement grout or an epoxy system. A bonding agent must be
applied for low slump mixes.
The Portland cement grout should consist of a mixture of 1 part cement to or 1

part fine aggregate and sufficient water to make a heavy cream consistency.
Polymer-modified bonding grouts have a short drying time (normally less than 30
minutes) and cannot be used if there is much form fixing to be done before the
concrete can be cast.
Epoxy bonding coats have two special advantages. Firstly, they can be formulated
to have long open times, that makes them suitable for use in hot climates, or when
formwork has to be fixed after the bonding coat has been applied. Secondly, they
may provide a more effective barrier than cement grouts against the migration of
chlorides.
Note:
Although they are water compatible, epoxy bonding coats are applied to a dry concrete
surface. However, specially formulated resins are available for application to damp
surfaces also.
16.3.4.1 Curing
With low water-cement ratio repair concrete, a continuous water cure is the
preferred method for strength development.
Curing compounds may be used, however, they neither furnish desirable external
water to low water-cement ratio mixes nor do they provide any cooling effect.
They should not be used if additional material is to be later bonded to the surface

being cured. Curing compounds should be applied at twice their usual rate to
shotcrete and to other rough textured surfaces. It is essential that freshly placed
surfaces be kept moist until curing is initiated. A fog spray or a film should be
used if there is to be any delay in application of curing compounds.
17.3.5 Steel reinforcement coatings
The purpose of using reinforcement primers and coatings is to ensure:
Adequate bond between steel and repair material.
Protection of steel in the repair zone against further corrosion.
Prevention of corrosion progressing under the primer.
The following types of coatings can be applied to steel reinforcement:
Cement slurry.
Cement slurry modified with polymer or latex emulsion.
Epoxy resin (with or without alkaline admixture).
Inhibitive primers (such as zinc chromate primer).
Zinc rich epoxy primers.
Alternatively, the cement paste from a well designed cementitious repair mix may
protect the reinforcement better than any separately applied coating.
Caution:
A coating is not an alternative to removing chloride contamination from the reinforcement
nor will it prevent corrosion from being caused by chlorides that are already present on the
reinforcement. It is therefore essential to remove the rust and chlorides from corroded
steel before applying any primer.
Where the repair is cement based, coating of cement slurry (or the cement paste in
the repair mortar or concrete itself) would create a lasting alkaline environment on
the surface of the steel and offer a high degree of impermeability to water, carbon
dioxide and chloride ions.
Polymer modified cement slurries may dry too quickly to be effective in repairs
where forms have to be fixed after the coating is done, but they are suitable where
the delay is short.
Use of epoxy resins, inhibitive primers and zinc rich primers should only be made
after consultation with concrete repair experts, as in certain circumstances these
coatings may do more harm than good.
Epoxy resin coatings act as an impermeable barrier against external moisture and
gases, but if any chlorides are trapped under the coating the corrosion of steel could
still continue.
Use of zinc rich paint: Where corrosion is due to a local flaw in generally sound
concrete, the grit blasted bar may be coated with zinc rich paint. Where there is

generally poor quality concrete but the environmental attack is such that corrosion
has occurred in a limited area (i.e. there may be a large number of cathodes
compared with the anodic corrosion sites), the anodic zinc coating may be rapidly
used up and steel re-attacked. In this case zinc rich paint should not be used.
Where there is generally poor concrete and corrosion is very widespread (that is,
there are many anodic as well as cathodic sites) zinc rich paint may be used.
17.3.6 Substrate bonding coats
Provided that the surface of the parent concrete has been properly roughened and
all loose material removed, it is not essential to have a bonding layer. There is a
widespread opinion that it is helpful, and whether one is used depends primarily on
the practicality of applying it.
Independent advice should be sought as to that product to use, remembering some

bonding agents intended for use inside buildings actually break down eventually in
the presence of moisture. The practical difficulty lies in the requirement for the
agent to be applied so that it is tacky at the time of placement of the repair material.
The bonding coat will prevent bonding if it is allowed to become dry.
For epoxy materials the bonding coat consists of the same resin as used for the
repair material.
For cementitious mortar and concrete, it is possible to use Portland cement grout,
latex modified Portland cement grout or an epoxy system according to the
practicality of the situation. Detailed description of bonding coats has already been
included with relevant repair materials.
17.3.7 Acrylic concretes
Note: Description of this material is given as a matter of interest only. Its use
requires training and special skills and repairs should best be entrusted to
experts.
Unlike normal Portland cement concrete, acrylic concrete contains no water and no
Portland cement. It is made by mixing aggregates with acrylic monomers that
polymerise during curing to form hard, tough concrete. Two types of monomers are
available for making acrylic concrete: methyl methacrylate (MMA) and high
molecular weight methacrylate (HMWM).
Acrylic concrete is expensive, so obviously it cannot be used everywhere. However,

because it develops compressive strength of 35 MPa to 70 MPa in 1 to 2 hours, it
has been used to repair pavements, bridge decks, parking decks and warehouse
and factory floors that cannot be closed to traffic for several hours or days.
Acrylic concrete has few voids making it dense and impermeable. It resists intrusion
of water, chlorides and most other corrosive chemicals. It develops high bond
strength with Portland cement concrete. Therefore, it is often used as an overlay,
6mm to 50mm thick, on top of Portland cement concrete. A primer of catalysed
acrylic monomer is usually brushed on the base concrete first.
Because of its low viscosity, the acrylic penetrates into the pores of Portland cement
concrete to produce a mechanical bond with the substrate.

The aggregate for making acrylic concrete should be bone dry, with a maximum
moisture content of 0.5 percent. Normally, these products are sold as pre-packaged
systems and manufacturer's instructions should be followed for mixing and
application.
Both methyl methacrylate (MMA) and high molecular weight methacrylate (HMWM)
gain strength in a matter of hours, but they are different in a few important ways.
MMA has a low flash point, therefore, it is easily flammable, produces a non-toxic
but disagreeable odour, and has a short pot life. HMWM, on the other hand, has a
high flash point and its odour is not strong. HMWM is easier and safer to use than
MMA but it also costs significantly more.
Because of its low viscosity, low volatility and relatively good bond strength, HMWM
has been used without aggregate to weld together inactive cracks in Portland
cement concrete. After mixing with a catalyst HMWM is poured onto the concrete
surface and distributed with a squeegee. Material must be applied within 15
minutes after mixing. If cracks are blown clean and dry beforehand, the monomer
can penetrate the full depth of the cracks. However, monomers should not be used
to repair active cracks.
Caution:
Personnel handling and mixing monomers should use eye-protection and
impervious gloves and aprons; respirators with chemical filters should be available
for those who wish to use them. Mixing of monomers should be carried out in a
shaded, well-ventilated area, free of ignition sources. Storage and handling of all
materials must be done in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.
17.3.8 Non-shrink hydraulic cement mortars
A number of proprietary Portland cement based products are available as non-

shrink repair materials. Most of these products contain components that cause the
mortar or concrete to expand after it has hardened. The expansion is intended to
overcome or compensate for the expected drying shrinkage and to maintain a tight
bond to the material with that it is in contact. Then, when it undergoes subsequent
drying, the loss of moisture simply relieves the compressive stress instead of
causing shrinkage.
Non-shrink cement mortars and grouts can be used in the following applications:
Repairing honeycombing, shrinkage cracks and spalls
Filling holes left by tie wires
Making watertight seals around penetrations
Stopping leaks
Patching precast concrete
Providing mortar beds under bearings and base plates
Anchoring bolts, dowels and rods.

It is best to purchase the non-shrink mortar in standard packages rather than in bulk.
Proportioning with standard packages is simple: all the user needs to do is mix the
package contents with the recommended amount of water and aggregates.
17.3.9 Protective coatings
Surface coatings are used on concrete structures to provide additional protection

against ingress of water, water soluble salts and atmospheric gases. In addition,
they enhance the aesthetic appearance and help in hiding the patchy appearance of
concrete that has been repaired in different places.
It should be noted however that when concrete is already showing signs of

deterioration and tests show that enough salt is present at the reinforcement to
make it rust, adding a protective coating will not help in reducing such deterioration.
In such circumstances it is essential that the concrete be repaired first, and then, if
the environment warrants, protected against further deterioration by application of
suitable surface treatment.
For whatever reason the coatings are applied it must be accepted that they will not
last as long as a durable concrete surface and re-coating will be needed from time
to time.
Basically, there are two types of protective coatings:
1. Film forming - relying on adhesion to concrete.
2. Non-film forming - that penetrate into the concrete surface.
Film forming coatings are made from:
polyurethane resins
epoxy resins
coal tar epoxy
chlorinated rubber
acrylics
bituminous materials
polymer modified cement
Penetration type coatings are formulated with Silane/Siloxane.
Generally, film-forming coatings are highly efficient against ingress of moisture,

water soluble salts (chlorides) and gases and vapours (carbon dioxide). However,
build up of water vapour pressure behind them especially if water can get into the
concrete from another face can cause the coating to blister and peel off unless the
adhesion of the film to concrete is very good. Also, if the film lacks elasticity and
fails to bridge across active cracks or subsequently formed shrinkage cracks,
pollutants will find easy ingress into the concrete at the site of cracked coating and
will eventually cause deterioration in concrete.

Film forming coatings require significant amount of surface preparation. The surface
of concrete must be free of oils, grease, loose surface layers, dust and surface
defects such as blow holes and shrinkage cracks. The surface is either sand-
blasted or grit/water blasted and steam cleaned and imperfections filled with suitable
levelling or fairing coats prior to the application of the coating system. Most
proprietary coating systems consist of a separate primer that improves the adhesion
of the coating to the concrete and resists peeling or blistering. Also, pigmented
coatings give much better protection and are more durable than unpigmented
coatings.
Protective coating systems based on silane/siloxane are penetrating type sealers

that impregnate concrete and react with the moisture and silicates present in the
cement thus modifying the concrete surface to form a water repellant but vapour
permeable barrier. Silane/Siloxane coatings, therefore, prevent contamination
against water soluble chlorides but being vapour permeable are not effective against
carbonation.
Penetration type coatings require less surface preparation. However, a dry concrete
surface is essential for successful application. They generally impregnate the outer
2 to 5mm of the concrete surface and effectively seal blow holes, cracks up to
0.3mm and other minor irregularities.
All proprietary coatings perform differently from each other in regard to ease of
application, adhesion to concrete, resistance against ingress of moisture, soluble
salts and gases, durability, ability to stretch and bridge cracks and other
characteristics. Their selection therefore should be made with care according to the
requirements of the repair job in hand.
17.3.10 Sprayed concrete
(Source: Concrete Institute of Australia, Recommended Practice Sprayed Concrete,

1987)
Note: Sprayed Concrete is a specialised work that requires skilled operators. Only
an engineer with the knowledge of, and experience with, the material should
decide where and how it should be used.
Sprayed concrete consists of a mixture of cement, aggregate and water (it may also
contain fibres and/or other admixtures) forcefully projected onto a surface through a
hose and nozzle by means of compressed air.
Sprayed concrete develops excellent bond, is homogeneous and compact and does
not sag in wall and overhead applications. It is thus suited to a wide range of coating
and lining operations.
There are two different techniques for applying sprayed concrete:
Dry-mix process
In the dry-mix process cement and aggregate are mixed together and metered into a
regulated high-pressure hose. The compressed air carries the mixture to a special
nozzle equipped with a controlled water spray that dampens the mixture and
dispenses it on to the receiving surface. The volume of the water added is controlled
by the nozzle operator.

Wet-mix process
In the wet-mix process a mixture of cement and aggregate mixed with water is
metered into the delivery hose and conveyed towards the nozzle where compressed
air is injected that then projects the mixture into place.
Concrete sprayed by wet process has lower impact velocity than with the dry
process because of inertia. Moreover, the extra workability required for pumping wet
concrete dictates the use of higher water content. Strict control is required in the
wet-mix process to ensure pumpable concrete at all times, otherwise if the delivery
hose is blocked spraying has to be disrupted till the pipes can be cleared.
In the dry-mix process the quality of mix delivered on the surface relies heavily on
the operator's competence as the rate at that water is added has to be controlled
manually. But with a skilled operator it does give better control and adjustment and
thereby better quality. Dry-mix process is often the preferred technique.
In addition to suitability, the economics of the use of sprayed concrete must also be
considered. For some applications, sprayed concrete may be more economical
than conventional in-situ concrete because it needs little or no formwork nor any
compaction, and the equipment for placing and mixing is small, portable type.
16.3.10.1 Limitations
Sprayed concrete also has some limitations that should be kept in mind. These
are:
The finished product is largely dependent on the operator skill. Quality

control, supervision and testing are difficult.
Correct batching of powdered admixtures in dry-mix is very difficult.

Some admixtures can be hazardous to handle also.
Sprayed concrete must be reinforced with small mesh, small diameter

reinforcement (or fibre reinforcement added to the mix) to prevent drying
shrinkage.
Dust from the dry-mix process can be objectionable. Protection must be

provided for adjacent buildings, materials, trees and gardens.
Curing in sprayed concrete is more critical than in ordinary work because

of the small thickness usually applied. If curing compounds are used,
they should be applied at twice their usual rate.
Sprayed concrete may have shrinkage and thermal properties different

from the concrete it is being applied to. (To minimise the effect of
differential shrinkage and thermal expansion latex admixtures and/or latex
based coatings to substrate may be used, but keeping in mind the limited
working time available with latex based products).
Sprayed concrete can have relatively high porosity and permeability.
Poor weather conditions such as wind, rain and cold can severely affect
the application of sprayed concrete.

The overall thickness of horizontal and vertical work is virtually unlimited

(though for practical and economic reasons it is kept to less than 200mm).
However, overhead work is generally limited to about 80mm thickness in
one day.
Except for thin sections, the cost per cubic metre is generally higher than
for in-situ work.
Sprayed concrete is difficult to finish. It is probably best not to trowel or

float it.
17.3.11 Flexible joint sealants
Flexible joint sealants are required in repairing live cracks that are subject to
movement due to applied loads, shrinkage and temperature. Such cracks cannot be
sealed with rigid repair materials, such as epoxies, as failure would occur either in
the repair material or a new crack will develop elsewhere in the concrete.
There are three types of sealants in general use. Their properties are given below:
Mastics
1. generally viscous liquids of non-drying oils or low melting asphalts
2. movement capability not exceeding 15%
3. sealant recess depth/width ratio up to 2:1
4. extrude at high ambient temperatures
Thermoplastics
5. include asphalts, rubber modified asphalts, pitches and coal tar
6. liquid or semi-viscous when heated

o
7. pouring temperatures are usually above 100 C
8. sealant recess depth/width ratio of 1:1
9. movement capability up to 25%
10. susceptible to ultra violet light, lose elasticity
11. extrude at high ambient temperatures
Elastomers
1. polysulphides, epoxy polysulphides, polyurethanes, silicones and acrylics
2. one part or two part materials
3. superior to other sealants
4. excellent adhesion to concrete

5. not susceptible to softening within normal range of ambient temperatures
6. higher movement capability: up to 50% to 100%
7. sealant recess depth/width up to 1:2
8. Choice of a sealant generally depends on the following factors:
9. Movement capability of the sealant
10. Resistance to environmental exposure (weather, ultra violet

radiation, water penetration, chemicals, etc.)
11. Adhesive properties, curing rate and paintability
12. Service temperature range
13. Sealant width/depth ratio (modulus characteristics)
14. Trafficability
15. Applicability in horizontal and vertical situations.
A large number of proprietary sealants are available. Choice for any repair
application should be made according to the particular requirements of the job.
Manufacturer's printed instructions should be strictly followed.
17.4. Questions to consider before choosing a repair material
(Source: Concrete Construction October 1984)
Concrete repair materials can be formulated to provide a wide variety of properties.

Because the properties affect performance of the repair, choosing the right product
requires careful study. Suppliers of repair materials can help repair contractors
choose the right product but they need to know the anticipated service conditions
and the conditions under that the product will be applied. If you have not told the
supplier the answers to the following questions, you probably have not told him
enough about the repair conditions for him to help you choose the best repair
material.
17.4.1 Application conditions
How thick is the repair section?

In thick sections, heat generated during curing of the repair material may build up
and produce unacceptable thermal stresses. Some materials may shrink too much
when placed in thick layers and some materials will spall if placed in thin layers.
Others can be feather edged. When aggregates are used as an inexpensive filler or
extender, the maximum size of aggregate that can be used will be dictated by the
minimum thickness of the repair.
Will the substrate be moist?

Some polymer materials will not cure properly in the presence of moisture. Others
are moisture insensitive. Heat generated during initial curing of some repair

materials may create steam in a moist environment and the steam may cause failure
of the repair.
At what temperature will the repair material be placed?

Portland cement hydration ceases at or near freezing temperatures and cement
o
modifier emulsions won't coalesce to form films at temperatures below about 5 C.
Other repair materials can be used at temperatures well below freezing, although
setting time may be increased. High temperatures will make many repair materials
set faster, decreasing the working life or precluding their use entirely.
Will repairs be carried out in poorly ventilated areas or in areas where use of
flammable materials is not permitted?
Components of some repair materials are volatile and combustible. Odour can also
be a problem.
Is the repair section on a vertical surface or on the underside of a horizontal

member?
For unformed wall or soffit patches, repair materials must adhere to the substrate
without sagging.
16.4.2 Service conditions
How soon does the repair have to be put into service?

If repairs are subject to early loading, rapid strength gain characteristics are
essential.
Will the material be exposed to chemicals such as acids, sulphates, chlorides

or strong solvents?
Acids and sulphates will attack Portland cement-based materials, and chlorides may
cause corrosion of reinforcing steel. Strong solvents may soften some materials.
Will the repair bear heavy traffic?

Perhaps a material with good abrasion resistance and good skid resistance is
necessary.
Must the material bond to steel as well as to the concrete substrate?
What are the maximum and minimum temperatures that the material will be
subjected to in service?
Because thermal movements can cause stresses in the repair material or at the
bond line, the range of service temperatures must be considered.
Will the finished repair be exposed to vibration?

For applications such as machinery pedestals, vibration can cause distress in brittle
repair materials.
Is appearance of the repair important?

If colour matching or duplication of original concrete texture is needed, many repair
materials will be unsuitable.
How long must the repair last?

If the repair is only temporary, perhaps a lower cost, less durable, or more easily
applied material can be used.

18. Repair options
18.1. Establish need for repairs
Before proceeding with the repairs an evaluation should be made to determine the
need for repairs. Repairs may be required for any of the following reasons:
Strength, stiffness and durability

Damage needs to be repaired if it reduces the strength, stiffness or durability of the
structure to an unacceptable level. For example impact damage to beams and
columns or loss of reinforcement by corrosion. In such cases calculations should be
carried out to determine the stress levels and deformations in the damaged
elements to assess the severity of damage and urgency for repairs.
Appearance
Repairs may be required to improve the appearance of the concrete surface, for
example some types of cracks, minor spalls, scaling, efflorescence, impact damage,
etc. These defects may not immediately affect the strength of the structure but if left
untreated could lead to further deterioration.
Functional performance
Repairs required if the function of the structure is impaired even if the strength,
stiffness or appearance are not significantly affected. Examples: broken treads and
handrails on stairs, loss of sealants from expansion joints, dampness due to ponding
of water, etc.
Prevention of further deterioration

Some repairs need to be undertaken to prevent the existing minor deterioration
growing worse if left unattended. For example: evidence of chloride penetration
without corrosion may require coating the concrete surface with silane to limit further
chloride ingress.
18.2. Repair options
Depending on the nature of damage, urgency of repairs and availability of funds and
resources, one of the following options may be adopted:
1. Do nothing other than carry out regular safety inspections. Wait and see.
2. Take action to prevent the deterioration from getting worse.
3. Carry out repairs to restore deteriorating parts of the structure to a

satisfactory condition.
4. Demolish and re-build all or part of the structure.
18.3. Selection of repair methods
Having determined the repair option, it then remains to select an appropriate repair
method for the job in hand.
Selection of the repair method depends on the location, type and extent of
deterioration and the cause thereof. For a particular defect there may be one or

more possible repair solutions. Therefore, a comprehensive knowledge of repair

methods and procedures is essential. These are given in the next Section.
19. Introduction to concrete repair procedures
19.1. General
This chapter presents methods for repairing common types of defects and damage
to concrete structures. Techniques that require special equipment and expertise
such as cathodic protection, chloride removal, re-alkalisation have been excluded.
However, it should be noted that the conventional repair procedures for dealing with
the effects of reinforcement corrosion may be limited in their effectiveness. To have
any chance of success, rigorous adherence to the following procedures is essential
and patch repairs may extend well beyond the area of the initial damage. Even so,
fresh electrolytic cells leading to immediate resumption of corrosion may occur at
the boundaries of the repair and the repair may have a very short life. Therefore,
where damage is due to reinforcement corrosion, expert advice should be sought
with a view to determining if more specialised techniques will be more cost-effective.
19.2. Repair methods
Chapters 20 to 26 cover the following repair methods:
1. Repairing cracks
2. Patch repairs
3. Recasting with concrete
4. Repairs for corrosion
5. Sprayed concrete
6. Protective coatings
19.3. Sub-procedures
The procedures listed below are preparatory items of work generally required to be
carried out prior to actual repairs. Some of them are common to different methods
of repairs and are referred to as "sub-procedures" in the Repair Methods.
1. Removing damaged concrete

2. Removing concrete at joints
3. Cleaning concrete substrate for patch repairs and re-casting
4. Cleaning concrete surface for overlays
5. Cleaning reinforcement
6. Adding reinforcement
7. Applying bonding coat to concrete
8. Coating reinforcement
9. Formwork for re-casting concrete
10. Curing
11. Surface preparation for external coatings.
The sub-procedures are described in Chapter 19.
19.4. Steps in repair work
1. Carry out detailed damage survey. Indicate location, extent, severity and
particulars of the damage.
2. Investigate the cause of damage or deterioration by conducting field and

laboratory tests as necessary. If corrosion is present establish the cause.

(Alternatively, determine if it is necessary to engage services of specialist
consultants to carry out the investigation).
3. Assess the strength and stability of the damaged structure.
4. Establish the urgency of repairs.
5. Examine alternative repair options, materials and methods.
6. Assess if the repair work would require track closure, power outage, people
and traffic control, flagmen, assistance from police and utility authorities,
falsework, temporary structures and health, safety and environmental
protection measures.
7. Estimate the cost of repairs. Obtain competitive quotations/ tenders if
necessary.
8. Prepare a project repair report on basis of the above. Recommend if the
repair work be done by day labour, contract or through specialist agencies.
9. Organise the repairs.
20. Sub-procedures
20.1. Removing damaged concrete (sub-procedure)
Removal of damaged or deteriorated concrete may be necessary in several

situations, such as:
Corrosion of reinforcement leading to cracking, spalling and delamination of

concrete.
Impact damage causing cracks and spalls.
Construction defects resulting in honeycombing, cracks and scaling.
efective joints causing corrosion to reinforcement, cracking of concrete and
leaking.
Repair of broken up old repairs.
Regardless of type of deterioration, all unsound and disintegrated concrete must be

removed.
Where reinforcement corrosion is the cause of the problem, obviously concrete must
be removed to a depth that includes all the affected reinforcement and leaves some
room behind it as well, so as to give an adequate thickness of cover to steel in every
direction. If the new concrete is dense and of high quality this should inhibit the rate
of new carbonation.
Where chloride contamination is the problem, there are more points to consider. If
the contamination comes from the original mix, limited concrete removal will not give
complete protection to steel. In this situation coating the reinforcement with epoxy
resins may be considered but advice should be sought on the risk of rapid corrosion
where the coating terminates . But if the chloride contamination has come from a
salty environment, the depth to which the concrete has been contaminated should
be determined by testing. The concrete cover should then be removed to a depth
where chloride contamination is less than 0.1% of cement. If the salty environment
is aggressive, coating the finished concrete surface after the repairs should also be
considered.
The extent of concrete removal depends on the extent of damage. It may be

localised or widespread. If the damage is due to severe but local corrosion in

reinforcement requiring addition of bars, it may be sufficient to remove only the

damaged area of concrete plus the length needed to bond the new reinforcement.
Concrete may be removed by power tools or by water blasting with or without
entrained abrasives. If abrasive is entrained in the water jet, it also removes most of
the rust from the exposed reinforcement.
If concrete is broken out from inside a large area of generally sound concrete, the
edges of the area to be repaired should be cut with a perpendicular saw cut at least
15mm deep to avoid a feathered edge finish. The feathered edges of repaired
concrete will easily prise off as a result of changes in stress. The face of the saw
cut must be roughened slightly (eg. with a needle gun) to help the repair material to
bond with it. (See Figs. 19.1a and 19.1b).
In situations of soffit repairs to beams and slabs, profile of removed concrete should
be planned to allow escape of air during re-casting. Vent holes may be drilled
through the slab for the same purpose.

20.1.2 Procedure
1. Before removing any concrete from a load bearing structure consider

carefully whether the concrete to be removed is providing essential support
for the structure. If yes, support the structure first.
2. Ascertain the area of damaged concrete to be removed and repaired.

Consider extending the repair area to some line where the boundary of the
new work will fit in with a feature of the structure.
3. Mark the repair area with horizontal and vertical lines. Avoid sharp acute
angles and re-entrant corners.
4. Make perpendicular saw cuts along the lines. Depth of saw cut should be
minimum 15mm, maximum 20mm. Take care not to cut through
reinforcement bars. For small areas and where saw cutting is not practical,
use chipping tools to remove concrete but ensure that edges of repair area
are cut perpendicular to the surface.
5. Remove the damaged concrete within the saw cut boundaries to the depth
required using power tools and/or high pressure water blasting. If removal
of material has exposed more than half of the perimeter of reinforcing bars,
remove the concrete further to expose the bars completely with minimum
20mm clearance behind the bars to ensure encasement and bond.
Exposure of steel reinforcement must also continue along its length until
non-corroded steel is reached and continued at least 50mm beyond to
show sound rust-free metal.
Corners of the removed concrete at the substrate level should be rounded

to obtain good contact between the substrate and patch material.
6. Roughen the edges of saw cuts with needle guns.
7. Ensure that all weak and flaky concrete is removed throughout the
substrate.
20.2. Removing concrete at joints (Sub-procedure)
Three types of joints are provided in reinforced concrete structures:
Construction joints
Contraction joints
Expansion joints
At construction joints the structure is intended to remain monolithic without

movement across the joint.
Expansion and contraction joints, however, are provided to allow movement in the
structure due to shrinkage, creep and thermal effects.
Depending upon the joint detail, a joint may incorporate continuous reinforcement
across it (or, the reinforcement may be stopped on either side of it), dowel bars for

shear transfer and water stops and sealants to prevent water penetration. Because
of the complexity of detail at the joints, they are difficult to construct and the
concrete at a joint may become porous and honeycombed due to lack of
compaction. Therefore, it is not surprising that many joints fail resulting in cracking
of concrete, corrosion of reinforcement and water penetration.
Construction joints that open and behave as unintended movement joints must be
widened and sealed at the external face as soon as they are noticed and before
contamination can occur. (Refer methods for repairing cracks).
A badly deteriorated joint must be repaired by removing the affected concrete and
reconstructing the joint.
Removing the concrete 'cover' at a joint is often a matter of removing concrete both
on the external surface and the internal joint face and it usually results in removing
all the concrete in the immediate vicinity of the joint. The reinforcement, however,
must be left in place so that the re-cast concrete can be tied in to the existing
concrete.
If the joint incorporates dowel bars, it is often necessary to remove the dowel
assembly completely. This means that all the concrete may have to be removed as
far as 500mm on either side of the joint.
Repairing dowelled joints that allow movement by removing the concrete on one
side only seldom succeeds, because often it is the lack of accurate alignment of the
dowels that causes distress in the joint by not permitting free sliding of the concrete
member. In such cases the dowel bars must also be removed and replaced by pre-
assembled dowels that are set parallel to each other and in one plane and installed
accurately in formwork perpendicular to the joint plane before concrete is cast.
20.2.2 Procedure
1. If necessary, support the structure on both sides of the joint before any
concrete is removed.
2. Ascertain the area of damaged concrete to be removed.
3. Mark the repair area with lines running parallel and perpendicular to the
joint.
4. Make perpendicular saw cuts 15 to 20mm deep along the lines. Take care
not to cut through reinforcement bars.
5. Remove the damaged concrete between the saw cut and joint to the depth
required.
6. If the concrete requires removal through full depth of a slab, the slab should
o
be cut below the saw cut at an angle of approximately 20 to the vertical,
sloping towards the joint. To achieve a neat joint on the soffit of the slab,
consider making a saw cut on the soffit also offset from the saw cut at the
top of slab to give a sloping construction joint. (See Fig. 19.2).
7. Roughen the edges of saw cut with needle guns.
8. Ensure that all weak and flaky concrete is removed.

20.3. Cleaning concrete substrate for patch repairs and re-casting (sub-procedure)
20.3.1 Engineering Discussion
To ensure good adhesion of mortar or new concrete to the parent material, the
substrate should be clean and free of dust and loose material.
20.3.2 Procedure
1. After removal of damaged concrete, remove loose particles and dust with
high pressure water or vacuum cleaning. Air blowing may be effective, but
the compressor should be equipped with a functioning oil trap to prevent
contamination of concrete by oil.
2. Do final cleaning immediately before placement of repair material to ensure

that all contamination is eliminated.
All concrete surfaces on that new ovrelays are to be bonded must be cleaned of dirt,
oil, grease, asphalt, tar, laitance and deteriorated concrete. Ashpalt or oil particularly
interfere with methyl methacrylate polymerisation and therefore must be removed
thoroughly. Detergents may remove suface oil contamination, however, oils that
have penetrated the surface should be removed by chipping or scarification.
20.4. Cleaning Concrete Surface for Overlays
20.4.1 Engineering Discussion
All concrete surfaces on that new overlays are to be bonded must be cleaned of dirt,
oil, grease, asphalt, tar, laitance and deteriorated concrete. Asphalt or oil
particularly interfere with methyl methacrylate polymerisation and therefore must be
removed thoroughly. Detergents may remove surface oil contamination, however,
oils that have penetrated the surface should be removed by chipping or scarification.
20.4.2 Procedure
1. Remove tar and asphalt by mechanical means followed by sandblasting.

2. Remove all traces of dirt, oil and grease by scrubbing with a proprietary
alkaline detergent solution such as sodium metasilicate or trisodium
phosphate. Wash with plenty of water to ensure complete removal of the
detergent. Dirt alone may be removed by water blasting, with wire brushes
or similar mechanical means.

3. If oil has penetrated into surface, remove affected concrete by chipping or

scarifying followed by water or sand blasting to remove loose material.
4. Remove laitance and deteriorated concrete by water or sand blasting.
5. Immediately prior to application of overlay material, blow the concrete
surface with clean, dry and oil free compressed air to ensure complete
removal of all dust and loose particles.
20.5. Cleaning reinforcement (Sub-procedure)
If the deterioration of concrete has been caused by corrosion of reinforcement, the

products of corrosion must be removed before placing the new concrete, otherwise
the repair will not be effective. If the damage is due to chloride contamination, it is
essential to remove all rust from the steel, as any residual rust will be contaminated
with chlorides that could restart the corrosion later.
Water-abrasive blasting is the most effective method for cleaning the reinforcement.
The abrasion removes the solid rust and water dissolves the chlorides away.
Enough concrete must be cut away on the blind side of the reinforcement to allow
room for water-abrasive blasting - the space will be needed for providing concrete
cover to steel anyway.
If the cause of damage is carbonation, rust removal is less critical and it will be
sufficient to remove any loose rust that might prevent adhesion of repair material to
steel.
20.5.2 Procedure
1. Ascertain from test results if chloride contamination has occurred.

2. Inspect the reinforcement after the concrete has been removed.
3. If deterioration is due to chloride contamination or if the reinforcement is
covered with loose corrosion products and has developed pits, use water-
abrasive blasting till all the rust is removed and steel has achieved Class
2 "Near White" surface cleaning to AS1627.4.
4. If there is no chloride contamination and the rust is slight and adheres fast
to steel, without signs of loose scales and pitting, clean the reinforcement
by water blasting only to remove any loose material.
20.6. Adding reinforcement (Sub-procedure)
If rusting has reduced the cross-sectional area of reinforcement by more than 15%,
extra reinforcement must be added before the repair is made good to restore the
cross-sectional area to its original value.
20.6.2 Procedure
- Inspect the exposed reinforcement for damage after the concrete cover
has been removed.
- Examine if corrosion has reduced the cross-sectional area of any bars by
more than 15%. If yes, measure the length over that such corrosion
extends.
- The length of lapping bar required = corroded length + 2 x splice length
required by AS3600.

- Lapping bars shall be of the same diameter as the existing bars.

- Ensure that sufficient concrete is removed to accommodate the lapping
bars (See Fig. 19.3).
- Clean concrete and existing reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.3 and
19.5.
- Attach the lapping bars to existing bars with tie wires or by welding.
Ensure that lapping bars will have adequate concrete cover all around. If
welds are used remove all weld slag and splatter from steel and concrete.
20.7. Applying bonding coat to concrete (Sub-procedure)
Engineering aspects of bonding coats have been discussed in Chapter 16 "Repair

Materials".
If the selected repair method requires application of a proprietary bonding coat to

concrete substrate, it is essential first to read the manufacturer's instructions for
preparation and application of the particular bonding material. These must be
strictly followed. Directions given here are for general guidance only.
Working time of different types of bonding coats varies and is often limited.
The bonding coat will prevent bonding if it is allowed to dry. It is therefore important
to plan beforehand the timing for its application so that the repair can be completed
within the allowed working period.
"Wetness" of concrete substrate required prior to application of bonding coats is also

different for different bonding materials. Generally, epoxy bonding coats are applied
to dry surfaces, but specially formulated resins are available for damp surfaces also.
Cementitious bonding coats (whether modified with latex or unmodified) require the
substrate to be "pre-wetted" but only just damp at the time of application.
20.7.2 Procedure
Clean the concrete surface as per sub-procedures 19.3 and 19.4 and steel
reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.5.
For applying unmodified cementitious bonding coat, eg. Portland cement
grout, (or repair mortar or concrete), keep the concrete surface wet for 12 to
24 hours prior to starting repair.
For applying latex modified Portland cement bonding coat (or repair mortar
or concrete), keep the concrete surface wet for at least one hour.

Remove all free water and allow the surface to dry until it is just damp.
Apply the bonding coat material with a brush or broom working it vigorously
into the substrate.
For applying epoxy based bonding coats, allow the substrate to dry
completely (unless the epoxy is formulated for application on damp surface).
Apply the bonding coat material with a brush or broom working it vigorously
into the substrate. Cover only as much area of the substrate as can be
repaired or overlaid with repair mortar or concrete within the working time of
the bonding material.
Apply the bonding material progressively as the repair work advances.
20.8. Coating reinforcement (Sub-procedure)
Engineering aspect of coating steel reinforcement has been discussed in Chapter 16

"Repair Materials".
Apart from cement slurry, other coatings are generally proprietary products and it is
essential to read the manufacturer's instructions for their application. These must
be strictly followed.
20.8.2 Procedure
- Clean the steel reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.5.

- If required, add lapping reinforcement as per sub-procedure
- Apply the selected bonding coat to steel bars with a brush working vigorously
to ensure that bars are evenly covered all around.
- Remember, working time of bonding coats is limited. Therefore, follow
immediately with the repair material.
20.9. Formwork for re-casting concrete (Sub-procedure)
Where deteriorated concrete in structural elements is to be replaced, it must be re-

cast using appropriate formwork. Often the space for re-casting concrete is very
limited, necessitating the use of super-plasticised or pumped concrete and
compacting with external vibrators.
Formwork for re-casting repairs must be very rigid and well-supported to prevent the
new concrete from sagging away from the old concrete under its own weight, to
withstand pumping forces if concrete is to be pumped into forms and to withstand
the forces of clamped-on external vibrators.
Heavy gauge steel forms are preferable because as well as being rigid they allow
quicker dissipation of heat of hydration of the fresh concrete thus reducing the
contraction stresses. Formwork should be provided with birdmouth hoppers and
openings where appropriate for feeding new concrete and inserting poker vibrators.
(See Fig. 19.4). Form releasing agents used should be compatible with the repair
materials, particularly epoxy based and latex modified concretes and grouts.

20.9.2 Procedure
1. Pre-assemble the formwork. Use appropriate form release agent to suit the
repair material to be placed.
2. Fix the formwork and its supports immediately after applying bonding coats
to concrete substrate and reinforcement.
3. Make the forms mortar tight by sealing with building tape or sealants along
all joints.
4. Clean the forms of all the debris before placing any concrete.
5. Place re-casting concrete within the working time of bonding coats if used.
6. Ensure good compaction of concrete using pokers and external vibrators.
20.10. Curing (Sub-procedure)
All types of cementitious repair need thorough and continuous curing to develop
strength and impermeability and to reduce drying shrinkage to a minimum while
bond strength is developing.
Water used for curing shall be free from ingredients harmful to concrete.
Curing procedures for polymer modified and unmodified cementitious materials are
different and have been discussed at length under "Repair Materials". Epoxy based
materials are self-curing and do not require external curing.

Curing compounds should not be used with latex modified concretes as the wax or
resin in most curing compounds is incompatible with latex.
Curing compounds should also not be used if additional material is to be bonded

later to the surface being cured.
Continuous water cure is always preferable to membrane cure. Curing membranes

do not provide any reserve of extra water to make up for any that escapes and are
not likely to provide enough curing in the critical early stages. Curing membranes
applied after the wet cure, however, can help to slow down drying.
20.10.2 Procedure for curing latex modified cementitious concretes and

mortars
1. Complete all surface finishing operations as soon as possible (before

formation of the polymer film). Protect freshly finished surface from rain or
damage from other causes.
2. As soon as the surface can support it and prior to formation of polymer film,
cover the surface with a single layer of wet hessian. Place polyethylene film
over the wet hessian to prevent moisture loss by evaporation.
3. Remove polyethylene film and hessian after 24 hours. Allow the surface to
dry for 3 to 5 days.
20.10.3 Directions for curing unmodified cementitious concretes and mortars
1. Complete all finishing operations before the concrete or mortar starts setting.
Protect freshly finished surface from rain or damage from other causes.
2. Keep concrete moist by light water spray immediately after initial set, until
curing methods are in place.
3. Cover with saturated hessian sheets followed by polyethylene film to prevent

moisture loss. Alternatively, the surface may be cured by continuous
spraying or flooding with water.
Curing shall be continued for minimum 4 days in temperate weather and 7 days in
hot, dry or windy conditions.
20.11. Surface preparation for external coatings (Sub-procedure)
Preparation of concrete surfaces is necessary to achieve bonding of film forming

coatings and penetration of penetration type coatings.
In new structures, this preparation may only require removal of oil or wax form
release agents and curing compounds that could be sticking to concrete and prevent
adhesion of coatings.
In old structures, apart from repairing any deterioration, surfaces will need to be
cleaned of dirt, dust, oil, grease, old paint, moss and algae growth.

The surface also needs to be reasonably dry for the coatings to stick properly and
resist peeling and blistering. (However, for cementitious coatings the surfaces have
to be pre-soaked with water and should be just damp before application of coating).
Coating materials are available as proprietary products. Manufacturer's instructions

regarding surface preparation and application should be carefully studied and
followed before undertaking any work.
20.11.2 Procedure
1. Clean the surfaces to be coated by suitable methods according to existing

condition of the structure. Use high pressure water jets, sandblasting (wet or
dry), power operated wire brushes, grinding discs, etc to remove dirt,
laitance, weak concrete, corrosion affected concrete and any other
deterioration. Remove oil and grease with proprietary alkaline detergents,
and moss and algae with fungicidal solutions, rinse off the solutions with
large quantities of water.
2. Repair all deterioration in concrete such as cracks, spalls, reinforcement

corrosion, etc.
3. Fill surface irregularities, blow holes, tie-wire holes and the like with suitable
fairing, levelling or sealing coats or mortars.
4. Allow the repairs to set and cure.
5. Allow the concrete to dry. (For cementitious coatings, however, pre-soak the
concrete with water for 24 hours. Remove free water and allow to dry till just
damp).
6. Immediately prior to application of primer or final protective coat, as required,

remove any dust and loose particles with oil free compressed air.
21. Repairing cracks
21.1. Types of cracks
Description of various types of cracks that can occur in concrete structures has been
given in Chapter 14.
For purposes of repair, however, there are two types of cracks:
1. Dead cracks - These are inactive cracks and do not move
2. Live cracks -These are subject to movement due to applied loads and
temperature changes.
21.2. Repair methods for cracks
Dead cracks can be repaired by any of the following methods:
Epoxy injection
Grouting

Routing and sealing
Drilling and plugging
Stitching
Adding reinforcement
Overlays and surface treatments
Live cracks can be repaired by:
Flexible sealing.
21.3. Cracks that should be repaired
Not all cracks are structurally significant. The vast majority are caused by shrinkage
or other tension stresses that develop as the structure supports itself and have no
influence on strength or durability.
It is important to recognise if cracking is of a size and type that is harmful, and act
accordingly.
Generally, fine cracks up to 0.3mm width have no adverse effect when

reinforcement cover is adequate. Fine cracking will also heal autogenously as the
free cement is exposed to moisture. In this process calcium hydroxide in the cement
reacts with carbon dioxide and moisture forming calcium carbonate and calcium
hydroxide crystals that tend to seal the crack. Healing will not occur if the crack is
subjected to movement or if there is flow of water through it.
Flexural cracks in a bending member do not normally progress beyond the neutral
axis and have a reduced width at the tensile reinforcement. In such cases a surface
crack width of 0.5mm is usually acceptable. In members protected from driving rain
and in absence of aggressive marine and industrial environment, even 1mm cracks
can be tolerated.
Stable cracks of the size and type described are generally harmless and need not
be repaired.
Harmful cracks develop due to such factors as carbonation, chlorination, alkali-

aggregate reaction, corrosion, overloading of structure, foundation movement,
insufficient reinforcement and lack of adequate cover. It is important to identify the
presence of these causes. All harmful cracks must be repaired.
Longitudinal cracks expose long lengths of reinforcement to possible sources of

contamination and they must always be regarded as potentially dangerous, even if
they may not be already the result of rusting.
Cracks due to severe deterioration (as in corrosion and impact damage) that
necessitate removal and replacement of concrete will require repair methods other
than crack repairs.
Transverse cracks may or may not be serious depending on their width, location and
the exposure conditions.

21.4. Epoxy injection
Note: Epoxy injection of cracks in concrete is a highly skilled process; its success
depends largely on the experience of the operator. It is not a process that
should be attempted by a general contractor. Information given below is,
therefore, for general guidance only.
Epoxy injection is used to restore structural soundness of structures afflicted with

inactive cracks. Cracks as narrow as .05mm can be bonded and sealed by injecting
with low viscosity epoxy. Cracks wider than 6mm generally require a mix of epoxy
and mineral filler, or Portland cement grout. The technique generally involves drilling
holes at close intervals along the cracks, fitting them with entry ports, then injecting
the epoxy under pressure.
Some cracks extending downwards from nearly horizontal surfaces may be filled by
gravity if the width of crack is more than 0.5mm and depth is less than 300mm. For
this, the top surface edges should be chipped or sawn to form a small trough to
provide an inlet for gravity flow of resin into the crack.
Except for certain specialised epoxies, the method cannot be used if the cracks are
actively leaking. While moist cracks can be injected, water or other contaminants in
the crack will reduce the effectiveness of the epoxy repair.
21.4.2 Repair procedure
- Clean the cracks. Remove any contamination (such as oil, grease, dirt, fine
particles of concrete) from the cracks with water under high pressure, or
some specially effective solvent. Blow out the residual water or solvent in the
crack with filtered (dust and oil free) compressed air or allow adequate time
for air drying.
Note: The epoxy system used should be capable of bonding to wet surfaces
unless it can be assured that the crack is dry.
- Seal cracks at the surface to keep the epoxy from leaking out before it has
gelled. The surface can be sealed by brushing an epoxy on the surface of
the crack and allowing it to harden. If extremely high injection pressures are
needed, cut a 12mm deep x 20mm wide V-groove along the crack, fill with an
epoxy and strike off flush with the surface.
- Drill holes into the crack for fitting pipe nipple entry ports for epoxy injection.
A vacuum chuck and bit are useful in preventing the cracks from being
choked with drill dust. Spacing of ports varies between 150mm to 500mm
generally depending on the width and depth of the cracks. Establish the first
and last entry ports at or near the bottom and top, respectively, of any
vertical crack, or at the ends of any horizontal crack in a vertical or horizontal
member.
- Mix the epoxy. There are two methods for mixing epoxy, batch or
continuous.
In batch mixing the adhesive components are mixed according to the

manufacturer's instructions using a mechanical stirrer.

Mix only the amount of adhesive that can be used prior to

commencement of gelling of the material.
In the continuous mixing system, the two adhesive components pass

through metering and driving pumps prior to passing through an
automatic mixing head. The continuous mixing system allows the use
of fast setting adhesives that have a short working life.
- Inject the epoxy. Epoxy can be injected with hydraulic pumps, paint pressure
pots or air-activated caulking guns. Select the injection pressure carefully.
Increased pressure does not necessarily accelerate the rate of injection. In
fact, excessive pressure can propagate the existing crack further.
If the crack is vertical, commence the injection of epoxy at the lowest entry
port until the epoxy exudes from the next port above. Cap the lower port and
repeat the process at successively higher ports till the crack has been
completely filled and all ports have been capped.
For horizontal cracks, carry out the injection from one end of the crack to the
other in the same manner. The crack is full only if the pressure can be
maintained. If the pressure cannot be maintained, the epoxy is still flowing
into the crack or leaking out from somewhere.
- After the crack has been sealed, remove the projecting entry ports and fill
holes with an epoxy patching compound. If required, remove or even out the
surface seals by grinding in order to restore the appearance of the structure.
Apply surface coating if it is part of the repair process.
21.5. Grouting
Wide cracks that are inactive may be repaired by filling with Portland cement grout.
Grout mixture may contain cement and water or cement plus sand and water
depending on the width of the crack. Other admixtures or polymers may be used to
improve the properties of the grout, such as bond. The water-cement ratio should
be kept as low as practical to maximise strength and minimise shrinkage.
1. If the surfaces in the crack are contaminated with oil or grease, remove the
contamination with detergents. If oil and grease have penetrated into
concrete, remove the affected concrete and repair by replacing with fresh
concrete.
2. Flush out all dust and debris from the crack with high pressure water jets.
3. Install grout nipples at intervals astride the crack.
4. Seal the crack between the nipples with a sealant.
5. Flush the crack to clean it and test the seal.
6. Grout the crack until it is completely filled. Maintain the grout pressure for
several minutes to ensure good penetration.

7. Remove the nipples and fill holes with cement mortar.
21.6. Routing and sealing
Routing and sealing is used for repairing dead cracks that are of no structural
significance. The method involves enlarging the crack along its exposed face and
filling it with a suitable joint sealant.
This is the simplest and most common technique for crack repair and can be
executed with relatively untrained labour. It is suitable for both fine pattern cracks
and larger isolated defects, but will not be effective on active cracks and cracks
subject to a pronounced hydrostatic pressure.
The purpose of the sealant is to prevent water from reaching the reinforcing steel,
development of hydrostatic pressure within the crack, staining of concrete surface
and causing moisture problems on the far side of the crack.
The sealant material is often an epoxy compound. There are many commercial
products and type and grade of sealant most suitable for the specific purpose and
conditions of exposure should be selected.
1. Prepare a minimum 6mm wide x 6mm deep V-groove at the surface along
the crack using a concrete saw, hand tools or pneumatic tools. (See Fig.
20.1).
2. Clean the groove with an oil free air jet. Allow to dry completely before
placing the sealant.
3. Apply the sealant as per manufacturer's instructions.

21.7. Drilling and plugging
This method is most often used to repair vertical retaining walls and consists of
drilling a hole down the length of the crack and grouting it to form a key. (See Fig.
20.2). The crack must run reasonably straight and the hole must be large enough to
intersect the crack along its full length and provide enough section of shear key to
structurally take the loads exerted on it. The grout key prevents transverse
movement of the sections of concrete wall adjacent to the crack. It will also reduce
heavy leakage through the crack and loss of soil from behind the wall.
If water tightness is also required in addition to the structural load transfer, a second
hole should be drilled and filled with a resilient material of low modulus, the first hole
being grouted.
The grout is made up of cement and sand (1:3) and water. The water-cement ratio
should be kept as low as practical to maximise strength and minimise shrinkage.
Other admixtures or polymers may be added to improve the properties of the grout.
1. Drill a 50mm to 75mm diameter hole centred on and following the crack.
2. Flush the hole and crack with high pressure water jet to remove dust and
debris. (Caution: Restrict flushing to the minimum so that backfill soil is not
washed into the crack). Allow the crack to damp dry.
3. Seal the crack tight on the exposed face. Allow the seal to cure and harden.

4. Fill the hole and crack with grout.
21.8. Stitching
Note: Stitching may be used when tensile strength must be re-established across
major cracks. Stitching also tends to increase stiffness in the structure that
may cause cracking elsewhere. This method of repair should therefore be
adopted only under advice of a structural engineer.
This method involves drilling holes on both sides of the crack and grouting in
stitching dogs (u-shaped metal units with short legs) that span across the crack.
(See Fig. 20.3.)
Where possible, stitching should be done on both sides of a concrete section so that
further movement of the structure would not pry or bend the dogs. This is
particularly so in tension members where the dogs must be placed symmetrically. In
bending members however the cracks may be stitched on the tension face only.
Stitching will not close a crack but can prevent it from propagating further. If it is
required to seal the crack, the sealing should be completed before stitching begins.
1. If it is required, seal the crack by epoxy injection, grouting, or routing and

sealing.
2. The stitching dogs should be variable in length and orientation so that the
tension across the crack is not transmitted to a single plane but well
distributed in the concrete.
3. Drill holes on both sides of the crack accordingly to suit the size and location

of the stitching dogs. Spacing of the dogs should be reduced at each end of
the crack.
4. Clean the holes of all dust and debris.
5. Anchor legs of the dogs in holes with a non-shrink grout or epoxy resin-
based grout system.
21.9. Adding reinforcement
Note: Adding reinforcement to an existing structure to repair cracks should not be

undertaken without advice of a structural engineer.
When cracks impair the strength of a concrete structure, the structure can be
strengthened by addition of conventional or prestressed reinforcement. The method
of fixing such reinforcement will depend on particular structure and type and location
of the cracks. The damage must be examined by a structural engineer and
reinforcement designed to resist the forces causing the cracks.
21.9.2 Repair procedure with conventional reinforcement
Cracked structures may be repaired by epoxy injection and reinforcing bar insertion
across the cracks. (See Fig. 20.4.)
1. Clean the cracks of dust, debris and contamination. Allow the cracks to dry.
2. Seal the cracks at exposed surfaces with an epoxy sealant approximately

3mm thick and 40mm wide. Allow one or two vent holes at the top for escape
of air during epoxy injection.
o
3. Drill 20mm diameter holes at 45 to the concrete surface and crossing the
o
crack plane at approximately 90 . Use vacuum bits and chucks to prevent
dust from clogging the cracks. The holes should extend minimum 450mm on
each side of the crack. Number, spacing and location of the holes should be
determined by design, taking care to avoid existing reinforcement.
4. Fill the holes and cracks with epoxy pumped under low pressure (350 to
550kPa). The epoxy used should have very low viscosity and high modulus
of elasticity and it should be capable of bonding to concrete and steel in
presence of moisture. Holes should be filled with epoxy to part depth
sufficient to raise the epoxy level to surface when steel bars are inserted.
5. Insert reinforcing bars (typically 12 or 16mm diameter) into the epoxy filled
holes. Clean off any overflowing epoxy immediately.

21.9.3 Repair procedure with external prestress steel
Post-tensioning is often used to strengthen a structure damaged by structural

cracking or when the cracks have to be closed. This technique uses prestressing
strands or bars to apply a compressive force to negate the tension causing the
cracks. (See Fig. 20.5). It requires a thorough design of the prestressing force,
detailing of the anchorage system and analysis of the secondary effects on the
structure. The task should therefore best be entrusted to a structural engineer.

21.10. Surface treatments
Slabs with numerous fine cracks caused by drying shrinkage or other one-time
occurrences can be effectively repaired by the use of protective coatings or surface
treatments.
Concrete surfaces that are not subjected to wear may be sealed with a low solid,
epoxy resin-based system (film forming type) or silane/siloxane based coatings
(penetration type) depending on the circumstances of the repair job.
Surfaces subject to traffic such as walkways, parking decks and interior slabs may
be sealed with a heavy coat of epoxy resin covered with aggregate to provide skid
resistance. The method will close dormant cracks, even if the aggregate is abraded
from the surface, since traffic cannot abrade the resin that has penetrated the
cracks.

A suitable proprietary repair system should be selected according to the

requirements of the job.
1. Select appropriate repair materials according to the particular job

requirements.
2. Clean the surface to remove laitance, or contaminants such as grease or oil.

(Refer sub-procedure 19.11.)
3. Apply the repair materials strictly according to the supplier's written

specifications.
21.11. Flexible sealants for live cracks
Live cracks are treated as movement joints and repaired with flexible sealants.
The sealant is generally installed in a wide recess cut along the crack. The
dimensions of the recess (width and depth) depend on the total crack movement
and the cyclic movement capability of the joint sealant used. The crack movement
should be calculated taking into account the applied loads, shrinkage and
temperature variations.
Where aesthetics is not important and surface is not subject to traffic, the sealant
may be applied on the surface without making a recess. (See repair procedures
below).
The commonly used sealants for movement type of joints are polysulphides, epoxy
polysulphides, polyurethanes, silicones and acrylics. They have generally excellent
adhesion to concrete, high movement capability of 50% to 100% and require a
width/depth ratio of 2:1.
21.11.2 Repair procedure for recessed seal
1. If the concrete is still uncontaminated, cut a recess along the line of the crack
using a power chisel, crack cutter or saw cutting machine. Dimensions of the
recess should comply with the requirements of the crack movement and
sealant material. (See Fig. 20.6).
2. Clean the recess of dust and debris by wire brushing followed by air-blasting
with oil-free compressed air.
3. Coat the surfaces of the recess with primer as specified by the sealant
manufacturer.
4. Place a bond breaker (such as polyethylene strip, pressure sensitive tape or
other material that will not bond to the sealant) at the bottom of the recess.
5. Fill the recess with flexible sealant as per manufacturer's instructions. Where
the concrete is carbonated or contaminated with chlorides or has
deteriorated due to corrosion of reinforcement, it must be broken out (refer
sub-procedure 19.2) and replaced and a sealed movement joint formed as
detailed above.

21.11.3 Repair procedure for surface seal
1. Narrow cracks subject to movement, where aesthetics are not important and
where the structure is not subject to traffic, may be sealed with a flexible
surface seal. (See Fig. 20.7.)
2. Clean the concrete surface adjacent to the crack of laitance and

contaminants such as grease and oil. (Refer sub-procedure 19.11).
3. Coat the concrete surface along the crack in approximately 100mm wide
strips with a primer recommended by the sealant manufacturer.
4. Place a 20mm wide bond breaker strip over the crack.
5. Apply minimum 60mm wide and 3mm thick flexible joint sealant over the
bond breaker with a trowel.

22. Patch repairs
22.1. Engineering discussion
Patch repairing is employed to restore small areas of otherwise sound concrete

damaged by spalling, scaling, honeycombing and impact. Patch repairs are
generally trowel applied, require none or minimum formwork and their thickness is
limited to a maximum of about 100mm in high build applications.
Depending on the type, location and extent of damage and urgency of repairing,
patch repairs may be carried out with Portland cement mortars, latex modified
cementitious mortars or epoxy mortars. Characteristics of different types of mortars
have been given under Chapter 16 "Repair Materials". However, preference should
be given to cementitious or latex modified cementitious materials for compatibility
with concrete.
If ordinary Portland cement is used in the mortar, the patched surface would tend to
be darker than the surrounding concrete. Therefore, a part of the Portland cement
should be replaced with white cement to lighten the patch. It is desirable to make a
trial patch to achieve matching colour.
Mortar of a consistency suitable for trowelling usually does not contain enough
cement paste to coat the old concrete surface or the reinforcement adequately and
a bonding coat of cement grout or polymer admixtures must be used. Bonding
coats containing polymer admixtures dry quickly and work must be organised so that
application of mortar follows the bonding coat within a few minutes.
22.2. Repair procedure with cement-sand mortars
1. Remove all damaged, unsound and contaminated concrete and prepare the
edges of the patch area as per sub-procedure
2. Clean concrete substrate as per sub-procedure 19.3 and saturate it with

water for 24 hours prior to repair as in sub-procedure 19.7.
3. Clean the reinforcement if exposed and contaminated with rust as per sub-
procedure 19.5.
Note: Patch repairs are generally done to sound concrete. Repairs for
deterioration due to corrosion are treated differently.
4. Select appropriate patch material and bonding coat for the job. It may be a
proprietary pre-packaged formulation or site-mixed preparation. For
proprietary products carefully follow the manufacturer's recommendations.
For common repair jobs a cement and coarse sand mixture in the ratio of 1:3
by weight is generally adequate. If the patch must match the colour of the
surrounding concrete a blend of Portland cement and white cement may be
used. Normally, about one-third white cement is sufficient, but the precise
proportions can only be determined by trial.
5. Prepare the cement-sand mortar by mixing with minimum amount of water.

Slump of the mix for shallow patches should not exceed 25mm.

To minimise shrinkage in place, allow the mortar to stand for half hour after
mixing and then re-mix prior to use. Do not re-temper with water.
6. Apply the bonding coat to the concrete substrate and to the reinforcement as
per sub-procedure 19.7 and 19.8.
7. Apply the mortar immediately following the bonding coat. The mortar should
be forcibly projected or dashed onto the substrate and placed in layers about
10mm thick. Compact each layer thoroughly over the entire surface using a
blunt piece of wood or hammer. Each layer should be cross-scratched to
facilitate bonding with the next layer. Generally, there need be no time
delays between the layers. For vertical and overhead repairs of considerable
thickness, in order to prevent sagging of the mortar, the repair may be limited
to about 50mm thickness at one time, and should then be kept moist for a
day before applying the successive layer.
8. Finish the patch to the texture of the surrounding concrete by using similar
form material and hammering with a mallet or by wood floating or steel
trowelling as necessary.
9. Start curing as soon as possible. Follow sub-procedure 19.10.
22.3. Repair procedure with polymer modified cementitious mortars
1. The repair procedure is the same as for cement-sand mortars, except for the
details noted below
2. The proportion of polymer admixtures to be added should be as per

manufacturer's recommendations.
3. The working time of polymer modified mortars is relatively short. Therefore,

limit the quantity of mix for a particular job such that it can be placed,
compacted and finished within the working time - about 20 minutes.
4. Soak the concrete substrate with water for one hour before applying bonding
coat.
5. Apply polymer based bonding coat to concrete substrate and reinforcement

as per sub-procedure 19.7. Polymer in the bonding coat should be the same
as in the repair mortar.
6. Place the mortar in the patch without any delay and before the bonding coat
can dry. Compact and finish within the working time of the mortar.
7. Do not re-work or manipulate the mortar after the latex has coalesced
otherwise cracking will occur on drying.
8. Adopt the curing procedure for polymer modified mortars as laid down in
sub-procedure 19.10.
22.4. Repair procedure with epoxy mortars
Note: Patch repairs with epoxy mortars require special skills and should be

entrusted to personnel experienced in mixing, handling and applying epoxy

materials. The following notes are for guidance only.
1. Do not carry out repairs with epoxy-based materials at low temperatures as it

is difficult to get the mixture to harden quickly enough.
2. Restrict application of epoxy mortar to thin sections, say not exceeding

20mm.
3. Prepare and clean the patch area as per sub-procedure 19.1 and 19.3. The
concrete surface should be completely dry.
Note: Patching that is thin enough to be appropriate for repair with epoxy
mortar is not likely to extend down to the reinforcement, but if it does,
clean the reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.5.
4. Mix the epoxy components and aggregates accurately as recommended by

the manufacturer in a high shear mixer, preferably in whole pre-weighed
batches as supplied by the manufacturer.
Working time of resin-based materials is very short. Mix the quantities that
can be easily placed and finished within the working time. Also, a large
batch of resin-hardener mixture has a shorter working life than a small batch.
Handle the materials cleanly to avoid contamination of both the resin

mixtures and the people working with them.
5. Prime the concrete substrate (and reinforcement, if exposed) with the same
liquid resin mixture as used for the epoxy mortar. (Sub-procedure 19.7).
6. Apply the mortar with a trowel immediately following the bonding coat and
finish the repair before the resin hardens.
7. No curing is required for resin mortar patches.
23. Recasting with concrete
23.1. Engineering discussion
Recasting with concrete is required to replace concrete that has been severely
damaged and non-removal of which would lead to further deterioration and could
impair the strength, stability and functioning of the structure. The cause of such
damage could be corrosion of reinforcement, fracturing, spalling, delamination,
honeycombing, leaking joints or any other.
Recasting with concrete generally involves removal of deteriorated concrete,

cleaning up the substrate and reinforcement, setting up formwork and placement of
new concrete.
The entire repair scheme must take into consideration the special requirements for
this kind of work, that are:

23.2. Concrete mix design
The concrete mix used for recasting must be capable of producing highly
impermeable concrete with adequate workability and low shrinkage.
Ideally the repair mix should be made with the same type of aggregate as the
original concrete to minimise thermal stress. It is also usually necessary to use a
smaller (10mm) maximum aggregate size for repairs because the space for placing
concrete is often restricted. Care should be taken to ensure that aggregate will not
react with alkali from the cement particularly as a rich mix will be used.
To minimise stresses caused by drying shrinkage, the water:cement ratio should not
exceed 0.4. In some situations, it may be helpful to add shrinkage-compensating
admixtures to the mix. These admixtures work by causing slight expansion to offset
shrinkage and thermal contraction.
The repair concrete should have a high cement-paste content for bonding with old
concrete and reinforcement and to provide high alkalinity for the protection of steel.
The mix should have a minimum cement content of 410kg per cubic metre of
concrete. For the highest concrete quality it is preferable to use both 35:65 SA
cement and silica fume in the mix.
The conflicting requirements of low shrinkage and high cement content can be
reconciled to some extent by the use of a super plasticiser to give a mix of medium
workability (100 to 150mm slump) at a very low total water content.
The grading of aggregate and sand must be chosen to make a dense concrete and
to keep bleeding to the absolute minimum, especially for soffit repairs where
bleeding can lead to complete separation between old and new concrete.
For small repair jobs concrete may be mixed at site, using a small concrete mixer.
On site batching should be avoided. It is preferable to make trial mixes and then
pre-batch into convenient sized bags off site with only specified quantities of water
and superplasticiser to be added at site. All materials must be weigh batched.
A suggested mix design for small scale repairs is given below. These quantities will
make about 0.03 cubic metre of concrete and would fully charge a small mixer.
(Source: Austroads 1991 -"Bridge Management Practice").
Cement
- Preferred 35:65 SA 13.0 kg
(Type SA or A acceptable)
- Silica fume 0.5 kg

If silica fume unavailable, use 13.5kg cement)
10mm Crushed Aggregate (assumed solid SG 2.7) 36.0 kg
Sand (assumed with 2% water content) 18.5 kg
Water (maximum) 5.4 litres
Superplasticiser (nominal) (dependent upon the brand) 25 ml

The on-site mixer must be rinsed out and charged with the dry components, then 4.5
litres water added, followed by two minutes mixing. Superplasticiser should be
added while mixing continuously, and then more water added until the design slump
is achieved. A maximum of 0.9 litres extra water will be needed if the mix design is
correct, otherwise the superplasticiser quantity should be reviewed.
Where placement quantities are large enough to justify, pre-mixed concrete from a
commercial plant may be used. The mix used should have a minimum cement
content of 410kg per cubic metre and a maximum water/cement ratio of 0.40 as
specified before.
23.2.1 Formwork
Requirements of formwork for recasting have been discussed in sub-procedure

19.9.
23.2.2 Compacting recast concrete
Where concrete is replaced by recasting, it must be made to flow into place to

exclude all air voids because the space for placing the concrete and using internal
vibrators is often very restricted. The most practical way of achieving good
compaction is to place the concrete in small quantities and vibrate it as the work
proceeds.
External vibrators on the formwork are very effective for inducing flow and
compacting concrete in awkward places.
23.2.3 Placement of concrete
The method of placement depends very much on the individual situation but it
should ensure that well compacted concrete completely fills all voids.
Where soffits are recast, holes may be drilled through the slab and concrete placed
from above. (See Fig. 22.1.) Alternatively, soffit formwork can be extended to
provide a series of hoppers at the open sides for feeding superplasticised "flowing"
concrete, or the concrete can be pumped to the farthest point of the void through a
pipe that is gradually withdrawn as concreting proceeds.
Whichever method is used, any void that is confined on all sides must be filled from
the lowest or farthest points to ensure that air is driven out as the concrete
advances, and if necessary vent holes or pipes may be provided to allow escape of
the air.

23.3. Repair procedures
- Support the existing structure adequately to safeguard against instability and

deformation during repair work.
- Remove all deteriorated or damaged concrete and prepare edges of repair

work as per sub-procedures 19.1 and 19.2.
- Examine the reinforcement for loss of section due to corrosion. If cross-

sectional area of the reinforcement has reduced by more than 15%, arrange
extra reinforcement as necessary.
- Clean the concrete substrate and reinforcement as per sub-procedures 19.3

and 19.5.
- Select a suitable bonding agent for concrete and reinforcement taking into
consideration its limited working time available for fixing the formwork and
placing the new concrete. If concrete can be placed immediately after
applying bonding coat, use either Portland cement grout or polymer modified
cement grout. If delay is expected due to formwork, specially formulated
epoxy bonding agents with long working life should be used.
- Apply bonding coat to concrete substrate and reinforcement as per sub-

procedures 19.7 and 19.8.
- Fix formwork, if required, as per sub-procedure 19.9.
- Place concrete in the forms by a suitable method. Compact well using

internal or external vibrators as necessary. Finish unformed surfaces by
brooming, wood floating, steel trowelling or any other method to match the
adjacent existing concrete.
- Start curing of concrete as per sub-procedure 19.10.
- Forms for load bearing structural members shall remain in position until at
least 80% of the 28 day compressive strength of the new concrete is
achieved. (10 days for normal Portland cement, 7 days for high early
strength Portland cement). Forms for non-load bearing members may be
removed after 2 to 3 days.

- After stripping the formwork, examine the concrete for any blemishes.
Repair any defective work using stiff cement mortar having the same
proportion of cement and fine aggregate as used in the concrete and bring to
an even surface using wooden float.
23.4. Replacing bearing pads
Removal of damaged or deteriorated bearing pads may be necessary in several

situations, such as:
Cracking
Shattering
Crushing
Pier/Abutment - cracked and shattered.
To lift/lower bridge to suit track height and superelevation
Regardless of type of deterioration, all unsound and disintegrated, bearing pads

must be removed.
Carry out survey to restore track to correct height and superelevation as required.
Consideration MUST be given to repair/replace defective H.D. bolts.
Consideration MUST be given to weather conditions ie buckling of track in hot

weather.
If the repair is to be carried out with the bridge open to traffic, select suitable
supports for the girders.
If H.D. bolts need replacing consider drilling new hole in bed plate for new bolt or
replace bed plate - chemical anchor new H.D. bolts.
If bearing pads are to be repaired/replaced under traffic and girders to be supported

from ground, prepare and erect support at least 1 week beforehand to ensure
support does not drop under load.
1. If bed plates are to be raised with girders, ensure bolts/studs connecting

bearing plate to bed plate are in place.
2. Remove nuts from H.D. bolts or unscrew nuts to allow bed plates to be
raised to correct height.
3. Raise the girders by jacking the minimum amount required to enable

completion of the replacement operation. See 7.6.5.2.
4. Remove damaged bearing pad.
5. Assess conditon of H.D. bolts and repair/replace as required.
6. Clean concrete/masonry substrate.

7. Locate bed plate to correct height.
8. Apply bonding coat to concrete/masonry.
9. Erect formwork.
10. Place new bearing pad material in formwork.
11. Allow time to cure.
12. Lower girders and screw up H.D. bolts.
Replacing bearing pads see the following:
7.6.5 Repairing bearing plates - Procedure outline.
16.3 Types of repair material.
17.3 Selection of repair method.
18.4 Steps in repair work.
19.1 Removing damaged concrete.
19.3 Cleaning concrete substrate for patch repair and re-costing.
19.7 Applying bonding coat to concrete.
19.9 Formwork for re-coating concrete.
24. Repairs for corrosion
The presence of corrosion in concrete structures is generally known when cracks

occur. Extensive corrosion shows up in long cracks running along the reinforcement
leading to spalling and delamination/ or, corrosion may be localised due to impact
damage, honeycombing or water penetration.
In all cases it is advisable to remove the concrete and examine the extent of
corrosion immediately. Where the corrosion is extensive, concrete should be tested
for chloride penetration and carbonation also.
If it is determined that patch repairing or re-casting with new concrete will be cost-
effective then the procedures in Chapters 21 and 22 should be followed rigorously.
The repair should also include cleaning the reinforcement and possibly applying
protective treatment (refer sub-procedure 19.5 and 19.8).Consideration should be
given to the application of a protective coating to the concrete surface to limit further
ingress of chlorides and carbonation (refer Chapter 25).
25. Sprayed concrete
24.1 Engineering Discussion
A description of sprayed concrete has been given in Section 16 "Repair Materials".

Sprayed concrete is highly specialised work requiring skilled operators, special
mixes, equipment and techniques. For detailed information reference should be
made to "Recommended Practice Sprayed Concrete" published by Concrete

Institute of Australia, 1987.
Spraying is most suitable when large areas of relatively thin concrete (30 to 60mm)
have to be applied, for example: in restoring or increasing the cover over
reinforcement, replacing delaminated concrete, linings and coatings on rock faces
and tunnel walls, stabilising excavations, and encasement of steelwork.
Where sprayed concrete is more than 50mm thick and is to withstand tensile and/or
shrinkage and temperature stresses, steel fabric reinforcement should be used.
Recommended fabrics are any 100 x 100mm wire spacing or greater, eg. F41, F81
or more. Expanded metal meshes and heavy concentration of small-grid wire mesh
are not recommended as they tend to produce rebound problems. Where large
diameter bars are provided, exceptional care should be taken in encasing them as
they tend to cause voids or rebound inclusions.
Sprayed concrete may be screeded and trowelled to a plane fine-textured finish, but
working may impair bonding with the background. Methods of finishing are given in
the reference given above.
Sprayed concrete employs a relatively dry mix and is often used in thin sections.
Proper curing to ensure full hydration of the cement is therefore essential. The
surface should be kept continuously wet for at least seven days. If water curing is
impractical, approved curing compounds or impermeable sheets (such as
polythene) should be used. Curing compounds may be permitted where:
drying conditions are not severe

no additional concrete is to be sprayed
no paint is to be applied
it is aesthetically acceptable
Due to surface roughness, liquid-membrane curing compounds should be applied at

twice the rate required for ordinary concrete work.
It is essential that sprayed concrete work be entrusted to specialist contractors.

Accordingly, only brief outlines of repair procedures are given.
25.1. Repair procedure
1. Remove all damaged and unsound concrete from the structure to be

repaired as per sub-procedure 19.1. Concrete should be so removed so that
there is no abrupt change in thickness of repair and any square shoulders
should be tapered.
2. Clean concrete substrate and exposed reinforcement as per sub-procedure

19.3 and 19.5.
3. Fix required fabric reinforcement rigidly to prevent vibration during spraying.
4. Fix formwork as required to restrict the boundaries of sprayed concrete.

(See Fig. 24.1.) Coat the formwork liberally with form release agents
compatible with the spray mix.
5. Protect adjacent buildings, trees, garden, etc. from dust and rebound
concrete, that would ensue during spraying operations, with suitable covers.
Ensure that local work safety regulations are adhered to.

6. Check operation of all spraying equipment before commencing work.
7. Wet the substrate with an air/water blast before spraying concrete.
8. Apply spray concrete in layers. Build up each layer by making passes of the
nozzle over the working area in a pattern of overlapping loops. To minimise
rebound, the nozzle should be held nearly perpendicular to the surface being
sprayed at a distance of between 0.6m and 1.2m.
9. Finish the surface by screeding or trowelling if required.
10. Commence curing as soon as possible.
26. Protective coatings
26.1. Engineering Discussion
Protective coatings on surfaces of concrete structures are not exactly repair

methods. They are protective or preventive measures applied to inhibit the
deterioration process caused by environmental factors such as penetration by
moisture, chlorides and carbon dioxide.
Coatings may be applied in any of the following circumstances:
1. On surfaces of new structures for aesthetics and increased durability.

2. On surfaces of the existing structures where tests indicate that chloride

ingress and carbonation has occurred in the concrete but as yet no corrosion
is evident, in which case application of coatings would help in reducing
further deterioration. However, if there are signs of corrosion, application of
protective coatings will not stop the corrosion. In this case the deteriorated
concrete should be removed and replaced by patch repairing or recasting.
3. On surfaces of newly repaired concrete to give extra protection against

recurrence of deterioration and to conceal the repair work.
For whatever reason the coatings are applied, it has to be accepted that they do not
last forever and re-coating will be required from time to time as ongoing
maintenance. However, in some circumstances they could be a more economic
alternative to carrying out repairs.
A large number of proprietary protective coating systems are available. Selection of

any coating will depend on the protection required, soundness of the concrete, ease
of application and the cost involved. In all cases follow the recommendations of the
manufacturer for health, safety and handling precautions and application
techniques.
Chlorides penetrate into concrete in solution form, ie. dissolved in water. Therefore,
a coating that resists penetration of water will also resist chloride ingress.
Silane/siloxane based penetration type coatings as well as film forming coatings that
stick well to the concrete surface and form waterproof skins are both effective
against chloride penetration. However, build up of water vapour behind the film type
coatings can cause such coatings to blister and peel off unless their adhesion to
concrete is very good.
Carbon dioxide (and other acid gases in industrial environments) penetrate into the
concrete mainly as gases. Silane/siloxane based coatings are vapour permeable
and therefore ineffective against carbonation. Rendering and painting is the
accepted treatment against carbonation. In this a fine cement-based render is first
applied to the affected areas to remove surface imperfections, followed by an acrylic
based coating that prevents ingress of carbon dioxide.
26.2. Repair procedure for chloride build up

(but no corrosion evident yet).
1. Ascertain the profile of chloride penetration into concrete. Determine if the

chloride was inherent in the original concrete mix or it has entered later. If
there is no corrosion of steel yet, estimate on the basis of chloride profile and
age of concrete the time to depassivation of steel (Browne, 1980).
2. Based on this estimate and if the concrete otherwise is in sound condition,

decide whether to leave the concrete as it is and re-inspect after an
appropriate interval or to take action to limit further chloride ingress. The
following techniques can be considered as possible for controlling chloride
attack:
Silane/siloxane coating
Cathodic protection
Chloride extraction and re-alkalisation

Procedure for silane/siloxane coating is given below. The other methods

require special technology and should be undertaken only in consultation
with the experts in the field.
3. Repair surface cracks and spalls if any by appropriate methods (refer

Chapters 20 and 21).
4. Clean the surfaces to be coated of all contaminants as per sub-procedure

19.1. Make good any blowholes and areas of substantial pitting with an
approved finishing compound.
5. Wash down the surfaces with clean water. Allow to dry for 24 hours.
6. Mask or protect adjacent areas, paints, sealants, asphalt or coated surface.
7. Apply silane/siloxane in at least two flood coats using a low pressure

sprayer. Repeat application until correct coverage is achieved as
recommended by the manufacturer. (Silane/siloxane is also used as a primer
for some protective coating systems. Allow to dry for at least two hours
before applying another coating).
26.3. Repair procedure for carbonation

(but no corrosion evident).
1. Monitor the situation at periodic intervals by phenolphthalein tests to

determine the progressive depth of carbonation front. No protective surface
treatment is necessary until the carbonation front reaches the steel
reinforcement.
2. Once the carbonation front reaches the steel, and if the concrete otherwise is
in sound condition, any of the following options can be considered to prevent
further carbonation:
Silane/siloxane primer plus anti-carbonation coating

Rendering and painting
Cathodic protection
Re-alkalisation
Guideline procedure for rendering and painting is given below.

Depending on the proprietary materials or coating system selected, exact
procedure as recommended by the product manufacturer should be adopted.
3. Repair surface cracks and spalls, if any, by appropriate repair methods (refer
Chapters 20 and 21).
4. Clean the surface to be coated of all contaminants as per sub-procedure

19.1. Make good any blowholes and areas of substantial pitting with an
approved finishing compound.
5. Wash down the surfaces with clean water. Thoroughly soak the substrate for
one hour. Allow to become damp dry without residual water.
(Instead, a primer may be applied as recommended by the product

manufacturer).

6. Apply cement-based render with a trowel from "feather edge" to 3mm

thickness. Allow to set partly before finishing finally with trowel, or sponge
float, as required.
7. Cure the render with fine spray of water or a curing material recommended
by the manufacturer. The curing material must be compatible with the anti-
carbonation coating proposed to be applied. Allow at least 48 hours before
top coating.
8. Apply the selected protective coating as per manufacturer's

recommendations. The coating should be pinhole free. One or two coats
may be required as per product used.
27. References
1. Bridge Management Practice - AUSTROADS 1991.
2. Manual for Assessment, Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Concrete Bridges

- VICROADS 1990.
3. Concrete Structures, AS3600.
4. Methods of Testing Concrete, AS1012.8-1986.
5. Durable Concrete Structures - S Guirguis, CEMENT AND CONCRETE

ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA, TN57 (1989).
6. Recommended Practice Durable Concrete - CONCRETE INSTITUTE OF

AUSTRALIA (1990).
7. Cracking of Concrete, Its Importance, Prediction and Control CONCRETE

INSTITUTE OF AUSTRALIA, 1985.
8. Recommended Practice Sprayed Concrete -CONCRETE INSTITUTE OF

AUSTRALIA, 1987.
9. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Australian Concrete Structures A Shayan,

CSIRO.
10. Repair of Concrete in the Marine Environment: Cathodic Protection vs

Chloride Extraction - F G Collins and P A Farinha, AUSTRALIAN CIVIL
ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS, February 1991
11. Repair and Maintenance of Concrete Bridges with Particular Reference to

the Use of Epoxies - P M Palmer (MRD, WA), NAASRA Bridge Maintenance
Seminar Proceedings, 1979.
12. Corrosion Protection - S F Pollard (ex DMR-NSW) NAASRA Bridge

Maintenance Seminar Proceedings, 1979.
13. Corrosion Damaged Concrete Assessment and Repair - Peter Pullar-

Strecker, BUTTERWORTHS.

14. Deterioration, Maintenance, and Repair of Structures Johnson Sydney M,

McGRAW HILL
15. Causes, Evaluation and Repair of Cracks in Concrete Structures -ACI

224.1R-84.
16. Guide for Repair of Concrete Bridge Superstructures ACI 546.1R-80.
17. Guide for Making a Condition Survey of Concrete in Service ACI 201.1R-68.
18. Standard Specification for Repairing Concrete with Epoxy Mortars - ACI
503.4-79.
19. Guide for the Use of Polymers in Concrete -ACI 548.1R-86.
20. Standard Specification for Repairing Concrete with Epoxy Mortars - ACI
503.4-79.
21. Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete Structures -ACI 504R-77.
22. Routine Maintenance of Concrete Bridges - ACI 345.1R-83.
23. Mechanisms of Corrosion of Steel in Concrete in Relation to Design,

Inspection and Repair of Offshore and Coastal Structures - R D Browne -
ACI SP-65 (1980) pp 169-204.
24. AASHTO Manual for Bridge Maintenance, 1987.
25. Guide to Investigation of Structural Failures - Jack R Janney, ASCE.
26. Bonding New Concrete to Old - Bruce Suprenant, CONCRETE

CONSTRUCTION, July 1988.
27. Selecting Repair Materials -James Warner, CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION,

October 1984.
28. How do you Prevent Corrosion? -CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, February

1988.
29. Equipment for Cleaning or Preparing Concrete Surfaces for Repair -B

Suprenant and W Malisch, CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, November 1986.
30. Cracks in Structures -James Hill, CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, March

1988.
31. Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete, The Long Term Repair Strategy
- Brian Wyatt, CONSTRUCTION REPAIR, February 1987.
32. Concrete Cracking in Coastal Areas: Problems and Solutions A Nanni and W
L Lista, CONCRETE INTERNATIONAL, December 1988.
33. Chemical Grouting of Water-Bearing Cracks - S T Waring, CONCRETE

INTERNATIONAL, August 1986.
34. The Use of Polymers in Concrete Repair - J D N Shaw, CIVIL

ENGINEERING, June 1983.
35. Product Technical Literature:
- Fosroc
- Sika
- Amatek
- Epirez
- Ciba-Geigy
- ICI
- W R Grace
- Master Builders Technologies
- Emhart Bostik
- Cementaids
- Vivacity Engineering
- Remedial Concrete Engineering
- Denso Dimet

Part 4
Masonry Repairs

28. Introduction to masonry repairs
28.1. General
SeveralofARTC s br i
dges ar e const r
uc ted wi th masonr y abutment s,pi ers and
wingwalls with superstructures of steel girders, reinforced concrete slabs or precast
prestressed beams, while some are masonry arches supporting the railway between
spandrel walls. All such masonry structures are generally very old and consist of
brickwork in cement or lime mortar. Very few bridges consist of stonework, though
stone copings and bearing sills on top of brick piers and abutments are quite
common.
Masonry structures, like any other, can deteriorate under the effects of environment,
foundation movements, impact damage and so on. As a result, masonry elements
fret, crack, move or become disfigured.
This part of the Manual lists the causes of damage and summarises methods of
repair for masonry structures. It does not cover, however, the investigations and
remedial measures for foundation movements and hydrological and hydraulic
engineering problems such as erosion of stream beds, effects of floods etc. that may
be responsible for damage to the masonry. Reference on these matters should be
made to specialist engineers experienced in the particular fields.
Before undertaking any repairs all precautions should be taken for health and safety
of the workers and general public who may be affected by the work. Attention is
drawn to the Chapter "Health and Safety" that highlights the precautions required
when handling specialised and hazardous materials and equipment during
maintenance and repair work.
28.3. Acknowledgements
Much of the material for Masonry Repairs has been obtained from the following
sources that are gratefully acknowledged:
1. AUSTROADS 1991, Bridge Management Practice.
2. THE HERITAGE COUNCIL OF NEW SOUTH WALES, Technical Information

Sheet 2, Masonry Renovations.
3. BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT, UK, BRE Digest 359 (March

1991) Repairing Brick and Block Masonry.
29. Deterioration of Masonry
29.1. Causes of deterioration
The principal causes of deterioration of masonry structures are:
29.1.1 Ground movement
All masonry structures are vulnerable to cracking from excessive settlement or

differential settlement of the foundations. The ground movements are caused by:

variations in soil compressibility due to changes in groundwater levels or site

drainage
loss of support due to soil erosion
swallow holes, mining subsidence or local vibration effects
desiccation of shrinkable clays in dry summers due to adjacent trees
rehydration of clays following removal of adjacent trees
inadequately compacted fill.
If significant foundation movement is suspected, it should be referred to a

geotechnical consultant for investigation and advice.
29.1.2 Thermal movement
Fluctuations in temperature may set up stresses in walls restrained at both ends

sufficient to cause fracture or distortion of the wall. Movements of the superstructure
elements, eg. steel girders, concrete beams and slabs can crack the supporting
masonry if sliding bearings have not been provided or if the bearings have corroded
and "seized".
29.1.3 Sulphate attack
Cement-based mortars may be attacked by sulphates derived from clay bricks

themselves or from sulphate bearing soils. The attack is gradual and occurs only
when the masonry remains wet for long periods. Sulphate attack causes expansion
of the jointing mortar that may result in spalling of the brick edges, progressive
cracking and deformation of the masonry.
If the wall is rendered, sulphate attack will produce horizontal cracking of the
rendering. Later, the rendering becomes hollow and more badly cracked and
portions may fall away.
Suspected sulphate attack can be confirmed by chemical tests.
29.1.4 Expansion on wetting
Clay bricks undergo a slight "growth" after leaving the kiln, resulting in expansion of
brickwork. In load bearing walls vertical expansion rarely causes problems, but
horizontal expansion can give rise to movement and vertical cracking of brickwork.
These cracks often occur at or near the quoins of short returns, at setbacks or
changes in height or thickness of walls.
The bulk of the expansion and movement takes place quite early in the life of the
structure but can continue for up to 20 years.
Another cause of outward movement of masonry and cracking is the swelling of

materials used as hardcore or filling behind the walls. Some shales and clays used
as fill may swell when wetted and cause outward movement of walls.
29.1.5 Corrosion of embedded iron or steel
Corrosion of iron and steel embedded or enclosed in masonry can cause opening of
the masonry joints, cracking of the masonry and rust staining. Where a steel beam
is in contact with a brick cladding, rusting of the steel may displace the immediately
adjacent courses of bricks beyond the main face of the masonry. Rusting of a
stanchion similarly covered may produce a vertical crack. Brick pedestals built

around steel columns often crack due to rusting of the steel. The rusting of
unprotected steel cramps, brackets or reinforcement embedded in the masonry can
also cause trouble.
29.1.6 Unsound materials
Occasionally, masonry suffers damage because of unsoundness of the mortar or of

the units themselves. For example, the presence of imperfectly slaked lime in a
mortar can produce effects ranging from minor pitting of the mortar to general
expansion with deformation and cracking of the masonry. Similarly, unslaked
nodules of lime in clay bricks may cause "blowing" or spalling of brickwork when first
wetted.
Weak mortars are often porous; they are damaged by frost and flowing water,
become friable and are easily eroded. The weakness may be due to low cement
content or to unsuitable sand in the mortar mix or occasionally it is caused by dirty
mixing water.
29.1.7 Salts
Salts in masonry may be derived from the bricks or stones themselves, from mortar,
from soil in contact with the masonry or from sea water.
Salts in clay bricks or mortar produce an efflorescence that although unsightly is

usually temporary and harmless to bricks.
Salts dissolved in ground water penetrate masonry from the foundations and backfill
by capillary action or leak down from the fill materials above. When water reaches
the face of the wall in contact with air, it evaporates away leaving behind the
dissolved salts that crystallise just below the surface of the wall. The pressure
developed due to crystallisation is sufficient to spall the surface layer of the masonry
units. If this process continues unchecked for a length of time, considerable loss of
material may occur. The deterioration is more pronounced in the lime mortar joints
that being more porous than brick or stone draw more water and therefore fret
easily.
Masonry abutments and piers built in coastal water streams suffer damage by
ingress of salts from the sea water. The continuous cycles of wetting and drying in
the tidal zone causes disintegration of masonry surface by formation of salt crystals
within its pores and subsequent eroding away of the disintegrated material by tides.
29.1.8 Abrasion
Water borne abrasive materials may abrade soft masonry. This can be particularly
significant if the base flow of the watercourse is permitted to run along the faces of
piers or abutments.
29.1.9 Impact force
Impact damage can be caused to masonry bridge structures by:
collision of or glancing blows from motor vehicles against masonry

abutments, wingwalls and piers
derailment of trains
overheight vehicles striking against the intrados of masonry arches

impact of heavy floating logs carried by rapidly flowing streams against the
bridge structure.
Impact damage must be investigated immediately to check if the strength and

stability of the bridge are affected and repairs should be organised accordingly.
29.1.10 Overloading
Overloading of masonry bridge structures may occur due to the following:
vehicles with above legal limit weight

increased train loads since the construction of the bridge
excessive build up of road metal or ballast on the deck
build up of flood debris against the structure
excessive hydraulic pressures behind abutments and retaining walls due to
lack of drainage.
Overloading can cause cracking of the structure. Excessive overloads may even
cause collapse.
29.1.11 Vegetation and marine organisms
The fill retained between spandrel walls over the arches and behind abutments,
retaining walls and wing walls often contains sufficient water and nutrients to support
a large mass of vegetation. While growth of grass and small bush may help to
stabilise backfill slopes and prevent erosion, large trees may damage the masonry
by exerting pressure through their trunks and roots.
Roots and stems growing in crevices and joints exert a wedging force that can prise
open and dislodge the masonry. Lichen and ivy can chemically attack the surface
while attaching themselves to masonry.
Rock boring molluscs can attack masonry by means of chemical secretions.
30. Types of defects
30.1. Cracks
The commonest form of defect is cracking that occurs due to several reasons, such
as differential settlement of foundations or relative movement in members of the
structure, thermal movements, growth of brickwork, corrosion of embedded iron or
steel, impact damage and growth of vegetation in or around brickwork.
Cracking is specially significant if it is recent in origin and should be immediately

investigated. Particularly, it must be ascertained if the cracks are live, ie. continuing
to move and if they pose any threat to the strength and stability of the structure.
If the cracks are known to have existed for a long time and have not caused
instability or distortion, they need not be a cause of concern, though steps should be
taken to repair them.
Cracks that have formed due to overload will tend to be very fine after the overload
is removed and may not need any treatment.

30.1.1 Cracks in masonry arches
Masonry arch bridges are particularly sensitive to movements. Factors affecting the
stability of arches include:
Differential settlement across an abutment or pier -causing longitudinal

cracks along an arch ring.
Settlement of a pier or abutment foundation -this may cause lateral cracking
across an arch ring and settlement in the roadway or railway. It suggests
that the arch has broken up into separate segments.
Settlement at the sides of an abutment or pier - this may cause diagonal
cracks starting from the side of the arch at the springing and continuing
towards the centre of the arch at the crown.
Flexibility of the arch ring - causing cracks in the spandrel walls near the
quarter points.
Outward movement of the spandrel walls due to the lateral pressure of the
fill, particularly if the traffic loads are applied close to the parapet -this may
cause longitudinal cracking near the edge of the arch.
Movement of the wing walls -this may cause cracking in adjoining abutments
and arches.
30.2. Fretting
Fretting is surface damage caused by leaching of dissolved salts through the

masonry, and cycles of wetting or drying. It disintegrates the lime mortar in the
joints and can cause spalling of the masonry units.
30.3. Spalling
Spalling of masonry is generally caused by accidental impact. It may be

accompanied by dislodgement of masonry units as well as cracking and depending
upon the extent of damage may cause loss of strength and stability in the structure.
Spalling due to other causes such as fretting, sulphate attack and unsound materials
can generally be recognised by inspection and repaired accordingly.
31. Assessment of deterioration
IMPORTANT NOTE:
The most important thing in any assessment of damage or deterioration is to establish that
the strength and stability of the structure are not affected. Where safety of a structure is in
question, professional advice should be sought immediately for protecting the structure as
well as its users against further damage, collapse or injury.
31.1. General
Before any repairs are initiated, it is essential to identify the cause and extent of the
damage and whether or not the cause is still active.
31.2. Assessment procedure
1. Before proceeding, assess if detailed examination of the damage would

require track closure, power outage, pedestrian and traffic restrictions,
assistance from police and utility authorities, flagmen, special equipment for

access and health and safety measures.
2. If the damage is old and has been repaired before, study previous
investigation and repair reports if available. Examine the condition of the
past repairs and determine if they have been successful or the deterioration
is growing worse.
3. Carry out a visual inspection of the structure. If necessary, use hand

magnifiers, binoculars and telephoto photography to assess and record the
type and extent of damage or deterioration.
4. Assess the possible causes for deterioration or damage (Refer Section 28.1
"Causes of Deterioration").
5. Map the location, direction and extent of cracks. Examine if the cracks zig-
zag through the joints or run through the masonry units. Measure the width
of cracks.
6. Ascertain if the cracks are moving by fixing strain gauges across them at
suitable locations. Cracks that are due to applied load will move immediately
when the load is changed (eg. under traffic passing over the bridge). Cracks
may also move under temperature variations. Measurements should be
made with and without traffic loads and for 4 or 5 times in a day to establish
whether a crack is live or not.
7. Check if any distortions have occurred in the load bearing elements such as
walls, abutments and piers as well as retaining structures.
Check verticality with a plumb line and measure out-of-plumb

distortion.
Check bulging in both horizontal and vertical directions using a 3
metre long hardwood straight edge.
Assess the effect of these distortions on the strength and stability of the
structure using appropriate structural analysis methods.
8. Examine the bearing areas under steel, concrete and timber beams and
concrete slabs supported on top of the masonry walls, abutments and piers.
Examine the extent of corrosion of steel bearings or deterioration of other slip
joints provided. Look for cracks in the masonry immediately under the
bearings. Also ensure that there has not been a significant loss of support to
the superstructure.
9. If there are signs of efflorescence, leaching and percolation of water through

masonry, assess the deterioration of masonry units and jointing mortar by
fretting. Investigate if the earthfill behind the abutments and retaining walls
and fills between spandrel walls of the arches are properly drained. Check if
the weep holes (if provided) are functioning. Dry weep holes indicate they
may be blocked.
10. Examine the substructures that are located in waterways for damage by
abrasion, salts or marine organisms above the low tide mark. Check if there
is a significant loss of section (more than 15%) and jointing mortar.
11. Check the structure for deterioration by growth of vegetation in joints, near

foundations and behind retaining walls and abutments.
32. Repair materials
32.1. General
Masonry is constructed from units of brick, stone or concrete joined together with
cement or lime mortar.
In masonry repairs the most important material is mortar. It is essential to

understand its function in masonry work and the basic principles that determine the
selection of a "strong" or "weak" mortar in repair work.
The other materials used in repairing masonry are:
polymers (synthetic latexes) for modifying mortars

synthetic resins
concrete and grouts
sealants The above materials are described in Chapter 16 "Repair
Materials".
Sometimes bricks, stone and concrete blocks are also needed to replace damaged
masonry. The basic criteria for their selection is to match them in colour, texture
and strength with the existing work. No other discussion is needed here.
32.2. Function of mortar
Purpose of mortar in masonry work is twofold:
to seal the joints between masonry units

to provide a bed for the units so that the loads are evenly distributed across
the joints.
The strength and rigidity of the masonry is mainly dependent on the strength of
brick, stone or concrete units rather than the mortar. In fact, a very strong mortar
can do more harm than good.
32.3. Problems with strong mortars
Two difficulties arise with strong, rich mortars in masonry:
Cracking
Cracking is not usually attributable to directly applied loads, but is generally caused
by differential or thermal movements between the various parts of the structure as a
result of thermal or shrinkage movement or foundation settlement.
When a strong mortar is used, fine cracks develop between the mortar and the
masonry unit (brick, stone or concrete) that, as well as looking unsightly, may pass
right through the masonry units and permit the passage of water.
A weak mortar, on the other hand, permits the masonry work some freedom to
absorb movements without obvious cracking; and where cracking occurs it will tend
to be distributed through the joints where it is comparatively easy to repair, rather
than through the masonry units themselves.

Thus there is improved resistance of masonry to cracking when weak mortars are
used.
Fretting
Fretting happens when there has been continued evaporation from the wall
surfaces. With weak, porous mortars evaporation occurs mainly along the joints.
But if a strong, impermeable mortar is used, the evaporation occurs from the
masonry blocks and leads to spalling of bricks and fretting of sandstone. It is easier
to repair the fretting of weak and porous mortar by repointing than to replace fretted
bricks or stone blocks.
It is therefore better to use weak and porous mortar that can be repointed if need be
than to use strong mortars and having to re-build the wall.
32.4. Importance of lime in mortars
The addition of hydrated lime to the cement improves the mortar in a number of
ways. It makes the mortar "soft", so it is then more able to absorb movements in the
masonry and therefore minimises cracking. Lime in the mortar improves its
workability - the mortar "comes off the trowel" more easily. It also improves its bond
and its capacity for self-healing of cracks.
32.5. Basic principles
In general, the mortar should be slightly weaker and more permeable than the
masonry units. For sandstock brick or sandstone, a cement:lime:sand mix (by
volume) of 1:2:9 to 0:1:2 is suitable. For normal bricks, 2:1:12 to 1:1:6 can be used.
In all cases, just enough water should be added to attain workable consistency of
the mortar.
Do not use a clay-sand soil unless following a proven local tradition. Do not use
crushed stone unless it has been successfully used as building stone. Avoid any
sand, clay or crushed stone that may contain salts.
33. Methods of repair
33.1. General
Methods are outlined for repairing the following most commonly occurring defects in
masonry structures:
Cracking
Fretting
Impact damage
Corrosion of embedded iron or steel
Other repairs are briefly described under Miscellaneous Repairs.
Foundation and waterway repairs are beyond the scope of this manual and should
be referred to geotechnical and hydraulic engineering consultants respectively.

33.2. Steps in repair work
Refer to Section 18.4: "Steps in Repair Work", under Concrete Repairs. Basically,
the same process should be carried out for repairing masonry structures.
33.3. Strength and stability
It is not always easy to judge from appearance how far the strength and stability of
the structure will be affected by damage or deterioration. But in general, simple
cracks, even wide cracks, may not be too serious provided the masonry is not
distorted or much out of plumb.
If it is established that strength and stability are not affected, repairs can safely be
delayed until movement has ceased and the weather is favourable.
If in doubt, engineering advice should be sought for assessing the strength and
stability. Engineering advice should also be sought before undertaking any major
repairs and for supporting and strengthening severely damaged structures.
33.3.1 Strength of arch bridges
For assessing strength of masonry arch bridges, reference should be made to the
following publications:
Department of Transport (UK):
Depar
tment
alAdvi
ceNot
eBA16/
84
TheAssess
mentofHi
ghwayBr
idges
andStr
uct
ures
Depar
tmentalSt
andar
dBD21/
84
TheAs
sessmentof Highway Bridges and
St
ruct
ures

33.4. Repairs of cracks
When the damage results in cracks that are liable to further movement, it is not
advisable to make a permanent repair until the movement has stopped. The cracks
may be left, but if there is a risk of rain or debris penetrating into the crack, the crack
may be sealed temporarily by caulking with a mastic or flexible sealant.
Distinction should also be made between two types of cracks: cracks that run more
or less diagonally, following vertical and horizontal mortar joints and cracks that
pass straight down through a line of vertical joints and intervening masonry units
and mortar beds.
In the first case, cracks through joints can be repaired, if necessary, by repointing.
But in the second case, it has to be considered if it is necessary to cut out and
replace the cracked units.
In both cases, the decision whether or not to repair cracks will depend mainly on two
considerations:
if the cracks are unsightly

if not repaired, they are likely to encourage rain penetration.
Fine cracks (up to about 1.5mm wide) are not very conspicuous and can often be
ignored. However, if repairs are considered necessary to prevent rain penetration,
they can be sealed by low viscosity self-hardening epoxy compounds.
Wider cracks will generally require raking out and repointing the joints and cutting
out the cracked units and replacing them.
33.4.2 Repair procedure for moving cracks
(Also refer to engineering discussion in Section 20.11 "Flexible Sealants for Live
Cracks"). Cracks that are subject to movements permanently (say, due to
temperature movements and live loads) should be treated as expansion joints. If
they are not unsightly or there is no danger of water penetration through them, they
may be left as they are, otherwise they should be sealed with a flexible sealant of
width and depth to suit the expected range of movement.
If the expected movements are insignificant or if the crack is not to be sealed

permanently:
(This is the most common type of repair for movement cracks in masonry).
Clean the crack of loose dust and debris, oil, algae and other contaminants
by using high pressure water jets, compressed air (oil free) or vacuum
suction. Allow the surfaces of the crack to dry.
Prime the crack surfaces with a primer recommended by sealant
manufacturer.
If the width of crack is more than 5mm insert a tight fitting closed-cell
polyethylene foam backer rod into the crack. The backer rod must be pushed
to a depth such that the sealant applied will have width to depth ratio of 2:1,
or minimum 5mm depth of sealant. (For cracks less than 5 mm do not insert
backer rod).
Seal the crack by caulking with a flexible sealant flush with the masonry face.
If the expected movements are significant or if the crack is to be sealed

permanently:
Provide a recessed seal or surface seal as described below:
Recessed Seal
Cut a recess along the crack using a power chisel or crack cutter.
Dimensions of the recess should comply with the requirements of
the crack movement and sealant material. (See Fig. 20.6.)
Clean the recess of dust and debris by wire brushing followed by
air-blasting with oil free compressed air.
Prime the surfaces of the recess with a primer specified by the
sealant manufacturer.
Place a bond breaker strip at the bottom of recess.
Fill the recess with flexible sealant as per manufacturer's
instructions.
(ii) Surface Seal

Narrow cracks subject to significant movement where aesthetics are not

important may be sealed with a flexible surface seal. (See Fig. 20.7.)
Clean the masonry surface adjacent to the crack of dirt, algae, and
other contaminants. (Refer sub-procedure 19.11, Concrete
Repairs.)
Prime the masonry surface along the crack in approximately 100mm
width with a primer specified by the sealant manufacturer.
Place a 20mm wide bond breaker strip over the crack.
Apply minimum 60mm wide and 3mm thick flexible joint sealant over
the bond breaker with a trowel.
33.4.3 Repair procedure for dead cracks
Fine cracks are best repaired by epoxy injection. This method has been fully
described in Section 20.4, "Epoxy Injection", under "Concrete Repairs".
Wider cracks can be repaired as follows:
1. If cracks run through masonry units and mortar beds, cut out the units and
remove joint mortar. Wet the masonry. Allow to dry until it is just damp (no
residual water). Install new units, bonding with mortar similar to that in the
existing wall. Avoid strong mortar and use a well graded sand to minimise
shrinkage. Where the wall is severely exposed, polymer additives may be
used in the mortar to increase bond and durability provided the sand used
has a negligible clay content.
Note: The above procedure for replacing cracked masonry units is also
used for repairing spalled masonry.
2. If cracks run through joints only (ie. masonry units are not affected), rake the
joints (on both sides of the walls if accessible) to a minimum depth of 15mm
using a square edged tool. Clean the joints of dust and debris with a wire
brush or by oil-free air-blasting. Wet the masonry. Allow to dry until it is just
damp. Fill and point with mortar not richer than a 1:2:9 mix of
cement:lime:sand.
33.5. Fretting
To stop the fretting process permanently, it will be necessary to halt the flow of salt
laden water through the wall. As this is not practical, the alternative is to repair or
replace the masonry units or jointing mortar that have been damaged.
Application of waterproofing membranes to the exposed surfaces of masonry with a

view to stop water entering from the back face should not be considered. The
membrane type of coatings generally blister and peel off under build up of vapour-
pressure from behind. The penetration type of coatings (silane/siloxane) repel the
ingress of water from the front such as rain but, being breathable, do not stop water
entering from the back face and evaporating from the front face. Thus the wetting
and drying process is unchecked and fretting will continue unabated.
If the masonry consists of "soft" lime mortar in the joints, do not replace it with "hard"
cement mortar, it will do more harm than good. As cement mortar is less pervious
than lime mortar, more of the salt laden water permeating through the wall will now
flow through the bricks or stone. Thus while fretting of the mortar will have been
reduced, the rate of fretting of the units will increase.
33.5.2 Repair procedure for damage to jointing mortar
Note: Repointing of joints is best done in the winter as lime mortar relies on
absorbing carbon dioxide from the air to set. This process takes time and if
the temperature is too warm, the mortar will dry out before setting. If working
in hot weather, the mortar should be lightly sprayed with water at two to four
hour intervals for a day.
1. Where the jointing mortar has been damaged without disturbing the masonry
units, rake out all loose and fretting mortar from joints, with a square edged
tool. Rake out another 20mm of mortar to make sure that all crystallised salt
is removed. Rake the joints in topmost 3-4 courses to be repaired first.
2. Thoroughly wet the masonry and allow to dry till it is just damp and without
any residual water.
3. The mortar mix for repointing shall consist of hydrated lime and washed
concrete sand (without any clay content) in the ratio of 1 lime:4-5 sand.
Sand must be free of salts. Only water that is suitable for drinking should be
used for the mortar.
4. Mix dry sand and lime, then slowly add water while still mixing to make a stiff
mix. As the lime takes a long time to go off, prepare the mortar some hours
in advance of the repointing operation and keep it covered with damp bags
until used.
5. Pack joints with the stiff mortar. Ensure that no voids are left, using a
pointing tool to ram the mortar into the joint. (Start at the topmost joint and
work progressively down). Tool off the joint surface to match the original.
Note: Where extensive repointing is involved carry out raking and

repointing in small sections to avoid instability. For example, work
on 3-4 horizontal joints at a time and limit the length of repair to
maximum 3 metres or of length of the wall whichever is less.
Allow at least 24 hours for the mortar to set before raking joints in
the next section. Start at the top and work progressively
downwards.
33.5.3 Repair procedure for damage to masonry units
Note: Spalling usually affects only a small proportion of the units in the wall.
Replacing the spalled units with new units that would match with the rest of
the wall is difficult and it may be considered to leave things as they are until
complete resurfacing becomes necessary. However, if matching is not
essential, spalling should be repaired as below.
CAUTION:
Before commencing repairs check if the stability of the wall would be adversely affected
by removal of the spalled masonry. Remove and replace only as few spalled units at a
time as necessary to ensure stability at all times.

1. Cut out the spalled units to a depth at least 20mm beyond the depth of
spalling, or remove the whole units. Remove the jointing mortar also.
2. Wash down the broken surfaces to remove dust and debris. Allow the
surfaces to dry till it is just damp.
3. Set new units (whole or sawn as required) in place of the old with a lime and
sand mortar as described in 32.5.2 above.
33.6. Impact damage
Masonry spalled by accidental impact would require removal and replacement of the
spalled units and repair of cracks. Repair procedure for this is the same as for wide
cracks. (Refer 32.4.3-1.)
33.7. Corrosion of embedded iron or steel
1. Open up the masonry to gain access to the steelwork.
2. If corrosion is not too far advanced, thoroughly clean the metal by grit-and/or
water-blasting to remove any rust. Apply a corrosion protection system to
steel.
3. If corrosion is well advanced replace the steelwork either with carefully

protected steel, stainless steel, or reinforced concrete.
4. Rebuild masonry. Apply protective coating such as silane/siloxane to

prevent moisture penetration.
33.8. Miscellaneous repairs
33.8.1 Minor displacement of masonry
Minor displacement of parts of the masonry is not very important. However, large
movements may endanger structural stability. It is advisable to find out the cause of
all movements and take steps to prevent its continuing or recurring.
When part of the masonry is displaced horizontally, rake out the joints on that
movement has taken place and repoint.
33.8.2 Sulphate attack
Sulphate attack that is abetted by dampness is liable to continue unless the

masonry can be dried out and kept reasonably dry. The repair therefore should be
aimed at investigating the cause of dampness and eliminating it if possible.
If the damage due to sulphate attack has gone too far, rebuilding may be necessary,
in which case use clay bricks of low sulphate content with 1:1:6 or stronger mortar of
sulphate-resisting Portland cement.
Rendering that has been damaged by sulphate attack should not be patch repaired.
It is best to strip it off and allow the masonry to dry and, preferably, to remain bare.
If it is necessary to render again use a weaker mix of sulphate-resisting cement.

33.8.3 Salt water and marine organisms
Repair of masonry damaged by salt water and marine organisms is difficult and
specialised work and should be entrusted to organisations experienced in this field.
Basically, the repair consists of cleaning of the affected masonry by grit and water
blasting and protecting the masonry by epoxies or by concrete encasement.

Appendix A
Repair materials

Inclusion of specific product brand names does not imply exclusive endorsement. The
product mentioned is appropriate but equivalent products are likely to be available from
other supplies.
A1. Steel
Unless noted otherwise all steel sections and plates used for strengthening in repair
shall be grade 250 (or higher grade if grade 250 unavailable) - to AS3678 and
AS3679.
Unless noted otherwise all steel sections and plates used in replacement members
or elements shall be grade 250 (or higher grade if grade 250 unavailable) to
AS3678 and AS3679.
Other steels specified for particular repairs
Grade 350 to AS3678 and AS3679
Bisalloy 80
A2. Fasteners
High strength bolts, nuts and washers shall conform to AS1252 and shall be galvanised in
accordance with AS1214.
A3. Epoxies for filling voids
Epirez 8242
Epirez 633 (moisture tolerant)
A4. Epoxies for sealing interfaces
Epirez 8242
Epirez 633 (moisture tolerant)
Epirez D5-707 NS (flexible)
Dulux Luxepoxy Barrier Coat
A5. Patch painting systems
Taubmans Interseal 2020
Dulux Amerlock 400 GF and 400
Dulux Luxaprime zinc phosphate
A6. Concrete surface coating systems
Taubmans Intergard 215 - Interthane 80 HS
Dulux Amerlock 400 GF and 400

A7. Bearing pad materials
Megaflow epoxy flow grout
Megapoxy H dry pack grout

Appendix B
Guidelines for
Management of Lead
Paint on Steel Structures
Scientific Services 31.1.95

Preface
The objective of this document is to provide guidelines for the successful management of
hazardous lead containing paints on Authority steel structures particularly when paint
removal in preparation for repainting is carried out. As these structures vary greatly in
configuration, size, location and function, different levels of health risk to workers and the
public and pollution risk to the environment are presented. Thus, different levels and
types of debris management are required to ensure health risks are reduced to an
acceptable level and environmental pollution regulations are observed.

Table of Contents
Page no.
Foreword 198
Summary 198
Scope 201
General 201
Procedure 201
Step 1 Determination of the presence of lead paint 201
Step 2 Selection of painting strategy 202
Step 3 Assessment of risks to public, other workers and environment 204
Step 4 Determination of emission control level 204
Step 5 Selection of paint removal method and containment system 205
Step 6 Selection of monitoring procedures 206
Step 7 Establishment of worker protection measures 207
Step 8 Establishment of waste handling procedures 207
Step 9 Establishment of work site cleaning requirements 207
Step 10 Estimation of project cost 208
Step 11 Preparation of project specification 208
Appendices
B1 Containment 209
B2 Air quality monitoring 218
B3 Ground (soil) monitoring 222
B4 Water and sediment monitoring 226

Foreword
Much of the Authority's structural steelwork is primed with red lead primer, for it was
standard practice to use red lead primer on new construction until 1968 when it was
replaced by inorganic zinc silicate primer and old construction until 1983 when it was
replaced by zinc rich epoxy primer. While red lead primer based systems remain intact,
they present no significant health or environmental pollution hazard. However, in most
instances these systems require repair or replacement during the design life of the
structure, and we are confronted with potential health and environmental pollution hazards
associated with lead based paint removal during the course of surface preparation for
repainting.
Lead in any form is toxic to humans when ingested and inhaled. In the majority of cases
the most cost effective method of surface preparation for maintenance painting involves
the partial or complete removal of existing coatings by mechanical means that pulverise
the paint into small particles that may be readily inhaled or ingested. Repeated inhalation
or ingestion of lead based paint particles may produce lead poisoning (plumbism) and
lesser intake may adversely effect a child's mental and emotional development. Thus,
these methods of paint removal give rise to two potential health problems, i.e. inhalation
and ingestion of lead-containing paint by workers and the public in the vicinity of the
structure, and the deposition of lead paint particles on nearby footpaths, streets or soil
areas where they may be resuspended or tracked into houses or buildings and inhaled or
ingested. In most instances workers may be simply and easily protected by protective
equipment and the public by prevention of access to the work site; however, lead paint
deposition may be much more complex and difficult to manage depending on the size,
shape and location of the structure.
Many structures such as bridges are located in congested, urban areas where paint
removal operations may contaminate nearby residences; business properties or
playgrounds. Other structures are located in rural settings where grazing or recreational
areas in the vicinity of the structure may be contaminated. Further, most government
regulatory bodies perceive lead based paint pollution of soil and waterways to be a
concern and direct its control despite the inability of the scientific community to assess the
degree of hazard posed to the environment.
Thus, the need exists for sound management of lead based paint coatings on steel
structures. This document addresses the issues critical to such management for the
purpose of facilitating selection and implementation of practicable, cost effective
maintenance programs that minimize health hazards to workers and the public and
pollution hazards to the environment.

Summary
Lead in any form is toxic to humans when ingested or inhaled. Red lead paint removal by
mechanical means, particularly by abrasive blast cleaning that is the most effective
method of surface preparation to achieve protection from corrosion, introduces lead
bearing particulate matter into the atmosphere. This gives rise to two potential health
problems i.e. inhalation of red lead primer particles by the operator, adjacent workers or
members of the public in the immediate vicinity of the structure and deposition of red lead
primer particles on soil, footpaths or other areas where it may be resuspended or tracked
into houses or buildings and ultimately inhaled or ingested by the occupants.
Operators and adjacent workers may be simply and adequately protected from inhalation
of red lead primer particles by air-supplied respirators and the general public by security
measures that prevent access to the immediate vicinity of the work.
The red lead particle deposition problem may be much more difficult to deal with
depending on the size, shape and location of the structure. Although most lead paint
particles fall within a few metres of the removal operation when dry abrasive blast
cleaning, many are small enough to be carried aloft and deposited at much greater
distances from the work area. Thus, urban bridges adjacent to businesses, residences or
playgrounds exposed to the lead laden blasting plume require greater control of blasting
debris than bridges in isolated rural settings.
The comprehensive U.S. Transport Research Board Report 265 "Removal of Lead Bridge
Paints" that specifically addresses health and environmental issues associated with this
operation concludes "there is little evidence that lead compounds used in bridge paints
are hazardous to the environment when they are removed". This is attributed to the red
lead primer's stability and insolubility in water characteristics that are such that it does not
easily break down and introduce free lead into either soil or water. Nevertheless,
government regulatory bodies perceive lead based paint pollution of soil and waterways to
be a concern and direct its control.
Bridges over soil areas still present the hazards of resuspension and tracking, and bridges
over waterways present the hazard of swimmers ingesting that small portion of paint
debris that does not immediately settle to the bottom creating a scum on the surface of the
water that can last for some time and be carried some distance. Therefore, reasonable
control of blasting debris is in order in both situations.
Most bridges in rural areas and some in metropolitan areas that are not within 50 metres
of a residence or other occupied dwelling may be dry abrasive blast cleaned and safely
dealt with by means of ground tarpaulins to collect spent paint debris and abrasive. The
tarps should extend 2 metres beyond the edges of the bridge. Further, care should be
taken in rural areas to ensure livestock do not have access to grazing area in the
immediate vicinity of the structure during the course of the contract. Bridges over
waterways should have tarpaulins arranged to catch spent blasting debris/direct it to the
bank for collection and disposal. Further, any scum that forms on the water from blasting
debris should be contained with a floating boom device to prevent it from moving
upstream or downstream and collected daily.
Bridges in built up metropolitan locations require significantly more stringent measures to

contain and collect debris generated during dry abrasive blast cleaning. In addition to
ground tarpaulins, drapes or a completely sealed enclosure may be required depending
upon the proximity of businesses, residences, schools, playgrounds or other sensitive
receptors. Where a dust free operation is dictated, wet abrasive blast cleaning may be in

order. The higher risk of debris resuspension and tracking presented by metropolitan
areas necessitates meticulous "housekeeping" procedures.
Wet abrasive blast cleaning and total debris containment introduce dramatic project cost
increases to the extent the cost of a normal painting project may be multiplied three to five
fold. In view of the number of red lead primed rail bridges throughout the state, the cost of
specifying these controls across the board is unsustainable and will rapidly bring critical
bridge repainting to a halt. As all bridges do not present the same degree of hazard to
human health or the environment, it is reasonable to vary the control system. Thus,
Maintenance Engineers should treat each structure on its own merit carefully assessing
the hazards presented and specifying appropriate controls to adequately protect human
health and comply with governing environmental legislation. This approach should enable
a viable bridge painting program to be carried out.

Scope
This document provides guidelines for the management of lead-containing paint on

industrial structures. It provides information for determining whether lead is present on a
structure, selecting an appropriate maintenance strategy and implementing appropriate
lead paint emission controls during paint removal in preparation for painting to ensure
potential health risks to workers and public are reduced to an acceptable level and
environmental pollution regulations are observed. This guide does not address
requirements for evaluation of worker health and safety that should be carried out in
accordance with regulatory requirements.
General
The successful management of an industrial structure coated with lead-containing paint

requires consideration of the function, design life and service environment of the structure,
condition of the existing coating system, coating systems that will be effective in the
service environment, hazards associated with lead paint removal to workers, the public
and the environment and program cost. These factors and their many intertwined
elements need to be judiciously dealt with in a logical and systematic manner for
satisfactory painting program selection and implementation to take place. Thus, these
guidelines are presented in the form of a step by step procedure to facilitate these
considerations when designing a lead-containing paint management project.
Procedure
The procedure comprises the following steps:
Step 1 Determination of the presence of lead paint.
Step 2 Selection of painting strategy.
Step 3 Assessment of project risks to the public, other workers and the environment.
Step 5 Selection of paint removal method and containment system.
Step 6 Selection of monitoring procedures.
Step 7 Establishment of worker protection measures.
Step 8 Establishment of waste handling procedures.
These steps as described below may require modification to accommodate peculiar

structures, locations or regulations. Further, there may be circumstances where small,
isolated patch repairs or repairs to small structures far from the public or a waterway are
to be carried out, and it may be unnecessary to follow the procedure except for regulatory
requirements concerning worker protection and waste handling.
Step 1 Determination of the presence of lead paint
The presence of lead paint may be established by reviewing the historical painting records
of the structure if these records are complete and include its entire painting history from
original painting through last maintenance painting. If historical records are incomplete,
the presence of lead paint may be determined by chemical field testing or laboratory tests
of representative paint samples in accordance with AS/NZS 1580.501.1 or atomic
absorption spectroscopy.

A paint film is considered to be lead-containing if it has 1.0% or more lead or lead

compounds by weight in the dry film. Structures showing paint work with this level of lead
should be dealt with in accordance with these guidelines.
Step 2 Selection of painting strategy
The following maintenance painting strategies are available:
(a) No painting. When a lead-containing paint is in good condition, tightly adhering to

the substrate, there is no hazard; thus, the option of leaving the coating alone
may be appropriate.
- If the coating has poor film integrity or shows poor adhesion to the substrate,
consideration should be given to potential structural problems due to further
corrosion and the possibility of the surrounding area being contaminated by
flaking and peeling paint. Again, the option of leaving the coating alone subject to
carrying out periodic inspections to monitor coating deterioration may be
appropriate.
-
(b) Overcoating. When a lead-containing paint or system is adhering tightly to the
substrate and showing satisfactory film integrity, it may be contained on the
structure for an extended period of time by overcoating it with another topcoat or
paint system if its film thickness is not so great that the additional weight of the
overcoat will weaken or break the bond between the existing system and the
substrate.
Prior to overcoating, the existing paint system should be cleaned to remove dust,
dirt, grease, oil, loose paint and other contaminants to maximize adhesion. The
overcoating material isolates the existing system from the environment thereby
eliminating any hazard.
A number of systems are recommended for this application by the Paint Industry,
and a few are detailed below:
(i) two-pack epoxy sealer with various topcoats;
(ii) two-pack, high build epoxy mastic;
(iii) single pack, moisture cured, polyurethane topcoat pigmented with zinc
or aluminium;
(iv) water borne acrylic primer with acrylic topcoat;
(v) oil modified alkyd topcoat with corrosion inhibiting pigment.
When considering this option, one should be particularly cautious where the
existing system's film integrity or adhesion to the substrate is suspect and guided
by the recommendation of the manufacturer of the overpainting system..
(c) Spot or localized repair Where a structure is exhibiting localized coating

breakdown and steel corrosion products, surface preparation of these areas,
priming and application of a finish coat to the localized areas or to the whole of
the structure may be cost effective options depending upon the extent of the
surface area to be repaired. In this instance, a major risk with overcoating is

inaccurate assessment of the condition and adhesion characteristic of the

existing lead based paint system, i.e. if either is poor, very early coating failure
will occur. When spot (patch) painting, care should be taken to ensure the repair
system paint products are compatible with the existing system and provide long
term performance in the service environment.
(d) Total coating removal and replacement Surface preparation of the entire
structure, to the extent that all existing coatings are removed and a new
protective system is applied, may be a cost effective option depending upon the
design life of the structure, despite the high short term costs associated with
coating removal, containment and disposal.
(e) Demolition and replacement of the structure It may be cost-effective to replace

the structure rather than removing and replacing the coating. Costs associated
with the construction of field containment, the controls over emissions, and
worker and environmental protection are applied to a new structure. The risk of
environmental, worker, or public contamination is very low, the service life of the
structure is optimized and the lead paint coated steel can be smelted and
recycled. A disadvantage of this option is the potential disruption to plant
processes or the travelling public while the structure is demolished and replaced.
The following considerations should be taken into account when selecting a cost-
effective painting strategy:
(a) Coating condition
(b) Service life of the structure
(c) Service environment of the structure
(d) Surface coating systems that will be effective in the service environment
(e) Method of surface preparation required for the coating system to perform
effectively and its emission potential.
(f) The need to keep the structure or facility operational
(g) Proximity of the work to other facility workers or the public
(h) Proximity of the work to environmentally sensitive areas.
The major consideration in selecting a painting strategy is existing coating system

condition. Accurate assessment of this condition is critical to selection of a cost
effective painting strategy and should only be carried out by staff with expertise in
this field.
As the following steps are completed, it may be necessary to reassess the

suitability of the selected strategy and modify it as required.

Step 3 Assessment of risks to public, other works and environment
The potential impact of lead-containing paint emissions on the health of the nearby public,
adjacent workers other than workers performing paint removal, fixing containment and
collecting debris and the surrounding environment determines the degree of project
emission control.
The public and adjacent worker risks are estimated by assessing their proximity to the
work and how often they frequent the proximity zone.
The risk to the public is estimated as nil, low, moderate or high by using the following
table:
Public Health Risk Assessment

Public Frequency of public presence
proximity to
site Never Rare Occasional Continual
Close
-- Moderate High High
< 20 metres
Moderate
-- Low Moderate High
20-50 metres
Far
-- Low Low Low
> 50 metres
No Access
Nil -- -- --
The risk to the adjacent workers is estimated as nil, low or high by using the following
table:
Health risk to adjacent workers and other workers on site
Proximity to Frequency of presence of personnel

site
Rare Occasional Continual
Close
Low Low High
< 20 metres
Moderate
Nil Low Low
20-50 metres
Far
Nil Nil Nil
> 50 metres
The environment risk is estimated by assessing the proximity of sensitive environment

receptors such as oyster beds, drinking water intakes or market gardens to the work. It is
estimated as low if sensitive receptors are not within 50 metres of the work and high if
sensitive receptors are within 50 metres of the work.
The distances nominated for proximity indicators may be varied to accommodate unusual
structure heights or locations, and in some instances a scale plot plan of the project site
and surrounding area may be of benefit.
Step 4 Determination of emission control level
The three previously determined risk indicators are combined in the matrix shown below

to establish the level of emission control for the project. After entering the matrix with the
environmental risk indicator (low or high), the adjacent work and public health risk
indicators are entered on that half of the matrix and the intersection of these two indicators
shows the level of emission control required for the project.
Risk to adjacent workers

Nil Low High Nil Low High
High A A A A A A
Public Mod B B A A A A
Health
Risk Low C C A B B A
Nil C C A B B A
Low High
Environmental Impact
A -a high level of control where minimal emissions are allowed
B -a moderate level of control where limited emissions are allowed
C -a low level of control where limited emissions are allowed.
Step 5 Selection of paint removal method and containment system
The following factors should be considered when selecting the method of paint removal:
(a) Painting strategy selected in step 2.
(b) Degree of surface preparation required by the maintenance system.
(c) Amount of work to be performed and productivity requirements.
(d) Size, configuration and accessibility of the structure.
(e) Cost.
Paint removal methods are categorized into four groups based upon the level and type of
paint emissions generated. These categories are:
(a) Emission Category 1 (Very High Emission Potential) Dry abrasive blast cleaning
with expendable or recyclable abrasives is in this category as it produces more
dust than any other method of paint removal. The use of recyclable abrasives
significantly reduces the volume of blasting debris that in most instances must be
treated as a hazardous waste. Dry abrasive blast cleaning is the most effective
method of surface preparation for paint durability, and it has a high production
rate.
(b) Emission Category 2 (High Emission Potential) Wet abrasive blast cleaning and
water blasting are in this category. It is a dust free method of surface
preparation; however, the wet blasting debris is more difficult to handle and
transport than dry debris. It requires the use of inhibitors to avoid flash rusting,
and it is significantly slower than dry abrasive blast cleaning.
(c) Emission Category 3 (Moderate Emission Potential) Power Tool Cleaning without
vacuum attachments and Chemical Removal are in this category. Power Tool
Cleaning produces significantly less dust and debris than dry abrasive blast
cleaning. It is significantly less effective for paint durability than abrasive blast
cleaning, and it has a medium production rate. Chemical Removal is a dust free
operation, and the volume of debris is significantly less than abrasive blast

cleaning. It is not a recognized method of surface preparation and pretreatment

of metal surfaces prior to protective coating; thus, further surface preparation is
required before painting.
(d) Emission Category 4 (Low Emission Potential) Hand Tool Cleaning and Power
Tool Cleaning with vacuum attachments are in this category as dust generation is
minimal, and the volume of debris is significantly less than abrasive blast
cleaning. Hand tool cleaning is the least effective method of surface preparation
for paint durability, and it has a low production rate.
The selected paint removal method emission category has an influence on selection of
containment as does the control level for emissions determined in step 4. The
containment system components capable of achieving Levels A, B and C of emission
control for each of the emission categories are described in Appendix A.
At the completion of this step, if the method of removal and containment selected for the
project do not appear to be feasible, the painting strategy chosen in step 3 should be
reconsidered.
Step 6 Selection of monitoring procedures
Project monitoring of emissions is performed to ensure adequate controls are in place to

protect the environment, the public and other workers in the vicinity of paint removal. It
should include air quality, ground (soil) and water and sediment monitoring.
Air quality monitoring requirements may range from simple visual monitoring to elaborate
instrumental monitoring depending upon the location of the structure and method of paint
removal. Visual monitoring of dust emissions from containment or equipment during
surface preparation and clean up is a subjective means of assessing whether the intended
level of control of emissions from these operations is being achieved while instrumental
monitoring that enables a determination of the actual amount of lead as particulate matter
in the atmosphere is an objective means of making this assessment. Appendix B
describes a method for instrumental monitoring of air quality.
Ground monitoring also may range from simple visual monitoring upon project completion
to ensure all visible surface preparation debris has been removed from the work site to
elaborate soil sampling and laboratory analysis of soil samples for lead prior to project
start up and upon project completion to determine whether remediation is required or
verify adequacy of project controls depending upon the location of the structure and
method of paint removal. Appendix C describes a method for ground sampling and
analysis.
Water and sediment monitoring entails laboratory analysis of water and sediment samples
prior to project start up and upon its completion to determine whether the water or
sediment has been contaminated by removal of the lead-containing paint. It is used to
determine whether remediation is required or verify adequacy of project emission controls.
It is not used as a process control measure unless the project is near a drinking water
intake. In which instance, sampling and analysis should be carried out as arranged with
the Water Authority. Appendix D describes a method for water/sediment sampling and
analysis.
The methods, frequency and duration of monitoring are dependent upon the emissions
potential of the removal method, potential public health risk, potential adjacent worker
health risk and potential environmental impact risk. The greater the potential health and
environmental risks and the higher the emissions potential, the greater is the need for
monitoring.

Step 7 Establishment of worker protection measures
All personnel on the project who are exposed to lead paint removal should be adequately
protected to avoid inhalation or ingestion of lead paint and precautions should be taken to
prevent them from inadvertently carrying lead containing dust or debris from the work site
to domestic or public locations where it continues to present a health hazard. All
measures adopted shall comply with governing legislation.
3
As the exposure standard for lead is 150 g/m of air, it is necessary to determine that
employees on the project are exposed to this or a higher level of lead during the course
of paint removal and collection of debris for disposal and implement appropriate control
measures. This determination may be made by evaluating monitoring data acquired on
similar projects or monitoring the personal breathing zones of exposed workers at the
beginning of the project.
The following control measures are available to limit exposure to lead
(a) isolation of the work area

(b) engineering devices
(c) safe work practices
(d) administrative practices.
Respirators are required whenever the concentration of lead is at or above the exposure
standard. Respiratory protective devices shall comply with AS 1716,and their selection,
use and maintenance shall be carried out in accordance with AS 1715.
Protective clothing and equipment, housekeeping procedures, hygiene facilities, medical

surveillance and employee training requirements specified in regulations shall be strictly
observed.
Large, complex projects may warrant a written compliance program implemented and
maintained by an individual who is capable of identifying hazards and authorized to take
prompt corrective measures to eliminate them.
Step 8 Establishment of handling procedures
Debris generated during the removal of lead-containing paint should be collected in such
a manner that its release into the surrounding environment is minimized, placed in sound,
suitable containers marked "hazardous waste" and stored on site so as to minimize
container corrosion and damage.
A representative sample of the debris should be analysed for lead in accordance with US
EPA Method 1311 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP). If the lead content
is less than 5 ppm, the debris is classified as non-hazardous waste, re-marked "non-
hazardous waste" and disposed of in accordance with statutory regulations. If the lead
content is 5 ppm or more, the debris is classified hazardous retaining its "hazardous
waste" marking and disposed of in accordance with statutory regulations.
Step 9 Establishment of work site cleaning requirements
The worksite should be returned to the condition that existed prior to starting work.
There should be no visual evidence of paint removal debris on the structure or its
surrounding environment.

Reusable equipment should be cleaned in such a manner that release of paint removal
debris to the surrounding environment is minimized and it shows no visual evidence of
paint removal debris at the time of its removal from the work site.
Consumable materials shall be disposed of in accordance with statutory regulations.
Step 10 Estimation of project cost
Having completed a preliminary project design by working through steps 1-9, an estimate
of project cost should be prepared. If the cost is outside budget constraints, project
reassessment should be undertaken by working through steps 2-9 again and repeating
the process until cost is within budget.
Step 11 Preparation of project specification
A project specification should be prepared that clearly addresses the issues of worker and
public health and environmental pollution as well as surface preparation and painting.

Appendix B1
Containment

B1-1 Scope
This Appendix provides information on containment systems used for controlling

emissions during the course of lead paint removal.
B1-2 General
Containment system components capable of achieving these levels of emission control for
each paint removal emission category are shown in Table B1. Emission control level A is
a high level of control where only minimal emissions are allowed, B is a moderate level of
control where limited emissions are allowed and C is a low level of control where limited
emissions are allowed.
B1-3 Containment system components
B1-3.1 Description
The components that comprise the containment/cocoon are described in B1-3.2-

B1-3.6 below.
B1-3.2 Containment material rigidity
B1-3.2.1 General
The materials used to construct the shell of the containment cocoon and ground
covers can be either rigid or flexible. The rigidity or flexibility of the materials has
no bearing on the ability of the containment enclosure to control emissions.
Selection of the material is based primarily on the need for long term durability
and ease of construction.
B1-3.2.2 Rigid containment materials
Rigid containment materials consist of solid panels of plywood, aluminium, rigid

metal, plastic, fibreglass, or composites. Fire retardance of the materials should
be considered during selection.
B1-3.2.3 Flexible materials
Flexible containment materials consist of screens, tarpaulins, drapes, plastic

sheeting, or similar materials. Fire retardance should be considered during
selection.
B1-3.3 Containment material permeability/resistance
B1-3.3.1 General
The permeability of the containment materials to air, water or chemicals will

influence the degree of control over emissions that can be achieved. The
materials should also be resistant to the media used for paint removal.
B1-3.3.2 Air impermeable materials
Air impermeable materials are those that are impervious to dust or wind, such as
rigid panels or coated solid tarps, drapes or plastic sheeting. These materials will
stop the passage of debris and essentially any air.

B1-3.3.3 Air permeable materials
Air permeable materials are those that are formed or woven to allow air flow, but
can retain much of the larger airborne particulate.
These materials are commonly termed 'wind screens'. Because of the

construction of the material, some dust will escape when using methods of
removal that produce very high emissions such as abrasive blast cleaning.
B1-3.3.4 Water Impermeable materials
Water impermeable materials are any materials that are capable of containing
and controlling water when wet methods of preparation are utilized. Note that
wind screens hung vertically may satisfy this objective provided the horizontal
areas of the containment where ponding or standing water might be present are
fabricated from solid, impermeable materials.
B1-3.3.5 Chemical/Solvent resistant materials
Chemical/solvent resistant materials are those that are not disturbed or softened
by prolonged contact with chemical or solvent stripping solutions.
B1-3.4 Support Structure
B1-3.4.1 General
The structure used to support the containment materials is classified as either

rigid or flexible. The support structure used has no bearing on the level of
emissions control achieved. Its importance lies in the long term durability of the
structure and in the flexibility of its construction.
B1-3.4.2 Rigid support structures
Rigid support structures consist of scaffolding and framing to that the

containment materials are affixed to allow little to no movement of the
containment cocoon.
B1-3.4.3 Flexible support structures
A flexible support structure incorporates cables, chains, or similar systems to that

the containment materials are affixed. Flexible support structures allow some
movement of the containment.
B1-3.5 Containment Enclosure Joints
B1-3.5.1 General
The joints between containment materials and between the materials and the
structure being prepared are either fully or partially sealed. The sealing of the
joints has an impact on the degree of emissions control provided by the
containment system.

B1-3.5.2 Fully sealed joints
Fully sealed joints require that all mating surfaces, between containment
materials and between the containment cocoon and the structure being prepared,
are completely sealed. Methods of sealing include taping, caulking, Velcro, and
any other material capable of forming a continuous, impermeable seal.
B1-3.5.3 Partially sealed joints
Partially sealed joints involve the mating of materials of each other and to the
structure being prepared, where the structural soundness of the joint is
considered but a continuous, impermeable seal is not created.
B1-3.6 Containment entryways
B1-3.6.1 General
Access to and from the containment may require elaborate controls to ensure
that emissions do not escape during worker use or during windy periods that
could cause the entryway to open. Entrances vary in sophistication from the
construction of airlocks to the use of open seams between containment materials.
B1-3.6.2 Airlock entryway
An airlock entryway involves a minimum of one stage that is fully sealed to the
containment. One door connects the airlock to the containment with a separate
door to the outside. Both doors of the airlock should not be opened at the same
time, otherwise emissions may escape. The ventilation system used for the
containment, should maintain the airlock under negative pressure. The airlock
should be equipped with a HEPA vacuum to allow gross decontamination of dust
and debris from worker clothing prior to exiting.
B1-3.6.3 Resealable door entryway
Resealable doorways involve the use of entry doors capable of being repeatedly
opened and resealed. Sealing mechanisms include the use of zippers, Velcro
and other similar means.
B1-3.6.4 Overlapping door tarpaulin entryway
Overlapping door tarpaulins involve two or three overlapping tarpaulins. This

system may have a tendency to open under windy conditions or could disrupt
designed airflow patterns when a negative pressure ventilation system is utilized.
B1-3.6.5 Open seam entryway
Open seam entryways involve an entrance to the contained area through open
seams between containment materials.
B1-4 Ventilation system components
B1-4.1 Purpose
The purpose of the ventilation is to control emissions into the environment and to
provide air flow through the containment enclosure to reduce worker exposures

to lead. Control of emissions into the environment can be achieved by creating a

negative pressure condition inside containment, such that if a breach in the
containment cocoon occurs, air from outside of the containment will flow inward
preventing dust from escaping.
B1-4.2 Ventilation design alternatives
The ventilation can involve the use of designed mechanical systems or natural
ventilation. When a mechanical system is specified, a negative pressure
condition should be required along with filtration of the exhaust air.
B1-4.3 Mechanical ventilation system
The containment enclosure is ventilated by mechanical means to ensure

adequate air movement is achieved to reduce worker exposures to lead and to
enhance visibility.
The system should be designed for uniform air flow through the containment in
either a cross-draft or down-draft mode.
The exhaust system should be designed with properly distributed exhausted

ports or plenums, adequately sized exhaust ductwork for proper transport velocity
and adequately sized discharge fans. This will provide the necessary air velocity
within the containment to overcome system static pressure and provide properly
sized and distributed make-up air points.
Air movement through the containment when using abrasive blast cleaning
should result in at least
(a) 39 m/min cross-draft.
(b) 18 m/min down-draft.
Negative pressure achieved when using mechanical ventilation can be confirmed

through instrument monitoring. A minimum of 0.8mm water column relative to
ambient conditions should be maintained. Inclined manometers or magnehelic
gauges can be used for these measurements. Negative pressure can also be
confirmed visually through the concave appearance of the containment structure
or by the use of smoke bombs to verify an inward flow of air at breeches in the
containment. When using visual means, care should be taken to account for the
influence of winds on the concave appearance of the containment enclosure as
compared with that created by the ventilation system.
B1-4.4 Natural ventilation system
Natural ventilation does not utilize mechanical equipment for moving dust and
debris through the work area. It relies on natural air flow patterns through the
containment.
B1-4.5 Exhaust air filtration
When utilizing mechanical ventilation systems, filtration of the exhaust air should
be specified, otherwise airborne particulate from within the containment will be
exhausted directly into the ambient air.

Filtration systems typically employ wet or dry dust collectors or bag houses.
Filtration to 2.0 m may be necessary if workers are continually in the immediate
vicinity of the exhaust. For removal methods that produce very low emissions,
dust socks on the exhaust fan may be sufficient.
If paint is applied within the same containment system, it may be necessary to

use a pre-filter to prevent wet paint droplets from damaging the air filtration
system, or to exhaust the air through an alternative filtration system such as dust
socks.
B1-5 Methods of collecting debris
B1-5.1 Handling
The debris generated within containment can be conveyed manually, by gravity

or mechanically. To reduce worker exposures to lead, non-manual handling
means should be utilized wherever feasible.
B1-5.2 Manual collection
Manual collection involves the use of equipment such as vacuums, brooms,

magnetic brooms, brushes, shovels, wheel barrows, buckets or bucket loaders to
physically move the debris to a collection point. Because of the potential for
increased worker exposure when using most of the methods, the use of vacuum
is preferred.
B1-5.3 Gravity collection
Gravity collection is used for overhead work where specially designed hoppers or
funnels allow the debris to fall by gravity into duct work that channels it to a
collection or reclamation point. Workers typically do not handle or contact the
debris.
B1-5.4 Mechanical conveyance
Pneumatic equipment or mechanical augers in the containment floor may be

used to automatically transport the debris for collection or reclamation. As with
gravity conveyance, workers have little need to handle or contact the debris.
B1-6 Designing a containment system
Guidance on the design of containment systems is found in SSPC Guide 6I(CON) and
SSPC93-02. The following job site and structural considerations should be taken into
account when designing a containment system:
(a) Type of structure.
(b) Load bearing capacity and integrity of the containment system and of the
structure.
(c) Size and elevation of structure.
(d) Location of structure.

(e) Proximity to other buildings, structures, operating equipment and traffic. Tight
confines may not permit the construction of certain containment devices.
(f) Local wind conditions
(g) Requirements of regulating authorities
(h) Whether the structure is riveted or welded. On certain structures; the welding of
containment system brackets adjacent to riveted seams should be avoided.
B1-7 Containment criteria table
Table B1 shows the containment system components capable of achieving three levels of
emission control for each paint removal emission category. Level A is a high level of
control where only minimal emissions are allowed, Level B is a moderate level of control
where limited emissions are allowed and Level C is a low level of control where limited
emissions are allowed.
Paint removal methods based upon the level and type of paint emissions generated are
categorized as follows:
(a) Emission Category 1 Very High Emission Potential -Dry abrasive blast cleaning
with recyclable or non-recyclable abrasive.
(b) Emission Category 2 High Emission Potential - Wet abrasive blast cleaning and
water blasting.
(c) Emission Category 3 Moderate Emission Potential - Power tool cleaning without
vacuum attachments and chemical removal.
(d) Emission Category 4 Low Emission Potential - Power tool cleaning with vacuum
attachments and hand tool cleaning.

TABLE 1
EMISSION CONTROL CONTAINMENT CRITERIA FOR PAINT REMOVAL METHOD (1)
Containment Containment Ventilation Negative Exhaust

Emission Emission Containment Containment Containment
material (3) support system pressure filtration
Category control level (2) material rigidity Material Joints entryway
permeability structure required required required
1 A Rigid or flexible Impermeable Rigid or flexible Fully sealed Airlock resealable Mechanical Required Required
Permeable or
B Rigid or flexible Rigid or flexible Partially sealed Overlapping Natural Not required Not required
impermeable
Very high
emission
C See Note 4 NA NA NA NA Natural Not required Not required
potential
2 Resealable or
A Rigid or flexible Impermeable Rigid or flexible Fully sealed Mechanical Required Required
overlapping
Permeable or
B Rigid or flexible Rigid or flexible Partially sealed Overlapping Natural Not required Not required
High impermeable
emission C See Note 4 NA NA NA NA Natural Not required Not required

potential
3 Resealable or
A Rigid or flexible Impermeable Rigid or flexible Fully sealed Mechanical Required Required
overlapping
Permeable or Overlapping or
B Rigid or flexible Rigid or flexible Partially sealed Natural Not required Not required
Moderate impermeable open seam
emission
potential C See Note 4 NA NA NA NA Natural Not required Not required
4 A See Note 4 NA NA NA NA Natural Not required Not required

B See Note 4 NA NA NA NA Natural Not required Not required
Low
C See Note 4 NA NA NA NA Natural Not required Not required

emission
potential
NOTES:
1. This guide is prepared for information only. It does not guarantee that specific controls over emissions will occur. Other combinations of
materials may provide controls over emissions equivalent to or greater than those combinations shown in the table.
2. Emission control Level A provides a high level of control, Level B a moderate level of control and Level C a low level of control.
3. Permeability addresses both air and water. Ground covers should be impermeable and of sufficient strength to withstand the impact and weight
of the abrasive and equipment that might be used for cleaning or reclamation. Ground covers may also extend beyond the containment
boundary in order to capture debris that may escape. When chemicals are used, the containment materials should be resistant to both chemicals
and water.
4. Impermeable ground covers and free hanging tarps are sufficient to control emissions.

Appendix B-2
Air Quality Monitoring

B2-1 Scope
This appendix describes a method for monitoring ambient air quality in the vicinity of paint
removal operations. It enables the determination of the actual amount of lead as
particulate matter in the atmosphere utilizing sampling equipment.
B2-2 General
The purpose of air quality monitoring is to assess whether the health of the public or
nearby workers is being endangered by lead or respirable emissions from the work site.
B2-3 Instrumental monitoring of TSP lead
B2-3.1 Principle
Sampling monitors are located at appropriate places around the work site.
Preliminary monitoring is performed to establish background levels of
contaminants before the removal/repair project commences, and upon
commencement of operations, monitoring of the work site is undertaken.
B2-3.2 Materials and equipment
High volume air sampling equipment -equipped with a total suspended particulate
(TSP) collection head.
Equipment filters - one for each monitor for each period of operation.
Electrical supply - 240 V or an appropriately sized generator.
Wind direction and velocity indicators.
B2-3.3 Monitor siting

B2-3.3.1 General
The selection of monitor placement locations is dependent upon a number of site

conditions, including but not limited to:
(a) surrounding topography;

(b) variability in wind direction;
(c) proximity to obstacles such as building and trees;
(d) proximity to other sources of emissions such as automobiles.
B2-3.3.2 Determination of prevailing winds
The prevailing winds may be determined by using Weather Bureau information or

a portable weather station.
B2-3.3.3 Identification of a down-wind monitoring zone
Select a down-wind monitoring zone by constructing an arc 15 on both sides of

the prevailing wind direction.
B2-3.3.4 Placement of Monitors
The recommended procedure is as follows:
(a) Position the monitors within the down-wind monitoring zone at a

distance away from the structure based on its height as described

below. Place additional monitors at high public risk receptors such as

schools, homes, or hospitals, even if they are located outside of the
monitoring zone to assure protection of the public from the inhalation of
airborne lead. Locations where the public is present should take
precedence over the criteria presented below that is based on prevailing
wind and distances.
(b) For structures less than 6 m in height, locate one monitoring station
within the down-wind monitoring zone, in the direct line of prevailing
winds, at a distance of approximately 3 times the height of the structure.
Representative high risk areas located within 30 m of the structure,
regardless of prevailing wind, should also be monitored.
(c) For structures from 6m to 30m in height, establish two monitoring
locations within the monitoring zone. One should be located along one
side of the monitoring zone (left side of the 15 arc to the left of the
prevailing wind), at a distance equivalent to approximately twice the
average working height on the structure. The second monitoring location
should be positioned along the opposite side of the monitoring zone at a
distance of approximately twice the total height of the structure.
Representative, high risk areas that are located within a distance of 45
m or three times the total height of the structure, whichever is greater,
should also be monitored.
(d) For structures greater than 30 m in height, establish two monitoring
locations in the monitoring zone as described above, except that the first
location should be at a distance approximately equal to the average
working height on the structure, and the second location should be
established at a distance no greater than twice the average working
height. Representative, high risk areas within 90 m or twice the height of
the structure, whichever is greater, should also be monitored.
(e) Determine if monitoring locations need to be moved depending on the
analysis of results. If wind directions are found to vary, the monitoring
locations may require repositioning. When working many spans of a
bridge, the monitors may have to be relocated for each span.
B2-3.3.5 Baseline monitoring
Monitoring around the project site should be conducted for a minimum of three to
five days while no work activities are underway. If the monitoring demonstrates
that there is a high degree of variability in the background levels, upwind
monitoring at a remote location away from the influences of the project site
should be utilized to track background levels on a daily basis.
The influence of the initial baseline date or the continual upwind monitoring
should be taken into consideration when analyzing the test results to establish
the contribution of the paint removal activities to the total amount of airborne lead
proximate to the work-site e.g. due to the use of leaded petrol, an allowance of
10 percent above the 80% confidence interval of the background level may be
3
used if it exceeds 1.5 ug/m .
B2-3.3.6 Work Site Monitoring
The extent and direction of work site monitoring is based on the potential health
risk to the public and nearby workers.
Four options are available:

(i) Full time monitoring

Monitoring throughout the duration of the project should be employed if
the public is present in the vicinity of the project for most of the time (e.g.
homes, schools, hospitals are next to the project site), or other workers
are nearby on a continual basis.
(ii) Start-up monitoring

Monitoring at project start-up us used to establish the adequacy of the
controls over emissions. Once it is established that the results are
acceptable, the monitoring is discontinued. Monitoring may be resumed
if suspect emissions occur or the method of removal and containment is
changed. This type of monitoring is used in areas where the public and
other workers are present on an occasional basis.
(iii) Monitoring for complaints

Public complaints or questions regarding emissions may trigger the need
for localized, short-term assessments. The disadvantage to this
approach is that if the assessment shows that unacceptable emissions
are occurring, the impact of the emissions prior to monitoring may be
questioned and require resolution.
(iv) No monitoring
Projects outside of public access or away from other workers who are
not involved in the project should not require monitoring.
B2-3.3.7 Operation of equipment
The high volume air samples should be operated and calibrated strictly in
accordance with governing legislation.
B2-3.4 Total suspended particulate matter
Total suspended particulate matter shall be determined in accordance with AS2724.3 and
analysed for lead content in accordance with governing legislation.
B2-3.5 Reporting/record keeping
The following should be recorded:
(a) Name and location of job site.

(b) Date of monitoring.
(c) Time of monitoring (Time monitoring begins and ends each day).
(d) Identification serial number of monitoring units.
(e) Description of specific monitor locations.
(f) Description and location of operations underway at time of monitoring.
(g) Wind direction and velocity.
(h) Flow chart verifying the rate of airflow across the filter throughout the sampling.
(i) Name and address of laboratory used.
(j) Laboratory test procedure utilized.
3
(k) Laboratory test results, expressed in ug/m .
(l) Names of person/firm conducting the monitoring work.
Copies of all records relating to ambient air monitoring should be maintained for the length
of the project plus a minimum of three years.

Appendix B-3
Ground (Soil) Monitoring

B3-1 Scope
The Appendix provides a method for sampling and analysing the ground (soil) in the
vicinity of a project prior to its start and upon its completion to determine if the ground has
been contaminated by lead from the work.
B3-2 Background
Pre-existing levels of lead in the ground can vary greatly within a few metres due to past
usage of the property and to uneven distribution of previously dislodged paint chips.
Thus, while this Appendix provides means for collecting and analyzing samples, such
variability should be recognized when analyzing the data.
B3-3 Materials and equipment
Sampling tool -for the collection of ground plugs approximately 20 mm in diameter and
10 mm in depth.
Sample collection bags or containers - comprised of a material such as polyethylene

that will not contaminate the sample.
Tape measure and compass -to document the precise locations of the samples
Sampling template - 300 x 300 mm with a 25 mm hole in the centre.
Deionized water - to clean the sampling equipment.
B3-4.1 General
Sample site selection depends on the configuration and location of the structure. The
project/structure should be subdivided into logical units for sampling. The ground around
each structure or a portion of a structure should be considered a unique structure for
sampling and sampled separately.
B3-4.2 Site selection for structures less than 16m in height
One sample should be removed on each north, south, east and west compass point at a
distance away from the structure equal to its height.
For long structures, an additional sample location should be selected for every 32m
segment of length. If the structure crosses over ground, samples immediately beneath
the structure as described in
4.4 should be removed.
B3-4.3 Site selection for structures greater than 16 m in height
Two samples should be removed on each north, south, east and west compass point,one
at a distance away from the structure of 16m and the other at a distance away from the
structure equal to its height.
For long structures, an additional sample in each row should be selected for every 32 m
segment of length. If the structure crosses over ground, samples immediately beneath
the structure as described in 4.4 should also be removed.
B3-4.4 Site selection for structures crossing ground

If a structure crosses over the ground, a minimum of two samples should be removed
from beneath each end. Additional samples should be collected in proportion to the floor
area of the structure, at a
2
rate of one additional sample for every 500 m of ground surface covered.
For elevated structures such as tanks, a minimum of two samples should be collected
beneath the centre of the structure with additional samples removed in proportion to the
'floor area' of the structure at a
2
rate of one additional sample for every 500 m of ground surface covered. Perimeter
sampling as described in B3-4.2 and B3-4.3 should be carried out.
B3-4.5 High risk receptors
Samples should be removed at high risk receptors such as schools, day care centres,
occupied housing, and hospitals that are located in the vicinity of the work area if there is
the possibility that ground contamination from project activities could occur.
B3-5 Sample collection
A sample of the surface of the ground should be collected at each sample site. A sample
consists of five plugs of ground collected at each location and combined in a single
container to represent the sample at the specific site. The following sampling procedure is
recommended:
(a) Remove by hand visible chips of paint on the surface of the ground.
(b) Place a 300 mm x 300 mm template parallel or tangential to the structure.
(c) Remove circular surface plugs of ground, measuring approximately 20 mm in

diameter and 10 mm in depth, from the centre of the template and at each of the
four corners. Place the five plugs in a single sample container. This represents
one sample from one sample site. Clean the sampling tool with deionized water
prior to moving to a new sample site.
B3-6 Frequency of sampling
Samples are removed prior to project start-up and upon project completion. (Interim
sampling may be carried out to determine the performance of the containment.)
The ground plugs should be analysed for lead in accordance with US EPA Method 3050
or approved equivalent method.
B3-8 Interpretation of results
No paint chips or debris resulting from the removal operation should be visually evident
throughout and around the project site. The ground will be considered to have been
contaminated by project activities under any of the following conditions:
(a) Visible debris is present.

(b) If the mean pre-project level is less than 200 ppm, and an increase in total lead
content of 100 ppm or more occurs.

(c) If the mean pre-project level is greater than 200 ppm, and the 80 percent
confidence level of the post project mean levels are more than 10 percent higher
than the 80 percent confidence level of the pre-project mean levels.
B3-9 Reporting/record keeping
The following information should be recorded:

(b) Dates of sampling.
(c) Visual evidence of contamination.
(d) Specific location of samples sites (Direction and distance). The use of drawings
is recommended.
(e) Name and address of laboratory.
(f) Laboratory test method.
(g) Laboratory test method.
(h) Name of person/firm conducting the sampling.
Copies of all tests results shall be maintained for the length of the project plus a minimum
of three years.

Appendix B-4
Water and Sediment
Monitoring

B4-1 Scope
This Appendix describes a method for sampling and analysing water and sediment prior to
the start of a project and upon its completion to determine if the water/sediment was
polluted by lead from the work.
B4-2 General
Sampling of surface water and sediment for lead to determine whether pollution has
occurred is of value only in limited circumstances. In fast moving bodies of water, water
sampling represents only transient water quality and adequate evaluation of results is
difficult. Similarly, in bodies of water greater than 4 m in depth, sediment sampling is of
little value.
Water or sediment sampling may provide meaningful data for slow moving, shallow bodies
of water where drinking water intakes or sensitive environmental receptors such as oyster
beds are near the work site.
B4-3 Materials and equipment
Rigid container -with resealable lid, approximately 250 ml in capacity, for water or
sediment samples.
Stainless steel scoop - for collection of sediment samples.
Sample collection bags or containers - of a material such as polyethylene that will not
contaminate the sample.
Tape measure and compass -for documenting the precise sample locations.
B4-4 Number of samples
B4-4.1 Structures alongside a body of water
For work on tanks, buildings, or structures located next to a body of water, soils
tests should be used in lieu of water or sediment testing.
If soil is not present and water/sediment sampling is required, for every 30m
segment of the structure, one sample of water and one sample of sediment at the
shore line, and one additional set of samples 6m from the shore line should be
taken.
B4-4.2 Structures less than 150m in length that pass over a body of water
The sampling plan should include the following if water/sediment sampling is

required:
(a) If the maximum height of the work area is less than 15m above the water
for every 30m in length, or portion thereof:
(i) Collect two water samples at a distance downstream that is no
further than the equivalent of the height of the structure.
(ii) Collect sediment samples beneath the structure at a frequency
2
equivalent to one sample for every 500m of water area
covered by the structure.
(b) If the maximum height of the work area is greater than 15m above the
water, for every 30m length or portion thereof:
(i) Collect one water sample downstream within 10 m of the

structure and a second at a distance downstream no greater

than the average height of the structure.
(ii) Collect sediment samples immediately beneath the structure at
2
a frequency equivalent to one sample for every 500m of water
area covered by the structure.
B4-4.3 Structures greater than 150m in length that pass over a body of water
The sampling plan should include the following if water/sediment sampling is

required.
(a) If the maximum height of the work area is greater than 15m above the
(i) Collect two water samples at a distance downstream that is no
further than the equivalent of the height of the structure.
2
(b) I f the maximum height of the work area is greater than 15m above the
(i) Collect one water sample downstream within 10m of the
structure and a second at a distance downstream no greater
than the average height of the structure.
2
Where sensitive receptors such as drinking water intakes or oyster beds are
located in slow moving shallow bodies of water downstream within 50m of the
work site, it may be prudent to collect sufficient water samples to characterise the
area.
B4-5 Sample collection procedure
B4-5.1 Collection of water samples
Dip or grab samples should be collected. The recommended procedure is as

follows:
(a) Place the container just beneath the surface of the water and pull in an
upstream direction to collect the sample.
(b) Collect approximately 250ml of water, seal the container, and tape it
shut to avoid spilling the contents or tampering.
(c) Use a separate, clean container for each sample.
B4-5.2 Collection of sediment samples
Scoop samples should be collected. The recommended procedure is as follows:
(a) Scooping in an upstream direction to a maximum depth of 100mm,

collect approximately 250ml of sediment, seal the container and tape
shut to avoid spilling the contents or tampering.
B4-6 Frequency of sampling

Samples should be taken prior to project start-up and upon project completion. (Interim
sampling may be carried out to assess the performance of the containment during the
course of the project.)
B4-7 Laboratory analysis

The samples should be analysed for lead in accordance with US EPA Method 3050 or
approved equivalent.
B4-8 Interpretation of results
Paint chips or debris shall not be visually evident in the water or sediment.
Water is considered to have been contaminated by the project activities under either of
the following conditions:
(a) The mean pre-project level is less than 3.5g/L and an increase in the mean lead
content of 1.5g/L occurs.
(b) The mean pre-project level is greater than 3.5g/L and the 80 percent confidence
level of the post project mean levels is more than 10 percent higher than the 80
percent confidence level of the pre-project mean levels.
Underwater sediment is considered to have been contaminated by the project activities if

the 80 percent confidence level of the post project mean levels is more than 10 percent
higher than the 80 percent confidence level of the pre-project mean levels.
B4-9 Reporting/record keeping
Copies of all test results should be maintained for the length of the project plus a minimum
of three years.
The following documentation should be provided:

(b) Dates of sampling
(c) Specific location of sample sites (The use of drawings is recommended).
(d) Name and address of laboratory.
(e) Laboratory test method.
(f) Laboratory test results expressed in ppm.
(g) Name of person/firm conducting the sampling.

Appendix C
Guidelines for welding
old steels

C1. Background/introduction
The materials used in railway construction over the past 100 years or so have evolved
more or less in step with the changes in the metal fabricating industry and it is important to
keep in mind that for the first two thirds of this period welding was not widely used and
riveting was the usual method of joining. As a consequence of this the weldability of the
materials involved was not a prime consideration and the ease, and in some cases the
practicability, of welding can vary considerably. This, of course, makes maintenance very
much more complex as riveting is no longer commonly used and where welding is not
practicable bolting may be the best solution.
In an actual repair situation it is clear that identification of the material involved is the first
and most important step.
It is hoped that in time this information will be available for all bridges in the system.
C2. Wrought and cast iron
It is appropriate to describe in a short paragraph the differences between wrought and

cast iron since, unfortunately, the terminology in common use in Australia does not
correspond to the engineering definitions of wrought and cast iron.
Cast iron is a product of a blast furnace with a high carbon content (see Table 1) useful
only in compression. Since it has almost no ductility in tension, its use is confined to
compression situations, i.e. bridge columns, compression side of beams, and tunnel
liners. The cast iron discussed in this note should not be confused with the modern
spheroidal graphite iron that has good tensile properties but poor weldability.
The cast iron covered here is the type often described as "Grey Cast Iron".
Wrought iron, as we shall consider it, was produced by "puddling" pig iron on contact with
mill scale (iron oxide) and is similar to a low carbon low strength mild steel containing slag
inclusions that reduce its properties in the through thickness or "Z" direction. Beams of
riveted construction often had cast iron in the compression flange and wrought iron
elsewhere. Beams of this type have been seen in the central city tunnels.
Wrought iron is quite easily welded if the provisions described below are observed, but
grey cast iron is quite a different proposition and may be either very difficult or impossible
to weld.
It is therefore very important to identify the materials involved before any repair work is
undertaken.

Table C1
Iron based structural materials - Typical properties
Cast iron Wrought iron Mild steel Structural Steel
Carbon 3.5% 0.1% 0.1 to 0.3% 0.18%

Silicon 1.9% 0.2% 0.3% 0.2%
Sulphur 0.1% 0.1% 0.06% 0.02%
Phosphorous 1.0% 0.1% 0.06% 0.25
Manganese 0.7% 0.4% 0.4% 1.0%
Slag 0 1% 0 0
250 Mpa
Yield Stress - 215 MPa 250 Mpa
(Specified Min)
410 Mpa
Tensile Stress 120 MPa 354 MPa 460 MPa
(Specified Min)
22%
Elongation - 30% 20%
(Specified Min)
C3. Welding wrought iron
Since the carbon and sulphur contents of wrought iron are low, it presents no weldability
problems in terms of hot or cold cracking, but the presence of slag stringers aligned with
the forging direction presents the only problems. Firstly, whilst butt welds in the X and Y
directions are quite feasible, welds on the surface Z direction are not recommended if
significant load is to be transmitted as a lamellar tearing type of fracture is likely to occur.
Welding by the MMAW method is usually recommended using Basic Low Hydrogen
electrodes. Not that hydrogen is a concern, but the basic flux is better able to
accommodate the slag absorbed into the weld pool. Neither preheat nor post heat is
required. Welding procedures and preparations are similar to those used for structural
steel but it is recommended that welding speeds be reduced to 5066% of those used for
steel to allow time for slag removal from the weld pool.
Welding procedures and operators should be qualified where possible along the lines of
qualification to AS 1544 Pt 1. If wrought iron of suitable section is not available,
qualification may be done using Grade 250 structural plate.
Where distortion due to welding is undesirable, then the welding procedure may be
combined with a peening procedure to eliminate distortion. See WTIA TN11 for details of
this procedure.
In cases where it is necessary to make a connection to the surface of a wrought iron

member then consideration should be given to replacing a length of the wrought iron by
structural steel attached by butt welds to wrought iron or by using a bolting technique.
C4. Mild steel
Mild steel was first produced in the late 1800's as a cheaper substitute for wrought iron
that was rather expensive and variable in properties. The differences between wrought
iron, mild steel and the current structural steels can be seen in Table 1. The important

things to note are the higher carbon content, relatively high sulphur and phosphorous
contents and the low manganese content.
Wrought iron is readily forge or blacksmith welded, but mild steel does not lend itself to
these welding processes and the introduction of mild steel led to a great increase in
riveting and the extinction of forge welding.
Fusion welding of mild steel faces two problems. Firstly, the higher carbon content, which
increases the hardenability of the material and requires higher levels of preheat and arc
energy to prevent excessive hardening in the HAZ which can be dealt with; but more
importantly the tendency towards hot cracking in the HAZ arising from the low manganese
to sulphur ratio. (Compare the values in Table 1 for Mild Steel and Structural Steel.) Whilst
some compensation for this problem is possible by adjusting the welding procedure, the
fusion welding of some mild steels is impracticable. An additional factor is that mild steels
are frequently segregated, that is, contain bands of high carbon/sulphur content and these
areas are likely to cause welding problems.
Whether a particular piece of steel is likely to be difficult to weld depends very much upon
the raw materials used in steelmaking and is therefore at the current time very much an
unknown. The safest course is to either avoid welding or to extract a small sample of
material for chemical analysis and metallographic examination as will be described later.
As with wrought iron and structural steel, both the welder and welding procedure should
be qualified prior to commencement of work. Again the qualification procedure described
in AS 1554 Pt 1 should be followed. Since the mild steels are the most difficult of the three
materials being discussed, welder qualification on a mild steel should be accepted as
qualification for procedures within the limits allowed by AS 1554 for wrought iron and
structural steel.
C5. Welding procedures for mild steel
Irrespective of the results of chemical analysis, mild steels should be regarded as being at
least Weldability Group Number 5 since the sample removed for analysis and the modern
analytical methods test only a small area and may not detect segregated areas.
To minimise the risk of HAZ hot cracking, weld beads should be kept small and if
necessary buttering techniques should be used to reduce the residual stress from welding
and the chance of cracking. Low hydrogen basic consumables must be used to counteract
the deleterious effects of sulphur and phosphorous into the weld metal.
For those reasons, MMAW basic low hydrogen is the only welding process really suitable
for welding these materials. Other welding methods have either too large a HAZ and hot
cracking risk, or low tolerance to sulphur and phosphorous absorption to yield satisfactory
results.
C6. Structural steel
Structural steel was developed to overcome the shortcomings of mild steel, i.e. cold
cracking, hot cracking, brittle fracture and lamellar tearing. Whilst these matters are too
extensive to describe here, the structural steels are characterised by low carbon, sulphur
and phosphorous contents, low inclusion contents and small grain size and, in Australian
made steels, correspond to AS 1204 and AS 3678. Such steels are intended for welding
and avoid the problems of cold and hot cracking and, in Australian made steels, the
possibility of lamellar tearing.

The procedures for welding such steels are fully described in AS 1554 and the welder and
procedure requirements of this standard should be observed fully. Welding consumables
should as far as possible conform to the prequalified consumables listed in Table 4.5.1(A)
of AS 1554 and in repair situations it will generally be found that adherence to the
prequalified preparations of Table 4.4(A) will provide the optimum solution.
C7. Weld quality
The quality of the completed weld should be confirmed by visual and non destructive
testing. Welds in major members should comply with AS 1554 Pt 5 Section 6 and welds in
secondary members to AS 1554 Pt 1 Section 6.
C8. Quality of repairs
Generally, only visual, magnetic particle and ultrasonic examination will be feasible on
bridge repairs, but radiographic testing should be used in place of ultrasonic testing where
geometry permits and on qualification tests.
C9. Recording of repairs carried out
A record should be made of each repair carried out and should include at least the
following information:
Bridge identification
Nature of damage
Location and date of samples removed for material identification
Metallurgical report number and date.
Detailed description of defect with photograph if possible.
Selected repair method.
Welding procedures together with a copy of WPS and WPQ.
Welders used together with qualifications and date.
Material used, i.e. plate numbers and consumable batch numbers.
Repair date.
Visual and NDT test reports.
Photograph of completed repair (if possible)
Materials used plates etc, welding consumables, paint and manhours.
Time and date bridge returned to normal service.
Such records should be kept by the Corridor Manager or nominated representative
C10. Material Identification
As discussed above, it is essential before embarking upon any form of welding repair to
determine the nature of the materials involved. This can be done from existing records of
construction, although care is necessary if previous repairs have been carried out on the
bridge; from material identification marks on rolled sections that often give the name of the
steelmaker and material standard; and by metallurgical examination of the steels involved.
Removal of a sample for examination should be done for each piece of plate or section
involved in the welded repair, preferably in a location where rewelding is not required, and
simply grinding smooth the area of material removed is acceptable. Typically notching a
V-shaped section from the edge of a plate or section approximately 15 mm wide, half-
plate thickness and 20 mm long will suffice. Removal is best done by hand using a
hacksaw as power grinders often overheat a small sample. An alternative method that is
quicker and better is to take a core sample using a trepanning cutter. The sample should

be min 15mm diameter. Samples should be sealed in an envelope clearly marked with
bridge identification and sample location and sent to a laboratory for metallographic
examination and chemical analysis for carbon, manganese, silicon, aluminium, sulphur
and phosphorus contents.
Occasionally it may be impossible to remove a sample for the above testing by a simple
sawing method. In such cases the use of a "Boat Sample" removal apparatus can be
considered, or the use of in situ metallography. In the latter case the metal surface is
prepared without metal removal to permit microscopic examination on site or after the
removal of a surface replica.
Unfortunately, the current methods of in situ chemical analysis, spectrographic and X-ray
diffraction, are not suitable for some of the elements of interest and it may be necessary to
remove drillings for chemical analysis. In this case care must, of course, be taken to
ensure that the drillings removed are not contaminated with paint, oil or other drilling
lubricant. Sample drillings should be sealed in an envelope marked with bridge
identification and sample location.
Usually about 30gm of drillings will be required for chemical analysis and this represents a
8 mm dia hole of about 8-10 mm in depth that will provide the necessary sample and will
not require welding repair.
C11. Identification of Wrought Iron
Identification of wrought iron bridges is very important, so that over estimation of rated
capacity and remaining fatigue life does not occur, because they are assumed to be steel.
This has been a common mistake. In one case, the same underbridge was assessed on
4 different occasions by 3 different groups and all assumed the underbridge to be steel,
when it was actually wrought iron.
Steel structures which have some wrought iron components are particularly difficult to
identify. Drawing prints for the Murwillumbah Line trusses at Lismore, Woodlawn, Eltham,
Booyong and Stokers Siding state that the trusses are steel with wrought iron components
coloured blue (approach plate web deck spans are wrought iron) but as the original
drawings are not available, the wrought iron components of the truss can not be identified
from the drawings.
Office Identification of Wrought Iron
Historical Records
Office identification of wrought iron should be based on historical documents recording the
construction date of the bridge. Advice may be sought from the Structures Officer or the
Structures Examiner, particularly if a dated plaque is on the bridge.
Note: Do not rely on the date on drawings unless you have additional confirmation. Two
underbridges were assessed as steel because of the date on the drawing. The drawing
had i n smal lprint TAKEN FROM FI ELD MEASUREMENTS and the si gnatureswer e
copies. The drawing had been prepared from field measurements as the original drawing
was lost. It had been assumed that the underbridges had been constructed at the time of
electrification, which coincided with the drawing date, instead of the date of construction of
the line.
Design Details
Design details are another indicator that a bridge may be from the wrought iron era. It
must be emphasised that these details can exist in either steel or wrought iron bridges,

but they at least indicate further assessment needs to be made. The design details are as
follows:
i. Flat bar tension members, particularly if they are diagonal tension members.
ii. Tie rods with turnbuckles for tensioning and pin connections used for wind
bracing and/or diagonal tension members.
iii. Wind bracing or sway bracing which includes:
iv. Flat bar members
v. Connections to girders made by forge bending and/or forge welding of bracing
members instead of using gusset plates.
vi. Connection of wind bracing to the centre of web (ie mid-depth) and/or away from
stiffeners.
vii. Angles which have chamfered edges on both sides of the toes (steel angles are
rounded on the inside face and square on the outside).
viii. Expansion bearing of simple plate on plate design instead roller bearings for
spans above 20 metres long.
ix. Rivets with flattened or cone shaped heads instead of round heads.
Field Identification of Wrought Iron
Test Samples
The most positive method of field identification is to obtain core or other samples for
metallurgical assessment by preparing macros or micrographs as detailed above, to
determine if laminations exist. For an as constructed underbridge one sample may be
sufficient. For most underbridges over 100 years old there is usually strengthening and/or
repairs which have added steel plates and sections. In this case, a number of samples
will be required.
Magnetic Particle Testing of Edges
Taking and testing samples is a costly and time consuming process. A simpler method
has been field trialed on a number of underbridges of both wrought iron and steel. This
method involves filing or grinding an edge, then magnetic particle testing the edge to see
if laminations can be seen which indicate wrought iron. Care has to be taken as early
steel may have stringer inclusions that look like laminations. Some problems were found
with early steels during the field trials, but removing more metal by filing usually gave a
more definite result (figs C.2 to C.5).




C12. Welding process
Increasing temperature and welding on a member under stress can result in collapse of
the structure or excessive distortion of a member. AS 1554 in Par 5.7.2 indicates that
such welding is not permitted unless the question is discussed with the relevant
authorities and safety precautions are taken. AWS D1.1 is a little more specific in Par
11.5.2 that sets a limit of 20.7 MPA on members to be repaired. It will therefore be
necessary to unload the area to be repaired by the use of appropriate falsework before
welding repairs are undertaken in most circumstances.
It is important that all involved with bridge repair be made aware that, whilst welding offers
a quick and convenient joining method, unless used very carefully, it can seriously reduce
the safety of a structure such as a rail bridge by increasing the danger of fatigue cracking,
brittle fracture, and in some cases lamellar tearing.
Compared with bolting or riveting, welding carries with it a number of problems. Firstly in
a bolted or riveted structure, the failure of a single member by brittle fracture or fatigue
failure is often confined to that member, but in a welded structure the failure will often
propagate through the weld to the next member. This was the cause of the numerous
sinkings of welded ships during and after World War II when welding was first widely used
in ship construction.
Secondly, in fusion welding a region of the HAZ adjacent to the weld is always overheated
and in metallurgical terminology "burnt". This burnt region is an incipient crack and is
usually regarded as a continuous crack 0.2 mm deep for fracture mechanic calculations.
It is therefore clear that replacing riveting or bolting by welding results in a structure very
much weaker in fatigue unless the burnt region at the weld toe is ground out. For
example, AS 4100 gives a bolted flange a rating of 140 MPA whilst a welded flange of
similar design is rated 63 MPA.
Thirdly, welding used in a repair situation produces both distortion and areas of high
tensile residual stress that can seriously reduce the fatigue resistance of a structure. It is
almost always futile to simply weld up a fatigue crack or even to use a short doubling plate
over the cracked area since rapid recurrence of cracking is inevitable.
Finally, it must always be borne in mind that the bridges of concern were built before the
advent of fusion welding and their materials of construction are often not readily amenable
to this welding method.
C12.1 Weld Surface Condition
Where fatigue cracking is a problem and in some circumstances where brittle

fracture could occur, the weld surface profile has a considerable effect on the
service life of the joint. For the purpose of this manual we shall simplify the range
of surface conditions as follows:
a) As welded
b) weld toe ground
c) weld surface fully ground.
There are other weld surface treatments that offer even greater improvements in
performance than b) or c) above but these are probably not required for bridge
repairs and will not be discussed further.
C12.2 Weld Toe Grinding

As described above any fusion weld in steel or wrought iron contains a virtual
crack the full length of the weld toe of around 0.2 mm in depth and the removal of
this zone by disk grinding or better still by use of a tungsten carbide burr in a
pneumatic pencil grinder will increase the allowable fatigue stress by around
40%. The depth of grinding must be at least 0.5 mm but should not result in the
loss of more than 10% of plate thickness.
This procedure requires around 1 man hour/m and is strongly recommended for
all repairs on lower flanges. A similar result at lower cost can be achieved by
disk grinding but this requires rather more skill on the part of the operator and it
may be difficult to achieve a satisfactory result in a bridge repair situation.
C12.3 Full Weld Surface Grinding
Complete grinding of the weld surface and toe will yield an improvement of about
50% in fatigue performance whilst polishing of the weld surface by burr grinding
yields about 80% improvement, but these are expensive and time consuming
processes not generally justified on bridges.
The desirable level of weld surface depends naturally upon the stress situation at
the repair location. As guidance it is proposed that if Design Branch has not
specified other requirements the following be used:
a) Transverse welds on lower flange. Weld toe ground as above. Other

criteria as per Table 6.1 in AS 1544 Pt 5.
b) Longitudinal welds on lower flange and other welds below _ web height as
per Table 6.1 of As 1554 Pt 5.
c) Other welds as per Table 6.2 of AS 1554 Pt 1.
Where NDT is carried out, the requirements for cases a) and b) shall be Table
6.2 in AS 1554 Pt 5 and in case c) Table 6.3 in AS 1554 Pt 1.
C12.4 Weld Processes and Consumables
Usually repair welds are best carried out using the Manual Metal Arc process
since this offers a good combination of flexibility and weld metal properties.
However, where extensive welding is required the advantages of higher
productivity offered by the continuous wire welding processes should be
considered.
The continuous wire processes are either flux or gas shielded or self shielded
cored wire.
Flux shielding, i.e. submerged arc welding, is generally only used in the
downhand and horizontal/vertical positions, although with special equipment it
can be used in the horizontal position. Gas shielded processes, i.e. MIG, GMA
and TIG are usually difficult to us in a field repair situation because it is
necessary to provide a shelter to prevent the wind upsetting the gas shield.
The self shielded cored wire process is very much more suited to a field repair
situation since it is largely immune to the effects of wind and offers excellent
productivity and surface profile. Acceptable consumables should meet the
requirements of AS 2203.1 W40 or W50 grades.
Manual metal arc electrodes should be of the basic low hydrogen type to provide

the required resistance to HAZ hydrogen cracking in steels of low weldability,

good weld metal notch toughness and tolerance to the slag stringer pick up when
welding wrought iron. In a repair situation it is best to choose electrodes with 1)
low yield strength, 2) good weld metal toughness, 3) smooth running
characteristics, and 4) that are supplied in a moisture proof package.
Specific electrodes from different local manufacturers that can be recommended

are Cigweld Ferrocraft 61 LT (for reason 1), WIA Austarc 16TC (for reason 3) or
Lincoln Jetweld LH-70 (for reasons 2 and 4). It is usually better to use the
electrodes familiar to the welder rather than retrain a welder to use an unfamiliar
consumable type. Electrodes should only be used if in good condition, i.e. no
core wire rusting coating, flaking or laitance and after baking in accordance with
the maker's recommendations or those given in WTIA Tn 3.
C12.5 Minimum Weld Size
It is important to ensure that the weld size deposited is not less than the values
given in AS 1554 Pt 1 Table 3.3.5. During welding it is as well to check that the
welding current and travel speed are in accordance with the approved welding
procedure. Welding current is best measured by a clamp meter since the meters
on welding equipment are seldom reliable. Failing this, the measured size of a
fillet weld will usually allow a good estimate of the welding conditions used. See
WTIA Tn 1 Fig 7.

Appendix D
Techniques for removing
rivets using oxy-fuel
equipment

Procedure for rivet removal
Option A
Using oxy-acetylene or LPG (LPG preferred option).
For plate thickness combinations of 0mm to 40mm.
1. Adjust torch to a neutral flame, using a large gouger.

48 GB Type 44 or 41
64 GB Type 44 or 41
2. Heat head of rivet to required temperature (melting point), ensuring no heat
application to adjacent members.
3. Carefully flush the rivet head ensuring no gouging to the adjacent member.
4. Remove slag using a chipping hammer or chisel.
5 Using an appropriate sized punch attempt to knock out the rivet.
6 If rivet is keyed in and fails to move flush opposite head (tail) in accordance with
steps (1) and (2).
7 Heat rivet from one side, using a cutting tip pierce through rivet. if applicable drill
a small hole through rivet prior to piercing.
8 Remove slag then punch out rivet.
9 If rivet remains keyed in, enlarge pierced hole leaving approximately 3mm of rivet
shank. This will ensure scarring of the adjacent member is avoided.
10 Punch out remainder of rivet.
For plate thickness combinations of 40mm and greater
It will be necessary to simultaneously heat the rivet from both sides prior to piercing. From
one side in the first instance, or both sides if later necessary.
Note: If scarring occurs then reaming in accordance with Clause 5.2.2 of this Manual will
be necessary before fitting bolts.
Option B
All of the foregoing where applicable except drilling to be used in lieu of piercing.


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Engineering Practices Manual

Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Australian Rail Track Corporation

Part 1 General ................................................................................................................. 8

2. Selecting repair actions ....................................................................................... 11

3. Health and Safety ................................................................................................. 18

Part 2 Steel Repairs ....................................................................................................... 23

4. Introduction to standard steel repairs ................................................................ 24

Issue A Australian Rail Track Corporation

4.8. References ............................................................................................................. 25

6. Repairing corroded flanges and webs of girders............................................ 35

7. Repairing stiffeners, bracing connections and bearings .................................. 51

8. Repairing fatigue damage.................................................................................... 74

9. Repairing impact damage .................................................................................... 78

10. Repairing stepways and footways structures .................................................... 87

11. Complete replacement of members .................................................................. 102

Issue A Australian Rail Track Corporation

11.1. Replacing members or elements of riveted members ........................................... 102

12. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 105

13. Deterioration of concrete ................................................................................... 105

14. Types of defects ................................................................................................. 113

15. Assessment of deterioration ............................................................................. 120

16. Repair materials.................................................................................................. 123

17. Repair options .................................................................................................... 139

18. Introduction to concrete repair procedures ..................................................... 140

Issue A Australian Rail Track Corporation

18.2. Repair methods .................................................................................................... 140

19. Sub-procedures .................................................................................................. 141

20. Repairing cracks................................................................................................. 151

21. Patch repairs....................................................................................................... 163

22. Recasting with concrete .................................................................................... 165

Issue A Australian Rail Track Corporation

22.4. Replacing bearing pads ........................................................................................ 169

23. Repairs for corrosion ......................................................................................... 170

24. Sprayed concrete ............................................................................................... 170

25. Protective coatings ............................................................................................ 172

26. References .......................................................................................................... 175

27. Introduction to masonry repairs........................................................................ 179

28. Deterioration of Masonry ................................................................................... 179

29. Types of defects ................................................................................................. 182

30. Assessment of deterioration ............................................................................. 183

31. Repair materials.................................................................................................. 185

32. Methods of repair ............................................................................................... 186

Issue A Australian Rail Track Corporation

32.6. Impact damage..................................................................................................... 191

Appendix A Repair materials ...................................................................................... 193

Appendix C Guidelines for welding old steels .......................................................... 231

Issue A Australian Rail Track Corporation

Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Australian Rail Track Corporation

1.1. The purpose of this manual

Several advantages result from standardising repair procedures:

The standard repair procedures included have been developed to be both

Repairs will be undertaken in a consistent fashion throughout ARTC, whether

The engineering input into detailing sound repairs is minimised and

Relevant engineering information about the repair procedures is included in

1.2. Nature of the repair procedure

1.3. Who should use this manual?

This manual should be used by those responsible for:

selecting repair actions for bridges;

implementing repairs either using day labour or under contract;

inspecting repair work carried out by either day labour or

Issue A Australian Rail Track Corporation