Coatings Manual PDF

COATINGS MANUAL
CHEVRON RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY COMPANY

RICHMOND, CA
December 1998
Manual sponsor: For information or help regarding this manual,

contact R.A. (Rich) Doyle, (510) 242-3247
Printing History
Coatings Manual
First Edition October 1988
First Revision December 1990
Second Revision February 1992
Third Revision August 1992
Fourth Revision January 1995
Second Edition September 1996
First Revision December 1998
Restricted Material
Technical Memorandum
This material is transmitted subject to the Export Control Laws of the

United States Department of Commerce for technical data. Furthermore,
you hereby assure us that the material transmitted herewith shall not be
exported or re-exported by you in violation of these export controls.
The information in this Manual has been jointly developed by Chevron Corporation and its Operating
Companies. The Manual has been written to assist Chevron personnel in their work; as such, it may be
interpreted and used as seen fit by operating management.
Copyright 1988, 1990, 1992, 1995, 1996, 1998 CHEVRON CORPORATION. All rights reserved. This
document contains proprietary information for use by Chevron Corporation, its subsidiaries, and affili-
ates. All other uses require written permission.
December 1998 Chevron Corporation

List of Current Pages
Coatings Manual
The following list shows publication or revision dates for the contents of this manual. To verify that your
manual contains current material, check the sections in question with the list below. If your copy is not
current, contact the Technical Standards Team, Chevron Research and Technology Company, Richmond,
CA (510) 242-7241.
Section Date
50 September 1996
100 November 1998
200 September 1996
300 September 1996
400 September 1996
500 September 1996
600 September 1996
700 September 1996
800 September 1996
900 September 1996
Quick Reference November 1998
Appendix A None Given
Appendix B January 1995
Index September 1996
2000 September 1996
COM-MS-4042 January 1996
List of Drawings See the list in the Standard Drawings and
Forms section of this manual. Current revi-
sion dates are shown for Forms. Current
revision numbers are shown for Standard
Drawings.
Chevron Corporation December 1998

(This page reserved for future use.)

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Coatings Manual
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Coatings Manual
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Please use this form to suggest changes; notify us of errors or inaccuracies; provide information that
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Coatings
Manual Sponsor: R.A. (Rich) Doyle / Phone: (510) 242-3247 / E-mail: rdoy@chevron.com
This document contains extensive hyperlinks to figures and cross-referenced sections.
The pointer will change to a pointing finger when positioned over text which contains a link.
List of Current Pages
50 Using this Manual 50-1
100 General Information 100-1
200 Environment, Health & Safety 200-1
300 Coatings Selection 300-1
400 Surface Preparation 400-1
500 Application 500-1
600 Coating Concrete 600-1
700 Downhole Tubular Coatings & Linings 700-1
800 Offshore Coatings 800-1
900 Pipeline Coatings 900-1
Quick Reference Guide QR-1
Appendices
Appendix A Conversion Charts
Appendix B Color Chips

50 Using this Manual
Abstract
In this manual, you will find procedures for coating steel and other metal
substrates. Additionally, there are individual sections for those surfaces and logis-
tics requiring special consideration: concrete, downhole tubulars, offshore, and pipe-
line coatings.
This section offers broad, general information: the reasons for coatings, the compo-
nents of a coating and coatings systems, a successful coatings program, and the
structure of this manual.
Contents Page
51 Scope and Application

52 Organization
60 Reasons for Coating 50-3
61 External Coatings
62 Under Thermal Insulation and Fireproofing
63 Internal Coatings
70 Components of Coatings and Coating Systems 50-5
71 Components of Coatings
72 Coating Systems
80 The Successful Coating Program 50-7
90 References 50-7
Chevron Corporation 50-1 September 1996

50 Using this Manual Coatings Manual
51 Scope and Application

The Coatings Manual is intended:
For Company personnel who are responsible for selecting, applying, or
inspecting coatings
For both entry-level personnel and non-specialists regardless of experience
As a source of practical, useful information based on the Company's
experiences
Your input and experience are important for improving subsequent revisions and
keeping this manual up-to-date; therefore, we have included a form in the front of
the manual to facilitate your suggesting changes.
Note Do not use this manual as a substitute for sound engineering judgment.
52 Organization
The colored tabs in the manual will help you find information quickly. In summary:
White tabs are for table of contents, introduction, appendices, index, and general
purpose topics.
Blue tabs denote Engineering Guidelines.
Gray tabs are used for Specifications and related forms.
Red tab marks a place for you to keep coatings documents that are developed at
your facility.
Engineering Guidelines
The Engineering Guidelines cover:
An overview of coatings
General information about selecting coatings; preparing surfaces; and
applying, inspecting, and maintaining coatings
Specific information about surfaces and logistics that require special
considerationconcrete, downhole tubulars, offshore, and pipelines
Specifications
The specifications include:
A Quick Reference Guide (for selecting coating systems; coatings system data
sheets; list of acceptable brands; and Coating Compatibility Chart)
The Company's specifications in commented form
Standard Forms
September 1996 50-2 Chevron Corporation

Coatings Manual 50 Using this Manual
Other Company Manuals

Within this manual, there are references to documents in other Company manuals
(example: COM-MS-4738 in this manual). These documents carry the prefix of the
particular manual.
These prefixes are as follows:
Prefixes Company Manuals
CIV Civil and Structural
CMP Compressor
COM Coatings
CPM Corrosion Prevention
DRI Driver
ELC Electrical
EXH Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower
FFM Fluid Flow
FPM Fire Protection
HTR Fired Heater and Waste Heat Recovery
ICM Instrumentation and Control
IRM Insulation and Refractory
MAC Machinery Support Systems
NCM Noise Control
PIM Piping
PMP Pump
PPL Pipeline
PVM Pressure Vessel
TAM Tank
UTL Utilities
WEM Welding
60 Reasons for Coating

The Company coats structures and equipment for several reasons. Many of these
reasons are discussed below.
61 External Coatings
External coatings are generally for aesthetics, corrosion prevention, evaporation
reduction, and safety.

Aesthetics
Coatings improve the appearance of objects, which contributes to good employee
morale, advertising, neighborhood relations, and civic pride.
Corrosion Protection
Atmospheric corrosion is a significant problem in humid, warm, coastal locations;
in chemical and fertilizer plants; and on offshore structures.
Regardless of the geographical location, coating is essential for protection against
corrosion in most plant areas.
Evaporation Reduction
Painted in light colors, the roofs of storage tanks reflect rather than absorb the sun's
energy thus reducing evaporative loss of the stored material.
Safety
Special coatings mark fire equipment, traffic lanes, and piping that carries
hazardous materials.
62 Under Thermal Insulation and Fireproofing

A properly designed coating system, applied to the substrate under thermal insula-
tion and fireproofing systems, gives the best long-term protection against chloride
stress-corrosion cracking (CSCC) of stainless steel and reduces corrosion of carbon
steel.
CSCC and increased corrosion occur:
When moisture permeates the insulation or fireproofing system and condenses
against the substrate, creating a condition similar to immersion service
Because steel operating temperatures affect the corrosivity of water
As long as the temperature of the water remains below its boiling point: the
hotter the steel, the hotter the water, the higher the rate of corrosivity
When moisture leaches soluble salts that contain chloride or sulfide ions
Again, the hotter the solution, the greater the effect.
Because they develop under insulation and fireproofing, these conditions are very
hard to detect. Maintenance and inspection are very difficult and usually require
removing the insulation or fireproofing. Often the first indication of a problem is an
equipment failure.
For guidance on choosing coatings, refer to Coatings Under Insulation and Fire-
proofing in the System Number Selection Guide (part of the Quick Reference
Guide).

63 Internal Coatings
Internal coatings can maintain product purity, reduce stockside and underside corro-
sion, and affect potable water.
Product Purity
Even at low corrosion rates, some corrosion occurs. An internal coating may be
necessary to prevent the products of corrosionsuch as iron oxide (rust) or scales
from contaminating the stock and causing problems.
Stockside Corrosion
Internal coatings extend the life of the tank or vessel and reduce the chance of
leaks, especially in storage tank bottoms. The water layer which settles out in the
bottom of the tank causes most of the tank bottom internal corrosion.[1]
Underside Corrosion
For tanks, the corrosion rate of the underside depends mainly on soil composition
and moisture content. Based on experience, you can predict when underside corro-
sion may be a problem.[1]
Potable Water
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulates coatings for lining potable water
tanks.
70 Components of Coatings and Coating Systems
71 Components of Coatings
A coating consists of a pigment, a vehicle (binder plus solvent), and additives.
Pigments give color and protective properties to the paint.
The vehicle provides curing to form a continuous film and adhesion to the
substrate. The vehicle is made of the binder (which forms the film) and the solvent
(which dissolves the binder and adjusts viscosity to improve application). The
solvent also partly controls drying rate.
Additives are drying and wetting agents, ultraviolet screening agents, etc.
Methods of Film Formation

Understanding how binders work is critical when choosing a coating system. For
most coatings, film forms in one of several ways.
Thermoplastic. The solid resin, melted for application, resolidifies when it cools.
Example: Tar in roof coatings.

Solvent Evaporation. The coating dries as the solvent evaporates (or dries at lower
temperatures than those which involve a chemical reaction). If re-exposed to the
same solvent, the coating can redissolve.
Example: Vinyls, chlorinated rubbers and lacquers.
Oxidation. Coatings composed of drying oils cure by reacting with air. Oxygen
cross links the resin molecules into a solid gel.
Example: Alkyds.
Cross Link. Dual-component products cross link at room temperature, either with
or without a catalyst.
Example: Epoxies (two polymers react, no catalyst), polyesters (catalyzed) and
urethanes (catalyzed).
Heat Cure. Heat causes direct cross-linking between filmformer molecules, or acti-
vates a catalyst to cause cross-linking. Normally, these coatings are shop-applied
only, because of the special heating requirements.
Example: Baked phenolic linings.
Emulsion. When the water evaporates from an emulsion of resin particles and
water, the resin particles coalesce to form a film.
Example: Latex acrylics.
72 Coating Systems
A coating system refers to the layers that make a complete coating: primer, tiecoat
or intermediate coat, and topcoat.
Primer Coats
Primer coats adhere well to the substrate and inhibit corrosion and undercutting at
defects, such as pin holes or holidays (breaks) in the film.
Note that holidays are pinholes or thin spots which either develop during applica-
tion or nicks and scrapes which occur later. Corrosion will start at these spots.
Primer coats also bond well to the intercoat, tolerate variations in application condi-
tions and handling, and resist weathering (helpful because delays may occur
between priming and topcoating).
Tiecoats
Tiecoats (or intermediate coats) build film thickness, bond the primer to the topcoat,
and protect substrate and primer from aggressive chemicals in the environment.
Topcoats
Topcoats protect the substrate and undercoats from the environment, provide chem-
ical resistance, enhance the surface appearance, and provide non-skid and other
properties.

Some coatings are incompatible. Before choosing coatings to apply over previously
coated surfaces, see the Coating Compatibility Chart in the Quick Reference Guide.
80 The Successful Coating Program

The successful coating program has four elements:
Selection
Surface preparation
Application
Quality control (inspection and on-going maintenance)
Each of these elements is described in more detail in this manual.
90 References
1. Chevron Corporation. Corrosion Prevention Manual, Corrosion of Storage
Tank Bottoms, Chevron Research and Technology Company. Richmond, CA:
January, 1994.

100 General Information
Abstract
Among the general information in this section is a description of the coatings and
coating systems, which includes the advantages, disadvantages, and uses. Coatings
are also described in the individual sections for special surfaces such as: concrete,
downhole tubulars, and pipelines.
Note This manual does not contain information about coatings for architectural
surfaces.
Quality control is essential for any project. Among the key elements of quality
control for coatings are inspections, monitoring progress, and protecting the
Companys equipment. For assistance with specific questions about coatings, see the
listing of the Companys specialists and coating manufacturers in the Quick Refer-
ence Guide.
Contents Page
110 Coating Descriptions (A-E) 100-3

111 Acrylics
112 Alkyds
113 Epoxies
114 Elastomers
120 Coatings Descriptions (PZ) 100-13
121 Phenolics
122 Polyesters
123 Polyurethanes
124 Silicones
125 Vinyls
126 Zinc-rich Coatings
130 Petroleum-based Tapes 100-21
140 Water-based Coatings 100-21
150 Coating Systems for Immersion Service 100-22
Chevron Corporation 100-1 November 1998

100 General Information Coatings Manual
151 Non-reinforced Thin-film Coatings

152 Glass-flake-reinforced Coatings
153 Laminate-reinforced Coatings
160 Quality Control 100-27
162 Inspection Programs
163 Inspectors
164 Monitoring Progress
165 General Inspection Procedures
166 Specific Inspection Procedures
167 Instruments, Tools, and Equipment
168 Protecting the Companys Equipment
170 References 100-46
November 1998 100-2 Chevron Corporation

Coatings Manual 100 General Information
110 Coating Descriptions (A-E)

The following coatings are described in this section:
Acrylics
Alkyds
Epoxies
Elastomers
For details about each type of coating, read the following descriptions. See also
Figure 100-1, Summary of Properties in Coatings.
111 Acrylics
Acrylic ester resins are polymers and co-polymers of the esters of acrylic and meth-
acrylic acids. As thermoplastics, they soften at high temperatures.
Advantages:
Good moisture and mild chemical resistance
Either fast-drying solvent evaporation or coalescence
Disadvantages:
Poor resistance to aromatic solvents
Uses:
Solvent acrylic: truck and machinery finishes
Latex emulsions: stucco, wood, and masonry
By Company: as architectural coatings
112 Alkyds
Alkyd resins are basically modified polyesters. An alkyd is the reaction product of a
polyhydric alcohol and a polybasic acid. A common alkyd resin uses glycerol as the
alcohol and phthalic acid as the polybasic acid.
Oxidation in the air cures alkyd coating resins. Adding drying oils to pure alkyd
modifies the alkyd into alkyd coating resins.
These resins are classified by oil length (long, medium, and short). The alkyd resin
without oil modification is hard and brittle. As the oil length increases (more oil
added), the film becomes softer and more flexible.
Advantages:
Perform well in moderate environments
Easy-to-handle, single-component coatings
Inexpensive
Fair-to-good performance in most of the Company's environments

Fig. 100-1 Summary of Properties in Coatings (1 of 2)

1. Atmosphere
Wet
2. Splash/Spillage
Effect of Atmo-
Coatings Type of Cure Sunlight sphere Acid Alkali Oxidizing Solvent
Acrylic Solvent Chalk Good 1. Good 1. Good 1. Good 1. Fair

Evaporation Resistant 2. Poor- Fair 2. Poor-Fair 2. Poor-Fair 2. N/R
Alkyd Oxidation Slow Poor-Good 1. Fair- Poor 1. Poor 1. Fair 1. Fair

Chalk Yellows 2. N/R 2. N/R 2. N/R 2. N/R
Amine-cured & Cross Linked Chalks Excellent 1. Good 1. Excellent 1. Limited 1. Excellent
Amine Adduct Yellow 2. Fair 2. Excellent 2. N/R 2. Excellent
Epoxy
Polyamide Cross Linked Chalks Excellent 1. N/R 1. N/R 1. N/R 1. N/R

Epoxy Yellow 2. Poor-Fair 2. Excellent 2. N/R 2. Very Good
Coal-tar Epoxy Cross Linked Chalks, N/R 1. Excellent 1. Excellent 1. Excellent 1. Poor
Polyamide Cracks 2. Good 2. Good 2. N/R 2. N/R
Chlorinated Solvent Evap. Slow Excellent 1. N/R 1. N/R 1. N/R 1. N/R

Rubber Chalk 2. Very Good 2. Very Good 2. Good 2. N/R
Epoxy Phenolic Cross Linked N/R N/R 1. N/R(1) 1. N/R(1) 1. N/R(1) 1. N/R(1)
(1) (1) (1)
2. Good 2. Very Good 2. N/R 2. Very Good(1)
Baked Phenolic Heat Cured N/R N/R 1. Good(1) 1. Good(1) N/R(1) 1. Poor(1)
(1)
2. Lid 2. N/R 2. Out-
Mineral standing(1)
Acids(1)
Moisture-cured Cross Linked Aromatic Very Good 1. Good 1. Good 1. Poor 1. Excellent
Urethane (II) Yellows; 2. Fair 2. Fair 2. N/R 2. Good
Aliphatic
Excellent
Silicone Heat Cured Excellent Very Good 1. Good 1. Good 1. Very 1. Fair
Cross Linked 2. Poor 2. Poor Good 2. Fair
2. Poor
Silicone Alkyd Oxidation Excellent Very Good 1. Good 1. Good 1. Good 1. Good
2. Poor 2. Fair 2. Poor 2. Good-Poor
Vinyl Solvent Evap. Slow Excellent 1. Excellent 1. Excellent 1. Excellent 1. Poor

Chalk 2. Very Good 2. Good 2. Good 2. N/R
Organic Cross Linked Chalk Excellent(2) 1. Topcoat 1. Topcoat 1. Topcoat 1. Excellent

Zinc-rich 2. N/R 2. N/R 2. N/R 2. Very Good
(2)
Post-cured Cross Linked None Excellent 1. Topcoat 1. Topcoat 1. Topcoat 1. Excellent
Inorganic Zinc 2. N/R 2. N/R 2. N/R 2. Excellent
(2)
Solvent-based Cross Linked None Excellent 1. Topcoat 1. Topcoat 1. Topcoat 1. Excellent
Self-cured 2. N/R 2. N/R 2. N/R 2. Excellent
Inorganic Zinc

Fig. 100-1 Summary of Properties in Coatings (2 of 2)

Physical Properties
Tank
Coatings Immersion Linings Abrasion Heat Hardness Gloss Range of Color
Acrylic N/R N/R Good Limited Good High to Semi Full
Alkyd N/R N/R Fair Fair Fair Chalks to Flat Full
Amine-cured & Very Good N/R Good Good Very hard Chalks to Flat Full
Amine Adduct
Epoxy
Polyamide Very Good Solvents Good Good Hard Chalks to Flat Full
Epoxy Water
Coal-tar Epoxy Excellent Water Limited Excellent Very Hard Flat Black, Red
Polyamide
Chlorinated Very Good Water Fair-Poor Poor Good Semi to Flat Wide
Rubber
Epoxy Phenolic Very Good Wide- Good Outstanding Very Hard High Dark
range
Solvent
Baked Phenolic 1. Excellent(1) Wide Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Clear Dark
2. Very Good Resis-
tance
Moisture-cured N/R N/R Excellent Good Excellent High Full

Urethane (II)
Silicone N/R N/R Good Excellent Good High Full
Silicone Alkyd N/R N/R Good Very Good Good High Full
Vinyl Very good Water Fair-Poor Poor Good Semi to Flat Wide
Organic Good(3) N/R Good Good Very Good Semi to Flat Some
Zinc-rich
Post-cured Good(3) Fuels Excellent Excellent Excellent Flat Earth Tones

Inorganic Zinc Solvent
Solvent-based Good(3) Fuels Excellent Excellent Very Good Flat Earth Tones
Self-cured Solvent
Inorganic Zinc
(1) As tank lining

(2) When top-coated
(3) With epoxy topcoat
Good service on large, flat surfaces

Example: Good service is exemplified by this coatings almost 20 years on
Hawaiian refinery tanks.
Disadvantages:
Long drying time
Not chemically resistant; unsuitable for highly corrosive areas such as chem-
ical and fertilizer plants or offshore structures
Unsatisfactory for water immersion

Not suited to highly alkaline surfaces such as fresh concrete, galvanized steel,
and inorganic zinc
Chalk in sunlight
Usually fail within a few years on piping and structural components
Not VOC-compliant
Uses:
In external primers and finish coatings
Long-oil Alkyds (60 to 70 Percent Oil)

Advantages:
Good flexibility and wetting properties
Disadvantages:
Very slow drying
Uses:
Over poorly prepared steel where the oil penetrates rust and develops adhesion
Medium-oil Alkyds (45 to 60 percent oil)

Advantages:
Hard, tough films
Dry faster, generally, than long-oil alkyds
Uses:
Finish coats
Note The Companys most popular choice of alkyd
Short-oil Alkyds (35 to 45 percent oil)

Uses:
Fast air drying and baking enamels for hardness and mar resistance
Note The Company uses very little of these.
113 Epoxies
The most common epoxy resins are formed by the reaction of epichlorhydrin and
bisphenol-A. This reaction can be controlled to produce resins ranging from liquids
of low-molecular weight to solids of high-molecular weight.

Complete curing gives epoxies their chemical and water resistance. Curing time
increases at temperatures below about 70F, essentially stopping below about 50F
unless it is a specially formulated low-temperature epoxy.
Epoxies have very good resistance to bases and many solvents. Epoxies have poor
acid resistance unless modified with a phenolic.
Advantages:
Resist water and chemicals, especially caustics, superbly
Resist weather well
Adhere well, particularly to concrete
Apply easily
Disadvantages:
Do not retain color and gloss as well as alkyds
Tend to chalk rapidly
Do not have good acid resistance
Need surfaces between layers of epoxy roughened by solvent or blasting when
applying multiple coats as many epoxies cure with a hard, slick surface
Need successive coats of epoxy applied as soon as possible to obtain satisfac-
tory adhesion between coats. Manufacturers normally recommend a maximum
time between coats.
Need long cure time. For epoxy linings at 70F, curing may take one week. In
the field, coatings applicators often accelerate the curing of an internal coating
with a low-temperature bake (100 to 150F).
Caution Do not put internal coatings into service until they are fully cured.
Uses:
Epoxy resins are the most popular resin for thin-film coatings on concrete.
There are six groups of epoxy coatings in this section: amine cured, amine adduct,
polyamide, coal tar, epoxy mastics, and epoxy novolac.
Amine-cured Epoxies
These coatings are epoxy resins cross-linked with one of several amine compounds.
Caution Because the amines can present a health hazard, apply them according to
manufacturers safety recommendations.
Amine Adduct Epoxies

Amine adducts are stable intermediate products resulting from the reaction of a
portion of the epoxy resin with an amine curing agent. The amine adduct, instead of
the amine, is added to the epoxy coating to cure it.

Advantages:
Same properties as liquid amines, but much less hazardous
Very good resistance to oils, solvents, and chemicals
Disadvantages:
Ultraviolet degradation causes rapid chalking
Uses:
Lining gasoline storage tanks, chemical tanks
Corrosion-resistant primer under polyurethane foam insulation
Polyamide Epoxies
Polyamide resins are produced from polyamines and fatty acids. Epoxy coatings for
atmospheric exposures are usually polyamides. Mastic coatings which adhere to wet
surfaces and which will cure under water are formulated with polyamide epoxies.
Advantages:
Good surface-wetting properties
Longer pot life, more flexibility and better water resistance than amine or
amine-adduct cured epoxies
Good resistance to alkalies, petroleum products, and salt water
Disadvantages:
Not quite as chemically resistant as amine adduct epoxies.
Uses:
Topcoats and tiecoats in severe exposures
Coal-tar Epoxies
As the name suggests these coatings are blends of epoxy resins and coal tar.
Note Coal tar is a suspected carcinogen but is tied up sufficiently in the polymer
so that manufacturers consider the cured film safe.
Coal-tar epoxies can be either polyamide- or amine-adduct cured. Usually applied in
two heavy coats of eight mils each, these coatings are normally self-priming.
Advantages:
Outstanding for water-immersion service
Disadvantages:
Chalk rapidly and fail in (ultraviolet) sunlight

Uses:
Underwater, in water tank linings (except potable water tanks), and on buried
structural steel
Note Although coatings manufacturers continue to use them for municipal water-
tank linings, the Company prefers FDA-approved polyamide or amine-adduct
epoxies for potable-water tank linings.
Epoxy Mastics
Advantages:
Perform better than alkyds
Adhere to a variety of surface preparations, including tightly adhered rust
Adhere to any old coating firmly attached to the substrate
VOC compliant
Disadvantages:
More expensive than alkyds
Uses:
For less-than-perfectly prepared surfaces
Epoxy Novolac
Epoxy novolac resins are second-generation epoxies with greater cross-linking
density.
Advantages:
Greater resistance to chemical attack and high temperatures than standard
epoxies
Disadvantages:
More expensive and less flexible than standard epoxies
Uses:
Common coating for concrete
114 Elastomers
An elastomer is a polymeric substance with more than 100 percent elongation in a
tensile test. Included in this category are natural- and synthetic-rubber products
(which also have the physical characteristics of natural rubber). The chemical, oil,
and water resistance of elastomers vary widely.
Coatings applicators can apply modified elastomers as coatings. The Company uses
many elastomeric coatings, such as chlorinated rubber and hypalon, alone over steel
and other surfaces or, as required, with special primers such as inorganic zinc.

There are two classes of elastomers: cross-linking and air-drying.
Catalyzed Cross-linking Elastomers

Neoprene, butyl, thiokol, silicone, and hypalon are the most common, catalytic-
setting, elastomer coatings.
Neoprene. A synthetic rubber, produced by polymerizing chloroprene, neoprene is
either pigmented or clear and is manufactured as thin flexible films or mastics.
Advantages:
Good heat and flame resistance
Good acid, alkali, and water resistance
Disadvantages:
Softened by aromatic solvents
Uses:
Block insulation coatings
Butyl. A copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, butyl is polymerized with an
aluminum chloride catalyst.
Advantages:
Exceptionally low water permeability
Better sunlight and weather resistance than most rubbers
Disadvantages:
Unknown
Uses:
Coating urethane foam and block insulation
Piping tape wrap primers and tape mastics
Thiokol. Thiokol is a polysulfide rubber.
Advantages:
Excellent gasoline and water resistance
Disadvantages:
Unknown
Uses:
Caulking compounds
Flexible seal over leaking rivet seams in oil tanks
Pond and tank linings (in sheet form)

Silicone Rubber. Silicone rubber is a room-temperature vulcanizing (RTV) sili-

cone.
Advantages:
Good for hot service
Disadvantages:
Poor solvent resistance
Uses:
Gaskets in hot services
Caulking
Potting materials
Hypalon. Hypalon is a chlorinated polyethylene resin.
Advantages:
Excellent sunlight resistance
Good chemical resistance
Disadvantages:
Unknown
Uses:
Flexible coating vehicles or mastics and sheet lining
Mild acid spill protection for concrete (the Company's most popular use)
Topcoat over polyurethane foam or block insulation
Pond and tank linings
Air-drying Elastomers
Chlorinated rubber, an air-dried formulation of hypalon, and butadiene-styrene are
the most popular elastomers for air-drying coatings.
Chlorinated Rubber. Chlorine and natural rubber latex produce chlorinated rubber
resins. When suitably plasticized and pigmented, these resins exhibit outstanding
resistance to a broad range of corrosive chemicals and environments.
Advantages:
Shows outstanding resistance to severe chemical environments such as acids,
alkalies, salt fog, water, oxidizing agents, bleaches, and cleaning compounds
Dries rapidly, allowing application of several coats in one day
Produces excellent bond between old and new coats as the solvents in the new
coat penetrate the old coat
Disadvantages:

Does not resist sunlight damage as well as alkyds and acrylics

Causes alkyd or oil coatings to blister if applied over them
Dissolves in oils and solvents
Caution Oil spills could potentially soften these coatings.
Uses:
Offshore platforms
Humid coastal refineries
Hypalon. The air-drying hypalon is a chlorosulfonated polyethelene.
Advantages:
Good weatherability
Disadvantages:
Unknown
Uses:
Topcoat elastomers to improve weather resistance
Butadiene-Styrene. The most widely used type of synthetic rubber, butadiene-
styrene is a copolymer of three parts butadiene and one part styrene.
Advantages:
Good resistance to alkali, water, and mild acids
Excellent external durability if pigmented properly
Disadvantages:
Embrittles with age if formulated improperly
Uses:
Vehicles in coatings and mastics for stucco and masonry
Polyurethane Elastomers. Polyurethane elastomers are thermal plastic polymers.
Advantages:
AliphaticExcellent color and gloss retention
Disadvantages:
AromaticYellows badly in sunlight
Uses:
Vehicles for thin or semi-mastic coatings for sealing polyurethane foam
insulation
Deck and floor coatings

120 Coatings Descriptions (PZ)

The following coatings are described in this section:
Phenolics
Polyesters
Polyurethanes
Silicones
Vinyl
Zinc rich
121 Phenolics
Phenolic resins, formed by the reaction of phenol with formaldehyde, produce a
range of coatings from hard plastics (Bakelite) to oil-soluble resins and from heat-
reactive varnishes to air drying oils. The Company uses two phenolic resins in coat-
ings: a baked pure phenolic and an air-drying epoxy phenolic.
Baked Phenolics
Baked phenolics are almost exclusively shop-applied due to a complicated baking
procedure. They contain resins which are polymerized by being heated above 300F.
The reaction time and temperature depend on the modifying oils and resins.
Note The Company uses baked phenolics only in the most severe immersion
services where no other material will work, such as container inner-coatings and
tank car linings.
Advantages:
Excellent chemical and water resistance
Withstand immersion in almost all petroleum products
Good abrasion resistance
Disadvantages:
Poor wetability (the ability of a coating to flow over a surface)
Require maximum surface preparation
Poor adhesion
Embrittles
Note To overcome poor adhesion and brittleness, some formulas are modified with
epoxy resins, giving them better caustic resistance than pure phenolics but not equal
resistance to strong solvents.
Epoxy Phenolics
Catalytic setting (non-baking) phenolics are usually composed of phenolic resins
and epoxies.

Advantages:
Better chemical and solvent resistance than pure epoxies
Disadvantages:
Lower resistance to chemicals and solvents than pure baked phenolics
Uses:
Lining tanks, vessels, containers, etc.
122 Polyesters
While there are two major classes of polyester resins, the Company uses only isophthalic.
Isophthalic polyesters, the resin preferred for corrosion protection, is also the main
resin in laminate-reinforced systems.
While the chemical and temperature resistance of polyester is usually poorer than
any of the other resins, they are also the least expensive.
123 Polyurethanes
Polyurethane resins are formed by the reaction of isocyanates with polyols and are
used for a variety of purposes from foam insulation to air-drying coatings and
varnishes. The isocyanate may be either aromatic or aliphatic.
There are literally thousands of polyurethane formulationsfrom hard roller skate
wheels to elastomeric materials that stretch like rubber bandswhich have many
different properties. Some of these properties are:
Abrasion resistance
Chemical resistance
Elasticity
Impact resistance
Tensile strength
Caution Remember that increases in one property result in decreases in another.
Because of this, many elastomeric polyurethanes are not as chemically resistant as
the more rigid polyurethanes.
The most common polyols are acrylics and polyesters, although there are epoxies,
vinyls, and alkyds.
Advantages:
Highly resistant to abrasion and impact
Catalyzed urethanes are highly chemical resistant
Better performance than alkyds
AliphaticFor atmospheric coatings, usually as easy to overcoat as epoxies
AromaticMore chemically resistant than aliphatic urethanes

Disadvantages:
More expensive than alkyds
AromaticNot designed for external exposure as they chalk and yellow; diffi-
cult to overcoat because adhesion is poor
Uses:
AliphaticNon-fading, non-chalking external finishes
AromaticTank linings, chemically resistant coatings, flexible elastomeric
coatings for polyurethane foam insulation coverings
Classifications. Urethane coatings cure by a variety of mechanisms as classified by
ASTM D16-75 types. Types II, IV, and V are considered high performance and are
described below. Most of the Company's experience has been with Type V, the two-
package polyol-cured urethane.
Type II, One-package Moisture-cured. The Company has limited experience with
these urethanes which cure by reacting with moisture in the air. The moisture reacts
with a prepolymer containing isocyanate so that the isocyanate is released for cross-
linking. The reaction also releases CO2 which must migrate to the surface before the
film sets up.
Caution In high humidity areas, such as offshore, the reaction can occur so
rapidly that the CO2 cannot escape; and the film is filled with gas bubbles and
pinholes.
Type IV, Two-package Catalyzed. These urethanes cure by reacting with a low-
molecular-weight-reactive catalyst. They cure in a similar way not only to moisture-
cure (although the catalyst is in a separate package), but also to epoxy coatings.
Type V, Two-package Polyol-cured. These urethanes are the Company's most
common choice for high-performance coating systems such as for offshore plat-
forms and chemical plants. To cure, polyol-cured coatings react with pre-reacted
(adduct) hydroxyl-bearing polyols. They require no additional curing agent;
however, coatings applicators may add an agent to promote low-temperature curing.
124 Silicones
Silicones are a group of various organo-silicon-oxide polymers available as fluids,
elastomers, and resins. Because of their chemical composition, silicones have excel-
lent resistance to heat, weathering, and moisture.
Note Repairing silicone coatings is very difficult because almost nothing will
adhere to them. For small repairs, sand the failure and apply fresh silicone coating
with a brush. For large repairs, remove the coating by abrasive blasting and recoat.
The Company uses both classes of silicone coating resins: heat-reactive and modified.

Heat-reactive
Silicone resins are cross-linked polymers which require a high-temperature cure to
produce heat-stable films. Catalyzed formulations which cure at room temperature
are now available. Non-catalyzed formulations remain tacky until heated above
about 300 to 400F. For this reason, most field applications use the catalyzed, room-
temperature cure.
The film thickness of baked silicone coatings is low compared to that of other coat-
ings. A self-primed two-coat application usually produces only 1 to 2 mils dry
film thickness (DFT).
Advantages:
Excellent sunlight resistance
Good durability at high temperatures
Disadvantages:
Apply only on abrasion-blasted surfaces
Uses:
Furnaces and stacks up to 600F (up to 750F for aluminum and black colors)
Note The color and gloss retention of baked silicones depends on the pigments.
Modified or Air-drying
Modified or air-drying silicones are produced by reaction with organic resins such
as alkyds or acrylics.
Advantages:
Excellent gloss and color retention
Good weather and sunlight resistance
Many resist temperatures up to 300F
Disadvantages:
Tend to cure quite slowly even at ambient temperature, taking weeks to harden
and resist damage in cool weather.
Note Topcoat inorganic zinc with an epoxy or silicone acrylic.
125 Vinyls
Vinyl resins are formed from the reaction of acetylene with acetic or hydrochloric
acids. Varying this process produces resins consisting of 100 percent vinyl chloride, or
100 percent vinyl acetate. The resins in protective coatings are usually co-polymers
containing 80 to 90 percent vinyl chloride and 5 to 15 percent vinyl acetate.

Vinyl resins are hard and brittle and must be combined with plasticizers and
dissolved in solvents to form vehicles for coatings. Vinyl solutions contain only
15 to 40 percent solids depending on the co-polymers.
The various vinyl-resin solutions are compatible and may be blended to emphasize
desired properties. Some blends adhere very well to concrete and metal and are used
in formulating primers. Other blends are pigmented and plasticized to produce high-
build films. Used for finish coats, some blends have low solids and adhere poorly to
steel but have very good chemical and weather resistance.
The Company uses vinyls for many services, often where water exposure is
expected such as on floating tank roofs, docks, and on offshore platforms near the
water.
Advantages:
Excellent chemical, water, and aliphatic oil resistance
Excellent shelf life
Ready bond to weathered vinyl films
Removable with a solvent wash when desired
Easy to patch old coatings without blistering or wrinkling
Easy to apply by spray
Disadvantages:
May lose their plasticizer over time and embrittle, a problem with vinyl as a
weathercoat over polyurethane-foam insulation
Do not have good gloss retention or stain resistance
Dissolved by ketones, esters, chlorinated solvents, and some aromatics
Need good ventilation to avoid prolonged (solvent evaporation) drying
Tend to lift and blister because of the strong solvents
Difficult to brush or roll because of their rapid drying
Tend to bubble and pinhole when applied over porous inorganic zinc
Uses:
With alkyds or epoxy esters to improve film build, gloss, and adhesion which
are excellent as vehicles:
In rust-inhibiting primers for ferrous metals
In seal or tiecoats over inorganic zinc primers to improve adhesion of
vinyl, alkyd, chlorinated rubber
In epoxy ester topcoats
In formulae ranging from thin-bodied, air-drying coatings to semi-mastic
putties and air-drying, baking plastisols

To formulate a wide variety of latex materials in glues, paper sizes, and emul-
sion coatings
In vinyl-emulsion-latex coatings for both internal and external services. The
retention of deep colors by vinyl latexes is superior to that of most other coatings.
Vinyl Ester
Vinyl ester resin is a reaction product between polyesters and epoxies and shares
many of the attributes of polyesters.
Advantages:
Resistance to acid, solvent attack, and high temperatures
Disadvantages:
More expensive than an isophthalic polyester or normal epoxy
Uses:
Coating concrete
126 Zinc-rich Coatings

Zinc-rich coatings, which have zinc dust as the pigment and inorganic or organic
vehicles, are divided into two classes: inorganic and organic zinc.
Zinc-rich coatings offer good corrosion resistance for steel due to the sacrificial
nature of the zinc pigment. The zinc acts as an anode to protect the steel galvani-
cally and prevent corrosion. This coating is applied alone or as a primer under a
variety of topcoats. Under suitable topcoats, all of these primers greatly enhance the
life of the coating system in many exposures, especially in marine services.
When testing to determine the benefit of zinc in a coating, the Company found the
quality of performance to be rated (best to worst) as follows:
1. Inorganic zincs
2. Zinc-rich organic coatings
3. Organic coatings
Inorganic-zinc Coatings
Inorganic-zinc coatings consist of two components:
A pigment composed solely or principally of zinc powder
Any of a variety of patented and proprietary inorganic or semi-inorganic vehi-
cles to form the matrix of the coating
Post-cured inorganic zincs have a third component: a curing agent such as phos-
phoric acid.
Among the vehicles are ethyl and sodium silicate, phosphates, and other complexes.

When properly mixed, applied to blasted steel surfaces, and allowed to cure, the
resultant coatings have outstanding resistance to weathering, humidity, elevated
temperatures, organic solvents, animal and vegetable oils, both fresh and salt water,
and most petroleum products. In addition, these coatings (especially post-cured) have
excellent abrasion resistance. The corrosion resistance of the cured film is similar to
that of galvanized iron; the weather resistance is superior to galvanized iron.
Two types of inorganic zinc coatings are self-cured and post-cured.
Self-Cured Inorganic Zinc Coatings

Self-cured inorganic zinc coatings are either solvent- or water-based vehicles. While
both produce an inorganic film, their methods differ. Current technology is almost
all solvent-alkyl-silicate-resin based.
Solvent-based Coatings. The Company uses self-cured, solvent-based, inorganic
zincs in many places such as piping, tanks, and offshore. Although manufacturers
have used several inorganic silicate vehicles such as ethyl silicate and bi-metallic
alkoxide complexes to make these coatings, almost all self-cured inorganic zincs are
now alkyl silicates such as ethyl silicate.
Ethyl-silicate-based coatings convert to an inorganic, insoluble state in reaction to
moisture. Some formulae require long periods (three to four weeks) of high
humidity to reach ultimate hardness. Many manufacturers now claim their ethyl sili-
cates can be topcoated almost immediately since enough moisture permeates
through the topcoats to cure the primer.
Solvent-based coatings are popular because their vehicles show superior wetting
ability, they dry fast and resist water immediately, and their film thickness is less
critical than for post-cured inorganic zinc coatings.
Some self-cured inorganic zincs are modified to include some organic resin for
more rapid film formation and increased flexibility. Properly formulated, they can
perform as well as normal alkyl silicates.
Caution The Company does not recommend single-component inorganic zincs.
Laboratory tests and experience show that these zincs do not perform as well as the
two-component zincs. One reason is that the zinc settles in the can and is not easily
put back in suspension. The applied coating is, therefore, deficient in zinc.
Coatings applicators mix the multi-component zincs at the time of application and
agitate them continuously to avoid the settling problem.
Water-based Coatings. Tests show that, for weather resistance, water-based coat-
ings are inferior to solvent-based and post-cured inorganic zincs.
Note Future changes to clean air regulations may force us to use water-based or
new, presently untested, formulations of inorganic zincs.
Composed of zinc dust pigment and vehicles containing sodium silicate, or phos-
phates, the vehicles are water solutions similar to those of the post-cured coatings.
After application, the film is water sensitive for some time, the length of which
depends on the formula. The vehicles reaction with moisture in the air converts the

water-soluble film to an insoluble film. Conversion time depends on the vehicle and
the relative humidity and temperature.
Some of these coatings undergo a color change as they cure, indicating when they
are completely cured.
Caution Do not topcoat or place these coatings in water-immersion service until
they are thoroughly cured.
Post-Cured Inorganic Zinc Coatings

Post-cured inorganic-zinc coatings are composed principally of zinc powder and
sodium silicate. When mixed, the zinc-dust pigment and sodium silicate produce a
water-soluble coating. coatings applicators must keep the applied film dry until it
has cured by a chemical curing agent, such as phosphoric acid, which converts the
film to a water insoluble coating.
Advantages:
Long life under extreme service conditions such as exposure to marine
environments
Disadvantages:
Sensitivity to moisture until cured
White-metal surface preparation
Necessity of removing the powder-like post-cure reaction chemicals (by
washing very thoroughly) before topcoats will adhere
Uses:
Extreme conditions such as offshore structures in marine environments.
Note While post-cured inorganic zinc coatings have a long, successful field
history, the Company limits post-cured zincs to extreme services where their long
life is needed such as near the water on offshore platforms. Today, however, because
self-cured inorganic zincs can last almost as long and are much easier to apply
properly, you may choose them instead.
Zinc-rich Organic Coatings

Epoxies, urethanes, chlorinated rubbers, phenolics, styrenes, silicones, and vinyls
are vehicles for zinc-rich organic coatings. Epoxies are most common. The zinc
content of these coatings should generally be about 80 percent by weight of total
solids.
The mechanism for curing zinc-rich organic coatings depends on the binder. (See
Section 70 of this manual for methods of film formation.) The coatings can be either
single- or multi-component. Performance tends to be a function of the durability of
the binder, and epoxies are generally considered superior.

Advantages:
Excellent water and weather resistance
Better wetting ability, because of their organic vehicles, than inorganic zinc
Usable over a broader range of surface preparation conditions than inorganic zinc
Disadvantages:
Not as oil resistant as the inorganic coatings
Uses:
Touch up for inorganic-zinc-primed systems
Subsea equipment primers
As primers under other coatings
Note Often one coat of IOZ alone gives excellent performance. For higher perfor-
mance or aesthetics, topcoat with epoxy or epoxy plus urethane.
Example: One coat of IOZ has lasted 15 plus years on a Richmond Long Wharf line.
Pascagoula successfully used a two-coat system of Carboline Coating Companys
IOZ with Carboline high-build urethane.
130 Petroleum-based Tapes

Petroleum-based tapes, such as denso, work well in severe service as a wrapping for
pipe and structural components.
Advantages:
Adheres to moist surfaces with minimum surface preparation
Adheres to irregular shapes, valves, and pipe fittings
Disadvantages:
Could shield cathodic protection if tape fails
Uses:
Reinforce heavily corroded lines
140 Water-based Coatings

Chevron Corporation OpCos are required to use coating systems that meet both
federal and local regulations controlling the emissions of VOCs. Because
water-based coatings use water instead of solvents as the pigment carrier, they typi-
cally do not contain any Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) that could be
released into the air. Many OpCos may, in the future, be required to use water-based
coating systems in order to meet these regulations.
After 6 months of testing the major manufacturers water-based coatings, Chevron
has concluded that several are acceptable for inclusion in the Coatings Manual.
However, since these coatings do not perform as well as solvent based coatings, we

cannot recommend them for severe exposure environments (ie: offshore or indus-
trial environments). Refer to the System Number Selection Guide in the Coat-
ings Manual Quick Reference Guide for a listing of the acceptable brands of
water-based coatings for both new construction and maintenance systems.
150 Coating Systems for Immersion Service

Coating systems usually include a first coat (primer), second coat (tiecoat), and a
final coat (topcoat).
There are three types of coating systems for immersion service and each is described
below along with its advantages, disadvantages, and cost. The coatings described are:
Non-reinforced, thin-film coatings
Glass-flake-reinforced coatings
Laminate-reinforced coatings
151 Non-reinforced Thin-film Coatings

Typically only 10 to 20 mils thick (thin films), these non-reinforced coatings:
Contain no glass flakes or fibers or laminates for reinforcement
Usually have inert fillers such as silica or carbon to reduce shrinkage during
cure and to improve abrasion resistance
Resemble some of the high-build layers of external coating systems
Usually are spray applied in two or more coats: a primer/sealer and one or two
high-build topcoats
Have recommended dry film thickness (DFT) of 15 to 20 milsthicker systems
for more severe services
Most thin-film coatings for tanks are based on epoxy resins, although vinyls, inor-
ganic zinc, and other types of coatings have been used.
Advantages:
Low cost
Use least amount of material
Require no expensive hand work
Easiest to apply
Product purity
Disadvantages:
Lack of thickness leads to no resistance to abrasion, severe chemical attack,
physical abuse
Absence of reinforcement means inability to bridge existing cracks

Always have some damaged areas, called holidays

Uses:
Temporary service
Protection from mild corrosion, splash, or spillage environments
Note Apply and inspect this coating system properly to ensure that there are rela-
tively few holidays. The small amount of corrosion which occurs will not be a
problem in mild-corrosion environments if the product is pure.
If the corrosion environment is severe, however, the holidays will initiate pits that
quickly become unacceptable leaks. For severe corrosion service, pre-coated tanks
may have similar problems if they are scratched or damaged while being erected.
For severe corrosion applications, select a thin film coating if the tanks interior is
also cathodically protected to prevent corrosion at damaged areas of the coating. [1]
Life Expectancy
The expected life of a thin-film internal coating is approximately ten years. After
ten years, the coating commonly blisters, and corrosion at holidays is usually occur-
ring over enough of the surface that blasting and replacing the entire coating are
required.
Note Early failure due to blistering often indicates either a problem with the
surface preparation or an incorrect coating selection.
Periodic inspection and repair (touch-up) of the internal coating may extend its life.
As the Company inspects tanks on a ten-year cycle, periodic inspection and touch-
up is usually not possible.
Limitations and Cost

Because they can be sprayed, thin-film coating systems are generally the easiest and
fastest to apply, and also the least expensive.
Example: For a tank over 50,000 bbls, it might take a total of four weeks at a
minimum to carry out the entire project:
Approximately two weeks to clean, blast, and prime
Approximately one week to apply the coating
An additional week for final curing
Ease of application and cost also vary among different categories of thin film coat-
ings. Factors which make a coating easier or more difficult to apply include:
Its ability to flow smoothly and form an even film
How well it hangs on vertical surfaces without running or sagging
Its tendency to form pinholes
Its tolerance to inadequate surface preparation
The amount of drying time required between coats

These factors also vary from product to product within a category, so it is difficult to
make general statements. Coal-tar epoxies are, however, usually very easy to apply
and relatively inexpensive, but the black color makes them difficult to inspect.
Straight epoxies (polyamides or amine adduct) are also fairly easy to apply and only
slightly more expensive than the coal tars. Epoxy-phenolics are often significantly
more expensive and more difficult to apply.
152 Glass-flake-reinforced Coatings

Glass flakes in coatings, available in spray and trowel formulae:
Make the coating less permeable and more abrasion resistant
Reinforce the resin, allowing thicker film buildup
Note Epoxy and polyester resins are used for glass-flake-reinforced coatings.
The main difference between these two formulae is that the trowel coatings have
larger reinforcing glass flakes than the spray. The layers are therefore as follows:
Trowel: Two 20 to 40 mil (DFT) coats for a total of 60 to 80 mils (DFT)
Spray: Two 15 to 20 mil (DFT) coats for a total of 30 to 40 mils (DFT)
Coatings applicators must roll each layer of both spray and trowel formulae to orient
the glass flakes parallel to the surface. Rolling reduces the permeability of the coat-
ings.
Cathodic protection should not be required with glass-flake-reinforced coatings
(especially trowel-applied types) because they are so thick and are not easily
damaged.
Advantages:
Both (trowel and spray) are more protective than thin-film coatings because
they are thicker and have fewer holidays.
Both are highly advantageous in services where erosion or abrasion would
damage thin-film coatings.
Spray can be applied at twice the thickness of thin-film systems, and over more
uneven surfacesbecause of the coating's thicknessthan thin film.
Trowel is more resistant to chemical attack, abrasion, and physical abuse than
either spray formula or thin-film coatings.
Disadvantages:
Spray is marginally more expensive than thin-film coatings and rolling is
required to improve resistance to chemical attack.
Trowel is much more expensive than thin-film coatings; it is considerably more
difficult and time-consuming to apply than either the spray formula or thin
films, and hand smoothing and rolling is required.

Note The cost of glass-flake-reinforced coating may be justified if corrosion rates

are expected to be relatively high but not severe, or permeation through the coating
is a potential problem.
Uses:
Recommended for both mild and severe corrosion applications. Generally, select:
Spray for mild corrosion and for uneven surfaces
Trowel for severe corrosion (as an alternative to a thin-film coating with
cathodic protection)
Note This coating system is the most widely used one for concrete because of its
excellent properties for most environments and lower cost than laminate systems.
Life Expectancy
Expect glass-flake-reinforced coatings to last at least ten years before inspection.
Depending on the condition of the coating and the service, making necessary repairs
may allow the coating to last another ten years. Frequently, however, it will be
necessary to replace the coating after only ten years, especially for sprays. Trowel
applications have a better chance of lasting through a second decade.
Limitations and Cost

The spray-applied glass-flake-reinforced coatings are usually only slightly more
difficult to apply than non-reinforced coatings. Rolling the glass flake properly
takes additional time during application. Spray-applied glass-flake coatings are
more costly than non-reinforced coatings.
Trowel-applied glass-flake coatings are considerably more difficult and time
consuming to apply than sprays. The coating is hand smoothed and rolled to orient
the glass flakes. Coating application may take two to three weeks for an average
size tank (increasing the total time to five to six weeks), and the total installed cost
will be higher than sprayed glass-flake coatings.
Epoxy-glass-flake coatings are generally easier to apply than polyesters or vinyl
esters, both of which require a final wax coat to obtain full surface curing. If the
coating is premixed with wax, common for sprays, the coatings applicator must
apply the second coat within the manufacturer-specified time (known as the
maximum allowable time) because the second coat will not adhere well if the wax
layer has fully cured the first coat.
153 Laminate-reinforced Coatings

The coatings applicator applies laminate reinforced coatings by hand, alternating
layers of resin and fiberglass mat to a total thickness of typically 80 to 125 mils.
Generally, they apply three layers of resin and two layers of mat.
For some services, specifications call for an additional layer of a special surfacing
veil of chemical grade glass or polyester and another coat of resin.

Note The veil prevents any glass fibers from protruding through the resin surface,
which could allow wicking or chemical attack of the glass itself.
After the completed laminate is inspected, the coatings applicator applies a final
coat of resin. For epoxy resins, this gel coat simply provides additional protection
from chemical attack.
For polyester resins, the coatings applicator adds a wax to the final resin coat to
obtain full curing. Without the wax coat the surface of a polyester coating always
remains slightly tacky and lacks its optimum chemical resistance, and the body of
the laminate cures very slowly.
Advantages:
A laminate-reinforced coating provides the best protection against severe corrosion.
Laminates should not require cathodic protection as they should not contain any
holidays.
A laminate is the only type of internal coating which has significant structural
strength by itself.
Because it does not need to be as thick, epoxy-resin laminates are less expen-
sive than polyester or vinyl ester laminates.
Disadvantages:
Compared to thin-film and glass-flake-reinforced coatings, laminates are the
most expensive coating.
Laminate-reinforced coatings are the most difficult and time consuming to
apply.
Uses:
Laminates are generally used for stockside corrosion only when there is severe
corrosion or when underside corrosion is expected or has occurred.
Life Expectancy
Laminate reinforced coatings will last for 20 years, but inspect and repair them after
10 years. Eventually, the laminate will start to crack and lose its adhesion to the
steel, especially if the tank bottom flexes or settles significantly.
If underside corrosion occurs, remove the coupons to check the condition of the
steel bottom. Replace the laminate and the bottom if the bottom is essentially
corroded through.
Caution Never apply a second laminate over a failed laminate.
Limitation and Cost

Laminate-reinforced coatings are the most difficult and time consuming to apply.
The hand layering of fiberglass mat is a slow process, normally requiring at least
three weeks for an average-size tank, increasing the total time to a minimum of six

weeks. Laminates are also expensive. The total cost per square foot is equal to or
higher than that of trowel-applied glass-flake coatings.
Because it does not need to be as thick, epoxy-resin laminates are less expensive
than polyester or vinyl ester laminates. Polyesters and vinyl esters require a final
wax coat to obtain full surface curing; however, as they remain fluid longer before
starting to cure, they are easier to use.
Note The time between mixing and cure is called the gel time.
The coatings applicator can adjust the gel time by mixing different amounts of cata-
lyst and promoter into the resin. After the resin sets, it will reach 90 percent of full
cure in a short time. As epoxy resins do not have a gel time, they cure at a relatively
constant rate, starting immediately after mixing, and therefore do not remain as fluid
for as long as laminates.
160 Quality Control

Do the job right the first time.
Essentially a system of checks and balances, quality control helps ensure that a
projects participants fulfill the specifications requirements. For coatings projects,
the process should yield a high-quality result that:
Contributes to the maximum service life of the structure and equipment
Reduces future expenditures for field maintenance
Offshore
Achieving high-quality coatings is more difficult offshore than onshore due to some
of the following conditions:
Adverse weather
Simultaneous operations with other platform activities
Congested platform areas
Limited availability of transportation
Existing substrate surfaces that can be deeply pitted and contaminated with
soluble surface salts
Inaccessible items
Careful design and planning help to minimize the effects of these conditions.
A major component of quality for offshore coatings includes cure and recoat times
before returning a facility to service. Critical areas are the +/- 10-foot splash zone,
work decks and helidecks, and sweating equipment and piping. See detailed infor-
mation about quality control for offshore coatings in Section 800 of this manual.

Keys to Successful Projects

Comprehensive quality control activities are, however, key to any successful
project.
The quality control for a specific project depends not only on type of project but
also on available resources: financial and personnel. Most projects have the best
financial result over the structures life by involving qualified individuals in the
project at the most appropriate time for as long as necessary to ensure that the speci-
fications are prepared properly and met.
Regardless of the size, among the keys to success of any coating project are the
specifications, specialists and inspectors, and the Companys Project Development
and Execution Process (CPDEP).
Specifications
Caution Avoid the pitfall of writing specifications so vague and general that they
confuse everyone and allow the contractor to provide substandard work.
A well-written specification includes:
Requirements for the pre-job conference
Coating schedule for all items
Work schedule
Materials, including coatings and abrasive
Minimum standards for equipment
Example: Equipment such as moisture traps on coating and blast pots, coating gun
types and hose sizes, and quality of compressed air.
Coating Specialists and Inspectors

Industrial coating applications are highly specialized work processes that require
support from individuals with particular knowledge and experience: the coating
specialist and inspector.
Coating Specialist. A coating specialist provides the project's engineering team with:
Advice about selecting, inspecting, and applying coatings
Information about premature failures
Technical and tactical recommendations for day-to-day activities and interac-
tion with the contractor
Coating Inspector. The goal of the project's coating inspector, usually a contractor,
parallels the program's objectives to ensure that all surfaces are prepared and all
coatings applied within specification. The inspector:
Enforces the specification during each phase of the work activities
Maintains detailed records of the coating activities

Note These records are extremely important in case of litigation and provide the
engineering team with daily work updates and recommendations.
See also the sections below on Inspections and Inspectors.
Companys Project Development & Execution Process (CPDEP)

By taking the Front End Loading (FEL) approach of CPDEP (adding coating
experts to the team during the design-and-fabrication phases), the projects team
eliminates the problem of materials leaving the fabrication yard with an aestheti-
cally acceptable, yet otherwise short-term and non-corrosion-resistant coating.
Example: During the 1980s, one of the Companys profit centers spent over $15MM
to repair fabrication work that had failed prematurely (needing major re-work in
four years or less). Costly replacement of corroded equipment/structures and repair
of premature coating failures are often attributable to the work in fabrication yards.
162 Inspection Programs

An inspection adage states: People do not as you expect. People do as you inspect.
Inspecting a coating ensures that it meets specifications for the particular project
and provides maximum protection over the coatings expected life.
In the Company, there are three inspection programs: one complete and two levels
of partial inspections (Figures 100-2, 100-3, 100-4). The three inspection programs
require inspectors of varying levels of qualification.
The level of inspection chosen for a coating project is primarily a function of the
acceptable risk involved if a coating fails prematurely.
Corrosion and aesthetics are the two main reasons for applying an external coating.
The engineer must choose the best inspection program to meet the needs of the
particular project cost effectively.
For external coating projects where corrosion is a concern, the Company
recommends a complete inspection program, the most conservative, reliable,
and costly method of inspection.
If aesthetics are the only concern, then either of the two partial inspection
programs may be adequate; but some of these projects may require complete
inspection.
The Company's representative and the inspector (if different) should agree on a
method of reporting the test results and observations of the inspection. A copy of the
Company's recommended form, COM-EF-844, is available in this manual.
The inspector files a copy of reports with the Company's representative.

Complete Inspections
A complete inspection requires a full-time, qualified inspector. The most conserva-
tive and costly of the three programs, a complete inspection is recommended when a
coatings reliability is critical.
The complete inspection checklist (Figure 100-2) is a compilation of items the
inspector should examine to ensure that the work satisfies all requirements of the
specification. While all items are important, they are ranked in terms of relative
importance: ccritical, nnecessary, and aapplies. Missing an a item has
lower potential effect on the life of the coating than missing the others.
Fig. 100-2 Inspection ChecklistComplete Inspection (1 of 2)

A qualified coatings inspector ensures the lining work meets the Chevron Specification. The inspector keeps
records (using the Company's Standard Form COM-EF-844 or another form agreed upon by the Chevron represen-
tative and the inspector) and files a copy of the report with the Chevron OPCO.
Each inspection item below has a code letter that indicates its relative importance. Items marked with a (c) are
critical, those with an (n) are necessary, and those with an (a) apply. All items are important; but, if an (a) item is
missed, the potential impact on the coating life would not be as great as missing a (c) or an (n) item.
I. Pre-Job Check Out
A. (c) Review Chevron OPCO Specifications.
B. (c) Check tank for inaccessible areas, laps, patches, rough welds, weld spatter, etc.
C. (c) Check surface for grease, oil, moisture, etc.
D. (c) Check abrasive for cleanliness, dryness, etc.
E. (a) Check abrasive for type and size.
F. (c) Check compressed air for oil and moisture.
G. (a) Check nozzle air pressure.
H. (n) Check that proper coatings and thinners are present.
I. (c) Check to see the coating has not passed its shelf life.
J. (a) Record product name, manufacturer, and batch number.
II. Surface Preparation
A. (n) Check ambient conditions.
B. (c) Check degree of surface cleanliness.
C. (c) Check surface for salts or other contaminates.
D. (n) Check surface profile.
E. (c) Check dust and abrasive removal.
F. (a) Take magnetic base reading.

Fig. 100-2 Inspection ChecklistComplete Inspection (2 of 2)

III. ApplicationFirst Coat
A. (c) Check surface for flash rusting.
B. (c) Check ambient conditions.
C. (n) Check steel temperature.
D. (c) Check proper mix ratio observed.
E. (n) Check for proper thinner addition (when necessary).
F. (a) Check wet film thickness.
IV. ApplicationSubsequent Coats
A. (c) Check dry film thickness of preceding coats.
B. (c) Check recoat times observed.
C. (c) Check intercoat cleanliness.
D. (c) Check ambient conditions.
E. (n) Check steel temperatures.
F. (c) Check proper mix ratio observed.
G. (n) Check for proper thinner addition (when necessary).
H. (a) Check wet film thickness.
I. (c) Repeat for every coat.
V. Final Inspection
A. (c) Check visual appearance.
B. (c) Check dry film thickness.
C. (c) Holiday test. (Required only for interior coatings)
D. (c) Cure test.
E. (c) Verify all touch-up and repair work.
F. (c) Complete records and copy Chevron OPCO.
1. Verify compliance to specification.
2. List work, if any, not in compliance and why.
Partial Inspections
The Company has two levels of partial inspection, Level 2 being the more limited.
Partial Inspection Level 1. Partial Inspection Level 1 (Figure 100-3) differs from
a complete inspection not only in the inspectors qualifications and time on the
project, but also in the number of tests required.
The inspector examines or tests particular itemshighlighted on the checklist
during and on completion of the work. Time and cost permitting, the inspector may

also verify the critical and necessary items on the Checklist For Complete Inspec-
tion (Figure 100-2) as any extra inspection improves the coatings reliability.
Partial Inspection Level 2. Partial Inspection Level 2 (Figure 100-4) is the
minimal inspection for any tank or vessel coating project and is recommended only
if the Company is willing to accept the risk of premature failure of the coating
Caution Select Level 2, the lowest recommended level, only after evaluating the
project carefully and considering the risks of a premature failure.
Fig. 100-3 Inspection Check ListPartial InspectionLevel 1 (1 of 2)

All items listed are critical to Level 1 Partial Inspection and should be conducted by someone familiar with coat-
ings inspection. This person may be a qualified inspector, an experienced Chevron inspector, or an engineer with
a good knowledge of coatings inspection. The inspector should keep records (using the Company's Standard
Form COM-EF-844 or another form agreed upon by the Chevron representative and the inspector) and should file a
copy of the report with the Chevron OPCO.
A. Review Chevron OPCO Specification.
B. Check tank for inaccessible areas, laps, patches, rough welds, weld spatter, etc.
C. Check surface for grease, oil, moisture, etc.
D. Check abrasive for cleanliness, dryness, etc.
E. Check to see the coating has not passed its shelf life.
A. Check degree of surface cleanliness.
B. Check dust and abrasive removal.
A. Check surface for flash rusting.
B. Check ambient conditions.
C. Check steel temperature.
A. Check dry film thickness of preceding coats.
B. Check recoat times observed.
C. Check intercoat cleanliness.
D. Check ambient temperatures.
E. Check steel temperatures.
F. Repeat for every coat.

Fig. 100-3 Inspection Check ListPartial InspectionLevel 1 (2 of 2)

V. Final Inspection
A. Check visual appearance.
B. Check dry film thickness.
C. Holiday test.
D. Cure test.
E. Complete records and copy Chevron OPCO.
1. Verify compliance to specification.
Fig. 100-4 Inspection ChecklistPartial InspectionLevel 2 (1 of 2)

All items listed are critical to Level 2 Partial Inspection. This is the minimum inspection to be performed when
lining a tank or vessel. With a little planning and thought, an OPCO engineer or construction representative can
carry out all of these tests. The inspector should keep records (using the Company's Standard Form COM EF-844
or another form agreed upon by the Chevron representative and the inspector) and should file a copy of the report
with the Chevron OPCO.
A. Review Chevron OPCO Specification
Know what the specification requires so you can discuss it with the coating contractor.
B. Check tank for inaccessible areas, laps, patches, rough welds, weld spatter, etc.
Linings will not cover irregular or rough surfaces adequately. Welds should be ground smooth
and sharp corners rounded. If not possible, apply a stripe coat of the lining material after surface
preparation.
C. Check surface for grease, oil, moisture, etc.
The biggest cause of premature lining failures is a contaminated surface. Cleanliness is
the single most important step in the lining of a tank or vessel.
D. Check to see the coating has not passed its shelf life.
This is a simple step; old coatings are hard to apply and will not perform properly.
A. Check degree of surface cleanliness.
Linings require abrasive blast cleaning the surface to a White Metal Blast (SSPC-SP5).
See Abrasive Blast Coating Guide for Aged or Coated Steel Surfaces in the Coatings
Manual for a visual guide to judging degrees of abrasive blast cleaning.
B. Check dust and abrasive removal.
Visually check to see there is not any dust or abrasive residue on the surface to be lined.
Dust or residue can cause the lining to have poor adhesion.
A. Check surface for flash rusting.
After abrasive blasting, the surface can flash rust due to high humidity or salts on the
surface. Linings applied over a rusted surface will fail prematurely.
B. Check surface for moisture.
Do not apply linings if the surface is damp. This usually happens when the surface is
below the dew point. Linings applied over moisture will not adhere.

Fig. 100-4 Inspection ChecklistPartial InspectionLevel 2 (2 of 2)

A. Check recoat times observed.
Most linings have a maximum and minimum recoat time. The times are dependent on
the temperature; higher temperatures equal shorter times. The lining manufacturers data
will give you the recoat time at a standard temperature. If your temperature is different,
call the manufacturers representative.
B. Check intercoat cleanliness.
Make sure the first coat has not been contaminated before applying subsequent coats.
C. Repeat Sections III & IV for every subsequent coat.
V. Final Inspection
A. Check appearance.
Visually check for runs, sags, skips, etc. If the job looks good, then the contractor probably
did a good job. If not, you might want to do some of the testing listed in Partial Inspection, Level 1.
B. Check dry film thickness.
While present, have the contractor calibrate his dry film thickness gage and randomly
check the lining to see if it meets the specified dry film thickness.
C. Final Cure.
Check with the lining manufacturer on how long to wait before putting the tank or vessel
in service. Circulating hot air through the tank or vessel will shorten the time.
D. Verify all touch-up and repair work.
There will usually be some touch-up or repair work, so verify that it has been done.
E. Complete records and copy Chevron OPCO.
1. Verify compliance to the specification.
163 Inspectors
To carry out a thorough inspection, the inspector may be a Company employee or a
contractor but must be trained, experienced, and familiar with a variety of coating
methods and equipment.
Whether full- or part-time, the inspector should participate in all inspections at the
completion of the coating contract and must inspect the finished project before the
end of the contractors guarantee.
Qualifications
Full-time Inspector. A qualified, full-time coatings inspector must have one of the
two backgrounds below:
Certified and experienced.
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)-certified Level III
Experience inspecting tank and vessel coatings

Uncertified, trained, and experienced.

No certification
Some industry-accepted training
At least five years of verifiable experience inspecting coatings on tanks and
vessels
Example: Industry training coating courses are offered by KTA-Tator, S.G.Pinney,
or Bechtel.
Part-time Inspector. A qualified, part-time inspector must be:
Familiar with the different methods of inspection
Capable of identifying potential problems and analyzing results
Experienced in coating inspections
This inspector may be
A qualified third-party inspector
An experienced Company inspector
An engineer familiar with coating inspections
Responsibilities
Full-time inspector. The full-time inspector reviews the project prior to start up and
is present whenever the fabricator is working offsite or the contractor onsite and
during hold points in the project, normally:
Prior to starting work
After preparing the surface
Prior to applying each coating
Following application of the final coating
Following the final cure
Part-time inspector. The part-time inspector must be available to examine the
coating during the project's hold points.
Guidelines for all Inspectors

The inspector:
Should remain unchanged for the duration of the project
Must be able to reject work on any area which satisfies neither the specifica-
tion nor good practice
Should not relax the requirements in the specification without written instruc-
tions from the Company's representative
Should conduct business in a professional manner at all time and:
Follow positive inspection methods
Practice diplomacy with coatings applicators and production personnel

Interact with the foreman on all matters concerning coatings applicator and
work practicesnot supervising coatings applicators directly
Anticipate problems; initiating preventive action
Must have a reasonable period of time to review and become familiar with the
specifications, contract documents, and the worksite before the project begins
Note Familiarity with the worksite means learning about the accessibility to and
condition of the structure for the coating project.
Evaluation Reports
The Company's representative should prepare an evaluation report about the
inspector's work.
164 Monitoring Progress

The time it takes a coatings applicator to move from one operation to another affects
the cost of a project.
Initial Setup Time

The first transition period begins when the coatings applicators start work and ends
when they begin the first daily activity; usually blasting, coating, or rigging.
If a coatings applicator consistently requires more than the allotted time to set up,
the inspector should investigate and take appropriate corrective action.
Transition Times
Transition time may demonstrate the foreman and crew's effectiveness and the
overall organization of the operation.
Example: If an eight-man crew has one hour of excessive transition time, the effect is
equal to an additional eight-and-a-half manhours for the project. See Figure 100-5.
Fig. 100-5 Transition Times for Coating Crews

Exceeds Normal Additional
Activity Transition By Man Hours
Setup 30 Minutes 4
Blowdown 20 Minutes 2.5
Paint Pot Refill 5 Minutes 2(1)
(each refill)
Total 8.5
(1) Based on 30 gal (114L) with two 5-gal (19L) setups

165 General Inspection Procedures

See the Quick Reference Guide of this manual for information about ordering
inspection tools and standards.
Daily
The following should be completed on a daily basis:
Conduct pre-inspection of work area before blasting and coating, checking for
protection of equipment, inaccessible areas, and hazardous areas
Meet with the foreman of the coatings applicators to plan daily work schedule,
discuss positive aspects and potential problem areas of project, compare paper-
work
Coordinate work with production activities
Order materials on timely basis
Check contractor's equipment
Check work and safety practices for compliance
Ensure that work area is square and clean
Prepare and submit reports; report to the Company's representative, as required
Before Surface Preparation

Surface preparation is critical to any coating project. Faulty surface preparation is
estimated to contribute to 75 to 80 percent of all premature failures of coatings.
Example: Surface preparation factors that affect the life of the coating include:
Residues of oil or grease
Residues of chemical salts, rust, and loose or broken mill scale which lead to
early failure
Tight mill scale, which leads to longer term failure, and surface condensation
Defects found before or after surface preparation
Before surface preparation begins, the inspector should:
Examine surfaces to decide how much preparation is required; good lighting
during examination is very important
Record the condition of steel surfaces and include all information on such
defects as rolling laps, cracks and pitting
State the condition of surfaces other than steel
Check for protection of equipment, inaccessible and hazardous areas

Weather Conditions. The weather required for abrasive blasting is the same as for
coating. To ensure that rust does not form on the abrasive-blasted surface before a
coating is applied, specify that the area blasted with abrasive be no larger than can
be coated within the same day or within eight hours of blasting.
The inspector should:
Determine the weather window needed to prepare the surface and apply coatings
Check the weather forecast
Read the coating data sheets for acceptable temperature and humidity ranges
Air Compressors for Blasting. Air compressors for blasting should supply oil-
and water-free air at the correct pressure. The inspector should check the compressor
regularly (daily, unless tests show the equipment to be in good working order) by
releasing air into a white cloth and checking it for moisture or contamination.
If surface cleaning is poor or proceeding slowly, the inspector should:
Test the nozzle's air pressure by inserting a hypodermic needle air-pressure
gage into the hose as close to the nozzle as possible
Check the nozzle with a nozzle-throat gage to ensure that the orifice is the
proper diameter
Not rely on pressure readings at the compressor as these differ from nozzle
pressure due to pressure loss in the hose. Typically, 100 psig is required at the
nozzle to obtain adequate cleaning and productivity.
Abrasive material. Abrasive material should be clean, dry, and the correct type and
size for the specific work. The inspector should ensure it meets these criteria.
After Surface Preparation

The inspector should check all surfaces when the preparation is completed and
immediately before coatings applicators apply any coating. The surface must meet
the preparation requirements for the specified coating system.
The inspector should judge the preparation quality:
Of hand-cleaned steel against the relevant SSPC (Steel Structures Painting
Council) standard
Of blast-cleaned steel against the relevant SSPC or NACE standard
By visual comparison against the Swedish standards, NACE Pictorial Stan-
dards, or the SNAME (Society of Naval and Marine Engineers) standards
The inspector should measure the roughness of the surface to ensure that the blast
profile complies with the specifications.
Note Testex Press-o-Film Replica Tape with a spring micrometer is the best way to
measure surface profile.

Before Applying Coatings

The coatings applicator arranges for repair and reblast of all surface defects exposed
by preparation before applying coating. The Companys engineer should review and
approve the repair method.
Coating Supplies. The inspector should check supplies at the jobsite to ensure that:
The correct coating is on hand
Sufficient quantities are available
The shelf life is not exceeded
The correct thinners are available for thinning the coating material, if required,
and for cleaning equipment
Storage conditions are adequate
Method of Application. The coating contractor is usually free to choose the method
of application; however, it must comply with one of the manufacturer's recom-
mended procedures.
If there is doubt, the Company's representative should require the contractor to run a
test, proving that the coating film of the proposed method complies with the specifi-
cation. The inspector should be present during tests and should judge the results.
Mixes, Proportions, Incubation. Before the coating is applied, the coating
inspector should ensure that:
All coatings are properly mixed
Multi-component coatings are in the correct proportions
Proper incubation periods are met
Note Inadequate mixing or improper proportioning of multi-component coatings
can cause soft spots which may dry a slightly different shade of color.
During Coating
The inspector should check that each layer of a coating system meets the specifica-
tions for:
Coating thickness
General quality of the coating, such as hardness, freedom from pinholes, or sags
Dry film thickness (DFT)
The coatings applicator should:
Thin the coating according to the supplier's data sheets
Check viscosity before applying thinned coatings
Check the coating's film thickness with a wet film thickness gage immediately
after applying it

The coating contractor must know the thickness of films specified by the manufac-
turer. The specifications usually give normal DFT and place a limit on maximum
thickness; some give maximum and minimum values.
Although coating manufacturers specify only DFTs, inspectors should:
Use wet film measurements for control during actual application
Multiply wet film thickness by the volume percent solids of the coating; the
result gives the actual DFT of the coating
Measure the thickness of wet-coating films with comb gages
A representative from the Company, not the contractor, should approve gages
for measuring dry film thickness. The coatings applicator should calibrate
the gage daily according to the National Bureau of Standards' Calibration
Standards.
If films are not the correct thickness, the coatings applicator must adjust both
the technique and equipment appropriately to meet the specification and to
avoid rework.
Note Refer to industry standard SSPC-PA2, Measurement of Dry Paint Thick-
ness With Magnetic Gages.
Five Critical Subjects of a Final Inspection

The five critical subjects in the final inspection of a coating project are appearance,
dry film measurement, curing tests, touch-up and repair verification, and inspection
records.
Appearance. The appearance of a coating can highlight problems with aesthetics or
suggest probable, premature failures of the coating. The inspector can assure that
there are no runs, sags, blistering, or pinholes by checking the appearance of the
coating.
Dry Film Measurement. The inspector must measure the dry film thickness to
ensure that coatings applicators have applied the specified proper amount of
coating.
Curing Tests. Surface temperature, ambient conditions, coating formulation, and
film thickness affect the curing rate. Laboratory testing of coating chips is the only
true means of verifying cure.
Field techniques include the following:
Solvent rubOn epoxy coatings, the inspector rubs the surface of the coating
with a clean cloth saturated in a strong solvent, such as methyl ethyl ketone
(MEK) or methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK). If the material is mixed and cured
properly, no color will transfer to the cloth. If the coating is mixed or cured
improperly, it will redissolve and the color will transfer to the cloth.
Caution Do not use the solvent rub test for alkyds and vinyl.

Sandpaper testThe inspector abrades the coating with fine sandpaper. If prop-
erly cured, it produces a fine powdery residue; if not, a slightly tacky coating
remains on the sandpaper.
Hardness testThe inspector checks the coating's cure with a Barcol hardness
tester or pencil hardness tester by:
Exerting a light, perpendicular pressure on the instrument which holds a
hardened steel indentor, ground to microscopic accuracy.
Reading the spring-loaded indentor's level of penetration directly from a
scale's dial which is divided into 100 graduations.
On soft materials, this device takes the highest reading because cold flow
permits the spring-loaded indentor to continue penetrating. It is available in
several models, according to the relative hardness of the test material.
Thumbnail test (can the coating be scraped or removed?) - Popular with experi-
enced inspectors, the thumbnail test is an effective means of determining the
need for more qualitative testing methods.
Touch-up and Repair Verification. The inspector verifies all touch-up and repair
work and includes this information in the final report.
Inspection Records. The inspector gives copies of all records to the Company's
representative and completes the following:
Daily, written reports of all items checked and verifying that the coating project
complies with any specifications, giving reasons for any work that does not
A final report not only giving comments on repairs, overall assessment of the
project, and ideas for improvement, but also with all daily reports attached
Both the Company's representative and the inspector should sign the final report.
166 Specific Inspection Procedures

Downhole Tubular Coatings
The inspection section of specification COM-MS-4732 contains the recommended
inspection program for coatings projects involving downhole tubulars. Those who
need assistance interpreting the specification or have any questions pertaining to the
specification should contact the Company's coating specialist listed in the Quick
Reference Guide.
Internal Coatings
In addition to the general inspection procedures, the following items apply to
internal coatings.
Temperature and Humidity. Weather conditions are critical to the application and
curing of coatings. The inspector must make sure the surface is dry and tempera-
ture is above the dew point to avoid condensation. Almost all internal coatings cure
by a chemical reaction which produces heat and will not cure properly if the

ambient temperature is too low. The guidelines for temperature and humidity in
COM-MS-4738 are acceptable for most internal coatings, but always check the
manufacturers instructions too.
The inspector must read and then record atmospheric conditions in the daily reports
to verify that no moisture is present on the surface to be coated.
Film Thickness. Inspectors measure dry film thickness (DFT) with a magnetic film-
thickness gage or a Company-approved equivalent. They should check film thickness
of each coat and the final thickness of the coating. Each coat should be within the
specified range because an extra heavy coat (applied to correct another coats insuffi-
cient thickness) may crack or cure improperly. The inspector should ensure that the
coatings applicator repairs any defects after applying each coat.
Caution Using a subsequent coat to cover defective areas is unacceptable.
Pinholes and Holidays. The inspector must examine 100 percent of the finished
coating for pinholes and holidays.
Check thin films (1 to 20 mils) with a low-voltage (67-volt), sponge holiday
detector, which sounds an alarm if the fluid in the sponge comes in contact with
the underlying steel.
Check thick-film coatings (20 to 200 mils) with a high-voltage (nondestructive
voltages of usually 100 to 150 volts per mil) holiday detector. This voltage
gives the spark enough energy to jump across the gap between the coating
surface and the underlying steel if a holiday exists, but not enough energy to
break through the coating.
Most coating resin materials (epoxies, isopolyesters, vinyl esters) have a dielectric
strength of 300 to 350 volts per mil. It is important to have sufficiently high voltage
to bridge the pinhole's air gap to the steel substrate without burning through the
solid coating. The voltage recommendations of the coating suppliers are normally
acceptable.
Note If a final wax or gel coat is required, the inspector should carry out the
holiday test and require coatings applicators to make any repairs before the final
coat is applied. This requirement prevents the wax or gel coat from covering up
possible holidays in the underlying coats. If the coatings applicators make any
repairs after applying the wax or gel coat, they must remove that coat and re-apply
it after completing the necessary repairs.
Water Test. Scheduled after the voltage test, the water test involves filling the tank
with water (sometimes salt water) and leaving it for several days. After the tank is
drained, rust spots on the coating reveal pinholes. The test is more complete than the
voltage test because water touches all surfaces of the tank; the low-voltage sweeper
may miss some parts.
Note The Company runs the water test infrequently as it is expensive and time
consuming.

Testing for Final Surface Cure. The inspector must test the final surface cure of
laminates with a Barcol hardness tester and an acetone wipe test. This requirement
is particularly important for isopolyester and vinyl ester resins which will not fully
cure without a wax coat.
Note The coatings applicator must sand off the wax layer to obtain an accurate
test because full surface curing is essential for the coating to have its optimum
chemical resistance.
Offshore Coatings
The inspection process for offshore coatings is detailed in specification COM-MS-4771.
Those who need assistance with interpreting the specifications or have other questions
pertaining to the specification should contact the Companys coating specialist (see the
Quick Reference Guide).
Pipeline Coatings
There are many different types of pipeline coatings, each with many completely
different properties and application procedures. The Company therefore recom-
mends following the inspection procedures written as part of the various specifica-
tions for each type of coating system. Those who need assistance with interpreting
the specifications or have other questions pertaining to the specification should
contact the Companys coating specialist.
Caution Due to the environmental risk associated with the failure of a pipeline
coating, the Company recommends following the most complete inspection program
available, which includes having a full-time, qualified inspector.
167 Instruments, Tools, and Equipment

The inspector must have available all of the instruments, tools, and equipment
necessary to perform the inspection tasks properly.
The following is a list of coating tests and test tools:
Ambient Coating Condition
PsychrometerFor determining temperature, humidity, and dew point at
the jobsite
Surface Temperature GageFor measuring the temperature of steel
168 Protecting the Companys Equipment

Many of a project's methods, costs, and problems are related to protecting the
Company's equipment. The following are simple, efficient, and cost-effective proce-
dures for protecting common equipment items.
The inspector must monitor these procedures closely and ensure the coatings appli-
cators perform them before and throughout blasting and coating operations.

Wrapping Lights
Problem: Protective light lenses are sensitive to overblast and overspray.
Solution: Wrap in plastic sheeting and duct tape.
Problem: Sheeting melts on the protective lenses.
Solution: Wrap lenses in chicken wire before wrapping in the sheeting. This
will prevent sheeting from melting and provide more permanent
protection for the entire job.
Plugged Drains
Problem: How to prevent sand from clogging drains while allowing small
amounts of water to drain through when raining or when washing area.
Solution: Stuff filter media (woven polyester fibers, and adhesives for filtering
air intakes on engines) into the drain and tie to the cover with a piece
of manila twine.
Problem: Drains surrounded by troughs. Can coatings applicator remove sand
without shoveling out each trough?
Solution: Lay a sheet of filter media over the trough in addition to plugging the
drain.
Protecting Sensitive Equipment

A common misconception is that, during dry blasting, you cannot filter air intakes
on compressors and other engines; therefore, costly wet blasting is necessary.
Problem: How to prevent sensitive equipment from the contamination of blasting
by taking oil samples, installing filter media, and installing filters.
Solution 1 Oil Samples:
1. Before blasting operations begin, take an oil sample from each engine and send
it to a lab for analysis to identify any previous sand or other particle contamina-
tion.
2. When blasting has started, take an oil sample from each engine at least every
two weeks for the duration of the project to identify any potential problems and
allow time for corrective action before any major damage occurs.
Solution 2 Filter Media:
1. Install filter media (to trap particles of five microns or less) with the adhesive
side on the outside to catch small abrasive and dust particles and to prevent the
unit from sucking the sticky side into the primary filters.
2. Ensure coverage of all possible air passageways into the equipment, covering
each corner and edge of the filter housing.
3. Install two layers of media, where possible, to ensure 100 per cent filtration at
all times and to eliminate unnecessary downtime during blasting. Change the

outer layer only; leave the inner layer to filter dust during the several-minute
changeout process.
4. Monitor the filtration closely to ensure that it is adequate and installed properly.
Containment Screens
Problem: Isolate particular areas to keep the remainder of a facility clean
during blasting (reduces cleaning time).
Solution: Strategically position containment screens, usually square or rectan-
gular polypropylene solid or mesh screens of various sizes from
40 ft. 40 ft., to collect spent blast abrasive, dust, and airborne parti-
cles of coating.
Protection from Overblast

Problem: How to reduce overblast significantly (and premature failure of
coatings) with proper blasting and coating techniques and preven-
tive wrapping and shielding.
Solution 1 Keep your work area square means completely blasting and
Squaring Work coating an entire group of items without having to return to the
Area: area for additional blasting. Requires proper planning, thorough
inspection, and precise instructions to blasters.
Note Items in square work area include the tops and bottoms of all piping, braces
and stiffeners, the interior of the wide flange beam webs and flanges, and the
bottom side of the beam flanges.
Solution 2 Re-sweep before squaring work area after carrying out several days
Blasting of rough blasting with appropriately sized blast nozzles and abra-
Procedures: sive. Proper blasting technique ensures the blast nozzle is pointed
away from previously coated surfaces and toward the surfaces to
be blasted, especially during touch-up feathering and spot blasting.
Note Rough or high-productivity blasting calls for larger nozzles, orifice sizes of
5/16 inch or larger venturi; spot and touch-up blasting require smaller nozzles, 3/16
inch or smaller, with straight-bore orifices.
Solution 3 During blasting and coating, wrap to protect all items that will
Protective Wrap-neither be blasted nor coated. The cost of the labor and materials
ping: necessary to add protective wrapping results in a far superior job
and minimizes costs for rework of prematurely failed areas.
Common Shielding
Plastic sheeting, tarpaulins, and burlap sacks are some of the more common
shielding materials.
Problems:
Plastic sheeting is susceptible to overblast damage.

Tarpaulins are expensive and damage easily.

Burlap holds blowdown abrasives which could fall on cleaned areas.
Solution:
Rubber sheeting and plywood. Both have distinct advantages over common
shielding.
Rubber Sheeting. Although the initial cost of rubber sheeting is relatively high,
$3 to $4, per linear foot ($8 to $10 per linear m) for a 36-inch (90 centimeter) wide
section, its purchase is justified because of its many advantages. One-eighth-inch-
thick (three-millimeter thick) rubber sheeting is
Pliable
Works into tight spaces on vessels
Wraps around piping and flanges
Resilient, so that abrasive
Simply bounces off
Causes little damage to sheeting
Easy to cut as needed
Re-usable
Plywood Sheeting. Normally, most coatings applicators do not use plywood to its
full potential. Plywood makes:
Good flooring material in the mixing area to protect areas such as platform
decks from coating spillage
Dividers for several men working in a confined area. Drill holes around the
perimeter for air circulation and observation, then stand plywood boards
upright in a zigzag manner to help keep the boards upright.
A suspended ceiling to protect overhead items from overblast and overspray.
Tie sections together to form the ceiling.
170 References
1. Chevron Corporation. Corrosion Prevention Manual. Chevron Research and
Technology Company. Richmond, CA, January, 1994.

200 Environment, Health & Safety
Abstract
This section discusses considerations for coating projects involving environment
and health, and includes standards and practices for lead and volatile organic
compounds, surface preparation processes such as abrasive blasting, and proper
disposal of wastes from coating projects.
Information about workers' safety which focuses on the responsibilities of both the
Company and contractors' personnel when working on Company projects is also
provided along with descriptions of coating-related hazardsfire, explosion, and
equipmentand their prevention.
Contents Page
210 Environment & Health 200-2

211 Air Quality
212 Lead in Coatings
213 Volatile Organic Compounds
220 Safety 200-17
221 Workers' Safety
222 Fire and Explosive Hazards
223 Equipment Hazards

200 Environment, Health & Safety Coatings Manual
210 Environment & Health

The vehicles of many coatings described in this manual contain organic solvents
which are volatile and are released to the atmosphere as the coating dries and cures.
The Federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set standards limiting the
amount of volatile organic compounds (solvents) that coatings may contain. These
standards are not uniform throughout the U.S.; urban areas have the most stringent
requirements.
As a result of these regulations, manufacturers are developing new technologies and
alternative products. Currently, they are taking two approaches: water-based coat-
ings and high-solids coatings.
To date, evaluations of these compliance coatings show their performances to be
definitely inferior to existing products, with the exception of some higher-cost high-
solids coatings. The Company now applies some high-performance, high-solids
coatings that could substitute for other regulatory-restricted coatings.
To help establish a history for new compliance coatings, it would be helpful if all
users would:
Keep records of their durability, application characteristics, and compatibility
with existing coatings
Report findings to the coating specialist and CRTC's Materials and Equipment
Engineering group (see list of Company contacts in the Quick Reference
Guide)
211 Air Quality

Coatings containing solvents contribute to air pollution during application and
drying. It is important, therefore, that those who specify, purchase, or apply coat-
ings know the air pollution-control regulations for the local area.
Background
In 1963, the U.S. Congress passed the first regulatory Clean Air Act. Subsequent
amendments created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with the power to
establish national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS). The Clean Air Act also
required each State to create its own State Implementation Plan (SIP). The plan
must ensure that all areas of the State meet the national standards.
As motor vehicle exhaust and solvent evaporation are two of the biggest contribu-
tors to air pollution, the strictest regulations affect densely populated areas. (Many
rural areas can meet the national air quality standards without regulation.)
Direction. Air-pollution-control regulations are becoming more restrictive and
widespread. In some areas, the sale or use of non-compliant coatings can result in
fines of up to $1000 for each day of violation. Also, for those who knowingly
continue to violate the law, the penalty can escalate to $25,000 a day.

Coatings Manual 200 Environment, Health & Safety
Note Several good sources of information about those regulations are local
enforcement agencies, coating vendors, coating contractors, and CRTC's coating
specialists. Contact information for all except local agencies is listed in the Quick
Reference Guide.
Blast Cleaning
For dry, unconfined, blast cleaning, consider health and environmental safety
restrictions when selecting the type and brand of abrasive.
Many sand abrasives contain free silica, which, upon prolonged inhalation, can
cause silicosis, a condition of massive fibrosis of the lungs that results in shortness
of breath. For this reason, regulations often limit the acceptable amount of free
silica in abrasives.
Example: The Richmond Refinery limits free silica to 1 wt percent which eliminates
the use of sand abrasive but not most grit, slag, and shot abrasive.
Some abrasives cause a fine dust to form a dust cloud which some government
agencies classify as visual-smoke pollution.
Example: The State of California Air Resources Board (CARB) restricts the amount
of fine particles in abrasives both before and after blasting.[1]
Certain California counties also restrict the type of abrasives. Abrasives are tested
in accordance with California Test Method No. 371-A, Method of Test for Abrasive
Media Evaluation, and must meet the following criteria:
Before Blasting: <1 wt percent of abrasive smaller than No. 70 U.S. Sieve size
After Blasting: <1.8 wt percent of abrasive smaller than 5 microns
Figure 200-1 lists the dust factors of several abrasives.
Potentially Harmful Ingredients

Many coating ingredients are toxic and potentially injurious to human beings.
While the human body may withstand small quantities of these substances for a
relatively short time, continuous exposure is harmful. Through continued exposure
to some materials, such as isocyanate in urethane coatings, it is possible for a
person to become so sensitized that subsequent contact with small amounts of the
substance may cause a strong reaction. Some materials, such as lead, have a cumula-
tive effect so that exposure over a long time builds up the toxic level in the body
until illness results.
Toxic materials may be present in the form of vapor, dust, or spray mist and may
enter the body by ingestion, breathing, or absorption through the skin.
Examples: Toxins are found in lead or heavy metal-bearing pigments (common in
industrial primers), solvents such as benzene and methanol, and vehicles composed
of epoxies, urethanes, amines, and polyesters.

Fig. 200-1 Properties of Several Abrasives Used in Air-Blast Equipment

Free Silica Abrasive Mesh Average Height
Abrasive Dust Factor Content NBS Sizes of Profile (Mils)
Sand, very fine High > 90% 20/40 1.5
Sand, fine High > 90% 16/30 1.9
Sand, medium High > 90% 12/25 2.5
Sand, large High > 90% 10/20 2.8
Steel grit No. G-80(1) Very low None 40 1.3
Iron grit No. 50(1) Very low None 25 3.3
Steel shot NO. S-170(1) Very low None 20 1.8
Iron shot No. S-230(2) Very low None 18 3.0
Flint sand Moderate > 90% 8/30 3.4
Granite sand Moderate < 5% 12/40 3.0
Garnet sand(1) Moderate < 1% 12/40 3.3
Slag Moderate < 1% 8/40 3.6
(1) Only used in blast rooms and cabinets so abrasive can be contained, recycled and reused.
(2) Generally used in automatic blast cleaning facilities using centrifugal wheels.
While protective clothing reduces hazards from dust and spray, vapors are harder to
control. All solvents vaporize in air, but the degree of toxicity varies with the type
of solvent, temperature, degree of confinement, and amount of ventilation.
OSHA sets permissible exposure limits for many materials.[2] A permissible expo-
sure limit (PEL) is defined as the maximum-permitted, eight-hour, time-weighted,
average concentration of an airborne contaminant in ppm in air.[3] Adequate ventila-
tion is essential to operate within these values. Figure 200-2 shows the PEL for com-
monly-used solvents in the coating industry.

Fig. 200-2 Flammable and Toxic Properties of Commonly Used Solvents (1 of 2)

Flashpoint F of Explosive Limits Toxicity P.E.L.(1),
Open Cup % of Volume in Air PPM in Air
Lower Upper
Alcohols
Methanol (Methyl Alcohol) 60 6.0 36.5 200
Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol) 60 3.3 19.0 1000
Normal Propyl Alcohol 96 2.6 13.5 200
Isopropyl Alcohol 55 2.5 400
Secondary Butyl Alcohol 74 1.7 150
Normal Butyl Alcohol 115 1.7 50
Cyclohexanol 154 50
Polyols
Ethylene Glycols, Vapors 240 3.2 100
Propylene Glycol 215 2.6 12.6 100
Dipropylene Glycol 260 100
Esters
Ethyl Acetate 30 2.0 11.5 400
Isopropyl Acetate 60 1.8 7.8 250
Normal Propyl Acetate 65 1.7 8.0 200
Isobutyl Acetate 105 1.6 200
Secondary Butyl Acetate 89 1.6 15.0 150
Normal Butyl Acetate 105 1.6 15.0 150
Amyl Acetate 80 1.1 100
Ketones
Acetone 15 2.9 13.0 1000
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) 35 1.8 11.5 200
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone (MIBK) 75 1.2 8.0 100
Diacetone Alcohol 155 50
Cyclohexanone 129 1.1 50
Diisobutyl Ketone (DIBK) 115 50
Methyl Iso-Amyl Ketone (MIAK) 110 100
Isophorone 205 5
Ethyl Butyl Ketone 115 50
Miscellaneous Active Solvents

Tetra Hydro Furan (THEF) 6(2) 2.0 11.8 200
Dimethyl Formamide 153 10
Ethyl Ether -40 1.8 36.5 400
Isopropyl Ether 250

Fig. 200-2 Flammable and Toxic Properties of Commonly Used Solvents (2 of 2)

Flashpoint F of Explosive Limits Toxicity P.E.L.(1),
Open Cup % of Volume in Air PPM in Air
Lower Upper
Aliphatic Petroleum Napthas
Hexane 0 1.2 6.9 100
Rubber Solvent 0 1.3 6.1 400
Heptane 25 1.1 6.0 400
VM&P Naptha 54 1.1 6.0 300
Mineral Spirits(3) 110 200
Stoddard Solvent 105 1.0 6.0 200
Kerosene(3) 140 0.9 6.0 100
Pentane -55 1.4 8.0 600
Aromatic Hydrocarbon Solvents

Benzene 5 1.5 8.0 10
Toluene 41 1.3 6.7 100
Xylene 81 1.0 5.3 100
Hi-flash Coal Tar Naptha 100 1.1 6.0 100
Styrene Monomer 106 1.1 6.1 100
Terpene Hydrocarbons
Gum Turpentine 93 100
Steam Distilled Turpentine 91 100
Chlorinated Solvents
Carbon Tetrachloride None None None None
Dichloroethyl Ether 131
Ethylene Dichloride 59 6.2 15.9 200
Methylene Chloride, Technical None None None None
Glycol Ethers
Ethylene Glycol Methyl Ether 120 25
Ethylene Glycol Ethyl Ether 115 115
Propylene Glycol Methyl Ether 100 100
Dipropylene Glycol Methyl Ether 185 100
(1) Permissible exposure limit per OSHA General Industry Safety Order Title 8, Table AC-1
(2) Closed Cub
(3) OSHA gave no date. This date is from Chevron's Materials Safety Data Sheets No. 38 for Kerosene and No. 59 for Chevron 350 Thinner
(Mineral Spirits).

212 Lead in Coatings

Lead is a basic chemical element (Pb) that:
Exists as a heavy metal at room temperature and pressure
Can combine with other substances to form many lead compounds, such as
those found in lead-based coating (LBC)
Has been used in coating for many years to improve its effectiveness
Alternative primers are, however, more common today than LBC.
The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) Lead Paint Act of 1971 has
determined a coating to be lead-containing if the dried coating contains more than
0.06 percent lead by weight.
In most Company facilities, specially trained and equipped contractors work in
large lead-abatement construction projects with potentially high exposures to lead.
The Company's employees are usually involved in short-duration maintenance tasks
such as welding equipment with LBC or grinding and chipping to remove LBC
from equipment before welding or applying new coatings.
Other activities can be a source of lead exposure.
Abrasive-blast cleaning of steel tanks and other structures with LBC generates
high levels of dust.
Welding, cutting, and torch burning equipment coated with LBC may cause
lead fumes.
Spraying LBC to recoat surfaces generates an LBC mist.
Health Hazards
Lead adversely affects numerous body systems after periods of exposure from as
short as days to as long as several years.
Exposure to Lead. Human beings can inhale and absorb lead from dust, fumes, or
mist through the lungs and upper respiratory tract. Inhalation of airborne lead is
generally the most significant source of occupational lead absorption. People can
also ingest lead and absorb it through their digestive systems.
Consequences of Exposure to Lead. A significant portion of the lead inhaled or
ingested reaches the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, lead circulates through
the body and is stored in various organs and body tissues, affecting the nervous
system, blood system, and kidneys.
Chronic overexposure to lead also significantly impairs the reproductive systems of
both men and women. Children born of parents exposed to excess levels of lead are
more likely to have birth defects, mental retardation, behavioral disorders, or die
during the first year of childhood.
Some commons symptoms are listed in Figure 200-3.

Fig. 200-3 Alphabetic List of Common Symptoms from Overexposure to Lead in Coatings
Anxiety Insomnia
Colic with severe abdominal pain Loss of appetite
Constipation Metallic taste in mouth
Dizziness Muscle and joint pain or soreness
Excessive tiredness Nervous irritability
Fine tremors Numbness
Headache Pallor
Hyperactivity Weakness
Test Methods
In Company facilities, conduct surveys to identify and quantify LBC in major equip-
ment such as storage tanks, reactors, vessels, and even pilings. An inventory of lead-
coated equipment could help to save time and money, protect Company and
contract workers, and reduce Company liabilities. Both laboratory and field tests
may then determine whether or not lead is present in the coatings.
Note See the Quick Reference Guide of this manual for a list of some laboratories
that analyze coating and air samples for lead.
Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. A common laboratory test for lead in coatings
is Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS). AAS requires scraping a coating chip
sample (e.g., about 0.5 square centimeter or the size of a dime) and sending it to a
laboratory for analysis.
The lab scrapes the surface down to the matrix material (i.e., bare metal, wood)
because the analysis is based on weight. Processing time normally takes a few days
unless the sample is rushed. The AAS method expresses results as weight-to-weight
percentage of lead in the dry coating.
Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrum Analyzer. A non-destructive field-
testing method, the portable X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrum Analyzer,
detects lead in the coating (including all layers of coating and the primer) and
expresses the lead concentration in milligrams of lead per square centimeter
(mg/cm2) of coated surface. The analyzer displays the result within a minute.
Caution Because these instruments have a radiation source, only trained and
licensed users may operate them.
Note For information about the XRF spectrum analyzer, contact CRTC's Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Team.
Chemical Spot Tests. Field-run chemical spot tests provide only qualitative results.
These tests may, however, be useful as a screening tool in conjunction with the
other test methods.
Caution Because the results are not as accurate as those from the AAS and
XRF methods, chemical spot tests offer a much higher risk of false positives and
negatives.

Exposure Standards and Assessment

The OSHA Construction Lead Interim Final Rule (29 CFR 1926.62) establishes a
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) of 50 micrograms of lead per cubic meter of air
(50 g/m3) averaged over an 8-hour period, and an action level of 30 g/m3 averaged
over an 8-hour period.
Note The action level triggers requirements for exposure monitoring, medical
surveillance, and training.
This rule applies to construction, alteration, or repair, including coating and deco-
rating This rule includes, but is not limited to, removing or encapsulating materials
containing lead.
For certain tasks, OSHA requires the employer to assume employees are exposed to
lead over the PEL until exposure monitoring shows otherwise.
Monitoring Requirements. OSHA requires exposure monitoring initially:
For each job classification
In each work area
Either for each shift or for the shift with the highest exposure level
Note The samples must be full-shift personal samples and representative of daily
exposures.
Interim Protective Measures. As noted, for certain tasks, OSHA requires the
employer to assume employees are exposed over the PEL until exposure monitoring
shows otherwise. These tasks, and their assumed exposure level, are shown in
Figure 200-4.
Fig. 200-4 LBC-Removal Tasks by Exposure Levels. OSHA Construction Lead Interim Final Rule (29 CFR 1926.62)
Exposure Level LBC-Removal Tasks
3
Above the PEL and not in excess of 500 mg/m (10 Manual demolition of structures
times the PEL): Heat-gun applications
Power-tool cleaning with dust-collection systems
Spray coating with LBC
Above 500 mg/m3 and not in excess of 2,500 mg/m3 Lead burning
(50 times the PEL) Use of lead-containing mortar
Power-tool cleaning without dust collection systems
Rivet busting
Cleanup activities where dry, expendable abrasives
are used
Moving and removing abrasive-blasting enclosures
Above 2,500 g/m3 Abrasive blasting
Welding, cutting, and burning on steel structures

The following interim protective measures are required for these three groups of
LBC-removal tasks:
Personnel must wear appropriate respirators, personal protective clothing and
equipment
The employer must provide hygiene facilities, biological monitoring, and training
In many cases for jobs of short duration, exposure monitoring can demonstrate that
a respirator with a lower protection factor can be used. Figure 200-5 summarizes
the Company's lead-exposure monitoring data for LBC. This information can help
determine what level of respiratory protection may be needed. Exposure monitoring
often demonstrates that a respirator with a lower protection factor is adequate for
projects of short duration.
Fig. 200-5 Summary of Coating-Related Occupational Lead Exposures at Chevrons Facilities

Number of Exposure Geometric Number of Exposure Geometric
Short-Term Range of Mean of Long-Term Range of Mean of
Air Samples Short-Term Short-Term Air Samples Long-Term Long-Term
Description of Lead-Related Jobs or Tasks (< 2 Hours) Samples Samples (> 2 Hours)(1) Samples Samples
Welding on metal parts or equip-ment 13 < 1 to 140 15 23 < 1 to 40 4

which most likely contained some lead-
based paint. In some cases, the paint may
have been removed prior to the welding.
Short tasks of chipping or buffing to 8 < 1 to 27 6

remove old paint from flanges or other
equipment before applying new paint or
before welding.
Torch burning, arc gouging, and cutting up 69(2) <1 to 770 140
scraps during demolition of tanks, vessels
and towers.
Abrasive blasting to remove old-lead- 17(3) 6 to 9,200 130

based paint. The air samples were
collected outside the blasting hood or
helmet.
Abrasive blasting to remove old lead- 6 < 1 to 44 7

based paint. The air samples were
collected inside the blasting hood or
helmet to assess workers actual expo-
sure to lead dusts.
Sand-blasters helpers maintain and posi- 8 < 1 to 41 5

tion blasting equipment and carry out
other miscellaneous tasks.
Laborers and helpers remove post-blast 13 < 1 to 140 9

grits and clean up the blasting equipment.
(1) Exposures Expressed as 8-Hour Time-Weighted Averages (TWA) in g/m3 (For Exposure Monitoring Samples Collected Between
January, 1984 and August, 1993)
(2) Among the 69 long-term samples, 42 showed TWA exposures in excess of the OSHA PEL of 50 g/m3 for lead. Only 3 of the 69 samples
(4.3 percent), however, exceeded 500 (g/m3. On a 95 percent confidence level, therefore, a half-face HEPA respirator (suitable up to
500 g/m3) can provide adequate protection for these demolition tasks.
(3) Although 1 of the 17 samples showed TWA exposures at 9,200 g/m3 , statistically, that sample can be classified as an outlier. During
abrasive blasting, therefore, the commonly used, supplied, air-abrasive, blasting respirators (with loose-fitting hood or helmet, operated
in a continuous-flow mode) can provide adequate protection.

Caution This information is not a substitute for conducting site-specific exposure

assessments.
Methods of Compliance
The Company's project engineer must establish a written compliance program prior
to each project in which workers' exposure may exceed the PEL. The compliance
program must provide for frequent and regular inspections of job sites, materials,
and equipment by a competent person.
Note A competent person is one who has both of the following:
Ability to identifyin the surroundings or working conditionsexisting and
predictable lead hazards that are hazardous to workers
Authority to take prompt, corrective measures to eliminate those hazards
Written Programs. Written programs should include the following:
A description of each activity during which lead will be emitted
Specific plans for achieving compliance, including engineering plans and
studies if engineering controls are required
Information on the technology which will be used to meet the PEL
Air monitoring data that documents the source of lead emissions
A detailed schedule for implementing the program
A work-practice program, outlining all regulations for protective work clothing
and equipment as well as guidelines for housekeeping and hygiene in the facility
An administrative control schedule for job rotation, if needed
The details of any arrangements among contractors (on multi-contractor sites)
identifying the person responsible for compliance and informing affected
employees of potential exposure to lead
Respiratory Protection. Personnel must wear respirators under any of the
following circumstances:
When the exposure exceeds the PEL
If an employee requests a respirator
As an interim protection until exposure levels are assessed
Note Select respirators based on the airborne concentration of lead, according to
Figure 200-6.
In the absence of site-specific exposure-monitoring data, always assume exposures
for arc gouging, torch burning, and abrasive blasting to exceed 2,500 g/m3.
Example: A supplied-air respirator, operated in pressure demand or other positive-
pressure mode, is required to protect workers performing arc gouging, torch
burning, and abrasive blasting.

Fig. 200-6 Respiratory Protection for Lead Aerosols

Airborne Concentration of
Lead or Condition of Use Required Respirator (1)
Not in excess of 500 g/m3 Half mask air purifying respirator with high efficiency filters, (2), (3)
Half mask supplied air respirator operated in demand (negative
pressure) mode.
Not in excess of 1,250 g/m3 Loose-fitting hood or helmet-powered air-purifying respirator with high-
efficiency filters.(3)
Hood- or helmet-supplied air-respirator operated in a continuous-flow
mode; e.g., type CE-abrasive-blasting respirators operated in a
continuous-flow mode.
Not in excess of 2,500 g/m3 Full facepiece air purifying respirator with high-efficiency filters.(3)
Tight fitting powered air purifying respirator with high-efficiency
filters.(3)
Half mask or full facepiece supplied air respirator operated in a
continuous-flow mode.
Full facepiece self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) operated in
demand mode.
Not in excess of 50,000 g/m3 Half mask supplied air respirator operated in pressure demand or other
positive-pressure mode.
Not in excess of 100,000 g/m3 Full face piece supplied air respirator operated in pressure demand or
other positive-pressure mode; e.g., type CE abrasive blasting respirators
operated in a positive-pressure mode.
Greater than 100,000 g/m3 Full facepiece SCBA operated in pressure demand or other positive-
unknown concentration or fire pressure mode.
fighting
(1) Respirators specified for higher concentrations can be used at lower concentrations of lead.
(2) Full facepiece is required if the lead aerosols cause eye or skin irritation at the use concentrations.
(3) A high-efficiency particulate filter (HEPA) means a filter that is 99.97 percent efficient against particles of 0.3 micron size or larger.
The Company's data in Figure 200-5 suggests that a half-face air purifying respirator
with a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter is adequate for arc gouging and
torch burning; while the commonly used supplied-air abrasive-blasting hood or helmet
(operated in a continuous-flow mode) is sufficient for the task of abrasive blasting.
Along with some site-specific local data, refer to the data in Figure 200-5 to select
appropriate respiratory protection equipment for workers.
Protective Clothing & Equipment. Personal protective equipment is required as
follows:
For exposure to lead above the PEL and lead compounds that may irritate skin
or eyes
As interim protection until an exposure assessment is completed

Protective work clothing and equipment which prevent contamination of workers

and their garments include such items as:
Coveralls or full-body work clothing
Gloves, hats, and shoes or disposable coverlets
Face shields and vented goggles
The regulations prescribe methods for cleaning, laundering, or disposing of all
protective clothing.
Engineering, Work Practice, and Administrative Controls. Engineering, work
practice, and administrative controls help to reduce and maintain employees' expo-
sure to or below the PEL.
Examples: Engineering controls include sealed containment structures with nega-
tive pressure dilution ventilation, power tools equipped with dust collection shrouds
exhausted through a HEPA vacuum system, and vacuum blasting.
Examples: Work practice controls include housekeeping to remove accumulations
of lead dust, and personal hygiene.
Examples: Administrative controls include scheduling workers' tasks to minimize
exposure levels, and worker rotation.
When all feasible and instituted controls are insufficient to reduce exposure to or
below the PEL, then use respirators to supplement the work operation.
Hygiene Facilities. Employees may not bring food, beverages, tobacco products,
and cosmetics to the job site where lead is above the PEL. In addition, they must
have clean change areas, shower facilities, and lunchroom facilities or eating areas.
Medical Surveillance. Figure 200-7 shows the type of medical surveillance
required for various levels of exposure.
Fig. 200-7 Medical Surveillance Based on Level of Exposure

Level of Exposure Description of Medical Surveillance (1)
Occupational exposure to lead on any one day at or Blood sampling and analysis for initial exposure
above the action level assessment
Performing trigger tasks(2) during initial exposure
assessment
Exposure to lead at or above the action level for more Program of routine blood tests made available to
than 30 days a year employees
Blood level exceeds 40 g/dl if the exposure is or may be Full medical surveillance program, including annual
at or above the action level for more than 30 days a year medical exams
Routine and follow-up test for blood lead levels exceed Remove employee from exposure to airborne lead
the removal criteria of 50 g/dl that exceeds the action level
(1) A licensed physician must perform or supervise the performance of all medical examinations.
(2) See Figure 200-4 for trigger tasks.

Employee Information and Training. Employees must receive appropriate

training if they will be exposed to lead or lead compounds at or above the action
level. Training includes subjects such as:
Health hazards
Warning signs and labels
Contents of the lead standard
Work operations
Respirators
Medical surveillance
Engineering controls
Compliance plans
A Word About Contractors. Typically, independent contractors remove LBC from
the Company's facilities for specific projects. These contractors should:
Receive most or all of their directions from the contractor's personnel
Follow the contractor's procedures
Use the contractor's equipment
Information in this section is offered as a basis for a pre-project discussion about
contractors' lead protection programs.
Recommendations for a Contractor's LBC- Removal Project within the
Company. The Company representative on the project should:
Require that the contractor meet all Federal, State, and local requirements
concerning lead
Ensure that the contractor has a competent inspector (as defined in this section)
Request that the contractor demonstrate that all of the contractor's employees
have received appropriate training and are included in a contractor-adminis-
tered, medical-surveillance program (if necessary)
Work with the contractor to ensure that all applicable permits, notifications,
and waste manifests are in order and that the contractor disposes of lead-
containing wastes properly
Caution If the contractor's employees are found to be out of compliance with the
lead standards, treat this condition as a breach of contract and discontinue work
until the contractor remedies the situation.
Environmental Disposal Guidelines

Federal and State regulations classify hazardous wastes as those substances that are
ignitable, corrosive, or toxic. Waste and water regulations specifically restrict the
disposal of lead-containing waste and wastewater. Some unused coating and
solvents may qualify for disposal as hazardous wastes.

Environmental regulations vary among states and may be more restrictive than
Federal regulations. Discuss specific regulations that may apply to your waste
disposal circumstances with the local environmental compliance specialist.
As a minimum, Federal regulations will require the following:
Lead contamination found in the soil may require additional investigation and
clean-up.
Wastewater disposal criteria will be different at each facility depending on the
conditions in the facility's wastewater-discharge permit.
Hazardous wastes must be treated before disposal, depending on the waste and
the State's requirements.
Note Some States have additional restrictions on disposal of waste contaminated
with lead even when it is not a hazardous waste.
Caution Diluting waste to remove hazardous characteristic(s) is prohibited.
Threshold of Lead Toxicity as Hazardous Waste. A waste exhibits the character-
istic of lead toxicity when a TCLP (Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure)
analysis indicates Pb 5.0 mg/ l (ppm) as a measure of leachable lead after
extracting the sample with acid.
Handle and dispose of a waste that exceeds this threshold as a hazardous waste.
Caution California has an additional analytical criterion that classifies a waste
as hazardous with either of the following:
Pb 1000 mg/kg (by a total analysis)
Pb 5.0 mg/l (by a leachable analysis similar to TCLP)
Figure 200-8 is a summary of Federal Hazardous Waste classification criteria that
may apply to lead-contaminated coating wastes. It describes criteria for classifying
a waste as hazardous both by lead toxicity and by listed solvent content. Additional
State waste classification codes or criteria may also be applicable.
Fig. 200-8 Summary of Criteria for Classification as Federal Hazardous Waste

Hazardous Waste EPA Waste
Constituent Threshold Code
Lead 5.0 mg/l by D008
TCLP method
Tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene, methylene chloride, < 10 percent in spent F001
trichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride, or chlorinated fluorocarbons solvent from degreasing
Xylene, acetone, ethyl acetate, ethyl benzene, ethyl ether, methyl < 10 percent in F003
isobutyl ketone, n-butyl alcohol, cyclohexanone, or methanol spent solvent
Toluene, methyl ethyl ketone, carbon disulfide, isobutanol, < 10 percent in F005
pyridine, benzene, 2-ethoxyethanol, 2-nitropropane spent solvent
Notes: 1. Additional State waste classification codes or criteria may also be applicable to wastes from LBC.

Waste Sources and Alternatives

A variety of waste streams generated during lead abatement might become lead
contaminated. Consider the effect of environmental constraints on the project's
potential wastes.
Examples: Lead-contaminated waste streams may include abrasive media, coating
chips or dust, cleaning materials or stripping solvents, rags, wash water, solid
debris, protective clothing and equipment, and containment tarpaulins.
Source Reduction. From the standpoint of source reduction, determine if lead-
contaminated coatings must be removed or encapsulated. Overcoating may serve to:
Prevent further deterioration of lead-contaminated coatings
Allow lead-contaminated coatings to remain in place
Reduce exposure from the removal-and-disposal activity
Handling. Two handling techniques help to reduce the amount of waste that must
be treated as hazardous.
Segregate wastes to reduce the quantity of hazardous waste. Several types of
grit recycling equipment can separate coating chips from blast media.
Minimize the contamination of other materials with lead-contaminated waste.
Containment tarpaulins or enclosures used to control airborne dust also keep
coating chips out of surrounding soil.
During a coating project, some processes generate hazardous wastes.
Chemical stripping produces a solvent waste that may need to be handled as a
hazardous waste.
Wet-abrasive blasting or high-pressure water creates a lead-contaminated
wastewater stream that is not permitted in some wastewater systems.
Treatment. If treatment is necessary before disposal, the lead-contaminated waste
is usually solidified or mixed with cement at the disposal facility. This treatment
reduces its leachability.
Reclamation and Disposal. Be sure to dispose of all wastes in a Company-
approved facility for either hazardous or non-hazardous wastes.
Most lead-abatement work generates hazardous waste. Often the greatest liability
from waste disposal, however, comes from industrial waste in poorly operated, non-
hazardous-waste facilities.
Equipment that is dismantled and sold as scrap can present a liability similar to
disposal. Reclamation sites have been the source of the Company's greatest off-site
environmental liability. Arrange for contracts involving the sale of scrap metal or
surplus equipment to include many of the requirements of the Company's standard
environmental services agreements. Local contracts group or legal advisors can
help negotiate these terms in agreements with a reclaimer.

Abrasive-blasting waste may be a hazardous solid waste, especially from surfaces

coated with LBCs. Arrange to dispose of these wastes in appropriate sites such as
California's Class I (hazardous-waste landfill) sites.
There are two choices for small amounts of waste:
Test the waste and dispose of it in an appropriate, Company-approved facility
Do not to test the waste but dispose of it in a Class I site
The cost is about $500 to run the Extraction Procedure Toxicity Test, Method 1310,
for hazardous metals such as lead and chromium and organics such as pesticides
and herbicides. [4]
Caution Always test large amounts to determine the proper disposal site.
213 Volatile Organic Compounds

The vehicles of many coatings discussed in this manual contain organic solvents
that are volatile and are released to the atmosphere as the coating dries and cures.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) are reported in grams/liter, and the Company
expects the EPA's regulatory limit to be at or below 340 g/l for coatings.
Where applicable, the VOC is noted beside each brand of coatings on the system
data sheets (in the Quick Reference Guide); those marked with a bullet comply with
the anticipated regulatory limit; but all have less than 420 grams/liter VOC in the
can. The VOC is also listed in the Glossary of Acceptable Brands (Quick Reference
Guide).
Caution Thinning a coating with solvent increases its VOC level. Be sure to
follow the coating manufacturers' directions for thinning.
Note Check local standards for current VOC limits and consult the manufac-
turer's product data sheets before applying any coating.
220 Safety
221 Workers' Safety

In general, the Company and its contractors are responsible for the safety of their
respective employees. Normally, the employer who creates a hazardous working
condition is responsible for correcting it. We should not, however, practice an abso-
lute hands-off policy towards a contractor's safety performance.
The Company's representatives have a duty to inform and warn contractors of any
known safety hazards, health exposures, or environmental concerns. To minimize
the Company's liability, at a minimum:
Make sure the equipment to be coated is in a safe condition before turning it
over to the contractor; or

Inform the contractor in writing of hazardous conditions that may be present

and of safety procedures and equipment that are necessary; and
Require that the contractor's personnel follow general safety rules, such as
wearing hard hats, safety glasses, and long sleeves.
Example: Richmond Refinery requires that the contractor follow the refinery's
General Instructions and Safety Practices Guide. Other refineries have similar
rules.
The Company's Loss Prevention Guide No. 25 covers all aspects of Company/
contractor relationships except specific circumstances for temporary workers.
Review the Company's safety policy with contractors and have it available for
contractors' reference. These safety requirements, based on expert knowledge and
specific OSHA requirements, serve as minimal guidelines for work on the
Company's facilities and supplement the contractor's own safety program.
In general, it is primarily the contractor's responsibility to:
Assure safety of the application personnel
Know the potential hazards of the materials and equipment being used
Take proper steps to avoid these hazards
Example: The contractor is responsible for providing proper equipment for the safe
application of coatings and proper clothing to protect personnel from ingesting and
inhaling toxic chemicals or from absorbing them through the skin. The contractor is
also responsible for proper disposal of the coating, cans, and solvents.
222 Fire and Explosive Hazards

In general, coating and coating components are highly flammable and, in some
concentrations, explosive. In Figure 200-2, there is a listing of flashpoints and
explosive limits for solvents commonly found in coatings.
Note Flashpoint is the explosive limit of a material.
Flashpoint: A measure of flammability, flashpoint is the average temperature at
which the vapor pressure above a liquid is high enough to form a combustible
mixture with air. This mixture will ignite if exposed to flame.
Explosive Limits: A measure of explosion potential, explosive limits are the
percentages of a material in a volume of air above and below which no explo-
sion will occur. The critical range is considered to be between the lower and
upper limits for a given material. Some materials will flash or explode upon
ignition if there is just the right amount of them in a volume of air. If there is
not enough of the material, it will not support combustion; if too much, there is
not enough air for combustion.

Preventing Fires and Explosions

The following fundamental techniques are intended to prevent fire and explosions:
Prevent fires by keeping a material well below its flashpoint and by isolating it
from every possible source of ignition.
Prevent explosions with proper ventilation to keep the vapor concentration
below the lower explosive limit.
Note OSHA requires sufficient ventilation to keep the concentration of vapors
below 20 percent of the lower explosive limit.[5] The Richmond Refinery further
limits the concentrations to less than 10 percent.[6]
Abrasive Blasting
During abrasive blasting, sparking is a potential fire hazard. There are three
possible sources of sparks:
Abrasive striking metal surface
Frictional heating of surface during blasting
Build up of static electricity charges due to flow of abrasive through blasting
equipment
Tests have shown that sparks from the first two sources do not contain enough heat
energy to ignite flammable vapors. If, however, equipment is improperly grounded,
sparks from the third source can ignite vapors.[7, 8]
To reduce the risk of fire during abrasive blasting, stipulate that, before a coating
project begins, the contractor must:
Bond and ground all blasting equipment and the surface being prepared
Check every connection to assure it is properly bonded and grounded
See also the Company's Fire Protection Manual.[9]
Internal Coatings
Refer to both OSHA 29 CFR 1910 and manufacturers' product data sheets when
working with internal coatings.[10] Many internal coatings contain flammable
vapors or vapors that irritate eyes or breathing or both.
Workers should follow these basic rules when using internal coatings:
Keep coatings away from heat, sparks, and flames.
Apply coatings only with adequate ventilation, appropriate respiratory devices,
and other protective equipment.
Explosive Mixtures
In addition to the potential hazard of a coating, some coating components can be
highly explosive if mixed improperly.

When preparing catalyzed polyester and vinyl ester coatings for application,
combine three ingredients: the polyester or vinyl ester resin, the promoter, and the
catalyst.
Caution If promoter and catalyst come in direct contact, flash explosions result;
therefore, follow this sequence carefully, regardless how much you are preparing:
1. Mix the resin and promoter thoroughly. Insufficient mixing of the promoter and
resin can leave pockets of promoter and cause explosions.
2. Add the catalyst slowly.
3. Mix completely.
Frequently, to avoid the potential of explosion, manufacturers sell pre-promoted
polyester and vinyl ester (i.e., the promoter and resin are mixed at the factory).
However, these mixtures have a shorter shelf life.
Caution It is crucial to follow the manufacturer's recommendations when
applying these types of coatings.
223 Equipment Hazards

Serious injury may result from improper or careless use of high-pressure equip-
ment, ladders, scaffolding, scrapers, and other coatings applications.
Most equipment hazards can be avoided by using common sense.
Ladders and Scaffolding

Ladders and scaffolding must meet the guidelines in the Company's Safety in
Designs manual.[11]
Aluminum Equipment
One potential danger with aluminum equipment involves coatings containing chlori-
nated solvents. Solvents such as 1,1,1-trichlorethane and methylene chloride can
promote corrosion of aluminum. If the reaction takes place in enclosed equipment
such as coating pumps or heaters, pressure can build up quickly and result in
ruptures.
Caution Avoid aluminum equipment when applying coatings which contain chlori-
nated solvents.
Unfortunately, aluminum is very common in spray equipment for coatings.
High-pressure Liquid Sprayers

Another potential equipment hazard involves high-pressure liquid sprayers (airless).
The spray from this equipment can penetrate skin.
Caution Handle spray equipment with care as improper use can kill.

230 References
1. CARB. Letter to R.D. Sweeney. Materials Laboratory File N21.01. Chevron
Corporation, December 11, 1980.
2. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration.
Special Edition of the Federal Register. OSHA General Industry Safety Orders,
Title 8, Section 5155, p. 432.262-432.270.12. United States Government
Printing Office. Washington, 1995.
3. . Special Edition of the Federal Register. OSHA General Industry
Safety Orders, Title 8, Section 5155, p. 432.259. United States Government
Printing Office. Washington, 1995.
4. Environmental Protection Agency. Test Method for Evaluating Solid Waste:
Physical/Chemical Methods SW-846.
Special Edition of the Federal Register. OSHA General Industry Safety Orders,
Title 8, Section 5416, p. 526.6.5. United States Government Printing Office.
Washington, 1995.
6. Chevron Corporation. Richmond Refinery Operating Standard R9920.
Richmond, CA.
7. Bradley, H.P. Tanks Can Be Sandblasted Safely While in Service. Petroleum
Refinery. January 1961.
8. Lankford, J. Leon. Sandblasting Safety Guide for Petroleum Storage Tanks.
American Painting Contractor. Vol. 20, No. 4. August 1980: pp. 2-9.
9. Chevron Corporation. Fire Protection Manual. Chevron Research and
Technology Company. Richmond, CA, December, 1994.
Special Edition of the Federal Register. OSHA 29 CFR 1910. United States
Government Printing Office. Washington, 1995.
11. Chevron Corporation. Safety in Designs, Chevron Research and Technology
Company, September, 1996.

300 Coatings Selection
Abstract
This section discusses the basics of coatings selection. Topics covered include: life
expectancy, turn-around time, economics, and color. An important part of the selec-
tion process, factors that limit selection, is also discussed.
For atmospheric, concrete, internal vessel, and coatings under insulation and fire-
proofing, the selection process is straightforward and is detailed in the Quick Refer-
ence Guide.
For those surfaces and logistics requiring special consideration, there is also general
information in the following sections of this manual:
Section 600, Concrete Coatings
Section 700, Downhole Tubular Coatings
Section 800, Offshore Coatings
Section 900, Pipeline Coatings
For assistance with specific projects involving those coatings, contact one of the
Company's coating specialists listed in the Quick Reference Guide.
Contents Page
310 General Information 300-3

320 Economics 300-3
321 Initial Costs
322 Lifetime Costs
330 Color 300-11
331 Federal and Industry Standards
332 Color Systems for Company Facilities
333 Safety Colors
334 Company Identity
340 Other Factors Affecting Selection 300-18
341 Environmental Regulations
342 Surface Preparation

300 Coatings Selection Coatings Manual
343 Permissible Application Methods

344 Weather at the Application Site
345 Service Temperature & Handling
346 Substrate
347 Supply of Coatings
348 Performance & Long-term Aesthetics
349 Generic Internal Coatings

Coatings Manual 300 Coatings Selection

An important element in any coating project is choosing the best coating system for
the intended service. Among the considerations are the coating's life expectancy,
exposure, maintenance, application, and turn-around time.
Life Expectancy. One primary consideration for coating new construction is the
longest possible service life. Cost of materials represents only 15 to 20 percent of
the total cost of application.
Exposure. The coating must be appropriate for its intended service conditions such
as temperature and immersion.
Maintenance. Because no one material is perfect nor can any be applied economi-
cally to perfection, choose coatings that are practical and economical to maintain
(both immediately after application and well into the service life).
Application. Coatings should be practical and economical to apply, should work
with conventional or available equipment and technology, and should be compatible
with a variety of other materials.
Turn-around Time. Cure and recoat times needed before items are placed back in
service are important considerations when selecting a coating.
In the Quick Reference Guide, charts provide assistance with selecting the
following coatings:
Atmospheric Coatings (on- and offshore)
Concrete Coatings (mild environment only)
Coatings under Insulation and Fireproofing
Internal Vessel Coatings
For help with specific coating situations involving such surfaces or logistics as
offshore, concrete, downhole tubulars, and pipelines (both internal and external),
contact the Company's Coating Specialists.
320 Economics
The information in this section comes from published references and local experi-
ence [1, 2, 3, 4].
While several coating systems may be acceptable for a given project, their costs and
durabilities will vary. Choose the system that provides the lowest total cost to the
Company over the life of the equipment.
Caution Do not fall into the trap of choosing coatings based on the cost per
gallon regardless of the coating's life, cost per mil thickness, or drying time.

321 Initial Costs

Percent Solids
Coverage is the main comparison in the percent solids. If one coating is 50 percent
solids (i.e., 50 percent solvent, which will evaporate) and the other is 100 percent,
the 50 percent solids will take twice as many gallons to cover the same area at the
same thickness as the 100 percent solids.
The 100 percent solids coating could cost twice as much as the 50 percent one and
still be equal in true cost of materials.
Surface Preparation
A cleaner surface does not always require more work and cost more. A brush-
blasted surface is better and often cheaper than a hand-cleaned wire-brushed
surface. A more expensive surface preparation often means a longer life for the
coating system and may actually give a lower total cost for the coating system over
the life of the equipment.
Drying Time
While application costs appear essentially the same, there are two points to
consider: decreased productivity and ease of handling.
Decreased productivity. There is decreased productivity with an alkyd which dries
slowly. The coatings applicator must wait for one side of a pipe to dry before
turning it over to finish coating it. A fast-drying inorganic zinc may actually save
money.
Ease of handling. Two coatings may not tolerate handling equally; one may be
damaged more easily and require more touch up.
True Cost
Estimating the true cost of coating is not simple. Cost and practicality are two
considerations, but there are other factors. See Figure 300-1.
Note Careful consideration resulted in the coating systems found in the Quick
Reference Guide of this manual.
322 Lifetime Costs

Preparing an economic analysis helps justify one coating system over another;
however, this task can be quite complex and is therefore uncommon.
Figures 300-2 through 300-7 give six examples of economic analyses chosen from
the dozens of surfaces the Company coats:
Tanks
Piping
PipingSurface Preparation
Structural Steel

Fig. 300-1 Cost Factors to Consider for Coating Systems

Task Consider Other Comments
Materials Selection Cost per square foot at specified Varies with the percent of solids,
thickness the specified dry film thickness and
the cost per gallon
Paint loss Typical 15 percent for flat surfaces
to 30 percent or more for complex
shapes
Surface Preparation Cleanliness vs. Life
Wheelabrators may take only
single pieces of pipe which then
need to be welded and reblasted
before painting
Application Complexity of the paint Single or multiple component?
Complexity of the shape Flat tank surfaces or small piping?
Cost of access for final coats and On ground, in the air, or offshore?
maintenance
Impact of curing time on the
schedule
Fig. 300-2 TanksComparing Costs of Coating Systems

Fig. 300-3 PipingComparing Cost of Several Coating Systems
Fig. 300-4 PipingComparing Surface Preparation Costs of Several Coating Systems

Fig. 300-5 Structural SteelComparing Cost of Several Coating Systems
Fig. 300-6 Offshore PlatformsComparing Costs of Several Coating Systems

Fig. 300-7 Internal Coating for TanksComparing Costs of Several Coating Systems for Saltwater Immersion (80F)
Offshore Platforms
Internal Coating
Each example shows the net cost of several coating systems where cost includes
surface preparation, application, and materials.
See the following resources:
Figures 300-8, 300-9, 300-10 for cost analyses
Figure 300-11 for coating life in various climates
In the six examples (Figures 300-2 through 300-7), the most cost-effective coating
system is the one with the lowest, net, present cost at the design's projected life.
Additionally:
Consider systems with almost equal costs essentially equal.
Base selection on non-quantifiable factors such as chalking resistance and
expected level of maintenance.
Consider the system with the longer life if you anticipate little maintenance
effort.

Fig. 300-8 Surface Preparation Costs$/Sq. Ft.

Abrasive Blast Wheelabrator
Cleanliness (Shop & Field) (Shop)
Piping and Structural Steel
SSPC SP3 .45 N/A
SSPC SP7 (NACE 4) .60 N/A
SSPC SP6 (NACE 3) .80 .40
SSPC SP10 (NACE 2) 1.05 .55
SSPC SP5 (NACE 1) 1.25 .60
Tanks
SSPC SP3 .40 N/A
SSPC SP7 (NACE 4) .50 N/A
SSPC SP10 (NACE 2) .90 .50
Source: Jeffco Painting & Coating, October 1994
Their prices are good engineering estimates for Northern California. Costs will vary by location. Estimates
are based on 10,000 Ft2 of surface area.
Fig. 300-9 Application Costs$/Sq. Ft.

Coating DFT (mils) Field-Applied Shop-Applied
Piping and Structural Steel
One Part Primer (alkyd) 2.0 .24 .21
Two Part Primer (epoxy) 4.0 .32 .25
Zinc Rich Primer 3.0 .38 .30
One Part Topcoat (alkyd) 2.0 .22 .21
Two Part Topcoat (urethane) 2.0 .39 .35
Tanks
One Part Primer (alkyd) 2.0 .15 .14
Two Part Primer (epoxy) 4.0 .20 .18
Zinc Rich Primer 3.0 .35 .25
One Part Topcoat (alkyd) 2.0 .15 .14
Two Part Topcoat (urethane) 2.0 .33 .32
Source: Jeffco Painting & Coating, October 1994
Their prices are good engineering estimates for Northern California. Costs will vary by location. Estimates
are based on 10,000 Ft2 of surface area.

Fig. 300-10 Cost of Materials

Cost $/Sq.Ft. DFT (mils)
Primers
Alkyd (off the shelf) .08 2
Chlorinated Rubber N/A N/A
Epoxy .09 4
Epoxy Mastic .16 5
Inorganic Zinc Self Cure .21 3
Universal Primer .07 2
Vinyl N/A N/A
Zinc Rich Epoxy .16 3
Intermediate Coats
High Build Epoxy .09 4
High Build Vinyl N/A N/A
Vinyl N/A N/A
Top Coats
Alkyd (off the shelf) .08 2
Chlorinated Rubber N/A N/A
Coal Tar Epoxy (C200 version) .13 8
Coal Tar Epoxy (Standard) .12 8
Epoxy .09 4
High Build Chlorinated N/A N/A
Rubber
High Build Vinyl N/A N/A
Silicone Alkyd .17 2
Urethane .14 2.5
Vinyl N/A N/A
Includes 20% spray loss. Source: Jeffco Painting & Coating, October 1994. These prices are good for
engineering estimates for Northern California. Costs will vary by location. Estimates are based on
10,000 Ft2 of surface area.

Fig. 300-11 Application Costs$/Sq. Ft.

Humid
Moderate Coastal
Coating DFT Dry Inland Coastal Offshore
Alkyd 4 7 5 2
Alkyd - Multi Mil 8 10 7 4
SCIZ/HB 10 30+ 25 20
Epoxy/Urethane
SCIZ/HB 13 30+ 25 20
Vinyl/HB Vinyl
SCIZ/HB CHL 13 30+ 25 20
R/HB CHL Rubber
SCIZ/HB Epoxy/HB 13 30+ 25 20
Epoxy
SCIZ/Silicone Alkyd 6 25 20 15
Vinyl - 5 Coat 8 12 10 7
Epoxy/Alkyd with Brush Blast 4.5 12 10 6
Notes: SCIZ = Self cured inorganic zinc
HB = High build
Assumptions
The analyses in Figures 300-2 through 300-7 are based on the following assumptions:
Re-coating the equipment. Often this may not be true, and it would be better to
choose a system with a longer life and pay a somewhat high cost.
Coating primarily for aesthetics. Maintaining a good appearance as long as
possible is one of the bases for selection.
Note Different assumptions could lead to different lowest-cost systems. There are
many coatings systems which will do the job. No one system is perfect. Overall,
there is more to gain by working on the quality of surface preparation and applica-
tion than by working long hours to select optimum materials.
330 Color
This section guides you in choosing and matching paint colors for new and existing
process plants and tanks. It also emphasizes the proper use of safety colors and
Company Identity colors. Building interiors and equipment are not included in this
section.
The Corporation has chosen to update the Company color scheme to simplify the
color palette and improve the compatibility of the colors in the palette. These
changes are also discussed in this section.

Color selection is a management decision, but many facilities have adopted the
color systems outlined below. Each system description has suggested uses for each
color group to best match the facility's environment with color systems. If a local
preference exists it shall take precedence over the color palettes described hereafter.
When warranted, a qualified color consultant can be engaged to develop a specific
color to blend with the surroundings at a particular site. This is especially encour-
aged where facilities will have special public impact. Use this approach with care
as approval of more than one unique color for a given facility is rare.
331 Federal and Industry Standards

Chevron has adopted Federal Color Codes for the existing Company color codes
and has adopted ANSI safety colors. The use of these known standards eliminates
the need to send out color chips to equipment manufacturers and vendors. While
these Federal colors do not exactly match the Company colors, weathering and
aging preclude an exact match to existing equipment, even when using the
Company's color chips.
Federal Standard 595a Colors designates colors with a five-digit code. The first
digit indicates the gloss, the second digit indicates the predominant color group,
and the last three digits indicate the approximate order of increasing reflectance and
are assigned non-consecutively. The codes for gloss and color group are:
gloss: 1 = glossy
2 = semigloss
3 = flat (lusterless)
color group: 0 = brown
1 = red
2 = orange
3 = yellow
4 = green
5 = blue
6 = gray
7 = miscellaneous (black, white)
8 = fluorescent
332 Color Systems for Company Facilities

The following subsections describe each color system, their associated component
colors, and how to select and specify those colors for plants and equipment.
Color Systems
For new plants the Company most often uses either Pastel or Silver/Gray color
systems, depending on the climate and surrounding environment. For special situa-
tions the Company uses only the Aluminum and Black colors.

Pastel. The Pastel color systems are used in moderate and warm climates, where
they are compatible with the environment and the visual setting.
Pastel-A. Use where the plant is viewed against or within surrounding land forms
with little green vegetation. The Pastel-A system consists of:
Desert Sand/MojavePrimary Color for the body of the plant including
columns, vessels, exchangers, on-plot pipeways and pipeway supports; control
houses; office buildings. Mojave is the new primary color for the Pastel - A
scheme. As Desert Sand weathers and ages it becomes a pinkish color. A new
color, Mojave, was chosen that will alleviate this problem so all new plants
shall be painted with Mojave as the Primary Color.
RedwoodTrim Color for structural steel, platforms, machinery, pumps,
compressors and trim on control houses and office buildings.
Warm BlackDark Color for stacks, furnaces, and flares.
Dawn White/WhiteLPG Sphere and Line Color. Dawn White may be
used for painting tanks in a setting where tanks are predominantly silhouetted
against a hazy sky.
Pastel-B. Use where the plant is viewed against or within surrounding land forms
with green vegetation. The Pastel-B system consists of:
Palm GreenPrimary Color for the body of the plant including columns,
vessels, exchangers, on-plot pipeways and pipeway supports; control houses;
office buildings.
Vista GreenTrim Color for structural steel, platforms, machinery, pumps,
compressors and trim on control houses and office buildings.
against a hazy sky.
Gray/Black. The new Gray/Black color system is a consolidation of the old
Chevron Silver Gray, Aluminum/Black, and Black, color systems. The uses are the
same. Use the Gray/Black system where pastels are not compatible with the envi-
ronment, generally in colder climates and bleak industrial settings that are without
greenery much of the year. Use aluminum paint as the primary color in plants
containing mostly aluminum jacketed vessels and lines or stainless steel equipment.
Pastels may be used selectively in this system to relieve monotony. Use black as the
primary color for plants (such as asphalt plants) in which colors are not practical.
Use adjacent to water, offshore, or where the plant is viewed against the sky. The
Gray/Black system consists of:
Dark Silver Gray/AluminumPrimary Color for the body of the plant
including columns, vessels, exchangers, on-plot pipeways and pipeway
supports; control houses; office buildings.

Steel BlueTrim/Accent Color for structural steel, platforms, machinery,

pumps, compressors and trim on control houses and office buildings.
against a hazy sky.
Plants
New Plants. Choose Company-approved colors when painting new plants.
However, if the new plant is an addition to an existing plant, you may want to paint
it to match the older surrounding plants or equipment. If you are painting a new
plant and choose to use the Pastel-A scheme, Mojave becomes the Primary Color
for that scheme. If painting to match an existing plant that is of the Pastel-A
scheme, use Desert Sand.
Existing Plants. Normally we do not maintain painted surfaces in existing plants
except to prevent corrosion, or where public appearance is important, or for identifi-
cation. Don't change paint color unless complete repainting of a piece of equipment
is necessary. When making minor modifications use the existing color from the old
Company color palette for touch-up painting. When making significant modifica-
tions use the new Company color system. Choose an appropriate color system from
the Chevron Color Chart in Appendix B if complete repainting is deemed necessary.
Tanks and LPG Vessels

Where law dictates the color of tankage, as in some non-U.S. locations, it shall take
precedence over the Company guidelines given here.
Tanks. The Company paints non-insulated tanks. Although insulated tanks do
not require it, sometimes they are painted for aesthetics and to match other non-
insulated tanks which may be adjacent. Usually you will choose a color to blend the
tank with its surroundings. However, factors such as the service a tank is in, its
physical condition or its location may cause you to choose colors other than the
primary colors named above. Plant related tankage should be painted the primary
color of the selected color system.
When completely repainting an older tank, consider using colors from the
Company's current list of approved colors.
Insulated Tanks. Tanks finished off with cement board sheets (Asbestocite, etc.)
need not be painted, but all edges and sides of sheets should be primed before they
are installed, to permit later painting if desired.
Tanks with aluminum-sheathed insulation need not be painted. If desired, the
aluminum weather jacketing may be purchased precoated in appropriate colors or
anodized.
LPG Vessels. Paint new and existing vessels Aluminum or Dawn White as appro-
priate to the surroundings.

Color Matching
Paint fades over time, and new paint made to match the original color chip will not
match the faded, older paint. For most onplot equipment this mis-matching is
acceptable. For structures and equipment in public view, more accurate matching is
required.
Exact Match Not Required (Both New and Old Facilities). When ordering paint
to match most onplot buildings, tanks, equipment, safety indicators, etc. use the
Federal Color Codes (the 5-digit numbers on the Chevron Color Chart in Appendix B)
or the Chevron Color Chips. If necessary, additional Company color chips can be
obtained by calling CRTC Technical Standards.
Exact Match Required. Where an exact match of old, faded paint is critical, the
color chips given in this manual may not be accurate enough. For precise match, it
is best to use a chip of the actual paint to be matched.
Compare colors carefully. The same paint formulation under different light sources
looks different (this is called metamerism). Colors must be examined under the
expected type of light source. The angle of illumination, the angle of viewing, and
the amount of gloss affect color appearance. It is difficult to match gloss paints with
flat paints.
Color Selection
Principals in Color Selection. Follow two principals when choosing colors: the
color system should be compatible with the surroundings and be economical to
apply and maintain. The goal is to harmonize cleanly with the surroundings, to
avoid or minimize visual impact where possible, and elsewhere to make an appear-
ance that is acceptable and interesting.
Be mindful of economics where trim colors are used. Trim colors should be used
primarily on equipment that can be shop painted like railings. Minimize the use of a
second color except where the contrasting accent is of real importance to the overall
appearance. The cost of masking or other costly preparations should be weighed
against the importance of accenting.
Color Codes
The Company's standard colors are listed in Figure 300-12 Chevron Color Names
and Corresponding Federal Color Codes. When writing specifications or purchase
orders, always use the color code. The codes for Company Identity Colors are given
in Figure 300-13, Company Identity Color Codes.
Federal Standard 595a Colors should be referenced in specifications using
Federal Color Codes. Also, ANSI Z53.1-1979 Safety Color Codes for Marking
Physical Hazards should be referenced when safety colors are specified.
The Chevron Color Chart in Appendix B shows the actual colors corresponding to
the Federal Color Codes. This page is provided only for visual reference and should
not be used for color matching. The Chevron Color Chips that follow the chart and
should be used for color matching.

Fig. 300-12 Chevron's Standard Color Names and Corresponding Federal Color Codes
Chevron Color Name Federal Color Code
Desert Sand 20450
Redwood 20140
Mojave 20372
Palm Green 24373
Vista Green 24172
Dark Silver Gray 16307
Light Silver Gray 16440
Aluminum 17178
Warm Black 17038
Dawn White 27722
Fig. 300-13 Company Identity Color Codes

Company Color Name Company Code
Black BK-10
Beige BR-440
Dark Gray GY-210
Light Gray GY-450
White (off-white) WH-740
Green GR-110
Gold GO-110
Chevron Red RE-370
Chevron Blue BL-370
333 Safety Colors

The Company uses color to identify emergency safety equipment, hazardous equip-
ment and conditions, and toxic or corrosive chemicals. Local, state or Federal regu-
lations take precedence over the common usage listed in Figure 300-14. See also
ANSI Z53.1 - 1979 Safety Color Codes for Marking Physical Hazards.
334 Company Identity

Some colors (i.e., Chevron Red and Blue) are associated with the Company's iden-
tity and are not normally part of the color systems. Company Colors should only be
used after consultation with the Company Identity Center of the Public Affairs
Department. The Company Identity Center maintains color chips for the Identity
Colors and may be reached at CTN 894-0260.

Fig. 300-14 Safety Color Codes for Marking Physical Hazards

ANSI STD 2531-1979 Uses
Safety Red Fire protection apparatus and equipment
Fire protection lines
Emergency stops and switches
Designation of danger
Safety Orange Mechanical and electrical hazards

Noise hazard
Safety Yellow Chemical hazard

Piping with toxic or corrosive material
Designation of caution
Safety Green Locations of emergency safety equipment

Containers for emergency equipment (special
breathing apparatus).
Piping for potable water and respirable air
Designation of safety instructions
Safety White Lines used for vacuum

Designation of safety information
Delineation of aisles, traffic passageways,
housekeeping or cleaning equipment.
Chevron's Other
Color Designations Uses
Yellow and Black Physical hazards (obstructed access clearances,
stumbling and tripping hazards). Yellow and black
may be checkered, stripes, or other distinctive
combination.
Black on Yellow Radiation hazards (older purple on yellow may

continue to be used until replaced.
Blue Special meaning in railroad area for warning against

starting, use of, or movement of equipment.

340 Other Factors Affecting Selection

There are many other factors that may affect the selection of a coating ranging from
environmental regulations to internal coatings, as detailed below.
For specific information or assistance with the effect of any of these factors on a
particular coating, contact the manufacturer or the Company's coating specialists
(both of whom are listed in the Quick Reference Guide).
341 Environmental Regulations

Regulations may limit the kind of surface preparation or coatings for a given
project.
If a local area regulates solvent emission from coatings (see Section 200), then a
high-performance system may be required.
Note Depending on the brand, some alkyds may be VOC compliant.
For standard-performance coatings in areas with VOC regulations, consider water-
borne inorganic zinc primers (System 1.3.1) as a substitute for the more expensive
high-solids, solvent-based inorganic zinc primers (System 1.3). See the Quick
Reference Guide for system data sheets.
Caution Do not make this substitution for high-performance coatings.

No other factor influences the performance of a coating as much as surface prepara-
tion. The optimum preparation for many services is white metal blast; however, this
method is not always allowed, particularly if the abrasive might affect equipment
operating nearby. In these cases, a compromise between desired performance and
practicality must be reached.
Coatings differ widely in their ability to adhere to a poorly prepared surface. If abra-
sive blasting and pickling is infeasible, select a coating that tolerates existing
surface conditions.
Example: You could specify a specially formulated high-performance coating, such
as aluminum flake-filled epoxy mastics, for wire-brushed steel surface.
Note 1: Tests on brush-cleaned steel show that these mastics perform better than
oil-modified alkyds, formerly the coating chosen for these circumstances.
Note 2: Pickling means dipping the steel in acid to remove mill scale.
Blasting Prohibited
If blasting is prohibited for surface preparation, there are essentially two choices for
coating over hand-prepared surfaces:
No VOC requirementsalkyd systems

VOC compliancehigher performance, more costly, surface-tolerant epoxy

mastics (including aluminum filled) System 1.8 or 1.81
Caution Specify a blasted surface preparation for high-temperature services; an
IOZ cannot be used without blasting.
Drying Time
Coatings vary widely in drying time. When choosing a coating, therefore, consider
the drying time of the proposed coating as a factor in the time allotted to the
project. Drying time is given on manufacturers' data sheets.
Quick Drying. For more than one coat per day, choose coatings that dry by solvent
release, such as vinyls, acrylics, and chlorinated rubber.
For second and third coats in the same day, choose catalytic-setting coatings if the
weather is not too cool.
Slow Drying. Oxidizing (air-drying) coatings such as alkyds can take from hours to
days before it is possible to recoat or handle them.
Drying vs. Performance. Compare the materials cost with the cost of waiting for
the coat to dry. A fast drying (but more costly) primer such as a self-cured IOZ may
allow high enough productivity to make it the more economical choice.
See also Initial Costs at the beginning of this section of the manual.
343 Permissible Application Methods

Some locations prohibit spray application because of overspray damage to nearby
objects. At such locations, choose a coating for brush or roller application instead
of spray only such as vinyls and lacquers.
Recoating & Maintenance

When planning to recoat, verify that the old and the new coatings are compatible.
See the Coating Compatibility Chart in the Quick Reference Guide.
If it is possible that a surface will need frequent recoating for maintenance, the
work involved in recoating should also be considered.
Note A harder-to-recoat system may be justifiable if it lasts significantly longer
than a system that is easily recoated.
Easy to Recoat. Solvent cures, aliphatic urethanes, and chalks are easily recoated.
Solvent Cures
Coatings that cure by solvent evaporation, such as vinyls and chlorinated
rubbers, are easy to recoat because the topcoat's solvent bites into the old
coating.

Aliphatic Urethanes
The result of the Materials Lab tests show that aged aliphatic urethanes recoat
easily without blasting.
Chalks
Coatings that chalk with age, such as alkyds and epoxies, frequently need only
washing before recoating if the surfaces are rust free.
Difficult to Recoat. Some epoxies, urethanes (particularly aromatic urethanes),
baked phenolics, and other resins can cure to such a hard, solvent-resistant film that
recoating is difficult.
Often, a brush blast (lightly blast) of the old films to roughen the surface before
recoating must be specified.
344 Weather at the Application Site

Weather conditionssuch as high humidity, cool or cold temperatures, very dry
weathercan all drastically affect curing. It is important that the coating specified
for a given site can cure properly under existing weather conditions.
Example: The 40F to 50F temperatures in Scottish fabrication yards prevented
curing of the epoxies that were specified initially for the Ninian offshore platforms.
In this case, chlorinated rubber was chosen as a substitute because it is more
tolerant of cool temperatures.
Cold weather adversely affects curing for most coatings. If the temperatures are
expected to fall below the recommended curing temperature, specify that the crew heat
the substrate, usually with internal heaters, so that it is above the low-temperature limit.
Note As a rule of thumb, consult the coating manufacturer if the temperature is
expected to fall below 60F during curing.
Other difficulties involving weather are as follows.
Some coatings absorb too much water and blush if the humidity is above about
80 percent; however, self-cured IOZs can tolerate up to 95 percent humidity.
Some vinyls and chlorinated rubbers can soften in hot climates to the extent
that handling can damage them.
Post-cured IOZ is water soluble and, before it cures, will wash off in rain.
345 Service Temperature & Handling

Maximum allowable temperatures vary widely among coatings. Any non-standard
operations such as steamout may cause high temperatures for even a short time.
All high-temperature service coatings require an inorganic zinc (IOZ) primer. IOZ
is gray; therefore, to change the color:

Specify a topcoat of the desired color

Seek an exemption for the topcoat. (For assistance, contact the local area's envi-
ronmental specialist.)
Specify a blasted surface preparation for IOZ which as a prime coat:
Gives excellent service
Performs well in a wide range of temperature and humidity conditions
Resists handling damage very well
Is not expensive
For shop-primed equipment subject to handling damage (pipe, structural steel), IOZ
is by far the best choice.
In many of the Company's environments, IOZ does very well alone (without a
topcoat). If color is not a concern, consider specifying one coat of IOZ.
346 Substrate
Non-ferrous Metals or Concrete
For non-ferrous metals or concrete, there are special considerations such as
primers. Under most circumstances, do not coat stainless steel and non-ferrous
metals such as galvanized, aluminum, copper, and lead because these substrates
resist atmospheric corrosion quite well without coating. Even a well-chosen coating
applied properly will not adhere well to these substrates and will soon require
recoating.
To coat these metals, be sure that the primer:
Adheres to the metal surface
Does not react with the metal surface
Is compatible with the finishing coat
Note Before being coated, these metals may need pre-treating with an adhesion-
promoting product.
Carbon and Stainless Steel under Insulation or Fireproofing

Caution Under insulation or fireproofing, DO NOT USE zinc-rich primers (inor-
ganic or organic) even if they are topcoated.
Zinc protects carbon steel by being more active than the steel and corroding first,
such as in galvanizing.
At temperatures around 170F, however, the zinc reverses polarity; and the steel
corrodes. In solutions containing soluble chloride and sulfur salts, zinc corrodes
very rapidly, even at ambient temperature.
When exposed to hot and wet conditions, zinc reverses polarity, dissolves too
rapidly, and is not very resistant to hot water when formulated with a silicate binder.

Caution As manufacturers' data sheets normally give temperature resistance to

dry heat, do not refer to that resource to select coatings for under insulation or fire-
proofing.
The service-temperature recommendations in the coating system number selection
chart (in the Quick Reference Guide) for coatings under insulation and fireproofing
give actual steel temperatures and not design temperatures.
Note Although a vessel is designed to operate above 300F, the steel temperature
may never reach 300F in actual operation.
347 Supply of Coatings

Two-hundred gallons is the minimum most manufacturers will supply for special
orders. For small projects, therefore, select and specify off-the-shelf coatings which
are available in sufficient quality and quantity.
On large projects, consider using suppliers who are not local to the jobsite if they
have lower prices and a good reputation for service and acceptable quality.
348 Performance & Long-term Aesthetics

High-performance Coating Systems
Compared to standard-performance coatings, high-performance coatings:
Are necessary for severe exposures such as those in chemical plants
Provide longer life and better aesthetics (generally higher gloss)
Cost significantly more
Are more difficult to apply
Serve as the Company's Volatile Organic Compound (VOC)-compliant system
Standard-performance Coating Systems

The standard performance coating systems consist primarily of alkyd coatings
which:
Are inexpensive
Are easy to apply
Serve well in most of our inland and mild environments
Can be applied, if necessary, over surfaces which are only hand-prepared (not
blasted)
Long-term Aesthetics
Sunlight, in particular ultraviolet light, can cause a coating to chalk, fade, or yellow.
Where long-term color retention and appearance are important, choose a topcoat
more resistant to sunlight.

Aliphatic urethanes have the best weathering characteristics; they neither chalk
nor fade.
Alkyds yellow and chalk slowly over time.
Epoxies chalk rather rapidly in comparison to alkyds, but that chalking does
not adversely affect their corrosion resistance.
349 Generic Internal Coatings

To get a good, effective, internal tank or vessel coating is one of the most chal-
lenging tasks facing coatings applicators. Poor application, not materials, is the
primary cause of premature failures.
As a result, Chevron strongly recommends specifying a good inspection program,
from pre-bid meeting to final acceptance of the coating system. See Section 150 of
this manual.
When planning a project of internal coatings, consider the effects of potential busi-
ness interruption, storage of toxic material, environmental hazards, and leak detection.
Business Interruption. Is the tank or vessel scheduled for coating an integral part
of the plant's operation?
Can we take it out of service to repair a premature coating failure without shutting
down the plant or reducing its production significantly?
Toxic Material Storage. Is the stored product a toxic or hazardous material? Is the
stored product regulated by any environmental agency? What are the consequences
of a leak?
Potential Environmental Hazards. Is the tank or vessel located near an environ-
mentally sensitive or populated area?
Examples: Rivers, lakes, bays, schools, homes, and shopping malls.
Would leaking product damage the aquifer?
Is there adequate secondary containment to protect the environment?
Leak Detection. Is there any leak detection system? How quickly would we detect
a leak? Would a small leak go undetected for any length of time?
350 References
1. Roebuck, A. H. and G. H. Brevoort. Materials Performance. In 1988 Paint
and Coatings Selection and Cost Guide. June, 1988: p. 29.
2. Weismantel, Gay E., ed. Paint Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.
3. Sweeney, R. D. Materials Laboratory File N30-PRCP. Chevron Corporation,
June 7, 1983.

4. Sweeney, R. D. Materials Laboratory File N30-RLOP. Chevron Corporation,

August 30, 1983.
5. Konet, R.R. Coatings Costs. In Materials Division File 6.25, Chevron Corpo-
ration, September, 1988.

Abstract
Normally, the coating system dictates the method and amount of surface prepara-
tion. The life of a protective coating is directly related, however, to how well it
adheres to the surface. Good adhesion, in turn, occurs when the surface has been
prepared properly for coating. Surface preparation includes anticipating and stipu-
lating corrective actions for potential problems and removing mill scale, rust, dirt,
oil, loose paint, markings from crayons or spray paint, and other foreign materials.
In contrast to the 2 to 5 percent of coating failures due to improper coating selec-
tion [1], 70 to 90 percent of coating failures result from inadequate surface prepara-
tion.[2, 3] These failures can be reduced by specifying appropriate methods,
standards, and inspection for surface preparation.
There are several methods of surface preparation for steel and other metal
substrates. Not all methods for surface preparation fit all situations: some methods
are very expensive and very slow, to the point of delaying operations. Others might
adversely affect the environment.
While the information in this section applies to the surface preparation of steel and
other metal substrates only, there is also information about preparing special
surfaces in other sections of this manual:
Section 600, Concrete
Section 800, Offshore
Section 900, Pipeline
Contents Page
410 Surface Preparation in General 400-3

411 Shop versus Field Surface Preparation
412 Fabrication Details
420 Methods of Surface Preparation 400-4
421 Chemical Cleaning
422 Dry-abrasive Blasting
423 Air-Abrasive Wet Blasting
424 Water Blasting

400 Surface Preparation Coatings Manual
425 Mechanical-abrasive Blasting

426 Power and Hand Tools
427 New Technology
430 Standards & Specifications 400-12
431 Written Standards
432 Visual Standards
440 Selection Criteria 400-14
450 Preparing Steel Substrates 400-15
451 Immersion Service
452 Non-immersion Service
460 Preparing Other Metal Substrates 400-18

Coatings Manual 400 Surface Preparation
410 Surface Preparation in General

Surface preparation is the act of conditioning a substrate to receive a particular
coating that will protect it from its environment. The two main components of
surface preparation are cleanliness and surface profile.
Cleanliness
Probably the most important aspect of surface preparation, cleanliness involves
removing all foreign objects such as oil, grease, dirt, loose paint, and mill scale to
allow good adhesion of the coating. Improper adhesion is the major cause of prema-
ture coating failures. The more severe the environment, the cleaner the
substrate must be.
To measure cleanliness, the inspector compares the cleaned substrate to a set of
visual or written standards, or both.
Note Of the many industry standards, the most common are those developed by
the Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) and the National Association of
Corrosion Engineers (NACE). See the Quick Reference Guide.
Surface Profile
Surface profile is the result of an abrasive media hitting a surface at high velocity
from a mechanical apparatus or high-pressure air. The type of surface profile relates
to the abrasive media's velocity, mass, and shape. In Section 200, Figure 200-1
shows a relationship between the abrasive in air-blast equipment and the surface
profile.
Also called anchor pattern, surface profile is the peak-to-valley height of the micro-
scopic roughness caused by abrasive-blast cleaning. A profile is necessary to
achieve full adhesion of the coating to the steel; but, if it is too high, a profile can
cause holidays in thin coating systems. A proper profile is a compromise between
the pattern needed for adhesion and the height the coating system can cover.
Note As a rule of thumb:
For a primer with a dry film thickness of less than 8 mils, the profile height
should be about half the thickness.
For thicker primers, such as self-priming laminate systems, the profile should
be at least 3.5 mils.
Profiles below 1.5 and above 4.0 are difficult to achieve.
Profiles are specified in the system data sheets in the Quick Reference Guide and in
coating manufacturers' data sheets.
411 Shop versus Field Surface Preparation

In general, shop blasting is superior to field blasting. Some advantages of shop
blasting are as follows:

Superior surface preparation

Shop blasting usually produces an SSPC-SP10 finish instead of the field-achieved
SSPC-SP6. (Figure 400-1 describes these surface preparation standards.) Often,
shops prime the blasted surfaces to prevent rusting or contamination.
Reduced potential for contaminating surrounding areas such as when field
blasting tanks in operating areas or near streets
Lower costs of blasting and priming
No delays due to weather
412 Fabrication Details

Before the surface preparation begins, inspectors should look for fabrication details
that will cause problems with either the coating's application or performance.
Examples: Skip welds, deep stencil marks, sharp edges, weld spatter, bolting.
NACE RP0178-91 is a good source of information about such problems.[4]
420 Methods of Surface Preparation

There are various methods and levels of intensity of surface preparation. The choice
depends on several factors: the type of structure and its exposure, the quality of the
coating, and the initial condition of the surface.
Among the methods discussed in this section are chemical cleaning, dry-abrasive
blasting, air-abrasive wet blasting, water blasting with abrasive injection, mechanical-
abrasive blasting, power-tool cleaning, hand-tool cleaning, and new technology.
Figure 400-2 compares the various methods and their production rates.
421 Chemical Cleaning

Chemical cleaning is the removal of oil, grease, salts, dirt, and other contaminants
with steam, solvents, detergents, chemicals, etc. See Figure 400-3 for a list of
typical contaminants and corresponding surface treatments.
Coatings applicators must remove these contaminants before beginning any blast-
cleaning operation to prevent their being worked into the steel surface and causing
premature coating failures.
The Steel Structures Painting Council has an excellent standard, SSPC-SP1, for the
chemical cleaning of structures. [5]

Surface Preparation Specifications and Standards
Fig. 400-1
Fig. 400-2 Methods of Surface Preparation and Their Production Rates

Production
Rate(1) in
Blasting or Cleaning Method Ft2/Hr Comments
Blasting Dry-abrasive Pressure 200 Best and most common method of
surface preparation.
Dry-abrasive Vacuum 20 Equally as good as pressure, but very
slow.
Wet-abrasive Pressure 200 Good method; wet surface can cause
problems with adhesion.
Water, High Pressure (3000 psi) 600 Good method for preparing any sound,
existing coatings for topcoating with a
surface-tolerant epoxy.
Water, Ultra High Pressure 200 Removes existing coatings; does not
(10,000 psi) create a surface profile.
Water, Abrasive Injection 200 Good method; wet surfaces can cause
adhesion problems.
Mechanical, Stationary Machine 500 Very good method but only in shop for
new construction.
Mechanical, Portable Machine 50 Good method but slow; on horizontal, flat
surfaces rate can be much higher.
New Technology (Ice, CO2, Baking 20 All methods can remove coatings in
Soda, Plastic Abrasives) sensitive areas; but they do not create
surface profiles.
New Technology (Infra-red), Peel- 10 Both can remove coatings in sensitive
away Strippers areas; but neither creates a surface
profile.
Cleaning Power Tool 100 Can clean to bare metal with a surface
profile SSPC-SP11; but production drops
to 20 sq. ft/hr.
Hand Tool 50 Mainly for cleaning small or hard-to-
reach areas on existing structures.
Notes: 1. Production rates are approximate and vary with surface conditions (mill scale, coated, rusted, etc.)
2. Production rates reflect the normal level of surface cleanliness required by the method for non-immersion service on both new
and existing structures.

Fig. 400-3 Surface Preparation: Using Chemicals to Remove Contaminants

Contaminant Method
Oil, grease Wipe with solvent-soaked rags
Dirt, dust, salts Wash with high-pressure fresh water or
detergent. Rinse with fresh waster and dry
thoroughly before coating.
Mildew Scrub with solution of bleach and water in
ratio of 1:3. Rinse with fresh water and dry
thoroughly.
422 Dry-abrasive Blasting

There are two types of dry-abrasive blasting methods: pressure and vacuum system.
Note For immersion service, Chevron recommends only these two types of dry-
abrasive blasting.
Dry-abrasive Blasting under Pressure

The most common method of surface preparation, dry-abrasive pressure blasting
has the productivity and ability to produce an excellent surface condition for
coating.
Dry-abrasive pressure blasting is a process during which high-pressure (100 psi) air
hurls abrasive media against the substrate.
Note While people refer to this process as sandblasting, that term is incorrect
unless sand is the abrasive medium.
Dry-abrasive blasting not only cleans the surface but also produces a wide range of
surface profiles.
Dry-abrasive Blasting with Vacuum System

Dry-abrasive blasting with a vacuum system keeps the abrasive within a hooded
enclosure. This method produces the same level of cleanliness and surface profile
as dry-abrasive blasting under pressure and also:
Shields the surrounding area from flying abrasive and dust
Does not disturb adjacent machinery or workers
Recycles its abrasive and produces less waste than dry-abrasive blasting under
pressure
The disadvantages of air-abrasive blasting with a vacuum system are as follows:
Its cleaning speed is slow
The surface is not visible to the operator
It uses an expensive, recyclable abrasive
The hood enclosure must always be held against the surface

For stainless-steel substrates in non-immersion service, this is one of the best

methods of surface preparation available; but it is very slow and limited basically to
small areas in sensitive locations that cannot be pressure blasted.
423 Air-Abrasive Wet Blasting

Air-abrasive wet blasting is very similar to dry-abrasive blasting except that a
stream of water surrounds the abrasive.
The advantage of this method is that, while the water does not improve the
cleaning, it reduces the formation of dust while not noticeably reducing production
rates. Normal reduction in dust can be as much as 50 to 75 percent.
Water pressures range from 3,000 psi to 30,000 psi.
Note In this manual, Chevron has designated pressures under 10,000 psi as high-
pressure water blasting and pressures 10,000 psi and above as ultra-high-pressure
water blasting.
The main disadvantage of this method is that it leaves moisture on the surface
which, without a corrosion inhibitor added to the blast water, can cause rusting.
Caution Corrosion inhibitors must be compatible with the coating system
selected and must be added according to manufacturers' recommendations; other-
wise, the inhibitors will cause coatings to fail prematurely.
Air-abrasive wet blasting should be used in situations where heavy dust is intolerable.
424 Water Blasting

Water blasting cleans the surface with a stream of high-pressure water. This method
does not, however, produce its own profile; but it can remove an existing coating
from a structure and expose the previous surface profile.
Example: 10,000 psi are necessary to remove existing coatings or loose mil scale.
The disadvantages are that water blasting:
Does not produce a surface profile
Leaves the surface wet so that the coatings applicator must add the proper
proportion of rust inhibitors compatible with the coating to prevent premature
failure of the coating
High-pressure Water Blasting (3,000 psi)

If the existing coating system still has a sound primer with less than ten percent
rusting, high-pressure water blasting should be the first alternative for surface prepa-
ration of stainless steel substrates in non-immersion service.
When high-pressure water blasting, the coatings applicator:
Washes the surface with high-pressure water

Vacuum blasts or power-tool cleans any rusted areas left after cleaning the
surface
Gives the bare steel areas an extra coat of surface-tolerant primer
The coatings applicator topcoats the cleaned surface with five to seven mils of
surface-tolerant primer, Systems 1.8 or 1.8.1. (See system data sheets in the Quick
Reference Guide.) Leave these primers without a top coat; but, for added protection
and gloss retention, topcoat them with two to three mils of polyurethane finish,
Systems 2.15 or 2.15.1.
This high-pressure (3,000 psi) method removes loose coating, dirt, and other mate-
rial. Its production rate is approximately three times faster than abrasive blasting to
SSPC-SP6.
The advantages are that, by leaving the existing tight coating, surface preparation
time and initial cost are reduced. The disadvantage is a shorter life for the coating
system.
For several years, the coating industry has been testing this method with good
results. As yet, there is no sufficiently long-term data to support the theory that this
method will last the more than ten years of an abrasive-blast system.
Note The Company has conducted some laboratory tests on six brands of surface-
tolerant coatings. Although the results are based on a preliminary evaluation, all
six coatings performed equally well. See Figure 400-4.
Fig. 400-4 Tested and Acceptable Surface-Tolerant Coatings

Manufacturer Brand
Ameron Amerlock 400
Amerlock 400L
Carboline Carbomastic 15
Carboline 801
Devoe Bar-Rust 235
Bar-Rust 239
Note: Coatings are listed in alphabetical order and do not suggest
ranking. All listed coatings ranked equally well in testing.
Ultra-high-pressure Water Blasting (over 10,000 psi)

Specify ultra-high-pressure water blasting for surfaces that:
Need all the coating removed
Cannot use any abrasive-blast method (wet or dry)
Its production rate is similar to all of the abrasive pressure blasting methods.

Water Blasting with Abrasive Injection

Water blasting with abrasive injection thrusts abrasive into a stream of high-pres-
sure water at the nozzle. This method does produce a surface profile but at a much
slower production rate than dry-abrasive blasting.
Wet blasting with abrasive injection has the same problem with the potential for
corrosion as wet blasting and also solves that problem with inhibitors.
Use this method for reducing dust.
425 Mechanical-abrasive Blasting

There are both stationary and portable mechanical-abrasive machines. In both
cases, a rotating wheel centrifugally hurls abrasive on the surface at a high velocity.
As in dry-abrasive blasting, these methods clean the surface and produce a variety
of surface profiles.
Stationary Machines
Usually found only in fabrication shops, large machines blast clean a wide variety
of irregular and complex shapes. Operated properly, these machines can achieve the
same surface cleanliness and profile as dry-abrasive blasting but at a lower cost.
For new construction, consider having a fabrication shop prepare the surface and
prime the steel.
Portable Machines
Because of their size, portable machines are normally used on horizontal surfaces
primarily for surface preparation of concrete or steel floors. They have difficulty
reaching corners, fillets, or irregular areas. They are, however, found on the jobsite.
Portable machines are designed to contain all of the dust, abrasive, and contami-
nants. With properly operated portable machines, therefore, workers need neither
special protective clothing nor containment screens.
426 Power and Hand Tools

Power and hand tools produce a poor surface for coating; however, they are used
for repairing small, hard-to-reach areas. Another important reason for using power
or hand tools is to clean the rusted areas of a structure while leaving most of its
coating intact.
Caution With these methods, select a surface-tolerant primer to improve
coating life.
Power Tools
There are three basic categories of power tools for cleaning, all of which clean the
surface and produce a surface profile but not to the quality of abrasive blast
cleaning:

Impact cleaning tools such as chipping hammers, scaling hammers, and

needle guns
Rotary cleaning tools using three types of cleaning media: nonwoven abrasive,
wire brushes, and coated abrasive
Rotary impact tools operating on the same principle as the other impact tools
cutting, and chippingand using three types of cleaning media: cutter bundles
(or stars), rotary hammers, and heavy duty rotary flaps
Hand Tools
As the name implies, this method involves cleaning with hand tools and is the least
desirable method, being one of the slowest and least effective.
Examples: Wire brushes, abrasive pads, scrapers, chisels, and knives.
Caution When cleaning stainless steel with carbon steel wire brushes, the brush
wires can come loose and stick in the steel at welds, crevices, and flanges, where
they start a corrosion cell.
427 New Technology

Several new methods exist for cleaning steel substrates. While most are either in the
development stage or very expensive, they may be useful when normal methods of
surface preparation are not feasible.
The following discussion details the more promising techniques.
Blasting with Ice, CO2 Pellets, and Baking Soda

Initially developed for the U.S. Navy to descale ship hulls and remove paint from
aircraft, these blast media work with equipment similar to the common abrasive-
blast method. The main difference is the blast media.
The advantages of ice, CO2, pellets, and baking soda blast media are that:
They create very little toxic waste or dust plumes
Used properly, they can remove paint or other materials from delicate equipment
CO2 pellets are non-conductive and have cleaned operating electrical equipment
The main disadvantages of ice, CO2 pellets, and baking soda as blast media are that:
They have very low production rates
They do not produce a surface profile
CO2 pellet blasting can cool a steel substrate to subzero temperatures
Plastic Blasting
Similar to common abrasive blasting, plastic pellets are the blast medium. To date,
the aircraft industry is the only user; and they remove paint from airplanes with this
method. It produces negligible toxic waste or dust plumes.

Its biggest disadvantages include:

Low production rates
No surface profile
Ineffective at removing thick layers of epoxy coatings
Infra-red Light
Still under development and expensive, the concentrated infra-red light heats the
coating to combustion without affecting the substrate. This method does, however,
have some interesting properties as it:
Removes coatings by the layer or all at once
Leaves a small pile of ash as its only waste
Consider this method under the special circumstance of removing one layer of a
multi-layer coating.
Peel-away Stripper
Designed to remove lead-based coatings (LBC), this industrial-strength, alkaline-
based stripping material is sprayed on the substrate. Coatings applicators then
power wash or scrape off the coating.
Note Brush blasting is recommended to remove any vestiges of the stripper before
recoating.
Consider this method as a means of removing LBCs but not for removing general
industrial coatings. Because of the containment costs involved when abrasive
blasting LBCs, however, this stripper can be very cost effective.
The cost of removing the waste stream is the main disadvantage of this method.
430 Standards & Specifications

To ensure proper surface preparation, there are two important references: written
and visual descriptions of surface cleanliness and profile. Of the written and visual
standards available for surface preparation, those described below are easiest to
understand and follow.
431 Written Standards

The Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) has published surface preparation
specifications that are widely accepted by the coating industry.[5] The specifica-
tions define degrees of abrasive blasting, solvent cleaning, and hand- and power-
tool cleaning.
Because of the chronological order of definitions for surface preparation standards,
the SSPC numbering system is not consistent with the logical order of degrees of
cleanliness.

Examples: SP-10 (near white) is better than SP-6 (commercial) but not as good as
SP-5 (white).
The National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) adopted the SSPC defini-
tions for abrasive blasting, but renumbered them to improve their organization and
our retention of them. [6] Figure 400-1 gives numbers and short descriptions of the
SSPC and NACE specifications, along with corresponding Canadian, Swedish, and
British standards.
Note Although NACE adopted the SSPC abrasive blasting description, they did
not adopt the specifications for solvent, hand-tool, or power-tool cleaning.
432 Visual Standards

When specifying abrasive-blast cleaning, supplement written definitions with refer-
ences to visual standards. Although there are several standards, some are better than
others.
Caution Do not substitute pictorial standards for a complete surface-preparation
specification, because the pictorial standard is based upon appearance only and
does not consider other factors such as surface profile, removing contaminants,
cleaning procedure, and re-rusting.
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME) has published
very good, color, pictorial standards for abrasive blasting.[7] A copy of these stan-
dards is appended to this manual. They are extremely useful, as they take into
account the effect of various original conditions on the appearance of the blast
cleaned surfaces.
The SSPC and ASTM adopted visual surface-preparation standards developed in
Sweden.[8] These standards, referred to as SSPC-Vis1 and ASTM D2200-85, are
not included in the manual. Instead, Chevron prefers the use of the SNAME stan-
dards, which are more complete and convenient.
NACE also sells visual standards in the form of plastic coated pieces of steel which
have been prepared to degrees of cleanliness corresponding to NACE Surface Prepa-
ration Specifications 1 through 4. Again, these comparative samples are extremely
useful in the field and are available from NACE. (See listings of resources in the
Quick Reference Guide.)
Brush blast, commercial blast, near-white metal blast, and white metal blast are
represented in all of the above visual standards. Variations in shade, tone, color,
pitting, mill scale, etc., are due to the original condition of the steel surface.
Consider and compensate for these variations when comparing the surface to the
visual standards.

440 Selection Criteria

To select the most appropriate method of surface preparation, consider the type of
coating material now on the surface (e.g. lead-based), toxic wastes, the new coating
system that will be applied, cost, and sensitive areas.
Presence of Lead-based Coatings (LBC)

Answers to the following questions will help select the most cost-effective method
of surface preparation for a coatings project.
If LBC's are present, do they need to be removed?
What are the containment costs?
Is the condition of the LBC good enough to be encapsulated?
Toxic Waste
The following questions highlight reasons for producing low amounts of toxic
waste.
What are the disposal costs for toxic waste?
Is there a possibility of contaminating nearby rivers, streams, lakes, or other
environmentally sensitive areas?
New Coating System

The coating system is one of the most important items to consider when selecting a
method of surface preparation. In this manual, the system data sheet (in the Quick
Reference Guide) for each coating lists the recommended method of surface prepa-
ration and the anchor pattern.
Another source of information about the level of cleaning and the surface profile is
the manufacturers' data sheet.
Costs
Short- versus long-term costs can also dictate the method of the surface preparation.
Is it more important to reduce today's cost by selecting a surface preparation
method that could lead to early repair or replacement of the coating?
Is it better to spend more money today on premium surface preparation and
have the coating system last longer?
See also Economics in Section 300 of this manual.
Sensitive Areas
Sensitive equipment or other items in the vicinity of the jobsite may influence the
choice of surface preparation.
Examples: The possibility of abrasive-blast media entering the air intakes of
rotating equipment or potential over-blasting of nearby automobiles.

450 Preparing Steel Substrates
451 Immersion Service

Immersion service needs the best possible surface preparation because it is usually
the most severe service for a coating system.
New & Existing Construction

For both new and existing surfaces in immersion service, Chevron recommends:
Dry-abrasive blasting as the only method of surface preparation for immersion-
service coatings
SSPC-SP5 (white metal blast) for surface cleanliness
Caution Some coating manufacturers will accept SSPC-SP10 (near white metal
blast) which Chevron finds unacceptable.
The blast medium is the only change recommended for these surface-preparation
methods. If contaminated substrates can turn the blast medium into a toxic waste,
there are two possible solutions:
Select an abrasive medium with the lowest concentration of contaminates that
are regulated in the local area. If low enough, the contaminates from the
blasting operation may not make the blast medium a toxic waste.
If the preceding solution will not work, consider a recycled abrasive-blast
system, usually a combination of steel shot and grit. Because the abrasive is
cleaned and reused, the only waste produced is the material removed from the
substrate which can be as much as one-tenth of normal dry-abrasive blasting.
Caution Recycled abrasive blast systems are very expensive because workers use
them when working in contained areas with abrasive that must be collected and
cleaned. When working on a coatings project that may involve these systems,
initiate a cost analysis to weigh the cost of waste disposal against the cost of a
recycle system.
Note For coating projects in California, recycled blasting systems are becoming
more common as the cost of waste disposal increases.
Existing Construction
Tanks which have been in service and are corroded may need a considerable
amount of patching to restore the bottoms or shells to an acceptable condition
before applying an internal coating. Plug welding, weld overlaying, or patching
with plate are all acceptable, depending on the size of the area to be repaired.
Stipulate that all surfaces be ground smooth and all sharp corners rounded off
(minimum radius: one-eighth inch) to allow good coating coverage.
Note This requirement applies to all areas of the tank, not just to repairs.

Pitted areas may be repaired either by welding or by filling with putty as described
below.
Caution If coatings applicators are not going to carry out the restoration, one of
them should be made responsible for ensuring that the restoration is completed
properly before they begin abrasive blasting.
Solvent cleaning prior to abrasive blasting is very important for tanks that have
been in service; otherwise, an oily residue remains after blasting and causes prob-
lems with coating adhesion.
Remove other types of residue such as soluble salts with a water or detergent wash
before blasting. Soluble salts can cause the coating to blister; osmotic pressure
causes water to diffuse through the coating more rapidly, to dilute the salts.
Repairing Pits with Putty. A smooth surface is necessary to achieve a coating of
uniform thickness; however, the thicker the coating, the less sensitive it is to small
irregularities in the surface.
For thin-film coatings, even small pits can become sites of early failure. It is very
important to fill sharp, pitted areas properly.
Note Surfaces roughened by relatively uniform corrosion may be acceptable
without any putty.
The shape of the pits is the most important factor when determining the need for
filling. Do not fill wide, shallow pits with rounded edges. Always fill narrow, deep
pits with sharp edges.
Note It is usually easier to fill all the pits rather than to decide which ones to fill
and which ones not to fill.
The coatings applicators should grind and round off sharp corners or edges before
abrasive blasting. They should also apply an extra coat over these areas and over all
welds to prevent thin spots. Rivet seams require a coat of seam sealer to fill in all
the gaps around the rivets.
Spray-applied glass-flake coatings are generally less sensitive to small irregularities
than thin-film coatings. Trowel-applied glass-flake coatings are so much thicker
that the coatings applicator needs to fill only relatively large pits.
Laminate coatings are much more sensitive at corners and edges than at small pits,
because the fiberglass mat cannot conform to sharp changes in direction.
The application details in Section 14 of Specification COM-MS-4738 require a
gradual slope or radius at all direction changes. Fill the larger pits to provide a
smooth working surface for the coating; a rough surface causes many up-turned
fibers which the coatings applicator must sand before applying the final layer.
Putties and sealers are specified on the system data sheets in the Quick Reference
Guide.

452 Non-immersion Service

New Construction
Whenever possible for new construction in non-immersion service, choose a surface-
preparation system that produces a surface profile and cleanliness equal to or better
than SSPC-SP6 (commercial blast). This means dry-abrasive or mechanical-
abrasive blasting methods.
Caution Some coating manufacturers claim that SSPC-SP2 or SP3 (hand- or
power-tool cleaning) is sufficient for their coatings; however, experience has shown
that improved surface cleanliness can increase the life of a coating from 50 to
100 percent.
Most fabrication shops have stationary and portable mechanical-abrasive machines,
capable of preparing a surface for coating at one-third the cost of field preparation.
Caution The only disadvantage with shop blasting is that the steel substrate will
rerust if not primed immediately.
If the specified coating system includes an IOZ primer, have it applied in the shop
immediately after blasting. IOZ primers are very durable and will resist the abuse
of shipping and installation.
Other primers (alkyds, epoxies, urethane, etc.) are not as durable as IOZ and
require a considerable amount of touch up after shipping and installation. The
amount of touch up may be equal to or greater than the savings from shop blasting.
If the new steel has tightly adhering mill scale, it might be cost effective to have it
shop blasted and primed with a one-mil-thick, fast-dry, shop primer to prevent
rerusting. After shipping and installation, a light abrasive blast will remove the shop
primer. Depending on the original condition of the steel substrate, this approach
could be more economical than the field blasting necessary to achieve the specified
anchor profile and cleanliness.
Existing Structures
Surface preparation is extremely important; in some cases, the life of the coating
has doubled as a result of changing the preparation from power-tool cleaning (SP3)
to abrasive blasting (SP6).
For the best, long-term, coating performance, complete surface preparation by dry-
abrasive blasting to a cleanliness of SSPC-SP6 (commercial blast) for existing struc-
tures in non-immersion service.
Blasting in the field can be very expensive or impossible, however, so Chevron
recommends several alternative methods: high-pressure water blasting, dry-abrasive
vacuum blasting, hand- and power-tool cleaning, air-abrasive wet blasting, and
water blasting with abrasive injection, ultra-high-pressure water blasting, and new
technology.

Each of these methods is described in another part of this section. See also Figure
400-2 for a list of all methods of surface preparation, production rates, and other
comments.
Alternative Methods of Surface Preparation

If dry-abrasive blasting is not feasible and an alternative is necessary, study the
project to find the answers to questions about the conditions and restraints, such as:
What is the condition of the existing coating?
Is the coating system exposed to a mild or severe environment, i.e., desert or
heavy industrial?
How long must the coating system last?
Can the coating system be easily repaired?
Is it more cost effective to save money today through less surface preparation
and accept a shorter coating life?
Is it more cost effective to spend the extra money today for surface preparation
that will give the longest coating life?
How does waste disposal impact coating costs?
How will surface preparation impact surrounding equipment?
How will surface preparation impact the environment?
460 Preparing Other Metal Substrates

Galvanized Iron and Steel
Galvanizing offers sufficient protection from atmospheric corrosion so that coating
is unnecessary and is generally for aesthetics.
Because there are chemical and physical differences between galvanized steel
and bare steel, special surface preparation is necessary to establish a good bond
between the galvanizing and the coating. This surface preparation consists of two
steps:
1. A solvent cleaning to remove oil
2. An application of a vinyl butyral wash primer (System 1.7) prior to topcoating
For rusted or previously painted galvanized steel, the coatings applicator should
solvent clean and then wire brush the surface to remove deposits before applying
the wash primer.
Uncoated Stainless Steel

Uncoated stainless steel does not need coating for corrosion protection. If coated
for aesthetics or protection from chloride attack, the surface preparation is the same

as for carbon steel; however, blasting is only needed to produce an anchor pattern,
not to remove rust.
All Previously Coated Surfaces

Previously coated surfaces need proper preparation for good coating performance.
Generally, brush-off blasting is sufficient:
For surfaces with spot rusting or flaking, peeling, or blistering coating
To roughen hard or glossy surfaces to obtain good adhesion
470 References
1. Griffiths, J. Dave. Coatings Application: Is Compromise Necessary Between
Manufacturers' Recommendations and Repair Yard Practice. Shipcare and
Maritime Management. May 1980: pp. 27-30.
2. Weismantel, Guy E. Paints and Coatings for CPI Plants and Equipment.
Chemical Engineering. April 20, 1981: pp. 130-143.
3. National Association of Corrosion Engineers. Causes and Prevention of Coat-
ings Failures. NACE Publication 6D170. Item 54192. March 1979: pp. 32-36.
4. National Association of Corrosion Engineers. Fabrication Details, Surface
Finish Requirements, and Proper Design Considerations for Tanks and Vessels
to be Lined for Immersion Service. NACE RP0178. 1991.
5. Steel Structures Painting Council. Surface Preparation Specifications.
January 1971.
6. National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Standards of Task Group T-6 G-2,
November 17, 1962.
7. The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. Abrasive Blasting Guide
for Aged Coated Steel Surfaces, Technical and Research Bulletin No. 4-21.
New York, April 1986.
8. Swedish Academy of Sciences. Photographic Standards, 1967 ed.

500 Application
Abstract
Second only to surface preparation, the method of applying a coating determines its
performance and ultimate life. [1] During a project, coatings applicators must mix
and thin materials properly, allow them to cure, and store them according to manu-
facturers' guidelines. See Section 200 for the safety factors affecting coating
projects.
Contents Page
510 Methods of Application 500-2

511 Spray
512 Roller
513 Brush
520 Other Factors Affecting Application 500-5
521 Handling
522 Selection of Coatings Applicators
523 Structure and Surface to be Coated
524 Multiple Coats
525 Weather and Atmospheric Conditions
530 Touch Up 500-10
540 Reference 500-10

500 Application Coatings Manual
510 Methods of Application

The most common methods of application are spray, roller, and brush, each offering
advantages and disadvantages and each requiring particular equipment and techniques.
These methods affect not only the film thickness (Figure 500-1) but also the loss
per gallon. With any method, coatings applicators can lay on a coating too thickly,
causing it to sag or run. Only with a brush or roller, however, can they spread coat-
ings too thinly.
Fig. 500-1 Average Film Thickness by Type of Tool

Average Film Thickness
Tool (DFT)
Brush 2 mils
Roller 3 mils
Spray 0.5 to 20 mils
To calculate the theoretical coverage of a coating, use the following equation, based
on the film thickness and solids content:
1604S
T.C. = ---------------
t
(Eq. 500-1)
where:
T.C. = theoretical coverage, square foot/gal.
S = solids content, volume percent
t = desired film thickness, mils
Actual coverage, however, may be 10 to 50 percent less than theoretical coverage
when allowing for application technique (amount of overspray), surface roughness,
and spills. Brushes have the lowest loss per gallon for a given coating; rollers,
slightly higher.
Losses from spray application depend on the type of surface, the type of gun, and
the skill of the operator
Airless spray guns are capable of producing only slightly higher losses than rollers.
While some air-atomized, external-mix guns lose up to 20 percent of coating in
overspray, a typical loss value for airless spray on the smooth surface of a steel
plate is 15 percent.
511 Spray
Spray guns and associated equipment vary physically but operate similarly. The
spray system atomizes the coating and deposits it on the surface. Common types of

Coatings Manual 500 Application
spray systems include internal and external mix, airless, hot, electrostatic, and
catalyst-and-resin sprays.
See Section 200 of this manual for hazards associated with spray equipment.
Coating applicators can minimize overspray by working parallel to the surface
without any arcing motion.
For areas that forbid sprays because of historical property damage from overspray,
specify specially formulated coatings for roller or brush.
Advantages:
The fastest and most cost-effective method of application; in general, about
twice as fast as roller application and four times faster than brush coating
The most efficient method for large areas
Effective at creating a uniform appearance and thickness
Capable of achieving the desired total thickness in fewer coats than with roller
or brush
Note Because each coat is a labor- and cost-intensive step, applying fewer coats
reduces the total cost of a coating system.
Suitable for certain coatings, including vinyl, lacquer, multimil alkyd enamel,
and those specially formulated for spray application
Disadvantages:
Spray equipment needs special care not only during operation but also for its
maintenance. There are filters to clean, and fine orifices to keep open as some
coatings cure quickly in the hose and form solid plugs, shutting down the
work. The most frequent problems come from misusing equipment.
Note As coatings applicators own their spray equipment, however, they take great
pains to keep it operating at maximum efficiency.
Overspray means that fine particles of coating are blown into the air and do not
strike the object to be coated. Overspray:
Represents a loss of 20 percent or more material on small objects such
as pipes
Produces a rough, sandy appearance if dry overspray blows on a freshly
coated surface
Constitutes a potential hazard to health, fire, and property
Example: Overspray of zinc primers on stainless steel has the potential to cause
liquid-metal embrittlement.

512 Roller
There are many types of rollers and roller covers:
From hand dip to pressure feed
From one-inch to 16-inches wide
With naps up to two-inches thick
The most common rollers have a simple handle with a metal roller core and a
removable cover. Some can accommodate extension handles.
Roller covers are made of lamb's wool, mohair, Pronel, Dynel, and other synthetic
fibers.
Note Cover material must be compatible with the coating being applied. See
Figure 500-2.
Fig. 500-2 Recommended Roller Covers

Roller Cover Resistance Comments
Lamb's Wool Most solvent-resistant Mats badly in water; not for
fiber water-based coatings
Excellent for polyester resins
Mohair Good water resistance Good for synthetic enamels and other
smooth finishes
Dynel, Pronel Excellent water resis- Not for ketones or styrene solvents
tance and fair solvent Not for lacquers, vinyls, or polyester
resistance coatings which dissolve the fibers.
Dynel, an acrylic, is most popular for
general-purpose rollers
Advantages:
Little training is necessary for coatings applicators.
Rollers can produce an orange-peel appearance.
Rollers with long handles attached can reach high places without scaffolding.
Roller coating is relatively fast, at least twice as fast as brushing, especially if
the substrate surface is rough.
Compared to spraying, rollers produce less splatter or overspray.
Disadvantages:
Rollers are inefficient for small jobs since they hold too much coatingup to
one-half pint.
Roller application is only about half as fast as spraying.

Rollers are more difficult to clean than brushes and, if used improperly, can
produce overspray.
Coating applicators tend to select thick naps (the fiber length on the surface of
roller) which hold more coating and can produce bubbles on the applied
coating. If the coatings applicator re-rolls the coating to eliminate the bubbles,
the resultant film may not meet the specified minimum thickness.
Note Any contract with a coating supplier should specify the required nap size.
513 Brush
Brushes come in many shapes and sizes, designed for specified applications. More
importantly, bristles come in a variety of types, both natural and synthetic. High-
quality brushes have flagged bristle tips, enabling them to hold more coating and
resulting in finer bristle marks on the surface. Specify a bristle compatible with the
coating.
Advantages:
For primer coats, brushing improves the coating-to-surface bond, especially if
the substrate is rough, dusty, or slightly contaminated.
Brushing requires a minimum of tools.
Often, a brush is the only practical tool for corners, edges, odd shapes, trim,
and small areas.
For small shapes or if spraying requires excessive protection for surrounding
areas, brushing can be faster than spraying.
Disadvantages:
Brushing is usually the slowest application method for large areas.
Brushing produces a non-uniform film and often such defects as brush marks,
laps, sags, and runs.
The wide variety of brushes and levels of the coatings applicators' skills
produce an inconsistent quality of coating.
520 Other Factors Affecting Application

From the standpoint of safety when working with coatings, either:
Make sure the equipment to be coated is in a safe condition before turning it
over to the contractor, or
Inform the contractor in writing of hazardous conditions that may be present
and of safety procedures and equipment that are necessary.
See also safety information in Section 200 of this manual.

The following factors can affect the application of a coating: handling, coatings
applicators, structure and surface, multiple coats, geographic weather, and atmo-
spheric conditions.
521 Handling
Among the elements involved in handling a coating are mixing, thinning, drying,
curing, and storing the material.
Mechanical Mixing
Coatings applicators should mix coatings mechanically, even small amounts of
viscous coatings, mastics, and catalyzed coatings with small quantities of catalyst.
Mechanical mixing is fast and efficient.
Among the other reasons for mixing coatings are to:
Ensure homogeneity for single-component coatings such as alkyds which can
settle and thicken during storage
Achieve proper cure and performance of coatings with two or more components
Caution Coating applicators should not mix coatings manually because serious
problems can occur if multiple-component coatings are not mixed mechanically
and completely.
Thinning
To ensure compatibility between a thinner and coating, select both products from
the same coating manufacturer and follow the manufacturer's directions about
amounts and procedures.
Reasons for Thinning. Thinning is necessary:
To spray some coatings that are supplied in the viscosity range for roller or
brush
During cold weather, when coatings can thicken
Disadvantages of Thinning. Thinning has the following disadvantages:
A thinned coating deposits fewer coating solids per square foot, resulting in
thinner films and the possibility of needing more coats than an unthinned
coating.
Excessive thinning causes coatings to run and sag and catalytic-cured coatings
to crack.
Drying & Curing

Plans for a coating project must include the amount of time needed for drying
before handling the surface or returning it to service and for curing the coating.
Drying. Drying times vary considerably. The following factors affect drying time;
some can be controlled to reduce drying time.

Coating Type and Manufacturer

Temperature
Humidity
Ventilation
Film Thickness
If necessary, specify specially formulated, quick-drying coatings.
Curing. Complete curing is essential before putting coatings into service in areas
of immersion or exposing them to chemicals or foot traffic.
After mixing and before applying some high-performance two-component coatings,
such as epoxies and urethanes, specify that the coatings applicators allow an incuba-
tion period for these materials to begin curing. Applied too early or too late, the
coatings will cure improperly.
Note As curing time varies among coating types and brands, always follow the
manufacturer's instructions for curing.
Storing Coatings
Caution
Follow the manufacturers' recommendations to avoid such problems as coating
curdling, gelling, and skinning.
Store the coating in a protected area, such as a building, to shield it from
extremes of temperature and humidity.
Check the shelf life of any coating before applying it and do not use a coating
older than its recommended life.
See also Section 800 of this manual for information about storing coatings for
offshore projects.
522 Selection of Coatings Applicators

Coatings applicators and coatings contractors have the most influence on a
coating's quality. A poor or inexperienced coatings applicator can ruin a coating
project or, at best, achieve mediocrity.
Evaluate coatings applicators carefully before selecting one. Questions that should
be answered are:
Does the applicator have experience with the Company's projects locally? If so,
attempt to locate the foreman to discuss this person's performance.
Does the applicator have experience in other industries? If so, contact engi-
neers or maintenance supervisors in these industries for references.
Does the applicator have the proper equipment for the job?

Do coating manufacturers know and recommend this applicator? Manufac-

turers have a vested interest in having their products applied properly.
Is the applicator currently working on a job that you could visit? If so, ask the
owner's engineers if they are satisfied with this coatings applicator's perfor-
mance.
After the coatings applicator is selected, he should choose the coating method after
considering several factors:
Type of structure and surface to be coated
Type of coating, the coating thickness, losses, and coverage
Weather conditions expected during application
523 Structure and Surface to be Coated

The structure itself is another factor in determining the best coating method because
of its:
Size and shape
Accessibility of its components
Service
Location relative to other structures (roads, parking lots, furnaces, electric lines)
Geographical location (level, hilly, mountainous terrain, near water)
Other important factors in application include the type of material to be coated and
the extent of surface preparation. See Figure 500-3.
Fig. 500-3 Recommended Coating Methods by type of Surface

Surface Brush Roller Spray
Cyclone fence x(1)
Hand-cleaned or rusted x x
Large, rough x x
Large, flat x
Masonry, stucco, concrete x x
Metal x x x(2)
Piping x x x
Abrasive blasted x x x
Small x x
(1) Unless special electrostatic equipment is available.
(2) Usual method

524 Multiple Coats

When planning a project with multiple coats, choose the most efficient method for
multiple-coat applications and the coating formula with a high content of solids to
reduce the number of coats needed for the desired thickness of film.
Note While multi-mil alkyds can be four mils in one coat, normal alkyds need two
coats to achieve that thickness.
Thick coatings are hard to roll or brush.
525 Weather and Atmospheric Conditions

Coatings Formulation
Coatings are often formulated to work well in the manufacturer's geographical area
but may have problems elsewhere.
Coatings formulated for a cool or coastal area may prove unsatisfactory when
applied in a hot, dry, or high-altitude area.
Leafing problems of metallic pigmented coatings are associated with environ-
mental changes.
Manufacturers recommend a range of the atmospheric conditions for applying
coatings.
Atmospheric Conditions
Atmospheric conditions for coatings include temperature, humidity, and wind.
Temperature. If the temperature is too low (less than 50F), most catalytic coat-
ings do not cure; air-dry coatings are hard to apply and dry slowly.
In hot weather or strong sunlight, coatings may dry too rapidly for entrapped
solvents to escape, producing defects such as blistering, cratering, wrinkling, and
overspray marking.
Many catalytic-curing coatings will not cure in damp weather.
Humidity. Coatings applied over damp surfaces will peel and wrinkle.
Caution Never apply coatings under the following conditions:
Over damp surfaces
When relative humidity exceeds manufacturer's written recommendation
When surface temperature is less than 5F above the dew point
Wind. High winds/drafts increase overspray and the danger of damage to nearby
objects.
Dust and sand blown on freshly coated surfaces mar the coating finish or form
defects where coating deterioration may begin.

Caution Do not apply coatings in strong winds or drafts, especially by spraying.
530 Touch Up
Touch up is important for newly coated or installed items after welding activities
are completed. Generally, welding, shipping, and handling damages the coating on
new structures. Weld burns and cable scars need prompt attention to prevent unnec-
essary metal loss on damaged areas.
It is important to protect the weld and damage areas from corrosion while the
degree of rusting is still minor. Delays can be costly due to expanding under-
creepage of the existing coats and worsening degree of corrosion around the
damaged areas. A relatively minor touch-up operation in the beginning can turn
into a sizable project in just a few years. An increase in costs up to 20 percent per
year over the original cost are possible when including the associated costs for an
increased work scope, additional labor time, and materials.
540 Reference
1. Weismantel, Guy E. Paints and Coatings for CPI Plants and Equipment.
Chemical Engineering. April 20, 1981: pp. 130-143.

600 Coating Concrete
Abstract
This section focuses on basic projects for coating concrete. Topics covered include:
the most suitable coatings and coating systems, how to assess and repair the
concrete surface, and issues peculiar to coating concrete.
Before preparing the surface, it may be necessary to repair common, non-structural
damage to the concrete such as holes and cracks. For structural repair of concrete,
which is beyond the scope of this manual, contact the Company's civil and struc-
tural engineers.
When selecting a concrete coating, it is important to know its intended exposure,
such as environment, temperature, and immersion. The selection guides and data
sheets for coating concrete in mild environments are available in the Quick Refer-
ence Guide. For critical projects, consult one of the Company's coating specialists
(also listed in the Quick Reference Guide).
From the standpoint of application, there is no one standard technique because of
the complexity of this surface. While general information is offered in this section,
specific assistance is available both from manufacturers and the Company's coating
specialists.
Contents Page
610 Coating Concrete in General 600-3

611 Existing Structures or New Construction
612 Engineering Assistance
613 Reasons for Coating Concrete
620 Descriptions of Coatings for Concrete 600-4
621 Coatings
622 Coating Systems
630 Selection 600-9
631 Defining Conditions
640 Assessing and Repairing Concrete 600-10
641 Assessing the Surface

600 Coating Concrete Coatings Manual
642 Repairing Non-structural Damage

651 Pre-application Requirements
652 Precleaning
653 Mechanical and Chemical Cleaning
661 Recommended Process
662 Reviewing an Application Procedure
670 Inspection 600-23

Coatings Manual 600 Coating Concrete
610 Coating Concrete in General

There are many factors to consider at the outset of a concrete coating project. Some
factors are:
Whether or not the structure is existing as that affects the level of surface prepa-
ration required
The level of engineering assistance necessary for the project
The reasons for coating concrete which fall basically into two categories: prac-
tical maintenance and safety regulations
611 Existing Structures or New Construction

Because of the extra surface preparation required, an existing structure is usually
more difficult to coat than a new structure. Existing structures may require:
Removal and repair of corroded or damaged concrete
Repair of corroded reinforcing bars
Repair of existing cracks
Removal of two to three inches of contaminated concrete
These repairs may involve rebuilding the structure with either fresh concrete or an
epoxy polymer material.
During initial design, review all potential problems with coating or lining a new
structure. If new construction is designed to accept a coating or lining, the coating
will cost less and will be less likely to fail prematurely.
612 Engineering Assistance

Coating or lining concrete has so many variables that this section cannot cover all
of the possible situations. This section represents an overview of the information
required to coat or line concrete.
Before coating or lining a concrete structure, evaluate the difficulty of the project
and, for critical projects, contact the Company's coating specialists listed in the
Quick Reference Guide.
Example: One criterion for a critical project is that a premature failure could seri-
ously affect the Company.
613 Reasons for Coating Concrete

Practical maintenance, safety, and complying with regulations are the main reasons
for coating concrete.

Practical Maintenance and Safety

The following discussion details reasons for coating concrete on the basis of prac-
tical maintenance and safety.
Protection from the environment. One of the most important factors in selecting a
coating system is its environment: exposure to temperature, physical abuse, and
immersion service.
Concrete may require protection from its environment in API separators, sulfur pits,
pump bases, floors, or other primary containment.
Protection from wear. One of the main uses of coatings for concrete is to protect
floors from wear. There are coating systems designed for foot, light vehicular, and
heavy equipment traffic.
Maintenance. Because concrete is a porous material, it retains dirt and stains
easily. Coating concrete can reduce significantly the cost of routine cleaning.
Safety. Non-slip or skid resistant coatings are available for traffic safety on
concrete.
Regulations
In addition to practical maintenance, existing regulations require owners to protect
concrete with coatings and linings. A discussion of some regulations follows.
Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), owners must install
secondary containment, such as impoundment basins, for aboveground tanks that
store hazardous wastes. While concrete is one of the most cost-effective materials
for this service, RCRA does not consider concrete a material suitable for containing
hazardous wastes unless it is coated or lined.
Example: An impoundment basin is one form of secondary containment.
Under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, Congress mandated that the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) study the need for regulating aboveground petroleum
storage tanks. This impending regulation could result in the Company having to
line or provide secondary containment for all petroleum storage tanks.
It is also possible that State and local environmental agencies might create and
enforce equal or more stringent regulations for secondary containment.
Regardless of current regulations, consider coating concrete wherever it is neces-
sary to contain or exclude fluid.
620 Descriptions of Coatings for Concrete

While there are many resins available for coating concrete, none are perfect. Selec-
tion depends on the coating's environment and exposure to corrosive media, temper-
ature, and physical abuse. When several resins are equivalent, then cost and ease of
application become the selection criteria.

Listed in alphabetical order, the five major resins for coating concrete structures
are: epoxy, isophthalic polyester, novolac epoxy, polyurethane, and vinyl ester.
General information about some of these resins is also available in Section 100 of
this manual.
The four main systems for coating concrete are as follows: non-reinforced thin film,
flake-reinforced, glass-flake laminate, and elastomeric polyurethane.
As most coating systems for steel are equally suitable for concrete, see Section 100
of this manual for general information about non-reinforced, thin-film, and glass-
flake-reinforced coatings.
621 Coatings
Epoxy
Epoxy resins are the most common, thin-film coatings for concrete.
Advantages:
Very good resistance to bases and many solvents
Good adhesion to concrete and are easy to apply
Disadvantages:
Poor resistance to acid unless modified by a phenolic
Isophthalic Polyester
There are two major classes of polyester resins, but the Company uses only isoph-
thalic which is the main resin in laminate-reinforced systems.
Advantages:
Corrosion protection
Least expensive resin
Disadvantages:
Poorer resistance to chemicals than other resins
Epoxy Novolacs
Novolacs are second generation epoxies with greater cross-linking density.
Advantages:
Greater resistance to chemical attack and high temperatures than all other
epoxies
Disadvantages:
More expensive and less flexible when compared to standard epoxies

Polyurethane
There are literally thousands of polyurethane formulations from hard roller-skate
wheels to elastomeric materials with the elasticity of rubber bands.
Advantages:
Through its wide variety of formulations, polyurethane can have many different
properties.
Chemical, abrasion, and impact resistant
Tensile strength
Elasticity
Note Because increases in one property mean decreases in another, many elasto-
meric polyurethanes are not as chemically resistant as the more rigid polyurethanes.
Disadvantages:
Some elastomeric formulations are not very resistant to chemicals.
Vinyl Ester
A reaction product between polyesters and epoxies, vinyl ester shares many of the
attributes of polyesters.
Advantages:
Resistant to acid
Resistant to solvent attack
Resistant to high temperatures
Disadvantages:
More costly than an isophthalic polyester or normal epoxy
622 Coating Systems

Thin Film
Thin film is only 10 to 20 mils thick and contains no flakes, fibers, or laminates for
reinforcement. Usually, this coating has some inert fillers such as silica or carbon to
reduce shrinkage during cure and to improve resistance to abrasion. A thin-film
system needs two or three coats: a primer/sealer and one or two high-build topcoats.
Recommended dry film thickness (DFT) is 15 to 20 mils, with thicker DFT for
more severe services.
Advantages:
Low cost due to use of the least amount of material, no expensive hand work
required, and easiest to apply

Disadvantages:
Thinness of film which leads to lack of resistance to abrasion, severe chemical
attack, and physical abuse
Unreinforced film which means it will not bridge existing cracks
Uses:
Mild service conditions
Splash or spillage environments
Temporary service
Flake-reinforced
The flake-reinforced coating system is the most common system for concrete.
Flake-reinforced coatings come in both spray- or trowel-applied formulae. Spray is
generally applied in two 15 to 20 mil (DFT) coats for a total of 30 to 40 mils (DFT).
Trowel applied, with a larger reinforcing flake size, is generally applied in two 30 to
40 (mil) coats for a total of 60 to 80 mils (DFT).
Advantages:
Excellent properties for most environments
Better than thin film at resisting chemical attack (parallel flakes reduce the
coating's permeability) and physical abuse by abrasion
Cost less than laminate systems
Disadvantages:
Rolling is necessary for each layer of either formula so that the flakes lie
parallel to the surface.
Caution Although some manufacturers claim their spray formulae are self
leveling and do not require rolling, always roll this coating to improve its properties.
Flake-reinforced Sprays. The flake-reinforced spray is applied much like a thin-
film system.
Advantages:
Twice the thickness of thin films; covers a more uneven surface than thin film
Disadvantages:
Because they require rolling and extra material, these sprays are marginally
more expensive than thin films but not as costly as the trowel-applied formula.

Trowel-applied Flake-reinforced Coatings.

Advantages:
More resistant to chemical attack, abrasion, and physical abuse than either the
flake-reinforced spray or thin-film systems
Disadvantages:
Application considerably more difficult and time consuming than either the
flake-reinforced spray or the thin-film systems; hand smoothing and then
rolling is necessary to orient the glass flakes
Glass-flake Laminate
Laminate-reinforced systems are applied by hand in alternating layers of resin and
glass mat. These coating systems:
Generally have three layers of resin and two layers of fiberglass mat
Have a total thickness is 80 to 125 mils
May require a special surfacing veil and final resin topcoat for some of the
more aggressive services; chemical glass or polyester are the most common
surfacing veils.
After inspecting the completed laminate system, apply a final 10 mil (DFT) resin
coat without which the surface would remain tacky and lack optimum chemical
resistance.
With epoxy resins, this coat gives additional protection from chemical attack and is
called a gel coat. With polyester and vinyl ester resins, the final coat is a 90/10
mixture of resin and wax.
Advantages:
For severe applications
Adds structural strength
Best chemical, wear, and impact resistance
Disadvantages:
Hand-applied, laminate-reinforced coatings are by far the most expensive
Elastomeric Urethanes
Elastomeric urethanes, developed as internal coatings for tanks, are thicker than
most non-reinforced coatings (30 to 60 mils or more). Applied in one coat, these
tough, rubbery coatings are suitable for certain special applications but are not
among the standard systems because the Company has limited experience with them.
There are two types of elastomeric systems: textile-reinforced and non-reinforced,
both of which can be applied at 40 mils (or greater) DFT.

Advantages:
Depending on their formulation, elastomeric systems can have very good resis-
tance to impact, abrasion, and wear.
Because they are elastomeric, manufacturers also claim they can bridge cracks.
Caution While the claim about bridging cracks may be true to some extent, be
certain to design and specify proper repair of all cracks and joints before coating.
Disadvantages:
All elastomeric systems have a modified polyurethane resin which makes the
system more expensive than some flake-reinforced and thin-film systems.
Polyurethanes are very moisture sensitive during application.
630 Selection
For definitions of environment, physical abuse, and exposure, see Figures 600-1
through 600-5.
See the Quick Reference Guide for selecting concrete coatings in mild
environments.
For coating concrete in moderate-to-aggressive conditions, contact the Company's
coating specialists listed in the Quick Reference Guide.
Fig. 600-1 Definitions of Environment, Physical Abuse, and Exposure for Concrete Coatings
Description Environment Physical Abuse Exposure
Mild < 140F, mild No coating loss due to abrasion; N/A
acids, bases, possible light foot traffic. No physical
solvents impact on coating.
Moderate < 140F, strong Moderate coating loss due to abra- N/A
acids, bases, sion, light equipment wear. Possibility
solvents of impact on coating.
Aggressive > 140F, strong Severe coating loss due to abrasion, N/A
acids, bases, heavy equipment wear. Definite poten-
solvents tial for impact on coating.
Continuous N/A N/A Exposed to the corrosive
medium for longer than 24 hours.
Intermittent N/A N/A Exposed to the corrosive
medium for less than 24 hours
usually splash or spillage that is
cleaned up within 24 hours

631 Defining Conditions

Before calling the Company's coating specialists, know the following information
about the conditions anticipated for the concrete coating. Refer to Figure 600-1 for
definitions, and also Figures 600-2 through 600-5
Environment. To what temperature and corrosive media is the coating exposed:
aggressive, moderate, mild?
Physical Abuse. To what extent is the coating exposed to abrasion such as from
foot traffic, light cleaning, automobile traffic: aggressive, moderate, mild?
Exposure. Is the coating exposed to chemicals continuously or intermittently?
Fig. 600-2 Coating Recommendations for Continuous Immersion
640 Assessing and Repairing Concrete

All concrete must be clean, dry, and in sound condition to receive a coating or
lining system. While this surface may be easy to achieve with new construction, it
may be expensive for existing structures.
Before concrete can be prepared to accept a coating, ensure that the substrate:
Is properly cured and dry. The coatings applicator should tape a black plastic
sheet over the substrate and check for moisture after 24 hours (ASTM D-4263).
Has a minimum compressive strength of 3,000 psi

Fig. 600-3 Coating Recommendations for Continuous Immersion Service

Recommendation #1: Use a laminate reinforced with the coating manufacturer to ensure it is resis-
system to resist physical abuse and chemical tant to the corrosive media. It will probably be an
attack. The resin selection should be reviewed epoxy, novalac epoxy, or vinyl ester resin.
with the coating manufacturer to ensure it is resis-
tant to the corrosive media. It will probably be an Obtain the assistance of a specialist in coating
epoxy novalac or vinyl ester resin. concrete. By evaluating specifics of your project,
he may be able to recommend a flake reinforced
Because of the severe service obtain the assis- system instead. Depending on the size of your
tance of a specialist knowledgeable in repairing project this could result in considerable cost
and coating concrete. See the Quick Reference savings.
Guide for a list of recommended specialists.
Recommendation #5: Use a flake reinforced
Recommendation #2: Use a flake reinforced system to resist the chemical attack. The resin
system to resist chemical attack and the reduced selection should be reviewed with the coating
physical abuse. A laminate system would work manufacturer to ensure it is resistant to the corro-
here but at twice the cost. The resin selection sive media. It will probably be an epoxy, epoxy
should be reviewed with the coating manufac- novalac, or vinyl ester resin.
turer to ensure it is resistant to the corrosive
media. It will probably be a novalac epoxy or Recommendation #6: Use a flake reinforced
vinyl ester resin. system to resist the chemical attack. The resin
selection should be reviewed with the coating
Because of the aggressive corrosive media, manufacturer to ensure it is resistant to the corro-
obtain the assistance of a specialist knowledge- sive media. It will probably be an epoxy, epoxy
able in repairing and coating concrete. See the novalac, or vinyl ester resin.
Quick Reference Guide for a list of recommended
specialists. Recommendation #7: Use a laminate reinforced
or a textile reinforced urethane system to resist the
Recommendation #3: Use a flake reinforced physical abuse. The resin selection should be
system to resist chemical attack. Even with the reviewed with the coating manufacturer to ensure it
mild physical abuse do not use a thin film system. is resistant to the corrosive media. It will probably
The thicker flake reinforced system is required to be a polyester, epoxy, or modified urethane resin.
resist the severe environment. The resin selection
should be reviewed with the coating manufac- Recommendation #8: Use a flake reinforced or a
turer to ensure it is resistant to the corrosive textile reinforced urethane system to resist the phys-
media. It will probably be a novalac epoxy or ical abuse. The resin selection should be reviewed
vinyl ester resin. with the coating manufacturer to ensure it is resis-
tant to the corrosive media. It will probably be a
Because of the aggressive corrosive media, polyester, epoxy, or modified urethane resin.
obtain the assistance of a specialist knowledge-
able in repairing and coating concrete. See the Recommendation #9: Use a flake reinforced or a
Quick Reference Guide for a list of recommended textile reinforced urethane system. Because this is
specialists. immersion service, use a reinforced system. The
resin selection should be reviewed with the
Recommendation #4: Use a laminate reinforced coating manufacturer to ensure it is resistant to
system to resist physical abuse. A flake reinforced the corrosive media. It will probably be a poly-
system would be adequate to resist the chemical ester, epoxy or modified urethane resin.
attack. The resin selection should be reviewed

Fig. 600-4 Coating Recommendations for Intermittent Immersion/Splash/Spillage
Has a surface strength of at least 200 psi. To measure the surface strength, the
inspector or Company's representative should attach a metal piece to the
concrete with adhesive and measure the force needed to remove it (ASTM Stan-
dard Method M-4541).
Has a uniform surface free of excessive defects and laitance. To finish new
concrete, the coatings applicator should smooth once over the surface with a
wood float and then use a steel trowel.
Note Laitance is the film caused when a water-rich cement rises to the surface
during finishing. Remove this 5- to 50-mil-thick film before applying any coating.
641 Assessing the Surface

New Structures
During the initial design of a new structure, investigate potential problems
involving coatings or linings to reduce costs and premature failures.
If laid properly, new concrete requires only cleaning of surface dirt, oil, laitance,
etc., before abrading. There may, however, be other items to consider such as vibra-
tion, agents and slivers, and curing.

Fig. 600-5 Coating Recommendations for Intermittent Immersion Service

Recommendation #10: Use a laminate reinforced selection should be reviewed with the coating
system to resist the physical abuse and chemical manufacturer to ensure it is resistant to the corro-
attack. The resin selection should be reviewed sive media. It will probably be an epoxy, novalac
with the coating manufacturer to ensure it is resis- epoxy, or vinyl ester resin.
tant to the corrosive media. It will probably be an
epoxy, novalac epoxy, or vinyl ester resin. Recommendation #15: Use a thin film system to
resist the chemical attack. The resin selection
Depending on the type of physical abuse, a flake should be reviewed with the coating manufac-
reinforced system could be used. This should be turer to ensure it is resistant to the corrosive
confirmed with someone experienced with media. It will probably be an epoxy, novalac
coating concrete. epoxy, or vinyl ester resin.
Recommendation #11: Use a flake reinforced Recommendation #16: Use a laminate reinforced
system to resist the chemical attack and the or a textile reinforced urethane system to resist
reduced physical abuse. The resin selection the physical abuse. The resin selection should be
should be reviewed with the coating manufac- reviewed with the coating manufacturer to ensure
turer to ensure it is resistant to the corrosive it is resistant to the corrosive media. It will prob-
media. It will probably be an epoxy, novalac ably be a polyester, epoxy, or modified urethane
epoxy, or vinyl ester resin. resin.
Recommendation #12: Use a flake reinforced or Depending on the type of physical abuse, a flake
thin film system to resist the chemical attack. The reinforced system could be used. This should be
selection of reinforced or thin film will depend on confirmed with someone experienced with
the amount of mild physical abuse. The resin coating concrete.
selection should be reviewed with the coating
manufacturer to ensure it is resistant to the corro- Recommendation #17: Use a flake reinforced or
sive media. It will probably be an epoxy, novalac elastomeric urethane system to resist the
epoxy, or vinyl ester resin. moderate physical abuse. The resin selection
should be reviewed with the coating manufac-
Recommendation #13: Use a laminate reinforced turer to ensure it is resistant to the corrosive
system to resist the physical abuse and chemical media. It will probably be a polyester, epoxy, or
attack. The resin selection should be reviewed modified urethane resin.
with the coating manufacturer to ensure it is resis-
tant to the corrosive media. It will probably be an Depending on the type of physical abuse, a thin
epoxy, novalac epoxy, or vinyl ester resin. film system could be used. This should be
confirmed with someone experienced with
Depending on the type of physical abuse, a flake coating concrete.
reinforced system could be used. This should be
confirmed with someone experienced with Recommendation #18: Use a thin film or elasto-
coating concrete. meric urethane system. The resin selection should
be reviewed with the coating manufacturer to
Recommendation #14: Use a flake reinforced or ensure it is resistant to the corrosive media. It
thin film system to resist the chemical attack. The will probably be an epoxy or modified urethane
selection of reinforced or thin film will depend on resin.
the amount of moderate physical abuse. The resin

Vibration. Vibration consolidates the concrete but can also cause water and air
bubbles to move out to the face of the form, resulting in tiny voids or holes in the
concrete surface. Before coating or lining concrete, fill all holes, including those
opened during surface preparation.
Agents and Slivers. Many forms are built with commercially available plywood or
wood planks. When removed, these forms may leave other materials in the concrete
such as release agents that facilitate the removing forms, or large slivers of wood.
Remove these materials, then repair and smooth the area before coating it.
Curing. Unless the concrete cures properly, it may crack; if so, repair all cracks
before coating or lining.
Existing Structures
Attacked by chemicals, contaminated by hydrocarbons, and damaged by mechan-
ical means, existing concrete may require extensive repairs and surface preparation.
A careful inspection should determine whether or not the existing concrete is struc-
turally sound.
Corrosion. Depending on the amount of corrosion in the steel reinforcement, the
concrete will require the following:
Corroded - Coating or cathodic protection in aggressive environments
Severely corroded - Replacement of steel reinforcing and the affected concrete
or epoxy-polymer material
Contamination. Depending on the level of contamination, concrete that has been
exposed to oils or other impurities may require high-pressure detergent-and-water
cleaning. It also may require replacing as many inches of concrete as necessary to
remove the contaminants.
642 Repairing Non-structural Damage

There are several common kinds of non-structural damage to concrete, such as
cracks, holes, expansion joints, and drain and pipe penetrations.
Cracks
Among the choices for repairing concrete based on the size and activity (still
moving) are the following:
Filling them with a sealer
Making them into expansion joints
Filling them by pressure injection
Begin with the basic procedures for filling concrete cracks, regardless of size.

Basic Procedure for All Cracks. To repair all cracks, begin by:
1. Blowing any standing water out of the crack
2. Removing oils or chemicals in the crack
Caution Do not inject solvents into cracks to remove oils or chemicals because
this process actually dilutes the contaminants and carries them further into the
concrete surface. Instead use an injection grout that will solubilize the oils and
water, bond to the concrete, and cure with suitable properties for the intended
purpose.
Continue the repairdepending on the size of the crackby following the steps
either for small or for large cracks, below.
Additional Steps for Small Cracks. To repair small cracks, there are two
alternatives.
Alternative One: Filling with Sealer
1. Grind the crack into a V shape with an opening that is a minimum of -inch
wide at the surface of the concrete.
2. Pour or trowel the sealing grout into the crack.
3. Scrape off excess grout.
Alternative Two: Creating Expansion Joints.
Convert small cracks into expansion joints, which allow concrete to expand and
contract with changes in temperature or movement of the substrate. See Figure
600-6, Detail C. This figure also covers corrosion control of floor-to-wall expan-
sion joints and floor-to-wall control joints.
As they are highly susceptible to premature failures, design expansion joints care-
fully - to 1-inch wide and as shown in Figures 600-6, 600-7, and 600-8.
Note Figure 600-7 shows sealant system for corrosion control in mild environ-
ment; Figure 600-8, for more severe environments.
The steps for creating expansion joints are as follows:
1. Place sufficient joint material between the concrete surfaces to allow the
closed-cell foam-backing rod to come within - to 1-inch of the concrete
surface.
2. Pour or trowel on a flexible joint sealant to bring the joint up to the level of the
concrete surface.
3. Place 2-inch-wide, vinyl, electrical tape over the joint to provide a bond
breaker.
4. Place a -ounce glass mat, saturated with resin, over the tape.
5. Apply the corrosion coating system over the mat.

Fig. 600-6 Corrosion Control Treatment of Sealed Expansion Joints, Control Joints, and
Cracks in Concrete Foundations
Additional Steps for Large Cracks. To repair larger cracks, fill them by pres-
sure injection. The steps for pressure injection are as follows:
1. Grind the crack into a V shape.
2. Select an appropriate size of copper tubing.
3. Drill holes along the crack 1/8-inch larger than the tubing and to the depth of
desired penetration.
4. Insert the tubing into the crack.
5. Grout the crack on the surface to seal it and hold the tubing in place.

Fig. 600-7 Corrosion Control Treatment of Exposed Expansion Joints in Concrete Integral
with Monolithic Floor/Lining System
6. Install a grease fitting in the first tube when the grout is cured.
7. Inject grout into the tube with a pump.
8. Allow the grout to flow out of the next tube until the color approaches the orig-
inal mixture to ensure removal of all contaminants.
9. Repeat the process, filling all tubes.
Holes
This section provides information on filling both small and large holes.
Small Holes. During blasting, air pockets open in or just below the surface of most
formed concrete. There are two mixes for filling these holes.

Fig. 600-8 Corrosion Control Sealing of Expansion Joints, in Concrete Integral with
Monolithic Floor/Lining System
Resin-based material is the Company's preferred method of repair. Some are

powders mixed with the primer and trowel applied which gives a smooth
surface for good coating adhesion. Others are epoxy grouts.
Portland-cement materials require expert installation and generally need an
additive to reduce shrinkage during cure and to improve adhesion to the old
surface. The problems with this cement are that it does not bond well to cured
concrete; does not cure well in thin layers; and usually leaves a carbonate layer
on the surrounding concrete which can, if not removed, cause coating failures.

Large Holes. There are two main choices of fill for larger holes, both of which
need special handling:
Concrete - Undercut the hole to guarantee mechanical bonding or apply a
chemical bonding agent.
Compatible resinous grout - Treat forms with a release agent for easy removal.
As formed resinous grouts usually cure with a glazed surface, abrasive blast or
grind this glazing to roughen it to ensure that the coating adheres well.
Drain and Pipe Penetrations

Drain and pipe penetrations are almost as vulnerable to failure as expansion joints.
Usually, they are not concrete and have very different thermal coefficients of expan-
sion. Improper design can cause leaking at the penetrations.
For drains, see Figure 600-9. Figure 600-10 shows details of installing a corrosion-
control system for pipes.
Fig. 600-9 Floor System Termination at Floor Drain

Fig. 600-10 Corrosion Control Treatment of Pipe Penetration through Concrete Wall or Floor
In either case:
1. Dig a groove -inches wide and -inch deep around the drain or pipe
penetration.
2. Fill the groove with sealant.
3. Butt the corrosion control system against the sealant for mild environments or
extend it to the drain cover in more aggressive environments.


The life of a coating is directly related to surface preparation.
After designing joints and penetrations and repairing all cracks, holes, and other
defects, establish the method of surface preparation necessary to clean away all
loose concrete, oil, grease, dust, laitance, grime, and other foreign materials.
There are several methods of surface preparation for coating concrete. The mechan-
ical methodsabrasive blasting, scarifying, and blastrackingproduce the best
surface for coating adhesion.
651 Pre-application Requirements

See Assessing and Repairing Concrete (above) for the four conditions required of a
concrete substrate to be ready to accept a coating.
Caution Do not accept broom finishing as it can leave an irregular surface with
excess laitance; and, in the case of air-entrained concrete mixes, it can open large
holes at the surface.
652 Precleaning
To preclean a concrete surface, follow the ASTM D4258 method:
1. Remove:
Dirt and caked grease manually or with an acid wash
Grease and oils with low-foaming detergents
Animal fats or vegetable oils with saponifying agents
2. Patch test to determine the best cleaning procedures for the surface.
Clean or remove the surface until it meets the pre-application requirements.
653 Mechanical and Chemical Cleaning

Abrasive-blast Cleaning
Abrasive-blast cleaning is the Company's preferred method of surface preparation.
Note There is additional information about abrasive-blast cleaning in Section
400; and, although that section relates to surface preparation for steel substrates,
some details are applicable to concrete.
Advantages:
Gives high production rates for all surface configurations
Leaves an excellent surface condition for coating

Disadvantages:
Creates excessive dust and waste material as the abrasive breaks down
Blastracking
Blastracking is similar to abrasive blasting but uses metal shot instead of abrasive
Advantages:
Produces comparable surfaces to abrasive blasting with less dust and waste
material
Disadvantages:
Restricted to horizontal surfaces because it is a fairly large machine
Scarifying (Air Hammer)

Scarifying is often the alternative when field or other conditions prevent blasting of
concrete surfaces.
Note A scarifier is an apparatus with steel hammers that hit a surface, removing
loose material.
Advantages:
Produces an acceptable surface with less clean-up, set-up, and dust.
Disadvantages:
Produces a rougher surface than abrasive blasting.
Acid Etching
Acid etching is the least acceptable cleaning method, but may be used if needed.
The steps for acid etching are:
1. Mix one part of concentrated hydrochloric acid with two parts water to form
the etching solution.
2. Brush the solution on the concrete.
Caution If the etch does not produce a 60-grit, sandpaper-like profile, repeat
the etch.
Diluted acid permeates the concrete surface dissolving salts and other contami-
nants. There is, however, an undesirable side effect; as it dries, the acid deposits the
contaminants on the surface, adversely affecting the bond between the coating and
the concrete.
660 Application
Because of the complexity of coating concrete and the different systems and resins
available, it is impossible to have one uniform application procedure.

661 Recommended Process

The recommended application process is to:
1. Select the coating system and resin. Either refer to the Quick Reference Guide
(for mild environment) or obtain the assistance of the coating manufacturer and
the Company's concrete coating specialist (for other environments).
2. Request detailed application procedures from the manufacturer for the coating
selected.
3. Review application procedures with the coatings applicator and the coating
manufacturer, resolving differences until the procedure is acceptable to all.
662 Reviewing an Application Procedure

Here are some points to consider when reviewing or writing an application procedure:
Many concrete coating systems require a primer for optimum application
results.
The temperature of concrete slabs should be between 50F and 85F when
coating; the slab's temperature must be 5F above the moisture dew point.
For optimum results from the application:
Apply the primer coating out of direct sunlight.
Apply the primer and topcoat when the slab's temperature is cooling rather
than rising.
An order of cost (low to high) for coating systems is thin films, flake-
reinforced films, and laminate-reinforced films.
An approximate order of cost (low to high) for resins is as follows: polyesters,
epoxies, novolac epoxies, vinyl esters, and polyurethanes.
Epoxy resins are the easiest to apply, followed by novolac epoxy, polyester,
polyurethane, and vinyl ester.
Polyester and vinyl ester require a final wax coat (mixture of wax and resin) to
obtain full surface cure.
Thicker is not always better. All coatings and linings have a maximum allow-
able thickness.
670 Inspection
Inspection is an integral part of the quality of a coatings project. The following
references offer guidance about the degree of inspection needed and how to select a
quality inspector.

Coatings Manual, Section 100

The inspection procedures for steel can be used for inspecting concrete, in
most cases.
National Association of Corrosion Engineers RP0288, Inspection of Linings on
Steel & Concrete.
American Society for Testing and Materials D453786, Procedures to Qualify
and Certify Inspection Personnel for Coating Work in Nuclear Facilities.
(Good information about qualifying any coating inspector.)
Some construction details in concrete may need particular attention from the
inspector.
Concrete-to-Steel Interface
In addition to penetrations, other potential concrete-and-steel interfaces need
coating.
See Figure 600-11, Detail A, for one example of sealing a pedestal/pipe stand in a
concrete pit.
Fig. 600-11 Corrosion Control Treatment of Steel-to-Concrete Interface

680 References
The following publications give additional information for repairing and coating
concrete.
1. American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard Practice for Surface
Cleaning Concrete for Coating (R 1992). ASTM D4258. 1983.
2. . Standard Practice for Abrading Concrete (R 1992). ASTM D4259.
1988.
3. . Standard Test Method for Indicating Moisture in Concrete by the
Plastic Sheet Method (R 1993). ASTM D4263. 1993.
4. . Standard Practice for Determining Coating Contractor Qualifications
for Nuclear Powered Electric Generation Facilities. ASTM D4286. 1990.
5. . Standard Guide for Establishing Procedures to Qualify and Certify
Inspection Personnel for Coating Work in Nuclear Facilities. D4537. 1991.
6. . Standard Test Method for Pull-off Strength of Coatings Using Portable
Adhesion Testers. ASTM D4541. 1995.
7. National Association of Corrosion Engineers. Monolithic Organic Corrosion
Resistant Floor Surfacing. NACE RP-03-76.
8. . Inspection of Linings on Steel and Concrete. NACE RP-02-88.
9. . Linings for Concrete Surfaces in Non-Immersion and Atmospheric
Services. RP-0591-91.

700 Downhole Tubular Coatings &
Linings
Abstract
In this section, there is general information about coatings and liningsselecting,
purchasing, handling, installing, and operating guidelinesdrawn from field experi-
ence, industry publications, and vendors. Internal coatings and linings are two
choices for preventing corrosion in the steel base metal of downhole equipment.
Internal coatings enhance the flow of fluids and may help prevent the build up of
paraffin. Linings can salvage tubing.
The purpose of a coating or lining for downhole equipment influences both its selec-
tion and the means of achieving the desired performance. Connections are an impor-
tant consideration. For downhole tubing in oil and injection wells, the American
Petroleum Industry's (API) eight-round connections are commonplace, coated
routinely, and difficult to install holiday free
A high-integrity internal coating may be more difficult to achieve on premium
connections and typically requires more intensive evaluation and attention.
Consider selecting connections designed specifically for IPC and lined tubing. See
also Section 120 of this manualfor information on inspections and inspectors,
including specific procedures for downhole tubingand the Quick Reference
Guidefor contacting Company's coating specialists, who are a primary resource
for these specialty coatings and linings.
Contents Page
710 Coated Tubing Versus Linings 700-3

711 Wells Suitable for Coating or Lining
720 Descriptions 700-4
721 Coatings
722 Linings
723 Connections
730 Selection 700-10
731 Economics

700 Downhole Tubular Coatings & Linings Coatings Manual
732 General Guidelines

741 Steps in Application
742 Holiday-free Coated Tubing
743 Used Tubing
750 Handling Coated or Lined Tubing 700-13
751 Coated Tubing
752 Lined Tubing
760 Installation 700-16
761 Coated Tubing and Accessories
762 Guidelines for Installing IPC Accessories
763 Guidelines for Installing Lined Tubing
770 Guidelines for Well Operation 700-19

Coatings Manual 700 Downhole Tubular Coatings & Linings
710 Coated Tubing Versus Linings

Coated tubing, commonly called internally plastic-coated (IPC) tubing, has liquid
or powder coating applied to the inside diameter (ID) to a thickness of 5- to 30-mils
dry film thickness (DFT).
The coated surface reduces the frequency of corrosion-related failures by a factor of
five (average). IPCs limit damage to local areas, avoid expensive fishing jobs, and
increase the percentage of salvageable tubing.
Note Fishing jobs refers to retrieving parted tubing.
Plastic-coated tubing may also reduce rig time. Corrosion can thin the walls of
uncoated tubing so badly that multiple parting failures occur when tubing is pulled
during workovers.
One hundred percent holiday-free coated tubing adds about ten percent to the cost
of a coating project but is justified for the following:
Waterflood, water-disposal, and CO2 wells
Corrosive services when anticipating long life and expensive rework
Lined tubing has much thicker internal-corrosion barriers which, with one excep-
tion, are physically inserted into the tubing. The exception is cement lining which is
spun centrifugally on the ID surface. Linings offer truly holiday-free systems.
711 Wells Suitable for Coating or Lining

The following types of wells are suitable for coated or lined tubing:
Wells that produce a separate water phase. At 25 to 50 percent watercut, a well
usually becomes corrosive.
Note Watercut is the percentage of water to total fluids produced, such as oil
plus water.
Marginal wells. Wells in these circumstances may not justify a workover. While
installing a coated tubing string may allow depletion of reserves, an uncoated string
may fail before reserves are depleted.
Note A succession of joints of tubing makes a string of tubing.
Waterflood or water-disposal wells.
Gas-condensate and high GOR (gas/oil ratio) wells. Gas wells are usually corro-
sive, particularly when producing connate water.
Note Connate water is defined as water trapped in a rock matrix.
Gas-lift wells with high-watercut. The well is especially susceptible to corrosion
if the gas contains carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide.
Note Gas-lift wells are those into which we inject gas to lift the oil out of the
reservoir.

Offshore wells. Wells located in remote or offshore areas make workover and
chemical treatment expensive. The cost of a coated string is usually a fraction of the
cost of a well or workover.
Caution Because the constant rubbing damages the coating/lining, wells using
sucker-rod pumps for artificial lift are not typically considered candidates for coat-
ings or linings.
720 Descriptions
All coatings are available as 100 percent defect (holiday) free; however, damage
may occur during handling, installing, and well operations. For maximum corrosion
protection, coated tubing may need a suitable corrosion inhibitor.
721 Coatings
Thin-film coatings are generally 5 to 9 mils DFT; thick-film coatings generally
10 to 30 mils DFT. See Figure 700-1.
Fig. 700-1 Properties of Coatings

Chemistry Type Thickness (mils)
Phenolic Liquid 59
Modified Phenolic Liquid 59
Epoxy-Phenolic Liquid 59
Epoxy Liquid 815
Epoxy Powder 1220
Epoxy-Cresol-Novolac Powder 1220
Nylon Powder 1225
Phenolics
The Company has the longest history with phenolic coatings.
Advantages:
Resistant to chemical attack (from pH 2 to pH 12)
Withstand temperatures up to 300F or higher
Disadvantages:
Brittleness which limits their usefulness in preventing corrosion
Limited DFT; not to exceed 9 mils DFT as brittleness worsens
Gas-decompression problems, especially above 7,000 psi and if the coating is thick
Susceptibility to mechanical damage from hitting or bending the pipe

Uses:
As a primer under other thicker, more flexible coatings
In high-temperature environments
Note Phenolics may be the only available coating material that can withstand
very high temperatures.
Primarily for flow enhancement
Caution When using phenolics for corrosion control, consider a corrosion-
inhibitor-injection program to protect the steel in areas of coating damage.
Modified Phenolics
Modified phenolics were developed to overcome the blistering of phenolics in high-
pressure gas wells. Decompressing high-pressure gas caused straight phenolics to
blister because the gas could not escape from the coating fast enough. Modified
phenolics contain calcium silicate to enable them to outgas more quickly.
Advantages:
More resistant to decompression damage than straight phenolics
High temperature, chemical, and H2S/CO2 resistance similar to the straight
phenolics
Disadvantages:
Brittleness
Epoxy Phenolics
Adding epoxy to the phenolics reduces the brittleness of the coating.
Advantages:
Improved flexibility
Improved alkali resistance
Temperature resistant to about 250F (some brands, even higher)
Disadvantages:
Reduced temperature and chemical resistance
Reduced acid resistance
Susceptible to mechanical damage or defects from handling, installation, and
operations such as wirelining
Caution Consider applying corrosion inhibitors to protect steel exposed by
damaged coatings.

Modified Epoxies
Two types of modified epoxies are discussed below: powder-applied and
cresol-novolac.
Powder-applied epoxies. Powder-applied epoxies are more flexible and tougher
than liquid-applied epoxies, which are being phased out in the industry.
Advantages:
Temperature limit of about 150200F
Good chemical resistance to both acids and alkalis
Disadvantages:
Somewhat brittle
Corrosion inhibitors necessary if primarily for corrosion control
Cresol-novolac-modified epoxy. Adding cresol-novolac to epoxy results in
cresol-novolac-modified epoxy or epoxy-cresol novolac.
To optimize overall performance, vendors have varied the amount of cresol-novolac
for chemical resistance and flexibility. The propensity for mechanical damage may
limit this coating's usefulness in service.
Advantages:
Greater chemical resistance than straight epoxies
Temperature resistant to approximately 250F
Disadvantages:
Brittleness increases in relationship to increased chemical resistance
Nylon
Nylon is a relatively new coating for downhole tubing and accessories. A thermo-
plastic, rather than the thermoset of most IPCs, nylon has superior flexibility.
Advantages:
Easy to apply
One hundred percent holiday free
Good chemical resistance up to about 180F
Very flexible and durable
Disadvantages:
Extremely poor resistance to damage from wire-line tools
Deterioration from acidizing when HCI above 15 percent or for extended
periods
Uses:
Excellent for a low-temperature line pipe (small diameter) in corrosive service

722 Linings
Linings are holiday-free systems and have thicker internal corrosion barriers than
coatings. Except for cement, which is spun centrifugally on the ID surface, all
linings are physically inserted into the tubing.
The four lining materials presently available are cement, fiber-glass, PVC, and poly-
ethylene. Suppliers are also investigating other materials such as carbon fiber. See
Figure 700-2.
Fig. 700-2 Properties of Linings

Lining Thickness (mils)
Cement 150210
Fiberglass 6080
PVC 6080
Polyethylene 130150
Cement
Cement lining has been available for many years.
Advantages:
Cost effective
Resists chemicals
Withstands normal handling and installation
Tolerates wireline work
Disadvantages:
At a thickness of 150 to 210 mils, cement causes a significant reduction of the
tubing ID.
Acids (HCl and mud acid) can damage cement.
Note Special additives are available to improve the acid resistance of cement.
The weight of the cement limits the depth at which it can be used, with a prac-
tical limit of about 10,000 feet.
For wells between 7,000 and 10,000 feet deep, the weight of the cement can
influence tubing selection.
The temperature limit is about 300F, primarily because of the plastic inserts
installed in the connections.
Availability may be a problem in remote areas.
Uses:
Holiday-free service in injection wells or non-rod-pumped producing wells

Good choice for salvaging used tubing
Fiberglass
Fiberglass-lined tubing is made by inserting a fiberglass tube of an aromatic amine-
cured epoxy inside the steel tube and then filling the annular space between the two
with cement grout. The resulting liner is about 60 to 80 mils thick.
Advantages:
Holiday-free service
Chemical resistance up to a maximum operating temperature of 350F
Disadvantages:
Some ID reduction
Additional restrictions at flares on tubing ends
Uses:
Primarily in injection wells
Good service in non-rod-pumped producing wells
PVC
PVC-lined tubing is similar to fiberglass-lined tubing, with either a cement grout or
an adhesive between the PVC and the steel tube. The thickness of the liner is 60 to
80 mils.
Advantages:
Holiday free
Disadvantages:
ID reduction
Unsuitable for gas wells (the risk of liner collapse from gas permeation)
Unsuitable with solvents (such as paraffin cutting agents)
Uses:
Most suited to water injection wells up to about 150F
Polyethylene
Polyethylene-lined tubing is a recent development and has little proven field experi-
ence. The polyethylene liner is swaged down and pushed or pulled through the
tubing. It then re-expands into the tubing, leaving the polyethylene liner in compres-
sion. The end of the liner is molded to fit within the connection J area. The coating
industry is addressing concerns about gas permeation, softening at maximum
service temperature, and connection integrity.

Check with the CRTC's coating specialists (listed in the Quick Reference Guide)
for the latest information on the status of polyethylene linings.
Advantages:
Extremely rugged
Holiday-free and mechanical-damage-free service
Disadvantages:
Significant ID reduction (150 mils thick)
Temperature limit of about 150F
Concerns about gas permeation
Softening at maximum service temperature
Concerns about connection integrity
Uses:
Most suited to water injection wells up to about 150F
Carbon Fiber
An ultra-high-temperature carbon-fiber liner and premium connection system is
presently undergoing testing. This product may have a working temperature of up
to 450F.
723 Connections
Most downhole tubing in oil wells and injection wells have API eight-round connec-
tions. They are easy to coat but difficult to install 100 per cent holiday free.
Premium connections may be more difficult to coat internally.
Coated Tubing Connections

There are basically two approaches for coating tubing with API eight-round
connections:
Coat the exposed threads on the coupling ID with Ryton (the best-known
method).
Select specially made couplings that have a Teflon or reinforced-elastomer
insert in the J-section.
Some premier connections with external torque shoulders do not require torque
gages for make up. Both couplings use a marking system to make up the coupling
to position; they may also solve the following problems:
Turbulent flow or sand-impingement damage at the J-section
Moderate wirelining
Failed Ryton-coated couplings

Advantages:
Connection with a flush ID instead of the discontinuous J-section in standard
API eight-round couplings
Better seal
Protection for the coating on the pin-ends in the J-section from wireline tool
damage
Disadvantages:
Cost about three times as much as a standard coupling
Lined Tubing Connections

Each lining has a different technique for protecting the coupling and pin-ends.
For cement-lined tubing, polypropylene inserts are cemented into the end of
the tubing; and pin-ends are embedded in an acrylic putty.
For fiberglass- and PVC-lined tubing, a nitrile rubber ring is fitted between the
two pin-ends.
For polyethylene-lined tubing, an integral portion of polyethylene covering the
pin faces mates when connected.
Premium Connections
Non-API premium connections are highly specialized. Evaluate their suitability for
coating or lining on a case-by-case basis with the connection manufacturer and the
coating or lining applicator. Some premium connections may be unsuitable for
holiday-free coating application. Surface preparation (e.g., abrasive blasting),
coating, and make-up procedures must comply with the connection manufacturer's
recommendations.
730 Selection
For help in selecting coatings or linings, contact the coatings specialists listed in the
Quick Reference Guide.
731 Economics
Costs for coated or lined tubing and accessories vary significantly depending on the
size of the order, the location of the job, market conditions, and other factors.
Purchasing Guidelines
For coated tubing and accessories, refer to Specification COM-MS-4732,
Oilfield Tubular Goods and AccessoriesInternal Coating Application.

For cement-lined tubing, refer to API RP 10E

There are no Company or industry specifications for purchasing cement-lined
or fiberglass-lined tubing. Industry participants purchase these products from
major suppliers and accept their specifications. See the Quick Reference Guide
for a list of suppliers.
For PVC-lined tubing, refer to API Specification 15LT
There are no Company or industry specifications for purchasing polyethylene-
lined tubing.
732 General Guidelines

In this manual, there are only general guidelines for selecting coatings and linings
as it would be impossible to cover every conceivable well condition.
Environmental or Operating Conditions

In some situations, downhole environmental conditions or planned operating
criteria and procedures preclude effective use of coatings or linings. In such circum-
stances and if corrosion is anticipated, the only alternatives may be to install either
bare-steel tubing with corrosion inhibitors or alloy tubing.
Influences of Materials on Selection

Coating names are often different in the US market and overseas; some coatings
with the same name exist but may be a modified version. Manufacturing space and
equipment limit some manufacturer-owned application facilities so that they cannot
apply their full product line of coatings.
As few applicators offer cement linings in the US, the limitations of local applica-
tors' facilities influence the choice of coating system.
Assistance
For guidance on selecting coatings and linings, consult the Company's coating
specialists (listed in the Quick Reference Guide).
The following databases are also available:
Company-purchased database of ARCO's lab test of coated tubing
The Company's field-experience database
The Company's lab-test database
The Company's databases are updated periodically to reflect the latest experiences
with tubular coatings and linings. Please send relevant field experience or lab test
information to the Company's coating specialists listed in the Quick Reference
Guide.

740 Application
See Figure 700-1 which lists common coatings for tubing.
741 Steps in Application

To apply coatings, follow these steps:
1. Bake at about 700F to burn off oil and loosen scale.
2. Abrasive-blast the surface to white-metal finish (NACE No. 1 or SSPC-SP 5).
3. Apply primer, if appropriate, and cure.
4. Apply the coating.
Apply multiple coats of liquid coating with a spinning spray head.
Apply powder coatings with a vacuum or blow-in process, from one or
both ends of the tubing.
5. Bake at about 400F to cure the coating.
6. Visually inspect the coating; check thickness.
7. Holiday test.
8. Install couplings and thread protectors.
742 Holiday-free Coated Tubing

Refer to Figure 1 of Specification COM-MS-4732 and follow this procedure to
guarantee 100 percent holiday-free coatings:
1. Round the end of the threaded tube to a smooth radius.
2. Coat and holiday test the end of the tubing to the first major thread.
3. Repair any holidays according to the specification.
743 Used Tubing

Use any of the existing linings (see Figure 700-2) rather than coatings for used
tubing. Fiberglass lining can bridge small holes in steel pipe (up to about -inch in
diameter) and withstand pressure up to several thousand psi. Polyethylene liners
also have this capability but to a lower pressure.
Because coatings are relatively thin, they are not as effective for protecting used
tubing if the ID surface is roughened from corrosion. Thick-film powder-applied
coatings, especially nylon coatings, are better than thin-film coatings for recoating
corroded used tubing. It is possible, however, that both types of coatings may fail to
cover all peaks or bridge all gaps or pits on severely corroded steel surfaces. As a
result, these uncoated or unbridged areas become exposed to the corrosive environ-
ment and cause premature failure of the coating and the steel.

The roughness of the surface (and not necessarily the depth of corrosion) deter-
mines the difficulty in applying a good coating. A uniform 50 percent wall loss
from generalized corrosion is easier to coat than a wall loss of only 5 percent
covered with sharp-edged pits. To determine whether or not the tubing is NSC (Not
Suitable for Coating), the coatings applicator should inspect each length of tubing
after cleaning and blasting and again after coating and holiday testing.
750 Handling Coated or Lined Tubing
751 Coated Tubing

Because of the brittle nature of coatings, damage to coated tubing and accessories is
virtually inevitable with the possible exception of those coated with nylon.
The guidelines in this section are intended to minimize damage to plastic coatings
from handling, installation, and well operations. Minimizing coating damage
prolongs tubing life by decreasing both the number and extent of locations subject
to corrosion attack and the number of locations that need protection from corrosion
inhibitors.
As long as defects are small (i.e., the coating is not coming off in large chunks or
sheets), the life of a coated tubing string can be significantly longer than a bare-
steel string.
Proper handling of IPC tubing and accessories prevents or minimizes damage to the
coating, metal, and threads. Excessive bending, deflection, or impact can damage
the coating.
Caution Do not place clamps, hooks, bars, rods, or other foreign objects inside
the tubing or other coated equipment. Either make drifts or rabbits from rubber,
plastic, or wood, or rubber- or plastic-coat them. The tubing must be free of debris
that could damage the coating during drifting.
Note Drifting means testing the tubing for roundness; rabbits help test for and
clear obstructions in the tubing.
The coatings applicator spreads API-modified thread compound (or alternative
thread compound, when specified) on exposed threads with a soft-bristle brush (not
a wire brush) to clean threads or apply thread compound. The coatings applicator
also installs closed-end plastic or steel-reinforced plastic thread/end protectors,
which remain in place during handling, storage, and transportation.
Storing Coated Tubing and Accessories

Note the following guidelines when storing coating tubing and accessories.
Guidelines for Yard Storage.
Rack the tubing to prevent excessive bending and damage during loading and
unloading.

Place pipe racks on stabilized soil.

Do not pyramid-stack (cradle) tubing.
Support tubing by three evenly spaced pipe racks that keep the pipe at least
18 inches above the ground.
Place bolsters (hardwood stripping) between pipe layers, perpendicular to
the pipe.
Align bolsters vertically one above the other and directly over the pipe racks.
Place stripping on the racks to prevent direct contact between the pipe and
pipe rack.
Install chocks (about one- or two-inch wood or plastic blocks) at both ends of
each bolster to keep the pipe from moving.
Do not stack pipe higher than ten feet.
Rack the pipe with all couplings at one end.
Stagger adjoining lengths about the length of the coupling.
Store IPC accessories on wood pallets, concrete pads, or other suitable installa-
tions that keep the accessories off the ground.
Apply an external protective coating to control external corrosion.
Inspect tubular goods (both IPC and non-IPC) stored outside at least every
six months to check for detrimental external attack from atmospheric corro-
sion. Coastal areas may require more frequent inspection.
Guidelines for Job- or Wellsite Storage.
Store IPC tubing on properly loaded flatbed trailers, wooden sills, or prefabri-
cated steel pipe racks.
Do not use old drums or other thin-walled materials as pipe racks.
Use proper pipe chocks on both sides of the bottom tier to prevent rolling.
Do not stack pipe higher than five tiers (layers).
Do not stack other equipment on top of racked IPC tubing.
Do not use racked tubing as a workbench.
Rack tubing with the couplings facing toward the well.
Store IPC accessories on wood pallets, concrete pads, or other suitable installa-
tions that will keep the accessories off the ground.
Loading and Unloading Tubing.
Do not allow IPC tubing to drop or experience long, fast rolls.

Do not use cheaters to move or roll the pipe.

Do not strike the pipe with any metal object.
Transporting Coated Tubing

Note the following guidelines when transporting coated tubing.
In General.
Rack IPC goods for transport to prevent excessive bending and damage during
loading and unloading.
Do not pyramid-stack (cradle) them.
Load and unload tubing carefully, supporting each piece firmly and gently
lifting or gradually rolling them down sills.
Avoid high-speed rolling to protect the coating and the threads.
Do not hoist tubing from a single point.
Use nonmetallic slings when loading or unloading with cranes; do not use
spreader bars.
Select forklifts with forks of sufficient spread to avoid excessive bending of
the pipe.
Never insert pry bars or similar objects inside the pipe.
Guidelines for Trucking.
Use flatbed trailers.
Do not use pole trailers.
For Range 2 or longer tubing, use at least three bolsters on the truck bed and
between layers. Align bolsters vertically.
Use nonmetallic tiedowns for accessories.
Load tubing with all couplings facing the same direction.
Re-tighten tiedowns to remove slack due to settling after traveling a short
distance. Add bolsters if more tiedowns are needed. Do not pull tiedowns so
tight that they bend or bow the tubing or accessories.
Guidelines for Rail Transport.
Transport IPC goods and accessories in open gondola cars, following rules of
American Association of Railroads (AAR).
Secure the load according to AAR rules to prevent coating damage when in
transit or from excessive bending with bolsters, stakes, headers, high-tension
banding.
Do not allow the height of the load above the car floor to exceed ten feet.

Guidelines for Sea Transport.

Do not store IPC goods in or near bilge water, chemicals, or other corrosive
materials.
Prevent excessive bending or coating damage in transit with proper dunnage,
such as bolsters, stakes, headers, high-tension banding, and clips.
752 Lined Tubing

Most of the information about handling coated tubing also applies to lined tubing.
While linings (especially polyethylene linings) are generally more rugged and
damage-resistant than coatings, they must still be handled with care. Treating lined
tubing in the same manner as bare-steel tubing can ruin a potentially holiday- and
damage-free installed tubing string.
The following are key points about coated tubing that also apply to lined tubing:
Keep protectors in place until the pipe is about to be made up. Do not remove
thread protectors when the pipe is being hauled or handled.
Do not insert bars, hooks, or any unloading tools inside the pipe.
Do not drop the pipe or turn it loose to roll on the sticks.
Do not hit the pipe with a hammer or other metal object, or in any way subject
the pipe to impact.
API RP 10E also gives guidelines on handling cement-lined tubing.
760 Installation
761 Coated Tubing and Accessories

Arrange to have a vendor's representative present.
Visually inspect IPC tubing before running.
Reject joints with damage to coating, metal (body, upset, or coupling), or
thread.
Remove the thread protectors for the inspection and then reinstall them,
leaving them on until ready to make up the connection.
Pick up the tubing gently with the rig.
Assign a person to tail the rigged tubing to the derrick.

762 Guidelines for Installing IPC Accessories

Visually inspect IPC accessories before installation.
Unless impractical, reject pieces with coating, metal, or thread damage.
Remove the thread protectors to inspect the threads, and then reinstall
them.
Leave thread/end protectors in place until immediately before make up of the
connection.
Visually inspect the threads again after removing the protectors.
Clean and lubricate (re-dope) the threads in a way that will not damage the
coating.
Apply thread compound.
For connection make up, use equipment and follow procedures to protect
coating.
Do not use pipe wrenches.
For threaded connections, use large contact surface-area tongs, wrenches,
and backups.
Start the make up of the connections by hand, and then follow with the
tongs in low gear.
The guidelines for proper make up of API and premium connections for tubing
also apply to accessories.
For drift bars or rabbits, use wood, plastic, or hard rubber or plastic- or rubber-
coated. Do not use steel, aluminum, or other metal drifts.
Verify that the drift diameter is correct.
Refer to API RP 5A5, Section 4.8, for verification of procedures and
recommended drift diameters.
For both running and pulling pipe, use elevators, slips, and tongs (including
backups) that have 360-degree wrap-around surface-contact areas.
Ensure that the equipment is in good condition and the proper size to grip
the tubing.
Repair or replace any equipment showing excessive wear or sharp contact
surfaces.
Note Slip-and-tong damage (e.g., crushing) can crack the coating.
Leave the thread protectors on until the pipe is vertical, and you are ready to
stab the joint.
When tubing is being pulled, install the thread protectors immediately after
breaking each stand or joint.

After removing the thread protector, clean and lubricate (re-dope) the threads,
being careful not to damage the coating.
Use a soft-bristle brush to clean connections.
Never use a wire brush.
Visually inspect each pipe end again and reject damaged joints.
Always use stabbing guides to prevent damage to the coating on the pin end.
Stab each connection with a properly sized rubber, plastic, or plastic-
coated stabbing guide.
Lower the tubing into the stabbing guide slowly to prevent coating or
thread damage.
Start tubing make up by hand; then use the tongs in low gear, at less than
25 rpm.
Use backup tongs during make up, set only on the box.
Do not use pipe wrenches for make up.
Do not use slips for back up.
To ensure contact of the pin and the coating in the standoff area of the
coupling, make up API connections properly.
Unless an alternate procedure is required, make up API connections to
position while monitoring the torque to API specifications.
Expose no more than 1 threads after make up.
Use a torque gage that reads directly in ft-lbs.
Calibrate the torque gage every three months.
Make up premium connections according to the connection manufacturer's
written recommendations.
Stop travel of the IPC string completely before setting the slips. Lower the
string gently into the slips.
Do not strike the pipe with any metal object (e.g., a hammer or pipe wrench)
even when breaking out connections. Do not allow the pipe to hit any metal
object (e.g., the mast).
To pull the tubing and set it in stands in the derrick, install thread protectors on
the pin-ends or place a resilient pad or carpet on the rig floor to protect the
coated end of the tubing while it rests on the rig floor. If we are to lay the
tubing down through the V-door, install thread protectors on all pin-ends.
763 Guidelines for Installing Lined Tubing

The guidelines for installing coated tubing also apply to lined tubing. Linings are
generally more damage-tolerant than coatings; however, mishandling can cause
damage that will spoil an otherwise holiday-free, damage-free tubing string installa-
tion. Key points are noted or repeated below:

Arrange to have a supplier's representative on site during installation.

Always use a stabbing guide.
Run power tongs at low speed. This is especially critical when:
The pin-end starts to contact the corrosion barrier ring (CBR) on
fiberglass- or PVC-lined tubing.
The pin contacts the plastic insert on cement-lined tubing.
Follow the supplier's instructions to insert CBR, Permitek, and so on.
For linings with a CBR, run a properly sized (nonmetal) drift through each
made-up joint to ensure proper clearance through the CBR.
When running cement-lined tubing, use a sinker bar to smooth out the acrylic
putty applied to the plastic insert in the box end.
When pulling lined pipe, install a thread protector before laying the pipe on a
rack or standing it on end.
Do not stand lined pipe on endnot even on a cushioned matwithout thread
protectors in place.
Do not hammer on the pipe to loosen collars.
API RP 10E also has installation guidelines for cement-lined tubing, similar to
those listed above.
770 Guidelines for Well Operation

The following guidelines are based on the National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neer's (NACE) recommended practices for coated tubing, many of which also apply
to lined tubing.
Note Lined tubing is more common in injection wells rather than in producing
wells.
Caution At times, it is impossible or impractical to follow the guidelines given
below. If so, expect damage to the coating and premature failure of the tubing. Even
when following these guidelines, expect some damage to the coating.
Clearly identify those wells with coated or lined tubing and coated accessories
in the well files, in workover procedure sheets, and at the wellsite. Include the
coating/lining type and installation date.
Make personnel aware that the well has coated or lined tubing so that they take
proper precautions.
Use rod guides in rod-pumped wells.
When practical, install IPC tubing following completion of wireline work,
perforating, cementing, etc.

When a workover requires fishing, squeezing, drilling, or caustic or acid treat-

ments, pull the IPC tubing and use a work string, if possible.
Do not use a coated string as a work string if that string is later intended to be
production or injection tubing in a corrosive well.
If caustic or acid treatments through the IPC tubing are unavoidable, use the
lowest possible concentrations of acid or caustic and minimize contact time
with the coating.
Do not shut in wells with unspent acid or caustic in the tubing.
Consult the coating/lining manufacturer or the coatings applicator for
information about coating chemical resistance.
Keep records in the well file of chemical treatments through coated or
lined tubing and accessories.
Because severe corrosion can occur at locations of major coating damage
caused by wireline tools, avoid wirelining through IPC tubing. (Using a work
string may save your coated tubing.)
If wireline work through IPC tubing is unavoidable, follow these procedures:
Inform the wireline operator that the well has coated tubing.
Use streamlined wireframe tools, sinker bars, and rope sockets with
smooth, padded contours. Do not use angular or sharp-edged tools.
Use single-strand, coated, nonbraided wireline. If you must use braided
line, make sure it does not have splices or burrs, which tear the coating.
Keep wireline speedsboth going into and coming out of the holeat
less than 100 feet per minute. The Company recommends a reduced speed
of 50 feet per minute.
Maintain a stiff line with weight on the indicator. Do not let the tool
free-fall.
Provide special protectionsuch as elastomeric shrink sleeves or plastic
coatingfor fishing necks, pressure bombs, temperature tools, etc. Use
sufficient stand-off pieces in the tool string.
Avoid knuckle joints, knuckle jars, tubing end locators, wireline grabs,
explosive jars, paraffin cutters, or scrapers.
Use swaging tools rather than gage cutters.
If possible, avoid swabbing through IPC tubing strings. If unavoidable,
swab as slowly as possible because the swab itself is usually braided line.
(Using a slick line would be better.) Swabs should be flexible, fabric-rein-
forced, or all rubber; they should not be wire-reinforced. Use double cups
or double mandrels, or both.
Try to avoid downhole caliper surveys. If unavoidable, use calipers with
feelers designed not to cut, mill, or damage the coating.
If possible, avoid coil tubing workovers in coated tubing. If unavoidable, use
plastic or aluminum centralizers and carefully manipulate the coil tubing. Do
not use aluminum with acid or caustic because it will corrode severely.

When hydrotesting IPC tubing, advise the testing company that the well has
coated tubing. Obtain special hydrotest tools with rubber-encapsulated parts
(seal rings). As an alternative, consider external pressure-testing devices.
With coated tubing and accessories in gas service, depressure at a rate no
greater than 2,000 psi per hour.
Train crews involved in drilling, workover, pulling, wireline, and other field
work in the proper handling of coated or lined tubing and accessories. Films,
seminars, and other aids are available in the industry, and vendors are generally
willing to provide training.
780 References
1. Boyd, J.L. and Al Siegmund. Plastic Coated Tubular Goods: Proper Selection,
The Key to Success. NACE Paper 214: Corrosion 89.
2. L. J. Klein. Database Package: Coatings for Downhole Tubular. CRTC Mate-
rials Engineering File 6.30. Chevron Corporation. March 5, 1990.
3. Mitchell, R.K., Coated Tubular Testing, Field Test Results, Hobbs Division,
June 18, 1987 and August 27, 1987.
4. Strickland, L.N., Mitigation of Tubing and Mandrel Failures in High Volume
Gas Lift Oil Wells, Thompson Field, Ft. Bend, TX. NACE Paper 70:
Corrosion 1992.
5. Turnipseed, S.P. Internal Plastic Coatings Qualification Tests: Interim Report.
Chevron Corporation. April 15, 1992.
6. . Final Report. Chevron Corporation. December 16, 1992.
7. American Petroleum Industry. Recommended Practice for Application of
Cement Lining to Steel Tubular Goods, Handling, Installation and Joining.
API RP 10E. Washington, DC.
8. . Specification for PVC Lined Steel Tubular Goods. API 15LT.
Washington, DC.
9. . API RP 5A5, Section 4.8, National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers. Care, Handling, and Installation of Internally Plastic-Coated Oilfield
Tubular Goods and Accessories. NACE RP0291. 1991.
10. . The Application of Internal Plastic Coatings for Oilfield Tubular
Gords and Accessories. NACE RP0191-91. 1991.

800 Offshore Coatings
Abstract
The primary objective of any offshore coatings program is to preserve the structural
integrity of platforms and producing facilities by preventing metal loss using high-
quality protective coating systems coupled with systematic and routine maintenance.
Offshore coatings are very similar to high-performance (onshore) coatings in terms
of selection, surface preparation, application, and inspection. This section contains
information that is unique to offshore coatings programs. For basic coatings infor-
mation that is applicable to offshore work, refer to the following sections in this
manual:
Section 50, Using This Manual
Section 100, General Information
Section 300, Coatings Selection
Section 400, Surface Preparation
Section 500, Application
To select offshore coating systems, refer to the Quick Reference Guide.
Contents Page
810 In General 800-3

811 Background Information
812 Comparing Off- and Onshore Coatings
820 Quality Control 800-3
821 Design Solutions
822 Platform Maintenance
823 Project Planning [1]
824 Protecting Coatings Materials & Equipment Offshore [1]
830 Protecting Human Health & the Environment 800-18
831 Typical Hazards Offshore
832 Environmental Issues
840 Selection 800-20

800 Offshore Coatings Coatings Manual


Coatings Manual 800 Offshore Coatings
810 In General
As there are many similarities between offshore and high-performance onshore
coatings, the focus of this section is on the aspects of coatings projects unique to
offshore structures.
811 Background Information

Offshore structures and wharves represent a very severe, if not the worst, coating
service. Coating systems are selected to balance service life, and assure ease of
maintenance, local availability, quality, and suitability for application under
prevailing climatic conditions. The relative importance of these factors differs from
location to location.
812 Comparing Off- and Onshore Coatings

Offshore coating systems are comparable to onshore high-performance systems,
except that frequent wetting and high humidity make some upgrading necessary
offshore.
Example: Splash-zone areas subject coatings to intermittent immersion.
Mechanical equipment, valves, pumps and motors are a particular problem offshore
if manufacturers of these items coat them with materials adequate for inland or
coastal environments, but which fail quickly offshore.
Normally, you can purchase larger pieces of equipment and custom-fabricated
equipment, such as compressors and vessels, with the Company's coating system
already applied. The Company highly recommends doing so.
It is generally not economical, however, for the equipment manufacturer to offer
custom coatings for commodity items such as pumps or motors. Therefore,
apply the complete system at the fabrication yard according to the Company's
specifications.
820 Quality Control

High-quality and cost-effective coatings are essential, but much more difficult to
achieve offshore than onshore. Offshore, there are some adverse factors over which
you have little or no control; but you can recognize them and reduce their effects
with good planning.[1] Some of these factors are:
Adverse weather conditions
Simultaneous operations with other platform activities
Limited availability of transportation
Substrate surfaces that are deeply pitted and contaminated by soluble surface salts
You can reduce the costly re-work of prematurely failed coatings by promoting
quality control and quality assurance during fabrication. To perform work offshore

costs approximately ten times as much as the same work in fabrication yards.
Design solutions are, therefore, key considerations for offshore coating projects.
Maintenance
An effective maintenance program for offshore coatings begins with comprehensive
quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) when applying the initial coating
during fabrication. Ensuring that the fabrication yard has applied the coating prop-
erly and according to specifications allows you to:
Obtain a high-quality coating that contributes to the maximum service life of
the platform and equipment
Reduce future expenditures for field maintenance
New Construction
For new construction, the offshore QA/QC program is a team effort among the
project engineers, contractors, coating suppliers, third-party inspectors, and in-
house coating personnel. A system of checks and balances, this QA/QC program
makes certain thatregardless of the size of the projectthe services of all partici-
pants fulfill the requirements of the specification.
The Successful Project

A successful project includes quality control, particularly as it relates to the
following items (discussed below):
Design Solutions
Platform Maintenance
Project Planning
Protecting Materials & Equipment Offshore
The remaining essential elements of a successful project are surface preparation
(discussed below) and application (Section 500 of this manual).
One definition of a successful project is that all the work meets the specification at
the lowest cost possible, with no accidents, minimal turnover of personnel, and
within budgetary constraints.[1]
821 Design Solutions

Good design can minimize and repair defects in fabrication and therefore reduce
the costs of future coating maintenance by reducing areas which lead to the failure
of a coating and resulting corrosion damage. Good design also reduces the cost of
current coating projects by correcting problems before or during surface prepara-
tion that will improve the ease and efficiency of application.
The basic principle of corrosion-resistant design is to keep structures as simple as
possible and reduce the surface area to be coated as much as practical. Balance
these considerations against necessary engineering requirements for safe and effec-
tive service regardless of the coating problems.

Detailed below are problems and solutions for the following design issues: beams,
congested and inaccessible areas, decks, elevated structures, sharp edges, stainless
steel bands and tubing, surface laminations, welds, and u-bolts.
Angle, Channel, H- and I-Beams

Problem: The angles and edges on these basic structural shapes cause many prob-
lems. They often receive inadequate dry film thickness (DFT) because proper spray
technique is hard to achieve in these areas. The web/flange interface is also a diffi-
cult area to coat.
Most high-performance coatings exhibit considerable surface tension upon drying
which can cause the coating to pull away from corners. These areas are also suscep-
tible to dry spray and overspray which break the bond between the applied coating
and the substrate. As flat surfaces generally allow proper application technique,
they receive better deposits of film.
Note For a proper spray technique, hold coating guns perpendicular to
substrates, approximately eight to ten inches from the surface.
Solution: To achieve adequate film on angles and interfaces of all hard-to-coat
areas, specify a brush coat (extra coat) of the first intermediateusually of
contrasting colorover the primer before applying the remaining coats.
Congested and Inaccessible Areas

Problem: Congested and inaccessible areas are primary contributors to coating
failures and increased costs of maintenance.
Problems begin at the fabrication yard and continue throughout the life of the plat-
form. These areas are extremely costly because space restrictions:
Limit movement of the coatings applicators
Prevent many items from receiving adequate coating
Cause the work to proceed slowly
Contribute to the high risk of substandard coatings as adequate coating
coverage is difficult to achieve
Congested and inaccessible areas are the first to fail, requiring more frequent main-
tenance cycles at escalated costs. Many congested areas involve production equip-
ment and piping, which are the most critical items on the platform.
Example: Inaccessible areas that seldom receive adequate coating protection
include:
Non- or skip-welded back-to-back angles
Box beams
Through-deck piping surrounded by pollution rings, and under-deck piping
Maintenance of under-deck piping is costly as it requires erecting a scaffold for all
work, including routine, non-destructive testing.

Solutions: The following solutions are intended to reduce coatings problems in

congested/inaccessible areas:
Do not design, if at all possible, any structure with items that are congested and
inaccessible.
Route all piping at least six inches above solid decks.
Design pollution rings to include at least a six-inch clearance from through-
deck piping.
Do not design box beams and back-to-back angles, if possible. (If back-to-back
angles are necessary, specify seal welds.)
DecksDiamond Plates
Problem: Any of the following problems can occur with diamond deck plates:
Rust may form at the peak of elevated diamonds where the coating is sheared
by equipment placed on or dragged across the surface.
The angles of the diamonds can trap moisture and salt, causing the coating to
undercreep to the flat area of the plate. Entire decks begin to rust and coatings
de-laminate. This often requires 100 per cent blasting as surface preparation to
remove the lifted coating.
Diamond decks can become expensive to maintain in terms of time and abra-
sive to blast each elevation from different angles to remove loose scale and
oxidation.
Diamond decks can require up to two times the amount of coating for flat plate
because of the greater surface area.
Solution: Install flat plates whenever possible. The service life of a coating is
longer on flat plates than on diamond deck plates.
DecksSolid
Problem: Depending on their height above water, solid decks need recoating
every three-to-five years. Solid deck coatings are expensive to maintain in terms of
time, labor, equipment, and materials needed to blast and coat both the top and
underside.
Solution: The following are two suggested solutions:
Install galvanized grating, which performs well except at waterlines. (This is
the standard on most of the Company's platforms.) Service life at the 10-foot
level is about four-to-five years.
Install fiberglass grating, which has given excellent results at several of the
Company's locations after 12 years of service.
Caution Although environmental and containment concerns restrict grating
decks, install them whenever possible.

Solid decks are used around production equipment to prevent spills into the
water.
Grating decks are used on the bottom levels of the platform where water could
cause a solid floor to be slippery.
Solid floors are typically used on the upper decks where crew living quarters
are located.
Elevated Structural Members at +10-foot Level

Problems: The waterline is the most corrosive and most difficult area to maintain
on the platform.
Structural members (horizontals and diagonals that are close to the water)
are more susceptible to corrosion and are more expensive to maintain than
higher ones.
Boat landings present major problems. In the Company's older designs, boat
bumpers also serve as support members and are usually installed on three sides
of the platform. The bumpers' elevations range from five-to-eight feet above
the tidal area. The bottom third is in water much of the time and is covered
with marine growth so that only the top portion is accessible for blasting and
coating. Boat bumpers are in congested areas with vertical members spaced
every several feet. Adequate blasting and recoating is possible only for the top
portion; and, at best, those areas require extensive recoating at least every five
years.
Solutions: The following solutions are designed to reduce maintenance of
+10-foot areas.
Design +10-foot areas as high as possible from the tidal zone and minimize the
surface areas of boat bumpers.
Include horizontal members 15 feet above the tidal area (as compared to older
ones, which are 5-to-8 feet above the tidal area).
Keep the size and number of boat bumpers to a minimum.
Note Surveys indicate that the service life of coating systems on newer designs is
at least double the service life of older designs; service life of bumpers is
unchanged.
Analysis of past coating jobs on deep-water four- and six-pile platforms indicates
that coatings of elevated designs are completed in half the number of days of lower
designs, resulting in substantial savings of maintenance costs.
Sharp Edges
Problem: Sharp edges left on overlapping plates or edges by shearing or cutting
will cause coatings to fail, almost without exception. Surface tension and shrinkage
during curing pulls the coating away from the edges, leaving areas of low DFT or
holidays (or both). Additional film defects occur when, as is normal, the crew
applies the coating on tangent to the edges rather than perpendicularly.

Solution: To achieve the best protection, the design should stipulate:

Grinding the edges smooth or increasing the thickness on the edge areas (or
both) to help achieve the best protection
Applying an additional coating to the edge before each coat, followed by the
normal coating that is extended over the edge with several inches of overlap
Stainless Steel Bands/Tubing

Problem: Stainless-steel bands, holding emergency shut-down (ESD) tubing in
place on vessels and piping, are primary causes of corrosion damage. The protec-
tive coating on vessels and piping is usually damaged during installation when the
bands are crimped to the item. The remaining bands eventually rub off the coating.
Any small coating defect causes dissimilar metal action between the bands and the
carbon steel substrate. Pitting begins in a relatively short time after moisture and
salts are trapped at the interface. Stainless-steel tubing produces similar results.
Solution: To prevent pitting, specify bands with neoprene or similar lining and
elevate tubing from the substrate on either rubber or Teflon blocks.
Surface Laminations
Problem: Difficult to coat, surface laminations include sharp, jagged protrusions
with gouges and voids on the undersides.
Solution: To facilitate applying the coating, the design should stipulate grinding/
removing laminations before abrasive blasting and coating.
WeldsFlux
Problem: Highly alkaline and hydroscopic, residual weld flux eventually delami-
nates from the surface, causing blistersthe site of early coating failurein the
coating.
Solution: To help prevent residual weld flux from delaminating, the design should
stipulate removing weld flux before abrasive blasting and coating.
WeldsRough
Problem: Surface irregularities on rough welds make it difficult to apply coatings
in a continuous film, free from voids and pinholes. Small defects in a coating allow
moisture to penetrate to the surface, causing localized corrosion cells. These cells,
combined with the weld's being a heat-affected area, accelerate the corrosion rate.
Solution: To achieve a smooth surface without voids and pinholes, the design
should stipulate grinding all rough welds before coating.
WeldsSkip
Problem: Skip welding is a common technique for reinforcing areas where a
continuous weld is not necessary. It is impossible to coat the resulting crevices
between the welds at the interfaces of the metal piecesadequately.

Example: On offshore platforms, constant vibration can cause the coatingbonded

at the interfacesto rub off and the surface to accumulate moisture and salt
deposits, which accelerate corrosion rates.
Solution: For coated surfaces which are exposed to vibration, specify continuous
seal welds instead of skip welds.
WeldsSplatter
Problem: Weld splatter is small balls of metal that adhere to the surface. The
applied coating literally flows off the splatter, leaving exposed areas which eventu-
ally undercreep to the coated item. Small crevices also develop around the bases of
the splatter, creating voids where coatings cannot penetrate. Coating applied to
weld splatter will eventually fail.
Solution: To prevent splatter from exposing areas of surface and causing crevices
in the coating, the design should stipulate removing weld splatter before blasting
and coating.
U-bolts
Problem: Galvanized or cadmium-plated u-bolts which support piping on metal
supports cause damage to the coating when subjected to platform vibration and
other movement. The rubbing action results in metal-to-metal contact which causes
pitting.
Solution: To prevent pitting, specify neoprene-coated u-bolts with neoprene pads
or Teflon blocks on the support bracing to prevent metal-to-metal contact.
822 Platform Maintenance

Long-range planning optimizes overall expenditures and timing in the following ways:
Distributes expenditures over the life of the platform
Keeps facilities in good condition by arranging for appropriate levels of
maintenance
Reduces the need for major maintenance (50 percent top to bottom) in a
given year
Limits the need for major coating projects toward the end of a platform's
producing life
Realizes savings by reducing platform downtime and preventing premature fail-
ures from corrosion
A maintenance program should begin as soon as a platform is in service. As a plat-
form nears the end of its producing life, critical cost factors such as time, labor,
equipment requirements, materials, etc. become increasingly important, sometimes
over-shadowing service life.

Work Priorities
The priorities of platform maintenance change as service conditions change, often
being revised several times over the producing life of a platform. Setting work prior-
ities for an offshore coating project involves the following factors which are also
important when assessing a coating to determine repair procedures and costs:
Coating type and existing condition
Percentage of surface breakdown
Degree of corrosion
Type of item (structural or equipment)
Condition of the Existing Coating. Judge the corrosion on structural members and
equipment to establish priorities, define the scope of work, and forecast expenditures.
Severity of Corrosion and Recommended Repairs. The following examples are
typical offshore coating failures and recommended repair procedures.
Zinc/epoxy/urethane systems tend to be brittle, to chalk, and to exhibit topcoat
delamination from the zinc primer. Corrosion, usually local during early failure
mode, tends to undercreep the epoxy topcoats by sacrificial action of the zinc
primer. Limit maintenance to selective spot blasting and coating with compat-
ible epoxy and urethane topcoats before the system is badly damaged. Other-
wise, the surface may need complete blasting and recoating.
Solvent-based vinyl coating systems tend to remain soft and flexible, with rela-
tively good adhesion. Most vinyl coating failures are the result of osmotic blis-
tering (water penetrating to the substrate), mechanical damage or application
defects such as holidays (breaks or flaws) in the wash primer, low dry-film
thickness (DFT), and overblast damage. Corrosion is usually uniform over a
larger surface area, but pitting is not as severe as with zinc/epoxy/urethanes.
Vinyls are easy to spot blast, sweep, and topcoat with other vinyl systems
because solvents redissolve easily, allowing for easy tie-in or adhesion of the
new coating to the existing coating.
Operating Service of Equipment and Structural Items. For cost-effective coat-
ings maintenance, avoid complete top-to-bottom work by developing evaluation-
and-ranking criteria for platform items such as those shown in Figure 800-1.
In this figure, priorities are determined by varying degrees of coating breakdown
and rust and by safety, type of service, and location of the item.
Safety and Environmental Concerns. Normally, safety-related items such as
vessels, piping, stairwells, and heliports take priority over others when coating and
corrosion are equal. Adequate wall thickness, however, is always an overriding
concern. If wall thickness of a given item does not meet minimal requirements,
replace that item.
For more information, refer to Protecting Human Health & the Environment later in
this section.

Fig. 800-1 Sample Platform Survey Report

Platform type (check one) Major Date Location
9/1/95 Typical Platform
Satellite MW Caisson SW Caisson Monopod

8 Pile 4 Pile 3 Pile Wellguard
Job type Deck Heliport size Capacity Crane Capacity Quarters
(check one) Boat 20/60 30 tons 15 man
Condition Priority
Evaluation Scale Percent Breakdown
1Light rust only A0 to 10 1Work in 1 year
2Light to medium rust B11 to 25 2Work in 2 years
3Light to medium scale C26 to 40 3Work in 3 years
4Light pits/light scale D41 to 60 4Work in 4 years
5Light pits/medium scale Fover 60
6Light pits/severe scale
7Medium pits/medium scale
8Severe pits/severe scale
9New construction item
Item Coating Type Condition Priority Est. # Days Comments
1. Heliport Condition warrants work in near future
a. Top Polyester C5 1-2 6
b. Underside ZN/EP/URE B2 3 N/A No work needed this year; fair condition; no
estimate needed
2. Top Deck Level Coating undercreepage and delamination
a. Deck Plates Polyester D7 1 10
b. Escape Capsule ZN/EP/URE A9 1 3 New addition; welds need touchup
Davit
c. Skid Beams ZN/EP/URE C6 1-2 5 Severe impact damage on topsides; severe
scale under flange; needs work soon
d. I-Beams/STR. ZN/EP/URE A1 4 Looks good; no est. required
MEM
e. Grating Areas Galvanized F8 1 Several sections need changeout schedule
for welding
3. Under Top Deck
a. Overhead Piping ZN/EP/URE C5 1 14 Coating in failure mode; needs work
b. New 2" Fuel Gas ZN/EP/URE A-9-2 1 4 New items - welds need TU and remainder
Lines needs spot blast and paint
c. Vessels ZN/EP/URE A1 4+ Good shape; no work needed
d. Top Deck Supports ZN/EP/URE A1 4+ Ditto
e. I-Beams ZN/EP/URE A1 4+ Ditto
f. Grating Galvanized B2 3-4 Needs changeout 3-4 years
4. Under Superstructure ZN/EP/URE C5 2-3 14 Coating undercreepage; scale on beams &
piping
5. Risers ZN/EP/URE A1 4 Looks good; no est. required
6. Waterline ZN/EP/URE F8 1 21 Severely corroded; needs work ASAP

Remaining Life of the Facility. See Figure 800-2.
Fig. 800-2 Priority 1 Coating Maintenance Items Based on Facilitys Life Expectancy and Existing Condition
Based on Life Expectancy & Existing Condition
Long Term Medium Term Short Term

Priority 1 Items (7+ years) (5-7 years) (less than 5 years)
All primary safety items, including process C4 or worse C5 or worse D7 or worse

vessels, interconnecting piping, risers, stair-
wells, walkways, and heliports
Structural items such as waterline D5 or worse D7 or worse Defer until the facility depletes,
members, decking, I-beams, support is sold, or changes to another
trusses, plate girders, and legs category.
Recommend plugging and abandoning or selling any property that does not meet the economic criteria to perform the necessary mainte-
nance to operate safely.
In all cases (except for certain short-term properties), touch up bare welds and scar damage on new installation items.
Before deferral, if conditions equal or exceed C4, or if the items integrity is in question, verify by non-destructive evaluation (x-ray or ultra-
sonic testing) that the remaining wall thickness of vessels, piping, and structural steel remain within safe operating limits.
Prevailing Economic Conditions. Coating maintenance programs vary depending

on the prevailing economy. Protective coating maintenance programs are vulnerable
during difficult economic conditions.
A selective deferral strategy:
Postpones non-critical, borderline work and concentrates on critical work
Reduces overall expenditures in the short term and in locations that have a
number of platforms and facilities
Allows spot maintenance on more platforms (providing adequate levels of
maintenance levels, although less than desirable in some cases)
The disadvantages of selective deferral are that deferred items:
Continue to deteriorate
Cost more to repair after several years because of additional mobilization costs,
inflation, and increased work scope
Favorable economic conditions may justify greater expenditures:
Accomplishing more work on necessary items, including those deferred from
previous periods
Reducing the number of spot-maintenance cycles
Forecasting Work
A forecaster needs the following information to prepare budgets, project future
work, and make adjustments:
Both short- and long-term field economic strategies
Conditions of the platform

Historicaltiming and quality of the previous coating

Currentexisting coating system, service conditions, comprehensive
annual or bi-annual topside coating surveys about the platform's current
condition
Often, you need to prepare a pre-project survey before you can establish detailed
work and coating schedules and arrange for equipment and personnel.[4] See
Figure 800-1 for forecasts; Figure 800-3 for pre-job planning.
Background Information for Forecasting

For onshore projects, effective quality control during fabrication helps to ensure the
longest service life from the initial coating work (exceeding offshore work by 25 to
30 percent). Achieving the same degree of quality offshore is difficult because the
surface becomes contaminated by salts, oils, grease, or pitting, and access to work
items is limited. The higher the quality of each fabrication, the longer the coating
lasts. A long-lasting coating minimizes future work and lowers cost.
Structural members and piping at the +10-foot waterline areas and superstructure
undersides generally require more frequent maintenance intervals (every five to
seven years) than upper elevations for the following reasons:
Coating damage can be severe due to high levels of exposure to saltwater,
spray, and salt deposits.
The waterline area is subject to wave action, floating debris, and damage from
the impact of cargo and crew boats.
Production risers at the +10-foot level are more critical than structural
members because of high operating pressures, product volume, and potential
for pollution.
Metal loss of 40 mils or more per year can occur near the waterline.[3]
Elevated structural members, piping, and other items may require maintenance
intervals of 7 to 12 years. Mechanical damage occurs in coatings of high-traffic,
high-impact areas such as helidecks and production decks, requiring maintenance
intervals of 5 to 7 years.
Annual Surveys
Survey reports provide information on the conditions of a platform, enabling the
forecaster to:
Adjust forecasted expenditures
Establish priorities for specific tasks over the next three-to-five years
Provide options for scheduling critical or deferring non-critical tasks
Optimize expenditures by scheduling tasks appropriately
Estimate the cost of projects

Fig. 800-3 Questionnaire for Pre-Job Platform Inspection

Offshore Coatings
Category/Item Yes No Comments
Percentage of Coating Breakdown and Severity of Corrosion
Do the platform and equipment items need to be spot or
100% blasted & painted?
Are there any severely corroded items that need
changeout?
What is the condition of the clamps and u-bolts?
What is the condition of sight glasses, valves, etc.?
Type of Existing Paint System
What is the general condition of the coating?
Is the specified system compatible?
Can this system be feather-edged and tied into the new
system?
Do any items need specialty coatings (e.g. hot or
submerged equipment & piping?)
Platform Layout
Is there sufficient space for equipment and supplies?
What type of rigging will be required?
Are there any special considerations for rigging?
What is the cranes capacity?
What is the fuel capacity?
Are there sufficient living accommodations for the crew?
What is the potable water capacity?
Is the platform a high traffic area?
Platform Equipment Setup
Do any equipment items need filtration or wrapping?
Is any shut-in time needed for blasting and painting? If so,
what is the estimated down time?
Do any areas require wrapping for overblast and over-
spray prevention?
Are there any drains which need plugging?
Are there any special safety concerns (e.g. hot piping,
confined spaces, fall hazards)?
Are there any sweating lines which will require shut-in for
blasting and painting?

Candidates for conducting annual surveys include NACE International Certified

Coating Inspectors who have a sound working knowledge of offshore coatings oper-
ations, coating systems, and general corrosion principles and who can assess plat-
form conditions, priorities, and estimates.
A thorough survey includes the following information:
Platform type (major, satellite, multi- or single-well caisson, or other)
Number of piles
Crew set-up needed for proposed work (e.g., deck crew, boat crew, jack-up
barge)
Heliport size and weight limitations
Capacity of the crane
Capacity of quarters
Coating system on specific areas/items
Coating condition on specific areas/items
Work priority (estimated time of next maintenance work)
Estimated number of days required
General comments (e.g., change-out items, type of crew base camp set-up, type
of surface preparation, coating required)
A comprehensive pictorial of each platform to document items that may soon
require attention
Figure 800-1 is a typical completed survey report form.
823 Project Planning [1]

Of the key considerations in project planning, there are two of special interest to
offshore coating projects:
Pre-inspecting the Platform
Coordinating Jobs
Pre-Inspecting the Platform

Pre-inspecting the platform helps to determine work and coating schedules and
assists in overall project coordination. The following tasks should be part of a pre-
job inspection:
Inspect the platform to determine the specific job scope and plan for personnel
and equipment set-up.
Consult platform operators about operating routines and production equipment,
preferably with the designated inspector and crew foreman present.
Check the platform and its operating equipment.
See Figure 800-3: Questionnaire for Pre-job Platform Inspection.

Coordinating Jobs
Job coordination is a cost-saving practice that eliminates unnecessary downtime,
keeps the coatings applicator on a favorable work routine, and helps prevent poten-
tial problems.
For example, offshore platforms have logistical limitationseach flight and supply
boat run adds to the job costso forethought results in a much smoother project.
Schedule flights and supply runs:
To minimize transportation costs
In the morning, to minimize disruption of coating operations during critical
project phases in the afternoon
Ensure that the inspector and crew foreman maintain updated and accurate invento-
ries of material and anticipate needs for materials. In addition:
Replenish fuel and water on each boat run.
Maintain ample supplies of abrasive and coatings in the event of extended
periods of bad weather.
Transition timesduring which the coatings applicators change from one operation
to anothercan also make a significant difference to the cost of a project. See
Section 100 of this manual.
824 Protecting Coatings Materials & Equipment Offshore [1]

The condition of abrasives and coating materials affects the service life of applied
coatings. Offshore, abrasives and coatings are subject to a harsh environment
baked in sun, flooded in high seas, contaminated by saltwater, banged, broken, or
dropped. As these materials also have unique transportation requirements, take
special precautions to preserve their integrity.
Proper handling and storage are high priorities. Realize short-term savings by
replacing bad material infrequently (including reducing downtime while waiting for
re-supply and additional boat runs). Handled and stored properly, the materials stay
in good condition and result in long-term savings from the increased service life of
the coating.
Abrasives
For high-production blasting, large-volume bulk blast pots require massive amounts
of abrasive. A typical, high-production, 100-per-cent blasting needs 25 to 30 tons of
workboat-transported abrasive weekly. Good planning is essential to maintain suffi-
cient quantity on board.
It is important to store the abrasive in bulk containers to keep it dry and uncontami-
nated. Each bulk container holds about two tons of abrasive and may be any of
three major kinds: vinyl, disposable bulk bags, or metal hoppers. The first two are
most common.

Follow these procedures to keep bags safe and functional:

Check for damage before and after each use. Look for wear and for holes in the
sides, tops, or funnels. Note any missing or worn tie ropes on the top and
bottom funnels. Replace as necessary.
Report all damaged bags to the appropriate authority.
Remove damaged bags from circulation until repaired; or, if disposable bags,
discard altogether.
Prepare accurate use-and-damage reports for each bag.
Identify the number of uses for disposable bags by coating a slash or mark on
the outside. Do not use disposal bags more than the recommended number of
times.
Transport and store both empty and full bags on pallets to prevent contamina-
tion by seepage.
Store empty bags away from sunlight and in a dry place. Immediately after
emptying, fold the ends of the bags inward, roll lengthwise, and tie each bag
separately with manila twine. Tie a bundle of bags to a pallet for shipment.
Coatings
Coating containers begin to deteriorate from sunlight and salt as soon as they arrive
at the shorebase. Proper storage of coatings is essential because coatings must be
mixable, sprayable, and free from contamination.
Follow these procedures for storing coatings:
Store coating cans in a well-ventilated area.
Keep cans away from direct sunlight in a coating-storage building dockside,
and in the shade at the job site.
Store cans on pallets. They should not come into direct contact with solid
decks (which can reach 130F in summer months) and should not sit in salt
water for extended periods of time during shipping.
Do not cover coating cans with tarpaulins during hot months; the oven-like
effect literally cooks the material.
Maintain tight inventory control. Keep cans in one area; do not allow them to
be scattered around the platform.
Rotate the coating stock weekly.
Apply the coating material as soon as possible after opening a container.
Remove coating residue from empty cans before disposing of them.

Dispose of empty coating cans by removing the bottoms, crushing the

cans, and tying them in bundles to save trash basket space and minimize
handling time after removing cans from the work site.
Store empty cans separately from regular trash because they will probably
require special handling for disposal.
Ensure that the proper Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) and
Hazardous Material Shipping Manifests accompany the coating at all
times.
Equipment
Nav-aid lights make the platform visible to boat traffic at night. They need protec-
tion from overblast or overspray because even small amounts distort the light beam
and affect visibility. Even minor damage to these lenses requires costly replacement.
During a coatings project, crews must cover and uncover these lights. To cut costs
of material and manpower, they can use a cylinder-shaped cover of chicken wire
wrapped with plastic. These covers are inexpensive, easy to install and remove, and
durable.
For additional information about protecting the Company's equipment, see Section
100 of this manual.
830 Protecting Human Health & the Environment

Workers' safety and the environment are among the foremost concerns of any coat-
ings project. General information on these subjects is provided in the Section 200
of this manual, however, there are some special considerations for offshore work.
831 Typical Hazards Offshore

Many hazards are associated with offshore coatings activities, some with job-site
conditions that change daily. In general, offshore safe practices for coatings projects
should include:
Ensuring that the Company's representative has a good understanding of
offshore work processes, equipment set-up, and potential hazards [2]
Choosing contractors who specialize in offshore coatings work and who have
high-quality safety and training programs, good equipment, and competent
personnel[2]
Some typical hazards offshore are offloading equipment and supplies; lead and
other regulated, hazardous, heavy metals in the existing coating; and scaffolding.
Offloading Equipment & Supplies

Offloading equipment for a crew of 8-to-10 workers takes up to 12 hours and
requires about 60 lifts from a cargo boat. Equipment can include 750-CFM or
larger air compressors, 8-ton bulk abrasive blast pots, air-volume tanks, scaffolding,

hoses, 4,000-pound bulk-abrasive bags, cargo baskets filled with coating materials,
portable bunkhouses, or galley buildings.[1]
Concern.
Transferring equipment, material, and personnel from the cargo boat safely
Factors to Consider.
Weather and sea conditions
Qualifications of coatings applicators (should be rigger-certified)
Qualifications of the crane operator and boat captain
Organization and coordination of the loading activities
Level of communication among all involved, especially the crew foreman,
crane operator, hook-up personnel on the boat and the platform, and the boat
captain
Lead and Other Regulated, Hazardous, Heavy Metals

Exposure to elevated levels of lead/heavy metals can have adverse and chronic
effects on the human central nervous and reproductive systems.
Concerns.
The degree of lead/heavy metals in coating systems on offshore platforms
Workers' exposure to elevated levels of lead/heavy metals when removing the
coating with abrasive blasting, hand tools, or power tools
Safe Practices.
Inform the contractor of any potential for exposure to lead/heavy metals to
ensure that the contractor provides necessary monitoring and appropriate
protection for workers as mandated by OSHA, 29 CFR 1926.62, 1926.63, and
1926.55. The Company's representative should contact local ES&H authority
for guidance and assistance.
Determine the exposure level from workers' personal monitors worn in a partic-
ular work area or platform.
Require a degree of protection for workers corresponding to the level of expo-
sure. (Workers' protection includes respirators, protective clothing, and change-
and-wash facilities.)
Refer to OSHA guidelines about lead in industrial protective coatings [5, 7].
Scaffolding
Crews often perform blasting and coating from scaffolding. Cable scaffolding is
generally set up for work on deck undersides (under heliports and superstructures.
Cable scaffolding consists of 1- by 16-foot wooden timbers or aluminum boards

tied by manila rope to cable strands. Cable clamps and net hooks secure the cables
and nets.
Concerns.
Possibility of falling from scaffolding above deck, under the superstructure, or
at the +10-foot waterline level
Inadequate offshore scaffolding techniques
Safe Practices.
Require that personnel wear full-body harnesses to prevent back injury in case
of a fall.[2]
Ensure that rigging follows accepted practices of five cablestwo to support
the timbers, two to support the nets, and one as a safety line for safety lanyards.
Secure cables with double cable clamps; position the live end on the U-bolt
side of the clamp.
Do not use old, rusted cables.
Do not splice cables.
832 Environmental Issues

Environmental issues have a significant effect on offshore coatings programs as
regulatory agencies become increasingly concerned about offshore activities. Many
operators are reviewing their onshore programs and adopting applicable environ-
mental protection practices for offshore work.
Those responsible for overseeing coatings activities should be thoroughly familiar
with the applicable laws to ensure that the Company is operating in compliance
with them. Local environmental, safety, and health specialists are a good resource
of information about environmental protection offshore.
840 Selection
See the Quick Reference Guide for the selection process and selection guides for
offshore coating systems.

Achieving the surface preparation outlined in the Company's specification is
crucial.[8] While this is really no different than for any other coating job, the
greater expense of offshore repairs makes it even more important to pay close atten-
tion to this vital part of a coatings job.

860 References
1. Conlin, T.M. Fundamentals of Offshore Coating Operations: It's the Little
Things that Really Make the Difference. Journal of Protective Coatings &
Linings, Vol. 7, No. 9. Steel Structures Coating Council. September 1990.
2. Loss Prevention Guide No. 25 - Health, Environment & Loss Prevention.
Chevron Corporation. May 1991.
3. Munger, Charles G. Corrosion Prevention by Protective Coatings. National
Association of Corrosion Engineers. 1986.
4. National Association of Corrosion Engineers. NACE Coating Inspector
Training and Certification Program - Session 1, Organizational Development
Systems, Inc. Houston, Texas: 1982.
Special Edition of the Federal Register. OSHA Safety and Health Standards,
29 CFR 1910/1926, U.S. Department of Labor, 1991 and 1993.
6. Roebuck, A.H., T.M. Conlin, and Durwood Broussard. Offshore Coatings
Work. Proceedings of Steel Structures Coating Council. 1991.
Special Edition of the Federal Register. Safety and Health Standards, 29 CFR
1926.62, Construction Industry Standard. United States Government Printing
Office. Washington: 1995.
8. Chevron Corporation. Specification COM-MS-4771 Offshore Structures
Coatings. Coatings Manual Chevron Research and Technology Company.
Richmond, CA: January, 1995.
Special Edition of the Federal Register. OSHA 29 CFR 1926.63. United States
Government Printing Office. Washington: 1995.
10. . Special Edition of the Federal Register. OSHA 29 CFR 1926.55
United States Government Printing Office. Washington: 1995.

900 Pipeline Coatings
Abstract
This section contains general information about external and internal pipeline coat-
ings. External pipeline coatings are described in figures which highlight the defini-
tion, recommended services, and other key elements of a coating. Quality control is
viewed from the standpoint of specifications, planning (based on a coating's service
conditions, durability and resistance, construction factors, and application factors),
and inspection. The selection section covers new construction and rehabilitation
coatings.
Pipe is coated or lined internally to prevent corrosion or to increase flow rates by
reducing friction losses. In some cases by installing linings through existing piping,
a corroded line which would otherwise have to be replaced can be salvaged. In this
section, the term, coatings, means the relatively thin paint, while linings are much
thicker cement or plastic. Field-applied means applying a lining or coating to an
existing pipeline.
Internally coated pipe is the main issue, with linings introduced only in terms of
alternatives to internally coated pipe. Both linings and coatings can be shop- or
field-applied.
For general information about:
Surface preparation, see Section 100.
Environment, health, and safety as they relate to coatings, see Section 200.
The economics and colors of Company coatings, see Section 300.
For more detailed information about cement- and plastic-lined pipe, refer to the
Company's Pipeline and Piping Manuals.
Contents Page
910 Pipeline Coatings in General 900-3

920 External Pipeline Coatings 900-3
921 Selection
922 Quality Control
930 Internal Pipeline Coatings 900-54
931 Shop-applied Internal Pipeline Coatings

900 Pipeline Coatings Coatings Manual
932 Field-applied Internal Pipeline Coatings

933 Weld-joint Application & Inspection

Coatings Manual 900 Pipeline Coatings
910 Pipeline Coatings in General

The information in this section about pipeline coatings is general in nature. For
assistance with specific projects, contact the Company's coating specialists listed in
the Quick Reference Guide.
920 External Pipeline Coatings

The figures at the end of this section describe external coatings, both pipeline and
girth-weld protection. These figures highlight the definition, recommended
services, status, maximum service temperature, surface preparation, application,
thickness, small repairs, handling/storage, protection, discussion, brands, and refer-
ences of these coatings.
Quality control is viewed from the standpoint of specifications, planning (based on
a coating's service conditions, durability and resistance, construction factors, and
application factors), and inspection.
921 Selection
There are numerous factors to consider when selecting a pipeline coating. Figure
900-1 is a selection flowchart for choosing an appropriate mill-applied coating.
Figure 900-2 lists recommended external pipeline coatings for new construction
projects. The coatings in Figure 900-2 are listed in order of preference.
Figure 900-3 compares advantages and disadvantages of several types of external
pipeline coatings. For detailed information on various types of coatings, consult
Figures 900-4 through 900-21.
Splash-zone Coating for Offshore Platform Risers. See Figure 900-22 for oper-
ating temperatures of splash-zone coatings for offshore platform risers.
Valves, Fittings, Tie-ins. Their unique shape makes valves, fittings, tie-ins, and
other buried objects of irregular geometry hard to coat. As FBE is a shop-applied
coating, choose a spray or hand-applied coating from the list in Figure 900-23 Pipe-
line Fitting & Valve Coating Systems.
Protection.
Girth Weld
See Figure 900-24 for a list of generic coatings for girth-weld protection.
Figures 900-4 through 900-21 contain more detailed information on girth weld
protection for specific coatings.
Rock
Choose any acceptable rockshield material (Tuff-N-nuff, Ametek, Rock Shield,
Armor Rock) to protect coatings from mechanical damage from rocks or back-
fill in a ditch. The rock protection is:
Wrapped around the pipe and bound with plastic straps

Installed just before the pipe is put into the ditch

Perforated to prevent cathodic shielding
See also comments about rock protection in the Protection portion of Figures
900-4 through 900-21.
Construction Boring
Topcoat FBE with Protegal UT 23-10 or Powercrete to give the coating added
protection from damage during slick-bore construction, particularly where rocks in
the soil may abrade the FBE. Both Protegal and Powercrete have greater abrasion
resistance than FBE coatings.
Fig. 900-1 Mill-Applied Coating Selection Flowchart

Fig. 900-2 Recommended External Pipeline Coatings for New ConstructionRanked in Order of Preference (1 of 2)
Rank Buried Onshore Line Subsea Line Elevated Temperature In-plant Short Buried Lines(1)
1. Extruded Plastic with FBE Extruded Plastic with Extruded Plastic with Liquid Epoxy
Service temp. to 200F FBE Primer FBE Primer(2) Some have same chemical
All soils except hydrocarbon Higher service Higher service and temperature resistance
contaminated temperature to 230F temperature to 230F as FBE
Coating thickness per pipe- Moisture resistant Moisture resistant Also can be field applied; so,
line's operating temperature Field experience Field experience suitable for high and ambient
currently limited currently limited temperature lines, especially
for in-plant lines
Hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon
damages outer damages outer Cure can be up to 24 hours
plastic jacket plastic jacket before service, per tempera-
ture during application
2. FBE FBE FBE(3) Plastic-backed Tape Wraps

Service temp. between -76F Higher service Service temperature Mixed success with butyl
and 200F temperature to 200F up to 200F(4) adhesives as most are:
All soils Coating thickness Coating thickness Not resistant to hydrocarbons
Coating thickness per use per temperature per temperature Poor resistance to soil stress
and pipe movement
Not applied generally under
ideal conditions
Least cost, easy to apply
3. Extruded Plastic with Butyl Rubber Coal-tar Enamel Extruded Plastic with
or Asphalt Adhesive Service temp. 140F Butyl Rubber Adhesive
Very economical Good if selected and Very economical
Service temp. to at least 100F, applied correctly Service temp. to
some to 180F Hard to handle: maximum of 180F
Suitable for low-soil stress brittle when cold, Suitable for low-soil
areas soft when hot stress areas
Not resistant to hydrocarbons
4. Coal-tar Enamel Tape Wrap(5), (6)

Service temp. 140F Low soil-stress areas
Good if applied correctly Select only specialty,
Hard to handle: brittle when high-temperature
cold, soft when hot tape wraps for
service over 140F(7)
Not resistant to
hydrocarbons

Fig. 900-2 Recommended External Pipeline Coatings for New ConstructionRanked in Order of Preference (2 of 2)
5. Tape Wrap(7)
For low-soil-stress areas
Not resistant to hydrocarbons
Concrete (Weight) CoatingNormally, we apply a concrete (weight) topcoat to FBE and other offshore coatings for negative buoyancy and
coating protection. For small-diameter lines, FBE does not need protection; therefore, extra steel can provide negative buoyancy. A weighted
topcoat not only protects coal tar from UV rays before we lay the pipeline but also prevents handling damage. See the CRTC Pipeline Manual
for additional information about concrete (weight) coatings.
Extruded PlasticContinuous plastic coating (either polyethylene or polypropylene) is extruded on a pipe at elevated temperatures. There are
two distinct subcategories of coatings: plastic coatings with a soft-extruded-butyl rubber of flood-coated-asphalt rubber-mastic adhesive, and
plastic coatings with a cured-hard-epoxy adhesive. Sometimes, a copolymer adhesive bonds the plastic outer layer to the epoxy inner layer. There
are also two methods of extruding the plastic coating portion of the coating system: a side or T-shaped die, or a crosshead or circular die [3].
(1) The cost of materials is proportionally higher than for a large project. Weigh the cost against the importance of the pipeline, its access,
its location (populated area vs. wilderness), and soil conditions. Lower costs of future repairs or refurbishing may offset the initial
expense of high-quality coatings.
(2) For abrasion protection against thermal expanding and contracting of elevated temperature lines, increase the thickness of the poly-
ethylene or polypropylene coating.
(3) FBEs permeability to water increases with temperature; but this problem has been solved to date by increasing the thickness of the FBE
according to service temperature. Consider the cost of the increase in thickness.
(4) Currently, FBE is the only economical line coating for temperatures over 180F. Aramco has successfully pushed FBE to 225F (22 mils)
in sandy soil; but, the coating softens notably above 210F. There is a cohesion failure if a knife can remove the coating. Company
recommends only three brands for service over 150F: Nap-Gard (7-2501 and 7-2504), Valspar D1003, and Scotchkote 206N based on
field experience and test data.
(5) Company recommends only shop-applied Rayclad 120 for protecting new pipelines.
(6) The high cost of good-quality, high-temperature, tape wraps restricts them to large-radius bends.
(7) Check the service history of non-specialty tapes for service temperatures above 100F. Manufacturers often overstate the upper limits.

Fig. 900-3 Advantages and Disadvantages of External Pipeline Coatings (1 of 2)

Coating Advantages Disadvantages
Fusion Bonded Epoxy 25+ years experience Near white metal surface preparation required
Low current required for cathodic protection High application temperatures
Good resistance to cathodic disbondment Thinnest coating
-40F to 200F temperature range Difficult to apply holiday free
Available in all pipe sizes Difficult to apply consistently
Excellent hydrocarbon resistance
Not susceptible to cathodic shielding
Excellent adhesion to steel
Continuous coating
Liquid Epoxies (Thermosets) Temperature resistance up to 200F Long cure time (minutes to 24 hours)
Spray or hand apply in field May need near white blast surface
Good chemical resistance Expensive
Use for odd shapes
Can be applied while pipe is in service
Extruded Plastic with Butyl Low current required for cathodic protection High initial costs for small diameter pipe
Rubber Adhesive Minimum holidays on application Susceptible to cathodic shielding
(Pritec)
-40F to 180F temperature range Do not use on spiral-welded pipe
Self-healing adhesive Hard to handle when warm
Wide range of sizes Susceptible to damage from thermal expansion
Excellent adhesion to steel and contraction
Continuous coating Cannot be used on bends

Limited hydrocarbon resistance
Extruded Plastic (Mapec, Elf 15+ years experience Limited hydrocarbon resistance
Atochem, and Himont FBE/PE Minimum holidays on applications Limited experience with high temperature
or PP brands) service
Low current required for cathodic protection
-40F to 180F temperature range
Continuous coating
Wide range of pipe sizes
Low water absorption
Extruded Plastic 200F + temperature resistance Limited experience (less than 5 years)
(Du Val FBE/PE or PP) Low water absorption High cost
Coating for girth welds and shop bends is the Girth welds difficult to coat
same as for lines Coating damage hard to patch but progress is
Minimum holidays on application being made
Low current required for cathodic protection
Excellent adhesion FBE to PE or PP
Continuous coating

Fig. 900-3 Advantages and Disadvantages of External Pipeline Coatings (2 of 2)

Coating Advantages Disadvantages
Extruded Plastic, Asphalt 29+ years experience Minimum adhesion to steel

Adhesive (Plexco, Bredero Minimum holidays on application Do not use above ground
Price, and Shaw)
Low current required for cathodic protection Limited storage life
-40F to 160F temperature range Tears in jacket can go length of pipe
Adhesive flows at low temperatures
Poor hydrocarbon resistance
Susceptible to cathodic shielding
Hard to handle when hot
Tape Wraps 30+ years experience Susceptible to cathodic shielding

(services < 140F) Easy to apply Poor coating-to-coating bond at overlap
Can be used for bends Must be applied at proper tension
Can be used to coat all sizes of pipe Susceptible to soil stresses
Can be applied to pipe while in service Temperature limited
Non-continuous coating
Poor service history
Coal/Tar Enamel 65+ years experience Carcinogenic fumes when applied

Minimum holidays on application Poor UV resistance
Low current required for cathodic protection Cracking problem below 32F
Good resistance to cathodic disbondment Soft when hot (100F)
Good subsea experience with weight coating Poor hydrocarbon resistance
Available for all sizes of pipe
Fig. 900-4 Description of External Pipeline CoatingAsphalt Wrap Coatings

Definition Asphalt wrap coatings consist of filled, air-blown, asphalt enamel that is reinforced with asphalt-embedded
glass cloth or felt and covered with felt
Holiday Detection
coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Note: Lower holiday detection voltages may be required to prevent coating damage.
Recommended Service Caution The Company no longer recommends this coating because of its poor service history.
Status In the recent past, no-one has applied asphalt-wrap coatings; therefore, pipeline grades of asphalt are no longer
available in the United States. Asphaltic wraps have a poor service history and are susceptible to hydrocarbon
attack and general deterioration in the ground.
The Company has deleted the standard drawing for these wraps from the Piping Manual because these coatings
are now obsolete.
Small Repairs Choose an asphalt-based mastic to patch an asphalt (P-2) wrap.

Caution Coal-tar mastics usually are not compatible with asphalt coatings.
The American Asphalt Institute had a classification system for coding asphaltic pipeline coatings that they have discontinued. P-2 identified
the number of wraps and type of asphalt. this system of classification was similar to the NAPCA (National Association of Pipe Coating Applica-
tors) system in which TGF-3 is an example for coat-tar-enamel pipe coating.

Fig. 900-5 Description of External Pipeline CoatingAsphalt Mastic (1 of 2)

Definition Somastican asphalt masticis a tar-like mixture of
Inert mineral fillers - 13 per cent
Sand aggregate - 64 per cent
Fiberglass fibers - 0.1 per cent
Asphalt binder
Recommended Service Offshore and onshore ambient-temperature lines where hydrocarbon-soaked soils are not present.
Status Limited availability and marketing have affected Somastic's popularity.
Max. Service Temp Field experience has found manufacturers temperature limits to be very optimistic.
Caution The Company does not recommend Somastic for temperatures above 140 F.
Surface Prep Abrasive Blast

Other
Holiday Detection
coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Application Heat and mix Somastic ingredients

Continuously extrude the mixture over primed pipe to form a thick, seamless coating
Whitewash the black mastic to prevent its softening and aging in sunlight
Girth-weld Coating
Melt Somastic chips and pour the fluid into a mold that compresses the hot mixture around the
girth weld.
Taper the Somastic joint coating at the ends to accept heat-shrink wraps for coating the girth welds.
Thickness > 250 mils
Small Repairs Heat-shrink sleeves UT.

Caution Select mastics that are compatible with asphalt for repairing coating damage. Coal-tar
mastics are usually incompatible with asphalt coatings such as Somastic.
Handling/Storage Aboveground Storage Limit: One year
Protection/Resistance UV Resistance: Poor

See also Advantages and Disadvantages under Discussion below.

Fig. 900-5 Description of External Pipeline CoatingAsphalt Mastic (2 of 2)

Discussion Three grades of Somastic are currently available, differing in chemical makeup of the asphalt and
temperature ratings.
Somastic I - 120F
Somastic II - 150F
Somastic III - 190F
Choosing a higher grade (higher temperature limit) decreases flexibility at low temperatures.
Service History
Originally developed in 1922 by Standard Oil Company of California, Somastic has been selected for
offshore and high-temperature onshore service. Its thickness and toughness make it especially resistant
to mechanical damage; however, Somastic will fail in hydrocarbon-contaminated soils. FBE has
replaced asphalt enamels because of poor performance. FBE and Pritec have replaced it as an onshore
hot-oil pipeline coating because Somastic has performed poorly in this service.
Most of Somastic's failures occur at elevated temperatures. One of these failures occurred at the
Company's Hawaii Refinery on a 180F line; however, the Company and other operators have had many
successful Somastic applications at long-term ambient temperatures. Several failures have also
occurred on hot-oil pipelines in California.
Poor quality control inspection during pipeline construction or incompatible mastics may have caused
some failures of Somastic-coated girth welds.
Advantages
A good coating with a long service history
Adheres well
Flexible
Good resistance to impact, penetration, and cathodic disbonding
Disadvantages
Not always available
Susceptible to hydrocarbon attack
Brittle when cold (< 40F)
Soft when hot
Heavy (expensive to ship)
Not performed well as a hot-oil pipeline coating
As asphalt-wrap coatings absorb water, there have been questions about applying Somastic offshore.
Water absorption could increase the current requirements for cathodic protection and cause a coating
failure. Shell Oil recently reported that one of their Somastic-coated offshore pipelines was only
5 percent bare after 20 years of service. At present, there is no evidence that Somastic coatings are
unsuitable for offshore service.
Girth-weld Coating Heat-shrink sleeves

(Taper Somastic coating transition area to 45 degree angle.)
Brands Somastic I and III.

Currently available only from Bredero Price International (formerly Energy Coating) in Harvey, Louisiana.
See Also NACE International Standard RP-0276 (Discontinued)

Fig. 900-6 Description of External Pipeline CoatingCoal Tar Enamel (1 of 2)

Definition Coal-tar enamel is a hot, shop-applied, black tar-like coating of iron-mill-coke byproducts. It is layered
with inner or outer wraps (or both) of glass fiber or asbestos felts.
Recommended Service On subsea lines with concrete (weight) coatings.
Status For onshore lines, operators are replacing coal-tar enamels with FBE and extruded plastic; offshore,
coal-tar is very popular.
Max. Service Temp 140F
Surface Prep Abrasive Blast: SSPC SP6

Other
Holiday Detection 12,000 to 18,000 volts
Application Although we can field- or shop-apply coal-tar enamels, field application is rare because of problems
with inadequate pipe surface preparation, inspection [8], and air quality when melting the coating.
The coating mill sprays or pours heated coal-tar enamel (400F) on a pipe primed with coal-tar primer.
Simultaneously, they layer two or three glass-fiber, felt-reinforcement wraps that improve the coating's
strength, uniformity, and resistance to soil stresses and mechanical damage.
Caution Solvent emissions during application can be an environmental problem.
Thickness 156 mils

The total thickness of the coating including the outer wrap is about 100 mils. Typically ranges from 62 to
188 mils.
Small Repairs The following repair methods are acceptable in the United States, except melted enamel which is prohib-
ited in some states with strict air quality regulations. The melted enamel repair is expensive and is only
warranted if there are many repairs.
Coal-tar mastic
Cold- or hot-applied tape made for coal tar (must first remove the damaged coal-tar enamel
completely)
Melted coal-tar enamel is granny ragged (the process followed to handwrap hot coal-tar enamel on
the bottom half of the pipes surface) or poured into a mold formed around the pipe
Caution Make all mastic repairs with a coal-tar mastic because asphalt mastics are incompatible
with coal-tar coatings.
Many gas-transmission pipeline operators do not approve of any mastics as this substance has failed in
service, allowing corrosion to develop.
Handling/Storage Aboveground Storage Limit: Six months +
Protection/Resistance Protection
For an outer coating, we recommend fiberglass filler mat and a felt or kraft paper (or both) outer wrap.
The outer wrap protects the coal tar from mechanical damage when it is soft.
Coating applicators usually give the pipe a reflective outer coating of kraft paper, whitewash, or white
emulsion to protect it unless it is concrete (weight) coated. Any of these outer coatings will reduce the
temperature of the coal tar to a minimum in the sun and protect it from UV rays.
Hydrocarbon Resistance: Poor

Fig. 900-6 Description of External Pipeline CoatingCoal Tar Enamel (2 of 2)

Discussion Choosing mineral rather than asbestos felts affects both the cost and the quality of the coating. Mineral
felts are generally comparable with asbestos and cost more as they come from eastern Canada. Regard-
less, select mineral felts because repairs to coal-tar-enamel lines with asbestos felts would be more
costly due to asbestos-handling procedures.
Service History
Coal-tar enamels have been popular for over 70 years. For offshore service, coal-tar enamel is common
as 33 percent of the companies responding to an Oil and Gas Journal survey [9] report using it. For more
than 20 years, Aramco has applied coal tar enamel successfully offshore [10]. While this coating has
also been applied successfully onshore, it is hard to handle, becoming brittle at about 40F and soft
above about 90F. The concrete-weight coating applied over the coal tar for subsea applications
protects the coal tar and eliminates the handling problem.
Girth-weld Coatings Shrink wraps or cold applied tape wraps.

Note: The materials of heat-shrink wraps are generally more expensive than cold-applied tape, but heat-
shrink wraps are quicker to apply and less sensitive to an inexperienced worker. Heat-shrink wraps also
reduce the possibility of water ingress as it eliminates the overlap inherent with cold-applied tape wraps.
Brands The coating material is available from Reilly Tar and Chemical Corp., but the number of coal-tar coating
applicators is decreasing because of strict air quality regulations. Per NAPCA specifications, CUSA
production typically orders this coating system as TGF-3.
See Also Companys Pipeline Manual for information on weight coatings

NAPCA Bulletin 1-65-94 Recommended Specification Designations for Coat Tar Enamel Coatings(1)
NAPCA Bulletin 2-66-94 Standard Applied Pipe Coating Weights for NAPCA Coating Specifications (1)
NAPCA Bulletin 3-67-94 External Application Procedures for Hot Applied Coal Tar Coatings to Steel
Pipe(2)
NAPCA Bulletin 6-69-94-1, Suggested Procedures for Hand Wrapping Field Joints Using Hot
Enamel.(3)
AWWA Standard C-203
COM-MS-5006, Coal-tar Enamel Corrosion Coating of Submarine Pipelines, in this manual for applica-
tion specifications
Application specifications for coal-tar enamel and concrete (weight) coatings in Figure 900-21:
Coating Specifications for Buried Pipelines.
(1) Chevron USA follows these specifications when ordering coal-tar-enamel coatings
(2) Chevron USA Production typically follows this specification when ordering coal-tar-enamel-coated pipe.
(3) Although this NAPCA specification is for coating girth welds, we follow the same technique for making repairs with hot coal-tar enamel.

Fig. 900-7 Description of External Pipeline CoatingCoal Tar Epoxies

Definition A two-part liquid epoxy compound containing coal-tar pitch
Recommended Service Refurbishing old pipelines, girth weld coatings, tie-ins, valves, and fittings.
Caution Unsuitable for hot-oil pipelines.
Status More commonly used as a tank lining, coal-tar epoxy has seen limited use as a buried pipeline coating
system; however, most coal-tar epoxies are incompatible with cathodic protection current.

SSPC SP-10
Caution Any less than SSPC SP-10 for buried pipeline may result in cathodic disbondment.
Other
Holiday Detection
coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Application Spray, brush, or roll

Cure time: Very slow
Thickness 16-20 mils
Small Repairs Patch with same material per manufacturers guidelines
Handling/Storage
Protection/Resistance Cathodic Disbonding

A zinc primer may improve resistance to cathodic disbonding of the coal-tar epoxy's outer layer.
Applying high-built coal-tar epoxies in two coats increases resistance to cathodic disbondment.
Soil Stress & Hydrocarbon Resistance: Excellent
Discussion Applied correctly, coal-tar epoxies are excellent coating systems for buried pipelines; but they are
unsuitable for hot-oil pipelines.
Girth-weld Coatings
Brands International Tarset Maxi-Build 7080 and Corroguard EP are the only coal-tar epoxies currently recom-
mended, but there are many other coal-tar epoxies on the market that make excellent buried pipeline
coatings.
See Also NAPCA Bulletin 14-83-94, External Application Procedures for Coal Tar Epoxy Protective Coatings to
Steel Pipe

Fig. 900-8 Description of External Pipeline CoatingCold-Applied Tapes (1 of 2)

Definition There are two types of tape wraps: hot- and cold-applied. Hot-applied wraps generally have a higher
bond strength. Cold-applied tapes can be field- or shop-applied by machine or by hand. Cold-applied
tape wraps are:
Continuous strips of a plastic-backing material, either polyethylene (PE) or polyvinylchloride (PVC)
Coated with a butyl-rubber adhesive (Polyken or Tapecoat) or modified bituminous compound (Poly-
guard RD-6)
Spirally wound on primer-coated pipe
Recommended Service Tapes are still viable because otherwise we cannot accomplish the following tasks economically:
Repairing damaged coatings (FBE, extruded plastic, and coal-tar epoxy)
Coating bends that cannot be FBE coated in the field
Refurbishing old lines that must stay in service
Refurbishing short new lines in dry, low-soil-stress areas more economically than with extruded
plastic or FBE
Caution Because PVC embrittles badly and shrinks at temperatures of 104 F or higher, we
recommend PE for all tape applications [6, 7].
Caution Our experience does not substantiate manufacturers' claims that cold-applied tapes are
suitable for hot-oil pipelines.
Status Introduced about 40 years ago [5] as an over-the-ditch system, tapes replaced coal-tar enamels and
asphalts that required heating. The tape on thousands of miles of pipe has given mixed results and is
now being replaced with extruded plastic or FBE as the main mill-applied coating for pipelines.
Max. Service Temp Elevated-Temperature Service

Most high-temperature tape systems are hot-applied tape systems. The temperature limits of cold-
applied tapes, depending on the manufacturer, include:
140F for most polyethylene-backed tapes with butyl adhesives
150F for polypropylene-backed tape with bituminous compound (Polyguard RD-6)
Above 140F for specialty tapes
A cold-applied tape may suffer thermoshock when raised to the service temperatures of hot-oil pipelines.
Surface Prep Abrasive Blast: SSPC SP-2

Other
While an abrasive blasted surface is ideal, coatings applicators most often field-apply tapes, making
surface preparation difficult. Over-the-ditch cleaning machines have rotating wire brushes to clean the
pipe ahead of primer application. Power tools are essential if cleaning by hand. There are coatings with
minimum sensitivity to surface preparation.
Holiday Detection 3000 to 8000 volts per manufacturers guidelines
Application Whether mill- or field-applied:

Prepare the pipe surface
Apply a primer
Spirally apply one layer of tape
Spirally apply one or more offset layers of tape over the first.
When wrapping the tape around a pipe, there are three critical elements for success: pipe surface prep-
aration, tape tension, and amount of tape overlap. (Check with the tape manufacturer for recommenda-
tion). In a two-layer system, it is also important to stagger the overlaps of each tape layer so that water
has no direct path to the pipe surface.
Before applying the first tape layer, the coating applicators tape any weld seams (girth and longitudinal)
that are not flush with the surface of the pipe. This base layer of tape prevents the spirally applied tape
wrap from leaving a void at the weld seam that may become filled with moisture and create a shielded
corrosion cell.
The primer causes a chemical reaction in the adhesive, which helps bond the adhesive or compound on
the inner layer of tape to the pipe's surface, thus increasing its bonding strength. In a two-layer system,
the first layer of tape provides corrosion protection; the second, and any subsequent layers, provide
mechanical protection for the first layer.

Fig. 900-8 Description of External Pipeline CoatingCold-Applied Tapes (2 of 2)

Application (continued) The outer wrap (or rock shield) over the tape system must be bonded or not bonded to the tape
depending upon the recommendation of the tape manufacturer. Non-bonded outerwraps create a slip
plane between the inner and outer wraps that helps protect the inner wrap from soil stresses. A non-
bonded outerwrap may cause a cathodic protection shielding problem if it is a solid plastic coating.
Shop-applied tapes outperform field-applied tapes because quality control and inspection are easier in
the coating mill.
To improve field application of cold-applied tapes, relatively small and lightweight wrapping machines
are now commercially available that are power or hand operated. They can also be equipped with a
constant tension brake system to provide uniform tension across width of rolls and through its entire
length.
Thickness Varies with coating system.

The average thickness (not including a rock shield or outer wrap) of a two-layer tape wrap is about
70 mils; of a single-layer tape system, 50 mils.
Small Repairs Generally, coating applicators repair tapes by taping over the damaged tape or by using a mastic. In the
Northwestern Business Unit, Chevron Pipe Line has been successful with Tapecoat's 10/40W system
using a one-inch overlap.
Handling/Storage
Protection/Resistance UV and Hydrocarbon Resistance: Poor
Discussion Service History

Many early tapes
Were applied with poor surface preparation, no primer, no tension, and no protective overwrap
Failed in service
Have given tapes the reputation of being poor pipeline-coating systems
Advantages
Cold-applied tapes are easy and inexpensive to apply in the field. If applied properly and used in the
proper environment, cold applied tapes are an acceptable pipeline coating.
Tapes are still viable because of the tasks listed under Recommended Service, above.
Disadvantages
Tapes may encounter problems in long-term service, because of improper application, service condi-
tions, pipe diameter, or product design. As they are not a continuous coating, the tape's overlaps greatly
increase the chance of water penetration. Also, the overlaps may bond poorly, catch on the soil (stress),
and pull open. The Company has not verified the suggestion that some new tapes have resolved these
problems.
Some tapes are pressure sensitive (Tek-Rap, Royston) and depend primarily upon mechanical means,
memory, to keep the overlaps closed. If outside forces such as soil stress disturb this memory, the tape
may loosen. Too much or too little tension during application can cause a coating failure from loss of
memory. For protecting buried pipelines, pressure-sensitive tapes are not as desirable as tapes with an
adhesive that bonds at overlaps to the pipe's metal surface and the coating.
Most failures of tapes occur on large-diameter pipe (greater than 12 inches in diameter). Soil stress
becomes a greater problem as the pipe's diameter increases because the soil has more coating surface
area to grab.
Girth-weld Coatings For coating-mill-applied tape wraps (through 12 inches in diameter), shrink sleeves or hand-wrapped
tape
Brands Tapecoats 10/40W, Polyken, Polyguard RD-6
See Also NAPCA Bulletin 16-94, External Application Procedures for Plant Applied Tape Coating to Steel
Pipe
NAPCA Bulletin 6-69-94-9, Suggested Procedures for Coating Field Joints, Fittings, Connections,
and Pre-fabricated Sections Using Tape Coatings

Fig. 900-9 Description of External Pipeline CoatingExtruded Plastic with FBE or Liquid Epoxy Primer (1 of 2)
Definition Continuous plastic coating (either polyethylene or polypropylene) with an epoxy primer.
Recommended Service Buried onshore and offshore pipelines up to 200F.
Status Although this coating system is quite new to the United States, it has been available in Europe for a long
time. Himont, DuVal, and Elf Atochem are the suppliers; Bredero Price (formerly Encoat) has two coating
mills that apply this coating in the United States.
Himont, an Italian company, is forming an alliance with 3M and Shell Chemical to enter the U.S. pipe-
coating market.
DuVal is an alliance between Du Pont Canada and Valspar.
Du Pont Canada and Shaw manufacture polyethylene three-layer systems in Canada. Shaw's has a
liquid-epoxy primer.
Max. Service Temp 200F Polypropolene; 180F Polyethylene
Caution We do not recommend polypropylene for service temperatures above 200F without
additional laboratory or field testing.
Surface Prep Abrasive Blast: SSPC SP10
Other: Blast clean the pipe and then transfer it to the extrusion line.
Holiday Detection
coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Application To produce a bonded, overlapped coating to a specified thickness:

Apply an epoxy primer with or without a co-polymer adhesive (Mapec, Himont, Du Pont Canada,
DuVal, Elf Atochem).
Immediately extrude overlapping layers of melted plastic on the pipe, followed by water quenching.
Apply Shaw YJII by the crosshead-extrusion process over a liquid-epoxy adhesive layer; apply other
coatings with the side-extrusion process over an FBE primer.
Quality control standards are more rigid for multi-layer coating systems such as DuVal, Himont, Du Pont
Canada, and Elf Atochem as the adhesive (FBE) must still be tacky when we apply the plastic topcoat.
Caution Applying the topcoat:
Too quickly results in improper curing of the FBE and poor bonding to the pipe's surface.
Too slowly may produce an improper bond between the plastic and FBE layers.
Thickness The thickness of the plastic topcoat may be 1.5 to 3 mm or more depending upon the pipe's diameter and
the service requirements.
DuVal has a standard 14-mil thickness of FBE as compared to the 75 to 125 microns in the three-layer systems.
Elf Atochem: 59 to 118 mils; DuVal: 20 to 45 mils.
Small Repairs Heat-shrink sleeves
Handling/Storage Aramco has had good experience with Mapec, which is reportedly easier to ship and handle than FBE.
Protection/Resistance UV Resistance: Excellent
See also Discussion below
Discussion Considered the best pipeline coating system available. Company has limited experience with it.
Resistance and Strength
Extruded plastic coatings generally have good impact strength, resist water penetration well, and do not
shrink at elevated temperatures. Physical properties of polyethylene vary with density, high-density poly-
ethylene having superior resistance to impact and moisture.
The shear strength of butyl or asphalt adhesives is poor and decreases substantially with increases in
temperature [4]. This situation allows the pipe to move inside the coating during thermal expansions and
contractions and subjects the outside of the coating to soil stresses. The resulting problems are loss of
adhesion, wrinkling, and, eventually, exposed steel. The adhesives in Elf Atochem, Himont, Du Pont
Canada, DuVal, and Shaw YJII coating systems have greater shear strengths and temperature resis-
tance than butyl or asphalt adhesives.
Mapec gave excellent results in the early 1980's testing, but did not equal thick FBE in hot (250F) subsea
testing in the late 1980's [15].

Fig. 900-9 Description of External Pipeline CoatingExtruded Plastic with FBE or Liquid Epoxy Primer (2 of 2)
Discussion (continued) Operating Temperatures
Service Temperatures < 150F
Acceptable30214 Mapec's low-density polyethylene plastic.
Service Temperature of 180F
Uninspected but in service (Shaw YJII and a thermo-insulation outer jacket. /DuVal polypropylene
with no thermo-insulated outer jacket
Chevron Canada Resources has a hot-oil pipeline operating at 180F, which is coated with
Shaw YJII and a thermo-insulation outer jacket. The girth welds were coated with liquid epoxy
and Raychem high-temperature heat-shrink sleeves. To date, this pipeline has not been inspected
and has been in service for four years.
The Chevron Pipe Line Western Business Unit has DuVal polypropylene on a hot-oil pipeline oper-
ating at 180F. This pipeline has no thermo-insulated outer jacket, has not yet been inspected, and
has been in service for about two years. They experienced quality control problems during the
coating's mill- production run and when CCSI field coated the girth welds. While Mobil Pipeline
reports that most of these problems have been corrected, a British Petroleum project also had
quality control problems in South America during 1993-94.
Elf Atochem's coating system has three plastic (polyolefin) top coats that they rate for the following
service temperatures:
Low-density polyethylene (-40 to 149F)
Medium-/high-density polyethylene (-40 to 167F)
Polypropylene (-4 to > 212F)
Caution We do not recommend DuVal Polypropylene for service temperatures above 200 F
without additional laboratory or field testing.
Du Pont Canada and Valspar rate their DuVal Polyethylene at a maximum operating temperature of 180F
and their DuVal Polypropylene at a maximum operating temperature of 230F.
Layers
Because of higher costs of materials, two-layer coatings (e.g., DuVal) are more expensive than three-
layer systems (e.g., Mapec, Elf Atochem, Du Pont Canada, and Himont). Valspar is considering changes
for DuVal to bring its maleic anhydride content nearer the levels of three-layer coating systems.
DuVal must have the proper concentration of maleic anhydride to bond the two layers to each other.
Bredero Price (formerly Encoat) performs a test on DuVals raw, modified, plastic material to verify that
there is a proper concentration of maleic anhydride. The middle adhesive layer of the Elf Atochem multi-
layer system bonds the top plastic and FBE layers with maleic anhydride and other chemicals such as
terpolymer of ethylene and acrylic ester. DuVal and Elf Atochem coatings are not as easy to apply as
other pipeline coatings such as FBE and Pritec. Although it is possible to field-apply a two-layer system
over girth welds, field conditions can make it difficult to achieve a quality coating.
Girth-weld Coatings Induction-heat-applied FBE and plastic is recommended.
Shrink sleeves
Brands Caution Many pipeline operators are using Himont, DuVal, and Elf Atochem polypropylene coating
system at operating temperatures up to 230F on both offshore and onshore pipelines. The Company has
limited experience with this coating system at temperatures above 200F. We do not recommend Elf
Atochem Polypropylene or DuVal polypropylene for service temperatures above 200F without additional
laboratory or field testing.
The following systems offer superior performance often equal to or better than FBE alone at a premium price.
Mapecs low-density polyethylene plastic is acceptable for maximum service temperatures of 150F.
The Mapec, Du Pont Canada, Himont, DuVal, and Elf Atochem systems have an FBE primer, and
either a polypropylene or polyethylene jacket.
Shaw YJII has a liquid-epoxy primer with a polyethylene outer jacket.
The Mapec, Du Point Canada, Himont, Shaw YJII, and Elf Atochem systems bond the epoxy and
outer plastic with a copolymer adhesive
The DuVal system has an adhesive copolymer incorporated in the plastic top coat formula.
See Also CAN/CSA-Z245.21-M92 LAssociation Francaise De Normalization NF A49-710
Mobil Pipeline Specification CM-251-880

Fig. 900-10 Description of External Pipeline CoatingExtruded PlasticCrosshead-Extruded Plastic with

Asphalt Adhesive (1 of 2)
Definition Continuous plastic coating (either polyethylene or polypropylene) extruded on a pipe at elevated
temperatures.
Recommended Service Onshore pipelines operating below 160F where FBE is uneconomical or unavailable.
Prices and the performance of the systems (particularly at higher temperatures) vary substantially. See
Discussion below
Status Extruded polyethylene and polypropylene coatings of various costs and qualities are very popular and
readily available in the United States and Canada.
Max. Service Temp Varies with manufacturer.

Onshore, < 160F. (100F for some brands)

Other
Holiday Detection
coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Application[3] The crosshead extrusion method involves:

Flooding the pipe with a hot asphalt-rubber adhesive
Passing the pipe through a wiper ring to maintain a nominal ten-mil adhesive thickness
Passing the pipe through the center of the crosshead die where the plastic is uniformly extruded in a
cone shape around the pipe
Water quenching that causes the plastic to shrink tightly to the adhesive and pipe
Caution Unlike side-extrusion, crosshead extrusion limits size of pipe diameter.
Caution Never apply soft adhesives to spiral-welded pipe.
Thickness 35-70 mil
Small Repairs Heat-shrink sleeves

Tapes, if soil stress not a problem
Handling/Storage Above-ground Storage Limit: One year
Protection/Resistance Disbonding
Tests of the early 1980's show differences in adhesive strengths and resistance to cathodic disbonding.
Plexco and Encoat (now Bredero Price International) were not as good as Pritec (extruded plastic with
butyl rubber mastic) and Mapec (extruded plastic coating with FBE primer). [2, 4, 13, 14]. Recently
Bredero Price (Encoat) improved the mastic in its Entec coating. Plexco will supply a superior mastic if
requested.
UV Resistance: Fair.
The orange (polypropylene) and yellow (polyethylene) coatings do not resist UV damage well. They
became brittle and cracked when stored for a year in the Californian sun. (This is not a problem with
Yellow Jacket).
Impact, Moisture, Shrink, and Temperature Resistance
Extruded-plastic coatings generally have good impact strengths, resist water penetration well, and do
not shrink at elevated temperatures. Physical properties of polyethylene vary with density, high-density
polyethylene having superior resistance to impact and moisture. Polypropylene offers superior tempera-
ture resistance in hot-oil pipeline service, but the mastic has the lowest temperature limit.

Fig. 900-10 Description of External Pipeline CoatingExtruded PlasticCrosshead-Extruded Plastic with

Asphalt Adhesive (2 of 2)
Discussion Costs
Wide range in costs. The former X-Tru-Coat coatings (Plexco Plexguard, Bredero Price (Encoat), Entec,
Shaw Yellow Jacket, and Shaw Black Jacket) are inexpensive and work well at ambient temperatures [12].
Temperature
A Company product, the Plexco coating is very economical. Chevron Canada Resources reports that the
high-temperature grade of Yellow Jacket (maximum 185F limit) works well at 140-160F. Although
current Plexco and Bredero Price (Encoat) literature places maximum temperature limits of 140F (poly-
ethylene) to 170F (polypropylene), be cautious with these products in temperatures above 100F without
additional testing or documented high-temperature field experience. Yellow Jacket should work up to
160F, based on the Canadian experience. Black Jacket is a new coating with a mastic superior to Yellow
Jacket, but the Company has no experience with Black Jacket.
Strengths
The shear strength of hot-melt-asphalt adhesives is poor and decreases substantially with increasing
temperature [4]. This situation allows the pipe to move inside the coating during thermal expansions and
contractions and subjects the outside of the coating to soil stresses. The resulting problems are loss of
adhesion, wrinkling, and, eventually, exposed steel.
Girth-weld Coating Heat-shrink sleeves
Brands The crosshead extrusion method was formerly licensed under X-Tru-Coat but current brands are
Bredero Price (Encoat) Entec, Shaw Yellow Jacket and Black Jacket, and Plexco (Plexguard). Shaw,
Bredero Price (Encoat), and Plexco apply this coating system.
The former X-Tru-Coat coatings (Plexco Plexguard, Bredero Price (Encoat)
Entec, Shaw Yellow Jacket, and Shaw Black Jacket) are inexpensive and work well at ambient
temperatures [12].
The Plexco coating is very economical.
Chevron Canada Resources reports that Yellow Jacket works well at 140-160F.
See Also NAPCA Bulletin 15-83-94, External Application Procedures for Polyolefin Pipe Coating Applied by
the Cross Head Extrusion Method of the Side Extrusion Method to Steel Pipe
ANSI/AWWA C215

Fig. 900-11 Description of External Pipeline CostingExtruded PlasticSide-Extruded Polyethylene with

Butyl-Rubber Adhesive (1 of 2)
Definition Continuous plastic coating (polyethylene) with butyl rubber adhesive.
Recommended Service Onshore pipeline operating below 180F rather than FBE for cost or supply reasons
Status Bredero Price (Encoat) applies Pritec at several coating mills in the United States.

Other: Blast clean the pipe and then transfer it to the extrusion line.
Holiday Detection
coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Application The side-extrusion method produces a bonded, overlapped coating to a specified thickness and involves:
Running a rotating pipe past the extrusion die at the side of the pipe
Applying a butyl-rubber-adhesive mastic
Immediately extruding overlapping layers of melted plastic on the pipe, followed by water quenching
Caution Never apply soft adhesives to spiral-welded pipe.
Thickness Typically, plastic top layer is 40 mils, but it can be up to 240 mils. Offshore, Pritec has been applied at a
nominal thickness of 15 mils for the butyl rubber layer and 60 mils for the polyethylene layer. See Protec-
tion, Rocks, below.
Small Repairs Patches work well and are cheaper than shrink wraps but be sure that the edges of a patch adhere
tightly to the surface.
Coating Removal
With a knife, scribe the area to be removed, freeze the coating with CO2 or liquid nitrogen, and jerk the
coating off quickly. (In cold weather, it may be possible to remove the coating without artificial cooling.)
Handling/Storage Aboveground Storage Limit: One year

Ship all plastic coated pipe with rubber spacers between (or 5/8-inch rope rings around) the pipes to
prevent rubbing when the pipe is not nested.
When nesting the pipe, use padded skids and handle the coated pipe with padded equipment and slings.
Cinch-lifting methods apply a torque force to the coating and can damage it.
Protection/Resistance Disbonding
Pritec's polyethylene coating system has significantly superior adhesion and resistance to cathodic
disbonding because of the butyl-rubber adhesive [2,4]. Pritec is specified by its mastic and polyethylene
thickness; e.g., Pritec 10/40 is 10 mils of adhesive and 40 mils of PE.
While Bredero Price, Inc., recommends Pritec 10/40 up to 180F, CRTC's M&EE Unit has run cathodic
disbonding tests that show thicker coatings being more resistant to disbondment [2].
Pipe Supports
As polyethylene expands and contracts with temperature changes much more than steel, the supports
for the pipe and welded line can damage the coating. On the Rangely CO2 line, gunny sacks full of pine
needles or sawdust provided the best support, while rubber strips or tires and sand bags did not work
well.[4]

Fig. 900-11 Description of External Pipeline CostingExtruded PlasticSide-Extruded Polyethylene with

Butyl-Rubber Adhesive (2 of 2)
Protection/Resistance Rocks
(continued) Backfill with soil or sand as Pritec 10/40 does not resist the impact of rock. Be careful of rocks
protruding from the side of the ditch that would damage the coating as the pipe is being lowered into the
ditch. Increase the thickness of the polyethylene layer from its normal 40 mils to 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100
mils when expecting rocky backfill to prevent damage to this coating.
From experience, the Company and others have learned that Pritec 10/40, a common choice, may not be
thick enough in a rocky or high-soil-stress environment.
UV Resistance: Excellent
Hydrocarbon Resistance of butyl rubber mastic & heat-shrink sleeves: Lacking
Impact, Moisture, Shrinkage
Extruded-plastic coatings generally have good impact strengths, resist water penetration well and do
not shrink at elevated temperatures. Physical properties of polyethylene vary with density, high-density
polyethylene having superior resistance to impact and moisture.
Discussion Shear Strength

The shear strength of butyl-rubber adhesives is poor and decreases substantially with increasing
temperatures [4]. This situation allows the pipe to move inside the coating during thermal expansions
and contractions and subjects the outside of the coating to soil stresses. The resulting problems are loss
of adhesion, wrinkling, and, eventually, exposed steel.
Girth-Weld Coating Shrink sleeves
Brands Entec Pritec 10/40
See Also Girth-weld Protection Coatings, Figures 900-19 to 900-21

NAPCA Bulletin 14-83-94, External Application Procedures for Polyolefin Pipe Coating Applied by
the Cross Head Extrusion Method of the Side Extrusion Method to Steel Pipe
NACE International RP0185
COM-MS-5005, Side Extruded Plastic/Butyl Rubber Adhesive Line Pipe Corrosion Coating, in this
manual

Fig. 900-12 Description of External Pipeline CoatingFusion-Bonded Epoxy (1 of 3)

Definition A thermosetting powder sprayed on a hot pipe. The heat melts the powder and causes chemical reac-
tions, converting the epoxy into a hard, continuous coating.
Recommended Service Onshore and subsea pipelines

Drilled crossings (Pipe pushed through drilled hole under river or road.)
Field joints and fittings up to 200F
Choose FBE over all other coatings for buried onshore lines.
Status Currently, FBE is one of the most widely-used pipeline coatings. Many applicators are available world-
wide. Its cost is significantly lower now because of its popularity and the reduced level of pipeline
construction.
Max. Service Temp 150F to 200F depending on coating.

Currently, FBE is the only economical coating to withstand pipeline temperatures up to 200F.
Surface Prep Abrasive Blast: SSPC SP-10 Near-white Finish

Other:
Pretreat with phosphoric acid or a chromate surface to enhance FBE/pipe bond, if necessary. Both
pretreatments are recommended especially for pipeline operating temperatures > 150F.
Heat surface 425F to 475F
Caution Keep the preheat below 500 F to prevent possible changes in properties of the pipe.
Holiday Detection 125 volts/mil
Application When the surface reaches the specified temperature, apply the FBE powder by one of these methods:
Electrostatic spraying (pipe, elbows, or tees)
Dipping the part (elbows or tees) in a bed of (fluid) powder
The heat already in the steel is normally sufficient to cure the coating; if not, heat it again, depending on
coating thickness, pipe-wall thickness, and type of epoxy powder.
Thickness Depends on the pipeline's service.

Rules of thumb
Subsea or dry lines: (150F, 14 mils (min.) > 150F, 30 mils (min.)
River /drilled crossings; highly irrigated / continuous wet-and-dry areas; or areas with agricultural
chemicals: (150F, 20 mils (min.) > 150F, 30 mils (min.)
Small Repairs Melt-on Patch Stick

Thermoplastic materials that soften with increasing temperature, the patch stick is a quick, effective
repair method; but, if applied improperly, the patch falls off. To check the bond, pick at the repair with a
knife.
Caution Do not use patch sticks on pipelines operating at > 100 F.
Two-part Epoxy Patching Compound
Thermoset that does not soften when heated, the two-part epoxy chemically decomposes when heated
above a certain temperature but can match the temperature limits of the FBE. A much-higher-quality
coating that has properties closer to FBE than the patch stick, two-part epoxy has a relatively long cure
time (from 30 minutes up to 24 hours, depending on the pipe's temperature); and so contractors do not
like it.
Note: For large repairs, use heat-shrink sleeves if soil conditions permit.


Handling/Storage Aboveground Storage Limit: Two years
Handling
Move FBE-coated pipe carefully with padded equipment or wide slings. Separate coated pipe that is to
be stacked with:
Nylon rope rings for small-diameter thin-wall pipe
Rubber spacers for heavy pipe
Caution Do not use rubber spacers with lightweight pipe Lightweight pipe cannot compress rubber
spacers, and the stack of pipe will become unstable.
Storage
Stored FBE pipe has
Relatively good UV resistance, losing about one mil per year from UV chalking.
A tendency to blister if stored in humid sea air for over a year without protection from the
atmosphere
Protection/Resistance UV Protection
Excellent; protect pipe if it is to be stored in hot, humid, sea-air areas (e.g., climate similar to Gulf Coast)
for more than six months.
Concrete (Weight) Coating
Apply concrete (weight) coating by one of two methods: compression coating or impingement.
Compression coating involves rotating the pipe above a conveyor belt while the belt compresses
concrete on the pipe. The rotating pipe moves perpendicularly to the conveyor during the
application.
Note: This process is preferred because it does not damage the coating.
Impingement involves spraying the concrete on the pipe after applying an intermediate coating to
protect the corrosion coating from the sprayed concrete.
Note: Typically we should apply a barrier coating or increase the FBE thickness to 30 mils or more to
avoid creating holidays in coating during the impingement process.
Cathodic Disbonding
At thicknesses greater than 15 or 16 mils, Aramco has found significant improvement in FBE's resistance
to ambient-temperature cathodic disbondment. Aramco specifies 17-22 mils thickness because they
have regions where power supplies do not exist and they often try to throw cathodic protection down
the line to these spots.
Moisture-resistant Pipeline Coatings
While all pipeline coatings absorb moisture during service, plastic coatings do so less than FBE coat-
ings. Multi-layer coatings are designed with an epoxy as a primer and a plastic topcoat.
Increasing the thickness of FBE for hot-oil pipelines does decrease the moisture absorption rate but
creates other problems such as higher cost and reduced flexibility. Suitable for a pipeline operating
temperature of up to 200F, thicker coatings of FBE do not appear practical for higher operating
temperatures.
Lower-moisture-absorbing FBE coatings do exist, but many are inflexible and unacceptable for pipe that
may be field bent.
British Gas Pipeline in the United Kingdom uses 3M's Scotchkote 226N. The claim is that this coating has
a greater resistance to moisture absorption than Scotchkote 206N. As this coating system became
commercially available only recently in the United States, there is limited information about it.


Discussion Bends
Bends are not easy to coat with FBE. There are two possibilities:
Heat bends with induction coils and hand spray them in a shop.
Coat bends that are small enough in a bed of (fluid) powder.
In order of preference, options for coating bends in the field are two-part liquid epoxies or tape wraps.
High-temperature Pipeline Coatings
High-temperature pipeline coatings for hot-oil service need a pipeline coating for a wet-soil environment
at operating temperatures over 200F. Existing FBE coatings cannot meet this need. Although both DuVal
and Elf Atochems polypropylene coatings claim to have operating temperatures up to 230F, there is
limited field experience with these coatings. It seems unlikely that any polypropylene coating can
survive at continuous operating temperatures over 210F.
Caution! Presently, the Company does not recommend any polypropylene pipeline coating for operating
temperatures more than 200 F without additional laboratory testing or field experience.
Nap-Gard's new FBE coating may be suitable for hot-oil service temperatures over 180F. This coating is
the first dual or polymer-powder-modified FBE coating system [24]. The FBE primer is Nap-Gard 7-2501.
The water-penetration-resistant FBE topcoat, Nap-Gard 7-2504 (also called Nap-Gard Gold) will bond
directly to steel pipe. Any FBE-pipe-coating mill can apply this system which is easier to apply than any
existing multi-layer coating system.
Caution The Company does not recommend the Nap-Gard 7-2501/7-2504 coating system for oper-
ating temperatures over 180 F without additional laboratory testing or field experience.
In California, Shell Pipe Line applied FBE with Pritec as an outer jacket for hot-oil service. This may be
the first multi-layer coating system of this type in the USA. The Pritec protects the FBE from moisture, but
the Pritec mastic is the weak link in this multi-layer coating system.
Caution The Company does not recommend using FBE with Pritec for operating temperatures over
180 F.
Girth-weld Coating Induction, heat-applied FBE is the best.
Liquid epoxies may be used.
Heat-shrink sleeves acceptable in low-soil-stress areas.
Caution In hydrocarbon-contaminated soil, use FBE or liquid epoxies.
Brands By Temperature
> 150F: 3M Scotchkote 206N, 3M Scotchkote 226N, Valspar D1003LD, Josun D1003LD,
Nap-Gard 7-2501, and Nap-Gard 7-25014
> 180F: Nap-Guards new FBE coating (7-2504) may be suitable for hot-oil service.
Multi-layer Brands
DuVal, Elf Atochem, Himont, Mapec, Du Pont Canada, and Shaw YJII
See Also COM-MS-4042 for specifications about purchasing and installing FBE-coated pipe.
Extruded plastic film for information about multi-layer coating systems with epoxy primers
Companys Pipeline Manual for additional information about concrete (weight) coatings.
AWWA C213
NAPCA 12-78-94
CAN/CSA Z245.20-M92

Fig. 900-13 Description of External Pipeline CoatingHot-Applied Tapes

Definition Depending on its type, a hot-applied tape is coated on a pipe that is either
Heated in a furnace
Heated with a torch or the tape itself may be heated with a torch
Recommended Service The Company has very limited experience with hot-applied tape systems; therefore, we cannot report
any field experience or provide much detail about them.
Status
Raychem states that Rayclad 120 accepts a temperature of 248F (120C).
Caution The Company has no experience with Rayclad 120 and gives it a temperature rating of
200 F until there is additional data from laboratory testing or field experience.
Other
Holiday Detection 10,000 to 18,000 volts
Application Coating applicators can use torches for field-installing hot-applied tapes such as Raychem Flexclad and
Canusa Wrapid tape.
Thickness > 27 mils
Small Repairs Heat-shrink sleeves or tape
Handling/Storage
Protection/Resistance UV Resistance: Poor
Soil-Stress/Hydrocarbon Resistance
Raychem Flexclad and Canusa Wrapid tapes have better soil stress resistance than cold-applied tapes,
but they have poor hydrocarbon resistance
Disbonding
Initially, Polyken Synergy had problems with thermoshock that caused the coating system to disbond in
service. Coating applicators using Synergy report a solution: preheat the tape before applying it to the
pipe's surface.
Discussion Advantage
Tend to resist soil stresses better than cold-applied tapes.
Disadvantage
More expensive than cold-applied tapes.
In General
Polyken Synergy is less expensive than FBE, about the same cost as Pritec, and more expensive than
Plexguard and Entec. It has no marketable characteristics that make it superior to existing mill-applied
coating systems.
Synergy has to be mill applied, and it cannot be applied by a portable coating plant due to its ther-
moshock problems.
Caution The Company does not recommend Polyken Synergy because we carried out all of our
laboratory testing on thermoshocked samples that failed. CRTC's M&EE specialists will reconsider
Synergy if it passes testing by an acceptable independent coating laboratory or if pipeline operators
report favorable field experience after five years of service.
A high-temperature, hot-, mill-applied tape that other pipeline operators report to be successful is
Raychem's Rayclad 120. A portable coating mill helps coating applicators to apply this tape properly in the
field. Raychem Rayclad 120 have radiation-crosslinked hot-melt adhesives and polyethylene-based back-
ings. The fact that the polyethylene plastic is radiation-crosslinked gives it greater temperature resistance
and lower moisture-absorption rates than other non-radiated plastic tapes. The radiation-crosslinked hot-
melt adhesives have lower moisture absorption, higher temperature resistance, and higher bond physical
properties than the non-radiated mastics of other hot- and cold-applied tape systems.
Girth-weld Coatings
Brands Examples of heat-applied tapes are Canusa Wrapid Tape, Raychem Flexclad, Polyken Synergy, and
Raychem Rayclad 120.
See Also

Fig. 900-14 Description of External Pipeline CoatingPetrolatum and Petroleum-Wax Tapes

Definition Petrolatum tape, a synthetic fiber, is coated with petrolatum compound containing inert fillers and
thermal extenders. Petroleum wax tapes are petrolatum-based corrosion-preventative waxes, impreg-
nating a synthetic fabric backing, and applied over a petroleum-wax primer.
Recommended Service Coating pipes in the splash zone underneath wharves

Field coating irregularly shaped, buried, pipe fittings (i.e., valves, ties, bends, etc.)
Protecting transition zones where buried piping comes above ground
Coating buried pipe in areas where soil stress is not a problem
Filling shorted pipeline road casings (petroleum wax)
Note: Excellent for fittings and irregular shapes as long as soil stress is not a problem.
Status This specialty pipe coating has proven very successful for specific applications for over 50 years.

Other
Holiday Detection Use wet spronge jeep
Application Hand apply

Brush or wipe the surface clean of dirt and all other foreign matter
Apply a thin film of primer
Apply the wax tape
Caution If the pipe's surface is wet, rub and press the primer to displace the moisture and ensure
that the primer is adhering to the pipe's surface.
Thickness 45 mils
Small Repairs Patch with same material per manufacturers guidelines
Handling/Storage
Protection/Resistance UV Resistance: Good

Hydrocarbon Resistance: Poor
Add a rock shield material to protect the coating from penetration by rocks or soil-stress activity.
Without a rock shield, add special backfill (sand) to a minimum thickness of six inches (150 mm).
Discussion Advantages
Conforms to irregular shapes
No drying or curing time required before backfilling
Easy application with minimum surface preparation
Easily removed
Can be applied over wet surfaces
Excellent resistance to moisture absorption
Disadvantages
Low soil-stress resistance; not recommended for soil-stress areas.
Girth-weld Coatings
Brands Major manufacturers include Trenton, and Denso North America, Inc. Recently, Tapecoat introduced
some petrolatum products.
See Also

Fig. 900-15 Description of External Pipeline CoatingPhenolic Epoxies

Definition A solvent-free, ultra-high-build, high-solids content, amine-cured, phenolic epoxy
A solvent-free epoxy requires no evaporation in the curing process and has advantages for elevated
temperature service because it is not as susceptible to solvent retention, which can cause the coating
to break down on high-temperature lines [22].
Recommended Service Field- or mill-applied coating system for high-temperature pipeline service
Caution The Company has no experience with this coating system; it is included here as an
introduction only.
Status In Australia, Vessey Chemical manufactures Vepox CC703, reportedly an excellent high-temperature
pipeline coating. Coating mills apply other phenolic-epoxy systems as a powder similar to FBE.
Service Temp This coating system is rehabilitating Australian high-temperature gas pipelines with operating service
temperatures as high as 248F (120C).
Surface Prep Abrasive Blast: SSPC SP-10 with surface profile of 70-100 microns
Other
Holiday Detection Vendors recommendation.
Application May field apply this coating system with conventional spray equipment using premixed material or with
airless spray equipment [22].
Thickness
Small Repairs
Handling/Storage
Protection/Resistance
Discussion Bends
Phenolic epoxies are superior to FBE in temperature resistance, but typically we cannot field bend them.
Coatings applicators can field coat field bends with a liquid-phenolic epoxy.
Girth-weld Coatings
Brands
See Also

Fig. 900-16 Description of External Pipeline CoatingPolyester Epoxies

Definition Flake-reinforced polyester epoxies are two-part liquid-epoxy coatings.
Recommended Service Refurbishing old pipelines, tie-ins, valves, and fittings.

Caution Where hydrocarbon contamination or soil stress present, use cold-applied tapes.
Caution Polyester epoxies are not recommended for hot oil pipeline service.[22. 23]
Status Although this coating has had limited pipeline use because of the high cost of raw materials, it is an
excellent coating system for pipeline valves both atmospheric and buried.

Other
Holiday Detection 4,000 volts

Very slow cure time
Note: Spray recommended; brush acceptable for patching small areas.
Small Repairs Patch with liquid epoxy per manufacturers guidelines.
Handling/Storage
Discussion Polyester epoxies have excellent resistance to UV, hydrocarbon, and soil stress.
Girth-weld Coatings
Brands Master Builder's Ceilcoat Flakeline 251 is one recommended brand, but other excellent polyester
epoxies are available.
See Also

Fig. 900-17 Description of External Pipeline CoatingPolyurethane (1 of 2)

Definition The reaction of isocyanates with hydroxyl-containing compounds makes the resins in polyurethane coat-
ings. Two types of urethanes are available for buried pipelines: elastomeric and highly crossed linked.
Elastomeric PolyurethaneGenerally has tensile and elongative properties, producing elongation in
excess of 20 percent.
Highly Cross-linked PolyurethaneMolecular cross linking takes place in a thermoset material
during cure. High cross-linked materials generally have better resistance to chemicals; lower cross-
linked materials have lower resistance to chemicals but often have very high elongation.
Other forms include
Moisture-cure PolyurethaneSingle component, generally TFT, systems applied in thin-film deposi-
tions; rely on a level of moisture for curing.
Single-component PolyurethaneBase and activator exist as mix; remain fluid until applied.
Dual- or Plural-component PolyurethaneSeparate base resin and an activator are mixed just
before applying.
Recommended Service All services up to temperature limits of the coating system

Refurbishing old pipelines where hydrocarbon contamination or soil stress prevent use of cold tapes
Field recoating pipelines
Mill-coated protection for FBE-coated pipe from construction damage during boring or as a rock
shield
Caution Do not select elastomeric polyurethane as a primary pipeline coating
Caution Not recommended for hot-oil pipeline service
Status Under the tradename, Protegal, TIB Chemie makes most polyurethane coatings applied during pipeline
rehabilitation projects. Others are Madison Chemical's Corropipe and Valspar's Valpipe 100.
Max. Service Temp Caution Not recommended currently for service temperatures above 180 F [22].
Other
Holiday Detection 125 volts per mil of coating thickness
Application Type of Polyurethane

Moisture-cure single-component polyurethanes: brush or roll on the pipe's surface.
Caution TDI, an isocynate, makes it dangerous to spray moisture-cure polyurethanes.
Dual-component polyurethanes: spray for major projects; brush or roller for spot touchup and small
repairs to coatings; also, trowel.
Method
Spray: Typically, coating applicators spray dual-component polyurethanes on a pipe's surface with
special plural-component equipment that helps combat difficulties with temperature and ensures
better adhesion.
Brush, trowel, roller: Cure time of dual-component polyurethanes is typically longer when it is
applied this way. Tack-free condition is normally 30 minutes to 4 hours depending on ambient temper-
atures; hot air accelerates the cure cycle.
Small Repairs Use manufacturers recommended polyurethane patching material
Handling/Storage
Protection/Resistance See Discussion below.
Resistance UV & Hydrocarbon: Excellent

See also Discussion below.

Fig. 900-17 Description of External Pipeline CoatingPolyurethane (2 of 2)

Discussion Most moisture-cure polyurethanes are
Slow in curing
Caution The curing process combines with oxygen in the atmosphere; do not use in
production runs.
Sensitive to high-low humidity
Lower in mechanical/abrasive resistance than dual-component polyurethanes, FBE, and liquid epoxy
coatings
Not high build and several coats (4-6 mils) needed to reach the desired total thickness
Elastomeric polyurethanes have
Higher moisture-absorption rates than highly crossed-linked polyurethanes
Higher mechanical/abrasive resistance that may make them desirable as rock shields for other pipe
coatings.
Advantages
The high solids, high build, and fast cure properties make dual-component polyurethane suitable for
pipeline-rehabilitation projects. Highly crossed-linked polyurethanes have low rates of moisture absorp-
tion. The exothermic nature of the iso/polyol reaction allows us to spray aromatic polyurethanes at
temperatures as low as -20F (-29C) and as high as 140F (60C).
While cure time is temperature dependent, urethanes are less temperature dependent than other
systems such as liquid epoxies. To accelerate cure time, normal practice is to pre-heat the pipe to 180F
in the mill; to 150F by induction coil in the field.
Disadvantages
Existing pipe-coating mills are not equipped to apply this coating system economically. Dual-component
polyurethanes require special, plural-component, heated, spray equipment that has a pot life of less than
30 seconds.
Service History
In Texas, some major, large-diameter, gas-transmission pipelines were recoated with TIB Chemie's
Protegal. Soil stresses had damaged the original asphalt or coal-tar enamel. There has been no report of
any coating failures to date.
Girth-weld Coating As we typically field-apply polyurethane, the coating applicators coat the girth-weld and joint surfaces
at the same time. They may coat girth welds at coating transitions with cold-applied tapes or heat-shrink
sleeves.
Brands TIB Chemie Protegal UT32-10, Madison Chemical Corropipe, Valspar Valpipe 100
See Also

Fig. 900-18 Description of External Pipeline CoatingThermoset Epoxies

Definition A two-part, liquid, thermosetting compound that cures without heat.
Recommended Service Liquid epoxies are good for repairing FBE coatings and for refurbishing old pipelines, girth-weld coat-
ings, tie-ins, valves, and fittings.
Status Two-part liquid epoxies have worked well in accelerated laboratory tests and in limited field use.
Both Hempel Epoxy 8553 and Hempel Nap-Wrap Epoxy 8553 passed CRTC's hot-subsea-coating test.
Previously, only 20+ mil-thick FBE coatings passed it consistently. The hot-subsea-coating test subjects
a coated pipe to 250F internal temperature and -0.90 volts of cathodic protection while the pipe is
suspended in 65F sea water for 90 days.
Aramco is replacing tape wraps with Hempel Epoxy 8553 as their primary refurbishing and tie-in coating.
They apply the coating to a 20-25 mil thickness in two coats.

Note: Aramco has had success applying Hempel Nap-Wrap Epoxy 8553 to 200F lines in operation.
Other

Can be field applied
Cure time very slow
Small Repairs Patch with Hempel Nap-Wrap Epoxy 8553 per manufacturers guidelines.
Handling/Storage
Protection/Resistance The tape wrap or membrane in Hempel Nap-Wrap Epoxy 8553 gives the coating added strength and
resistance to abrasion.
High-temp (225F) Hydrocarbon & UV Resistance: Excellent
Chemical Resistance: Good
Because it is a thermoset, this epoxy does not soften with temperature; but, it has chemical, tempera-
ture, and mechanical properties similar to FBE.
Tape
We can apply Hempel Epoxy 8553 either alone or with a tape wrap (Hempel Nap-Wrap Epoxy 8553).
Girth-weld Coatings
Brands Hempel Epoxy 8553 and Hempel Nap-Wrap Epoxy 8553
See Also

Fig. 900-19 Description of External Pipeline CoatingGirth-Weld ProtectionHeat-shrink Sleeves (1 of 2)

Definition Shrink sleeves are tubes or wraparound strips of a heat-shrinkable backing of cross-linked poly-
ethylene. The backing has either a butyl-rubber adhesive or a semi-crystalline adhesive.
Recommended Service Field joints, tie-ins, small pipeline recoating jobs, and mechanically damaged mill-applied coatings
Status Heat shrink sleeves are readily available from manufacturers in pre-sized or bulk (cut-to-fit) packages.
Max. Service Temp
Surface Prep Abrasive Blast: SSPC SP-3 for most sleeves. Refer to manufacturers guidelines.
Other
Holiday Detection
coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
or Vendors recommendation
Application Basic
Prepare the surface (minimum: clean with hand power tools).
Bevel the edge of the pipeline coating (only for thick coatings such as coal-tar enamel and asphalt
mastic).
Position the shrink sleeve.
Apply heat by torch or induction, depending on the adhesive.
Tubes
Place tubes loosely on the pipe near the girth-weld area before fit-up and welding.
Apply tubes over the girth-weld area as soon as possible after welding is completed because adhe-
sive is exposed to the atmosphere.
Strips (Wraparound sleeves)
Apply the strips any time after welding is completed and before the pipe is buried.
Wrap the strips around the field joint until the ends overlap.
Seal the overlapping seam with a strip of the coating.
Apply heat to shrink the coating into place.
Aramco uses induction coils to apply heat shrink wraps at a rate of 120 per day.
Caution Consult the manufacturer for instructions on application procedures.
Thickness 70 to 80 mils
Small Repairs
Handling/Storage
Protection/Resistance Shrink sleeves are thick, therefore, abrasion resistant. When heated, the adhesive melts and the polyeth-
ylene backing shrinks. This forces the adhesive to flow into the irregularities of the area to be coated.
The shrunken wrap is an abrasion-and- penetration-resistant coating.
CRTC's Materials and Equipment Engineering group conducted dragging tests to simulate an offshore-
tow installation. The leading edge peeled and eroded, and tape wraps failed at overlaps because every
protruding surface eroded.
Because of these tests, the Company bonded a sacrificial half-sleeve in front of the actual shrink
sleeves of a Pritec-coated offshore line. The Company installed this pipeline successfully, despite drag-
ging it across an ocean floor.
See also Disadvantages and Selection in Discussion, below.

Fig. 900-19 Description of External Pipeline CoatingGirth-Weld ProtectionHeat-shrink Sleeves (2 of 2)

Quick and easy to apply, requiring a minimal surface preparation and skill
Service temperature ratings between -30F and 230F
Compatible with FBE, extruded plastic, tape wraps, coal-tar enamels, asphalt mastics, liquid epoxies,
and polyurethane coatings.
Disadvantages
The polyethylene backings expand when exposed to hydrocarbons.
A torch, required for the applying the wraps, can damage the primary coating.
Some heat shrink sleeves have low resistance to damage from soil stress.
Selection
Choice of Adhesive: The adhesive establishes two categories of temperature limits for sleeves, each
having specific characteristics:
150F or lower: typically a butyl-rubber adhesive which
Can flow when heated by torch which causes no damage to the PE backing or line coating.
Generally changes color at the proper temperature, allowing less-experienced workers to apply
the sleeves properly.
150F or higher: typically a semi-crystalline adhesive which
Needs greater heat to melt the adhesive than butyl-rubber adhesives.
Needs induction coils for a more even, consistent heat and to prevent damage to the pipeline
coating and sleeve from the flame of the torch. Torches are also acceptable for heating the pipe.
The properties of the adhesive may also affect the sleeve's selection:
Semi-crystalline or hot-melt adhesives have good physical properties and bond strengths but gener-
ally have poorer resistance to cathodic disbonding than butyl-rubber adhesives.
Butyl-rubber adhesives are generally more susceptible to soil stresses but have a higher resistance
to cathodic disbonding.
Other Selection Factors: The choice of sleeve may also depend on the pipe's size, construction
schedule, and the experience of the people applying it.
Wraparound
Less costly
No time constraints for application (can apply after creating any weld)
Bulk, cut-to-fit sizes
Tube
Must place loosely over pipe before creating weld
Only for 3/4-inch- to 12-inch-diameter pipe
Quicker and easier to apply than wraparound sleeves
Superior to wraparound because there are no seams
Brands In the U.S., the Company usually selects Raychem and Canusa sleeves. Other brands currently available
are UBE Industries, Ltd., Tokyo and Nitto Electric Industrial, Ltd.
For DuVal, Himont, and Elf Atochem polyethylene girth welds, there are heat-shrink sleeves compatible
with the coating and rated for the operating temperature of the pipeline. Canusa has developed a multi-
layer heat-shrink sleeve for coating the girth welds of multi-layer coatings such as Shaw YJII, Mapec,
Himont, Elf Atochem, and DuVal. Raychem is developing heat-shrink sleeves for polypropylene pipe
coated with Elf Atochem, Himont, and DuVal brands.
See Also

Fig. 900-20 Description of External Pipeline CoatingGirth-Weld Protection CoatingInduction Heat-Applied FBE
Definition Applying FBE to the girth-weld area by induction heat
Recommended Service To protect girth welds of FBE- coated pipelines
Status Common on large projects, critical lines, and high-temperature lines. It was expensive, but the cost now
nearly equals heat-shrink sleeves due to improved application techniques on large projects.
Max. Service Temp
SSPC SP-10 Near-white Metal Finish
Other
After welding, clean the pipe chemically and then blast it to SSPC SP-10. Brush blast the field joint and two
inches of FBE on either side of the joint to clean and roughen the coating's surface.
Caution Proper surface preparation is critical to this type of coating. Also, protect the pipe's
surfaces from high humidity, rain, or surface moisture [9, 11].
Application Induction heat the weld zone to approximately 500F (depending on the coating manufacturer's specifi-
cations).
Immediately apply the FBE powder so that residual heat in the pipe cures the coating. A motorized
unit, called a powder application ring, sprays the powder on the joint as the sprayer rotates around
the pipe.
Caution Do not force cool or quench, which means that the pipe must be out of service during the
coating process to prevent cooling too quickly.
Thickness
Small Repairs
Handling/Storage
Induction heat-applied FBE is the best girth-weld area protection coating for FBE-coated pipelines
because it is the same material as on the pipe's joint.
Disadvantages
Application requires abrasive blasting and accurate heat control. It is sensitive to environmental effects
such as humidity.
Brands Commercial Resins Company, Commercial Coating Services Incorporated (CCSI), and Pipeline Induction
Heat Ltd. (PIH) are among the contractors who have equipment and trained personnel for field applying
FBE over pipeline girth welds.
See Also Figure 900-3 Advantages and Disadvantages of External Pipeline Coatings

Fig. 900-21 Description of External Pipeline CoatingGirth-Weld ProtectionInduction Heat-Applied Plastic with
FBE Primer
Definition Induction heat-applied plastic with FBE primer is a field-applied process for coating EPHA girth welds.
Recommended Service For joints coated with extruded plastic with hard adhesive (EPHA)
In EPHA, hard adhesive is liquid epoxy or FBE primer.
Status Common on high-temperature pipelines

Coating the girth welds on pipe joints coated with Elf Atochem, Himont, and DuVal polypropylene is diffi-
cult; however, Raychem is developing a heat-shrink sleeve for coating girth welds on these joints.
Max. Service Temp Vendors claim up to 230F.
Surface Prep Abrasive Blast: SSPC SP-10 Near-white Metal Finish

Other: Chemical cleaning and blasting to an SSPC SP-10
Holiday Detection
Application Heat the weld and adjoining FBE coating from 438F to 463F with an induction coil.
Apply the FBE powder to the heated surface.
Apply the top, plastic layer(s), at the proper time, over the FBE primer.
Note: Post heating of the plastic layer may be required depending upon the coating thickness
Timing
Requires excellent timing when applying the plastic layer over the FBE layer.
Too quick: improper curing of the FBE and poor bonding to the pipe's surface
Too slow: improper bonding between the plastic and FBE
Thickness
Small Repairs
Handling/Storage
Discussion Advantage
The best girth-weld protection for EPHA- coated pipelines because it is the same material as the pipe
joint
Disadvantages
Requires abrasive blasting
Requires accurate heat control; otherwise, the joint coating near the girth-weld may become
damaged
Requires excellent timing during application
Is sensitive to environment, such as humidity
Brands There are two companies experienced with applying specific brands of these coatings:
Commercial Coating Services Incorporated (CCSI) with DuVal
Pipeline Induction Heat Ltd. (PIH) with DuVal, Himont, and Elf Atochem
See Also

Fig. 900-22 Operating Temperature for Splash-Zone

Coating for Offshore Platform Risers
Temperature Coating
Below 140F Sprayable (Tidegard 171)
Up to 180F Vulcanized Neoprene
Up to 250F Monel Sheathing
Fig. 900-23 Pipeline Fitting and Valve Coating System

Max Coating Hydro- Soil
Generic Coating Svc Holiday Detector Thickness Surface carbon Stress
Type Name Temp F Voltage (Mils) Prep Resistant Resistant
Coal Tar Epoxy Tarset 14 300 V 16-20 SSPC SP-10 Yes Yes
Maxi-Build
7080
Extruded Du Val 200 20-45 SSPC SP-10 Yes Yes

Plastic with coating
1250 thickness
FBE Primer
( mils )
Fusion Scothkote 200 125 V/Mil 14-30 SSPC SP-10 No Yes

Bonded Epoxy 206N
(FBE)
Heat Shrink- Canusa 135 >27 SSPC SP-3 No No

able Tape Wrapid Tape coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Heat Shrink- Raychem Flex- 135 >27 SSPC SP-3 No No

able Tape Clad coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Petroleum Denso HT 120 use wet spronge 45 SSPC SP-2 No No

Tape jeep
Polyester Flakeline 251 160 4000V 35-40 SSPC SP-10 Yes Yes
Polyurethane Protegal UT 180 150 V/Mil 25-30 SSPC SP-5 Yes Yes
32-10RG
32-50RG
32-10
Polyurethane Valpipe 100 160 125 V/Mil 25-30 SSPC SP-5 Yes Yes
Polyurethane Madison 135 125 V/Mil 25-30 SSPC SP-5 Yes Yes
Corropipe 2TX
Thermoset Nap-Wrap 225 125 V/Mil 20-30 SSPC SP-10 Yes Yes
Epoxy Epoxy 8533
Wax Tape Trenton #1 120 use wet 70-90 SSPC SP-2 No No

Wax spronge jeep

Fig. 900-24 Generic Coatings for Girth Weld Protection
Suggested Coating Material for the Girth Weld Preferences
Original Coating Joining Coating 1 2 3 4 5
Asphalt Enamel Asphalt Enamel Heat Shrink Asphalt Enamel

Wrap
FBE Heat Shrink Tape Liquid Epoxy Asphalt

Wrap Enamel
EPSA Heat Shrink Tape

Wrap
Polyester Epoxy Heat Shrink Tape Polyester Epoxy

Wrap
Tape Tape
Coal Tar Enamel Coal Tar Enamel Heat Shrink Coal Tar Epoxy Tape Coal Tar Mastic
Wrap Enamel
FBE Heat Shrink Tape Liquid Epoxy Coal Tar

Wrap Enamel

Wrap
Asphalt Enamel Heat Shrink Tape Coal Tar Asphalt

Wrap Epoxy Enamel
Polyester Epoxy Heat Shrink Polyester Tape

Wrap Epoxy
Tape Tape
EPHA EPHA EPHA Heat Shrink Tape

Wrap
EPSA EPSA Heat Shrink Tape

Wrap
EPHA Heat Shrink Tape

Wrap
Polyester Epoxy Heat Shrink Tape

Wrap
Tape Tape
FBE FBE FBE Heat Shrink Liquid Epoxy Tape

Wrap

Wrap
EPHA FBE EPHA Heat Shrink Liquid Epoxy Tape

Wrap
Polyester Epoxy Heat Shrink Polyester Epoxy Tape

Wrap
Tape Tape
Tape Tape Tape
Note: EPSA = Extruded Plastic with Soft Adhesive

EPHA = Extruded Plastic with Hard Adhesive
Note:

Rehabilitation Coatings
There are two ways to refurbish an old line: replace the pipeline or remove the old
coating and recoat.
Replacing the Pipe (Coating the Transition Girth Welds). Consider cold-applied
tapes or heat-shrink sleeves to coat tie-in girth welds because these coatings are
compatible with almost all coating systems.
Note Tie-in girth welds connect the replacement section of pipe to the existing pipe.
If soil stress is not a problem, apply either heat-shrink sleeves or cold-applied tape
to girth welds on the tie-in (coating transition).
If soil stress is a problem, apply heat-shrink sleeves on the tie-in.
If the soil has hydrocarbon contamination, select FBE-coated pipe over extruded
plastics. Avoid heat-shrink wraps or cold-applied tapes on the girth welds, and
select liquid epoxy for the girth welds of the pipe replacement. If there is both soil
stress and hydrocarbon contamination, select liquid epoxy rather than cold-applied
tapes or heat-shrink sleeves.
Replacing the Coating. Pipeline recoating may be carried out in-the-ditch or over-
the-ditch.
Note In-the-ditch means that the pipeline is neither removed from its site nor from
service and may still be under pressure.
Over-the-ditch means that the pipeline is taken out of service and the pipe removed
from the ground.
Caution While recoating a pipeline that is under pressure, follow all pipeline
safety guidelines. Be aware that machinery for recoating pipe may be unsafe for a
pressured pipeline.
When replacing the coating, grit or sand blast to remove the old one completely if
local air quality regulations permit.
If the old coating system contains asbestos, follow special asbestos-handling proce-
dures such as work wet, use plastic containment, and wear special protective
clothing.
Asbestos-containing coatings include Somastic, most asphaltics such as P2, Modi-
fied P2, P3, and P4 Wraps, and coal-tar enamel.
Note To identify asbestos-containing coatings on Company pipelines, research
construction records and pipeline inventory line sheets for coating information.
CRTC's M&EE Unit has project files that may also contain information about pipe-
line coating projects.
For the latest information about asbestos-removal techniques for pipelines, contact
Chevron Pipe Line Company's Health, Environment, & Loss Prevention personnel.

Caution Government regulations about removing asbestos vary across the United
States and change periodically. Review the current asbestos-removal regulations
before starting a pipeline-rehabilitation project.
Selecting the Coating. Factors involved in choosing a field-applied rehabilitation
coating system include consideration of the following:
Soil
Temperatures
Operating temperature of the pipe
Temperature of the pipe during recoating
Dew point temperature during coating
See Figure 900-25 for a brief description of field-applied, pipeline coating systems
for rehabilitating pipelines. The coating systems are listed in order of preference.
922 Quality Control

Among the elements of quality control for external pipeline coatings are specifica-
tions and standards, planning, service conditions, durability and resistance,
construction factors, application factors, and inspection.
Specifications and Standards

The following figures list specifications to help ensure the success of an external
coatings project.
Coating Specifications for Buried Pipelines (Figure 900-26)
Industry Standards for Pipeline Coatings (Figure 900-27)
Planning
There are many factors involved in planning an external coatings project for pipe-
lines. The main ones are as follows:
Service Conditions
Maximum continuous service temperature
Soil conditions
Accessibility of the line for field application and repair
Durability and Resistance of Coatings
Durability
Chemical Resistance
Ultraviolet (UV) Resistance
Resistance to Mechanical Damage
Resistance to Temperature
Cathodic Shielding and Disbonding

Fig. 900-25 Field-Applied Rehabilitation Coating Systems in Order of Preference

Rank System
1. Liquid Epoxies
Excellent resistance to chemicals and temperatures
Poor (long) cure times
Dust and insects can contaminate this coating while it is curing, causing holidays
Poor choice during winter, more practical during ideal dry summer weather
Brush, roll, or spray with standard spray equipment
There are basically four types of liquid epoxies: coal-tar, thermoset, phenolic, and polyester epoxies.
For all services: thermoset and phenolic
Not for hot-oil pipelines: polyester and coal-tar epoxies
For temperatures up to 220F: phenolic and some thermoset epoxies
2. Polyurethane
Excellent resistance to chemicals and temperature
Preferred over liquid epoxies for faster cure time
Summer: Fast-cure urethane coatings may be buried within 15 minutes
Winter: Fast cure urethane coatings can take from one to five hours to cure enough for burial, depending on the method
of application
Spray with required, heated, plural-component, spray equipment
For temperatures up to 180F
3. Hot-Applied Wraps and Tapes(1)

Recoating for short sections of pipe
Needs a rock shield in high-soil-stress environment
Too labor intensive for rehabilitating major pipelines
Low resistance to hydrocarbon not for hydrocarbon-contaminated soils
Available as high-temperature heat shrinkable wraps and tapes
May not be applied to pipelines in service if flowing product prevents pipe surface from being heated properly
4. Cold-Applied Tapes(1)
Very economical
Needs proper tension during application
Needs an outer wrap of rock shield in high-soil-stress areas
Low resistance to hydrocarbon and temperature
(1) If this coating fails, it may cause a shielded corrosion cell, creating a corrosion leak on a cathodic protected pipeline

Fig. 900-26 Coating Specifications for Buried Pipelines

Coating Spec Number(1) Spec Title Project Date Written
Fusion Bonded Epoxy COM-MS-4042 Fusion Bonded Epoxy for Company's Standard Spec 3/31/88
(FBE) External Coating
09-AMSS-089 Shop-Applied External FBE Aramco Spec 8/10/85

Coatings
PA 131 Fusion Bonded Epoxy External Mesquite Pipe Line Project 6/30/87
Line Pipe Corrosion Coating
P-I-002 Fusion Bonded Epoxy Corrosion Western Producing Spec 8/21/84

of Submarine Pipelines (Platform Gail)
Extruded Plastic PA 129 Extruded Polyethylene Point Arguello Pipeline and 7/6/84
Corrosion Coating with Butyl Natural Gas Companies
Adhesive
09-AMSS-090 Shop-Applied Extruded PE Aramco Mapec and Pritec 3/27/85

External Coating System Spec
COM-MS-5005 Side Extruded Plastic/ Butyl Company's Standard Spec 1996

Rubber Adhesive Line Pipe
Corrosion Coating
Coal Tar Enamel PA 171 Coal Tar Enamel Wrap Point Arguello Pipeline and 1/3/85
Natural Gas Companies
NR-2510 Spec for TGF-3 Pipeline Coating Northern Producing Spec 9/17/87
PA 155 Water Line Coal Tar Enamel Point Arguello Pipeline 12/20/85
Corrosion Coating Company
COM-MS-5006 Coal-Tar Enamel Corrosion Company's Standard Spec 1996

Coating of Submarine Pipelines
Concrete Weight PA 136 Pipe Weight Coating Point Arguello Pipeline and 2/20/85
Coating Natural Gas Companies
PA 176 Pipe Weight Coating Quality Point Arguello Pipeline and 4/15/85
Assurance Natural Gas Companies
Pipeline Continuous Concrete Sudan Petroleum Develop- 2/24/84

Coating ment Project
PA 132 Polymer Cement Barrier Point Arguello Pipeline and 7/6/84

Coating (over FBE Powder Pipe Natural Gas Companies
Coatings)
E-4512 Concrete Weight Coating for Richmond Deep Water 9/23/86

Submarine Pipelines Outfall Project
Field-Applied Tape Spec for Over-the-Ditch Rangely 2/26/85

Wrap Application for Mainline Pipe
and Facility Piping
PA 150 Polyethylene Tape Wrap with Point Arguello Pipeline and 7/6/84
Butyl Adhesive Natural Gas Companies
09-AMSS-095 Hand-Applied Pressure Aramco Spec 9/22/85

Sensitive Tape Wrap for
Temperatures up to 55C (130F)
Shrink Sleeves 09-AMSS-096 High-Temperature Heat Shrink Aramco Spec 9/22/85

Sleeves
(1) See CRTC's Materials Engineering File 6.55.70 Specifications

PA Specifications were written by Chevron Pipe Line Company

Fig. 900-27 Industry Standards for Pipeline Coatings (1 of 2)

Spec. No. Description
American Petroleum Institute (API) Standards
RP 10E Application of Cement Lining to Steel Tubular Goods, Handling, Installation, and Joining
RP 5L1 Recommended Practice for Railroad Transportation of Line Pipe
FP 5L5 Recommended Practice for Marine Transportation of Line Pipe
American Water Works Associated (AWWA)
ANSI/AWWA C203 CT Protective Coating & Lining for Stl. Water Lines
ANSI/AWWA C205 Cement Mortar Lining for Steel Pipe 4" & Larger
ANSI/AWWA C209 Cold-Applied Tape Coatings for Special Sections
ANSI/AWWA C210 CTE for the Interior & Exterior of Steep Pipe
ANSI/AWWA C213 FBE for the Interior & Exterior of Steep Pipe
ANSI/AWWA C214 Tape Coating for the Exterior of Steel H20 Pipes
ANSI/AWWA C215 Extruded Polyolefin for Exterior of Steel H20 Pipes
AWWA C602 Cement Lining Water Lines 4" & Largerin Place
British Standard
BS 4164 Coal-Tar Protective Coatings and Linings for Steel Water Pipelines, Enamel, and Tape Hot-Applied
British Gas Standards
PS/PA3 Painting at Site of New Components for Long Term Protection
PS/CW1 External Wrap of Line Pipe using Coal Tar
BGC/PS/CW2 Cold-Applied Wrapping Tapes & Tape Systems
PS/CW3 External Wrap Operations using Hot-Applied Bitumen
PS/CW5 Code of Practice for the Selection and Application of Field-Applied External Coating (Other than Resin)
MR0274 Material Requirements for Polyolefin Cold-Applied Tapes for Underground Submerged Pipeline Coatings
PUB. 6H189 A State-of-the-Art Report of Protective Coatings for Carbon Steel and Austenitic Stainless Steel Surfaces
Under Insulation and Cementitious Fireproofing
Canadian Standards
CAN/CSA-Z245.20-M90 External FBE Coating for Pipe
CAN/CSA-Z245.21-M92 External Polyethylene Coating for Pipe
German Standards (DIN)
DIN 30670 Polyethylene Coating of Steel Pipes and Components
DIN 53516 Determination of Abrasion Resistance
L'Association Franaise De Normalisation (AFNOR) Standard
NFA 49-710 Steel Tubes External Triple-Layer Polyethylene-Based Coating Application by Extrusion
NACE International Standards
RP0169 Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems
RP0285 Control of External Corrosion on Metallic Buried or Submerged Liquid Storage Systems
RP0181 Liquid Applied Internal Protection Linings and Coatings for Oil Field Production Equipment
RP0185 Extruded Polyolefin Resin Coating Systems for Underground or Submerged Pipe
RP0188 Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of Protective Coatings

Fig. 900-27 Industry Standards for Pipeline Coatings (2 of 2)

Spec. No. Description
NACE International Standards (continued)
RP0190 External Protective Coatings for Joints, Fittings, and Valves on Metallic Underground or Submerged
Pipelines and Piping Systems
RP0274 High Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings Prior to Installation
RP0490 Holiday Detection of Fusion Bonded Epoxy External Pipeline Coatings of 10 to 30 Mils (0.25 to 0.76 MM)
RP0675 Control of External Corrosion on Offshore Steel Pipelines
TM0170 Visual Standard for Surfaces of New Steel Airblast Cleaned with Sand Abrasive
TM0174 Laboratory Methods for the Evaluation of Protective Coatings used as Lining Materials in Immersion
Services
TM0175 Control of Internal Corrosion in Steel Pipelines and Piping Systems
TM0183 Evaluation of Internal Plastic Coatings for Corrosion Control of Tubular Goods in an Aqueous Flowing
Environment
TM0185 Evaluation of Internal Plastic Coatings for Corrosion Control of Tubular Goods by Autoclave Testing
TM0186 Holiday Detection of Internal Tubular Coatings of 10 to 20 mils (0.25 to 0.76 MM) Dry Film Thickness
TM0375 Abrasion Resistance Testing of Thin Film Baked Coatings and Linings using the Falling Sand Method
TM0384 Holiday Detection of Internal Tubular Coatings of less than 10 mils (0.25 MM) Dry Film Thickness
National Association of Pipe Coating Applicators (NAPCA) Standards
Bulletin 1-65-94 Designation for Coal Tar Enamel Coatings
Bulletin 2-66-94 NAPCA Coating Specifications for Standard Applied Pipe Coating Weights
Bulletin 3-67-94 External Application Procedures of Hot Applied Coal Tar Coatings to Steel Pipe
Bulletin 5-69-94 NPACA Specifications for Pipeline Wrappers
Bulletin 12-78-94 External Application Procedures for Plant-Applied Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE) Coatings to Steel Pipe
Bulletin 13-79-94 External Application Procedures for Coal Tar Epoxy Protective Coatings to Steel Pipe
Bulletin 14-83-94 External Application Procedures for Polyolefin Pipe Coating Applied by the Cross Head Extrusion Method
for the Side Extrusion Method to Steel Pipe
Bulletin 15-83-94 External Application Procedures for Plant-Applied Tape Coating to Steel Pipe
Bulletin 6-69-94-1 Suggested Procedures to Hand Wrap Field Joints using Hot Enamel
Bulletin 6-69-94-2 Suggested Procedures for Coating of Girth Welds with Fusion Bonded Epoxy
Bulletin 6-69-94-3 Suggested Procedures for Coating Field Joints, Fittings, Connections, and Pre-Fabricated Sections using
Tape Coatings
Bulletin 6-69-94-4 Suggested Procedures for Field Joint Application using Mastic Mix and Field Mold
Bulletin 6-69-94-5 Suggested Procedures for Coating Field Joints using Heat Shrinkable Materials

Construction Factors
Impact Resistance
Flexibility in Cold Weather
Field Repair
Limitations of Temporary Storage
Climate During Construction Project
Construction Methods During Project
Application Factors
Cost
Site
Service Conditions
Note FBE has the widest range of operating temperatures, greatest resistance to
chemicals and soil stress of all pipe-coating systems.
Maximum Continuous Service Temperature
Figures 900-23, 900-28, and 900-29 list information about service conditions
of various field- or mill-applied coatings and coatings for fittings and valves.
Soil Conditions (sand vs. clay, wet or dry, hydrocarbon or other chemical
contamination, pipe-soil stresses, soil resistivity data)
Hydrocarbon or Chemical Contamination
To combat hydrocarbon or chemical contamination, it is necessary to
apply a pipe coating that is resistant to the chemicals in the soil.
Soil Stresses
Soil stresses occur mainly in clay soils; not usually in sandy soils. Soil
stresses resulting from wet/dry or freeze/thaw seasonal cycles can,
however, damage pipe coatings.
Soil Corrosivity
Typically, soil corrosivity increases with decreasing soil resistivity. In
highly corrosive soils, you may need to apply a high-performance coating
system to the pipe.
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) Activity
Some pipe coatings, such as cold-applied tapes, have low resistance to
bacteria-generated, chemical byproducts that are also corrosive to the
steel pipe.
Accessibility of the Line for Field Application and Repair
Pipe laid under river crossings, offshore, or in other hard-to-access locations
may need low-maintenance pipe coatings.

Fig. 900-28 Mill-Applied Pipeline Coating Systems (1 of 2)

Surface
Prep Resistance
Max Svc Holiday Hydro- Soil

Generic Type Trade Name Temp. F Detector Voltage Color SSPC SP- carbon Stress
Asphalt Mastic Somastic Type I 140 Black 6 No Yes

coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Asphalt Mastic Somastic Type III 140 Yellow 6 No Yes

coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Coal Tar Enamel Reilly #230A Enamel 140 Black 6 No No

coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Crosshead-Extruded Shaw Black Jacket 150 Black 6 No Yes

Plastic with Asphalt (Polyethylene) coating
1250 thickness
Adhesive
( mils )
Crosshead-Extruded Shaw Yellow Jacket 160 Yellow 6 No Yes

1250 thickness
Adhesive
( mils )
Crosshead-Extruded Encoat Entec 100 Yellow 6 No Yes

1250 thickness
Adhesive
( mils )
Crosshead-Extruded Encoat Entec 100 Orange 6 No Yes

Plastic with Asphalt (Polypropylene) coating
1250 thickness
Adhesive
( mils )
Crosshead-Extruded Plexco Plexguard 100 10,000 V Yellow 6 No Yes

Plastic with Asphalt (Polyethylene)
Adhesive
Crosshead-Extruded Plexco Plexguard 100 10,000 V Orange 6 No Yes

Plastic with Asphalt (Polypropylene)
Adhesive
Dual FBE O'Brien Nap-Gard 200 125 V/Mil. Gold 10 Yes Yes
Gold 7-2501 &
7-2504
Extruded Plastic with Elf Atochem 180 Black 10 No Yes

FBE Primer (Polyethylene) coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Extruded Plastic with Elf Atochem 200 Gray 10 No Yes

FBE Primer (Polypropylene) coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Extruded Plastic with Du Val 180 Blue 10 No Yes

FBE Primer (Polyethylene) coating
1250 thickness
( mils )

Fig. 900-28 Mill-Applied Pipeline Coating Systems (2 of 2)

Surface
Prep Resistance
Max Svc Holiday Hydro- Soil

Generic Type Trade Name Temp. F Detector Voltage Color SSPC SP- carbon Stress
Extruded Plastic with FBE Du Val 200 Blue 10 No Yes

Primer (Polypropylene) coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
FBE 3M ScotchKote 206N 200 125 V/Mil. Green 10 Yes Yes
FBE O'Brien Nap-Gard 200 125 V/Mil. Red 10 Yes Yes

7-2501
FBE Valspar D1003LD 200 125 V/Mil. Beige 10 Yes Yes
FBE Lilly Pipeclad 1500 150 125 V/Mil. Green 10 Yes Yes
Heat-Applied Tape Raychem Rayclad 120 20 Black 3 No Yes

coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Heat-Applied Tape Ygill 140 White 6 No No

coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Side-Extruded Pritec 10/40 180 14,000 V Black 10 No Yes

Polyethylene with Butyl
Rubber Adhesive
Durability & Resistance

Durability. Proper surface preparation is essential to prevent premature failure of
coatings.
Minimum specifications for the surface preparation of pipeline are listed in Figures
900-23, 900-28, and 900-29 for mill- and field-applied pipeline coating systems
and for pipeline fittings and valve coating systems. See also the list of standards for
surface preparation in Figure 900-30.
In the Company's pipe-coating specifications, there are details about the quality
control inspections necessary during the coating mill's production run.
Chemical Resistance. Chemical resistance is important in a coating if:
There was a spill where the pipe will be laid
The location has a high potential for a spill
Figures 900-23, 900-28, and 900-29 give the rates of hydrocarbon resistance for
various pipeline coatings.
The rating for extruded plastic and tape wraps is based on the following:
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) is more resistant than polypropylene which, in turn, is more
resistant than polyethylene.

Fig. 900-29 Field-Applied Pipeline Coating System

Surface
Prep Resistance
Holiday
Max Svc Detector SSPC Hydro- Soil
Manufacturer Trade Name Generic Type Temp F Voltage Color SP- carbon Stress
Hempel Nap-Wrap Thermostat 225 125 V/Mil Gray 10 Yes Yes

Epoxy 8553 Epoxy
Celcoat Flakeline 251 Polyester Epoxy 160 4000V White 10 Yes Yes
Porter Int'l Tarset Max- Coal Tar Epoxy 140 3000V Black 10 Yes Yes
Build 7080
TIB Chemie Protegal Polyurethane 135 150 V/Mil Black 5 Yes Yes
32-10
TIB Chemie Protegal Polyurethane 180 150 V/Mil Black 5 Yes Yes
32-10RG
TIB Chemie Protegal Polyurethane 180 150 V/Mil Red 5 Yes Yes
32-50RG
Valspar Valpipe 100 Polyurethane 160 125 V/Mil Gray 5 Yes Yes
Madison Chem- Corropipe 2TX Polyurethane 140 200 V/Mil Black 5 No No

ical
Reilly Tar & #230 A Enamel Coal Tar Enamel 140 Black 6 No No
Chemical coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Raychem Flexclad Applied Tape 135 Black 3 No No

coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Canusa Wrapid-Tape Applied Tape 135 Yellow 3 No No

coating
1250 thickness
( mils )
Tapecoat 10/40W Cold-Applied 120 8,000 V Black 2 No No

Tape
Tapecoat H-50 Cold-Applied 120 6,500-8,500 V Black 2 No No

Tape
Tapecoat CT Cold-Applied 120 7,000 V Black 2 No No

Tape
Polyguard RD-6 Cold-Applied 120 3,000-5,500 V Black 2 No No

Tape
Polyken 900 Series Cold-Applied 120 10,000 V White 2 No No

Tape
Denso HT Petrolatum Tape 120 Wet Spronge Jeep Brown 2 No No
Trenton #1 Wax Tape Petroleum Wax 120 Wet Spronge Jeep Brown 2 No No
Tape

Fig. 900-30 Standards for Surface Preparation

Description Foreign Standards
NACE
SSPC Internt'l Short Long Canadian Swedish British
SP 1 Solvent Cleaning Removal of oil, grease, dirt, soil, salts,

and contaminants by cleaning with
solvent, vapor, alkali, emulsion, or
steam.
SP 2 Hand Tool Removal of loose rust, loose mill scale, 31 GP-401 St. 2
Cleaning and loose paint to a degree specified, (Approx.)
by hand chipping, scraping, sanding,
and wire brushing.
SP 3 Power Tool Removal of loose rust, loose mill scale, 31 GP-402 St. 3
Cleaning and loose paint to degree specified, by
power tool chipping, descaling,
sanding, wire brushing, and grinding.
SP 5 NACE #1 White Metal Removal of all visible rust, mill scale, 404 Sa. 3 BS 4232
Blast Cleaning paint, and foreign matter by blast Type 1 First Quality
cleaning by wheel or nozzle (dry or
wet) using sand, grit, or shot. (For very
corrosive atmosphere where high cost
of cleaning is warranted.)
SP 10 NACE #2 Near-White Blast cleaning nearly to white metal Sa. 2-1/2 BS 4232
Blast Cleaning cleanliness, until at least 95% of each Second Quality
element of surface area is free of all
visible residues. (For high humidity,
chemical atmosphere, marine or other
corrosive environment.)
SP 6 NACE #2 Commercial Blast cleaning until at least two-thirds 31 GP-404 Sa. 2 BS4232
Blast Cleaning of each element of surface area is free Type 2 Third Quality
of all visible residues. (For rather
severe conditions of exposure.)
SP 7 NACE #4 Brush-off Blast cleaning of all except tightly 31 GP404 Sa. 1 Light Blast to
Cleaning adhering residues of mill scale, rust, Type 3 Brush Off
and coatings, exposing numerous
evenly distributed flecks of underlying
metal.
SP 8 Pickling Complete removal of rust and mill

scale by acid pickling, duplex pickling,
or electrolytic pickling. May passify
surface.
Plastic coatings swell and eventually fail under prolonged exposure to hydro-
carbons.
Hydrocarbons attack and dissolve the soft adhesive that holds plastic coatings
to the pipe. Typically, soft adhesives have a lower resistance to hydrocarbon
than the plastic jacket.
Ultraviolet (UV) Resistance. While all coatings degrade in sunlight, there are
some practical solutions:
To prevent degradation of coatings on pipes that are stored outside, whitewash
the coatings if they have poor UV resistance.

Consult the manufacturer of the coating for recommended procedures for UV

protection and for help with determining the condition of coated pipe already
stored outside.
If the degree of degradation is unknown in a stack of pipe, use unexposed pipe;
as only the top and outside joints are exposed to UV rays.
Plastic coatings, such as extruded and tape wrap, degrade in the sun, hardening
and often splitting. Thermal expansion-and-contraction problems occur
because plastic expands much more than steel.
FBE coatings chalk in sunlight, but the chalk protects the coatings. Millage
loss is only a problem when rain and wind remove the chalk steadily for a long
time. FBE coatings can also blister if stored too long in hot, humid climates
such as is found in the Gulf Coast.
For information about the outdoor storage life and UV resistance for external pipe-
line coatings, see Figure 900-31.
Resistance to Mechanical Damage. Coated pipe is subject to damage during
handling, shipping, installing, or servicing. As a result, consider taking these
preventive measures:
Make the coating thicker to improve its resistance to mechanical damage.
Handle coated pipe with padded equipment, and stack and ship it with rubber
spacers between each pipe. Set the spacers to separate the pipe far enough so
that gravel and cinders thrown up from the road or rail tracks are not caught
between pipes and abrade the coating.
Consider wrapping the pipe in plastic or installing pillowed supports.
Store the pipe on sand wind-rows and cover it with tarps.
See Section 921 of this manual, Selection, for information regarding Rock Protection.
Cathodic Shielding. When a coating separates from a cathodically protected pipe,
it can shield the pipe from the protection of the cathodic current. Significant local-
ized corrosion occurs where earth or water (or both) becomes trapped between the
separated coating and the pipe's surface.
The current from cathodic protection does not increase to give a warning. The only
way to determine the amount of corrosion on a cathodically shielded line is with
metal-loss inspection tools which detect changes in the thickness of the pipe's wall.
Note the following about cathodic shielding:
Tape wraps are most susceptible because water has a greater chance of pene-
trating the overlaps (often poorly bonded and susceptible to soil stresses) and
because they have high electrical resistivity.
Water can seep under continuous, extruded plastic coatings at field joints or
mechanically damaged areas.

Fig. 900-31 Pipe Storage and Ultraviolet (UV) Resistance

Storage Limit
Generic Type Trade Names Resistance (Years) Remarks
Asphalt Mastic Somastic Poor 1 Protect from sunlight.
Coal Tar Enamel Reilly Tar and Chemical Poor 1 Protect from sunlight.
Coal Tar Epoxy International Tarset Good 1

Maxi-Build 7080
Cold-Applied Tapes Tapecoat 10/40W, H-50, and Poor Normally applied in ditch and
CT Polyguard RD-6, Polyken 900 immediately buried.
series
Crosshead-Extruded Plastic Bredero Price Entec Fair 1 Fair except for Plexco
with Asphalt Mastic Plexco Plexguard Plexguard, which may be
Shaw Yellow Jacket and Black poor.
Jacket
Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE) 3M 206N and 226N Excellent 2 Excellent except in hot,
Nap-Gard 7-2501 and humid sea atmospheres
7-2504 (Gold) where blistering of coating
Lilly Pipeclad 1500 occurs.
Valspar-D1003LD
Heat-Applied Tapes Canusa Wrapid Tape Poor Normally applied in ditch and
Raychem Flexclad immediately buried.
Multi-Layer Extruded Plastic Elf Atochem Excellent 2

with FBE Primer Du Val
Himont
Mapec, Du Pont Canada
Petrolatum Tapes Denso MT Good Use as an atmospheric pipe

coating.
Polyester Epoxies Master Builder's Oilcote Excellent Use as an atmospheric pipe

Flakeline 251 coating.
Polyurethanes TIB Chemie Protegal Excellent Use as an atmospheric pipe

UT32-10 coating.
Valspar Valpipe 100
Radiation Cross-Linked Heat- Raychem Rayclad 120 Poor 1 Protect from sunlight.
Applied Tapes
Side-Extruded Polyethylene Bredero Price Pritec Excellent 1

with Butyl Rubber Mastic
Thermoset Epoxies Hempel Nap-Wrap Excellent Use as an atmospheric pipe

Epoxy 8553 coating.
Wax Tape Trenton #1 Wax-Tape Good Use as an atmospheric pipe

coating.
The adhesive strength of FBE (also a continuous coating) is greater than its
cohesive strength, resulting in complete rupture of the film rather than
disbonding[1].
Note Adhesive strength means metal to coating; cohesive strength means coating
to coating.
Cathodic Disbonding. Excessive currents can cause free hydrogen to form at holi-
days. Hydrogen bubbles form on and break away from the exposed pipe metal,

exerting high pressure between the coating and the metal. Pressure occurring under
the edges of a damaged coating disbonds the coating from the pipe, exposing more
metal. This phenomenon causes the rapid disbonding of an otherwise good coating.
Note Excessive current are amounts that exceed the hydrogen-over-voltage
potential.
Note Holidays are minor areas of damagebreaks or flawsin an applied
coating.
Run a laboratory test to determine the relative resistance of a coating to cathodic
disbonding. While it is often difficult to relate laboratory results to field conditions,
this particular test is an excellent tool for judging whether or not some coatings,
such as FBE, have been applied properly.
Example: A 24-hour, 150F test for cathodic disbonding of FBE provides a good,
quick check for undercure, under thickness, surface contamination, and poor
surface preparation. Problems with the coating process show up as a sudden
increase in the amount of coating that disbonds during the test.
See also Section 6.0 of Specification COM-MS-4042.
Construction Factors
Impact Resistance. Pipe coatings with high impact resistance are less likely to be
damaged during transportation and construction. In general, resistance to impact
decreases in this order:
1. Extruded plastics with hard adhesives
2. FBE
3. Extruded plastics with soft adhesives
4. Asphalt mastics
5. Coal-tar enamel
Flexibility in Cold Weather. Coated pipe is sometimes bent in the field in weather
conditions that make coatings more brittle. The Canadian Standards Association
(CSA) Pipe Bend Test shows that FBE and extruded-plastic coatings with hard
adhesives have the widest temperature range during construction of all pipe-coating
systems. Both FBE and extruded-plastic coatings with hard adhesives pass the CSA
Pipe Bend Test as they can survive bending during typical Canadian winter
weather. Coal-tar enamels can, however, soften in warm weather and fail during the
field-bending process.
Field Repair. Some pipe coatings are harder to repair in the field than others. FBE
is the easiest to patch. While extruded plastics with hard adhesives can be difficult
to repair, manufacturers are making progress with these coatings.
For information about recommended field repair methods, contact CRTCs coating
specialists (listed in the Quick Reference Guide) or review pipe-coating specifications.

Limitations of Temporary Storage. Most pipe coatings have maximum storage

limits depending on the climate of the storage area. Storage is usually a problem
only if the pipe is coated and stored for longer than one year before construction
starts.
Climate during Construction Project. The climate during the construction project
may affect coatings.
Some coatings, such as coal-tar enamels and asphalt mastics, become soft and
difficult to handle during hot weather.
See Flexibility in Cold Weather (above).
Some field-applied coatings have temperature dependent cure times.
Construction Methods during Project. Coatings for pipe laid in the ditch need
to be less abrasion resistant than coatings for pipes used in trenchless construction
techniques such as slick-bore, drilled, or pushed methods.
Application Factors
The application factors that most often affect coating decisions are cost, site, and
field support from the manufacturer and coatings applicator.
Cost. The following project components affect cost:
Size of project
Coating materials
Surface preparation
Application
Transportation
Girth-weld coating (field joints)
Field repairs
Balance the costs of the initial installation against the reliability expected.
Select premium-quality coatings where failures are especially costly (e.g., subsea,
congested areas, hard-to-access lines, and lines where leaks are intolerable).
Consider that less-expensive coatings are generally poorer in quality and tend
to fail prematurely, resulting in higher maintenance costs and possible early
corrosion failure of the line.
In Figure 900-32, there is a list of approximate costs for the various pipeline coat-
ings. The cost of transporting pipe from the mill to the ditch can become significant
for heavier coatings such as coal-tar enamels and Somastic.
Site. While shop-applied coatings are inherently of higher quality than field-applied
coatings, their handling costs are generally higher, and they are susceptible to ship-
ping damage.
For large coating projects, consider setting up portable coating plants near the job
site to reduce costs, time, and potential shipping damage. You should also ensure

Fig. 900-32 Costs (1988)External Pipeline Coatings

Material(1)
Coating Cost/Ft2 $ Total Applied Ft(2) Comments
(3) (4)
Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE) 0.38 10 " OD 0.219" wall; 12 mil min. coating thickness
(4)
0.41 10 " OD 0.219" wall; 14 mil min. coating thickness
0.36(4) 12 " OD 0.219" wall; 14 mil min. coating thickness

(4)
0.38 12 " OD 0.219" wall; 14 mil min. coating thickness
0.52-0.56 KLMR line bid range, 16 mil avg., 14 mil min. of poly-
ethylene, 18" OD, 0.250" wall, 80,000 feet of pipe
Extruded Plastic 0.42-0.48 KLMR line bid range, 10 mil adhesive, 40 mil of poly-
(Pritec brand) ethylene, 18" OD, 0.250" wall, 80,000 feet of pipe
(Plexco P.E) 0.39 12
(Plexco P.P) 0.42 12
Coal Tar Enamel 0.45-1.00 Wide variation is due to application and locale. The
$1.00/ft2 is for the Richmond Effluent Project, 5960 feet of
36" OD pipe
Liquid Epoxies (Thermosets) 0.66 For 20 mils
Tape Wrap; < 140F 0.80-0.90 Does not account for overlap
Raychem Hotclad 1.40 Does not account for overlap
Field Coating of Weld Joints
Shrink Sleeves 2.00
FBE 30./weld Includes delivery, cleaning, and application
Valves and Fittings
Protegal 3210 6.00 25 mils
Denso Tape 0.65 Does not account for overlap
Porter Tarset 0.24 16 mils
Hempel 0.66 20 mils

Epoxy 8553
(1) Costs in this column where obtained from applicators without consideration of job size. These numbers do not take into account the
cost of labor, surface preparation and plant location.
(2) See Company's Cost Estimating Manual for additional cost information.
(3) Material costs on small project of 16 mils; add 5 percent of cost for additional mils over 16.
(4) Mesquite project; 168 miles of pipe.
that the pipe receives proper surface preparation and is neither dirty nor corroded
when the coating is applied.
Caution Consider over-the-ditch applications only when refurbishing old lines
that cannot be taken out of service or for new lines at remote locations.
Field Support from Manufacturer and Coatings Applicator. If construction
delays occur due to coatings problems, determine the level of field support received
from the manufacturer or coatings applicator or both.

Inspection
Refer to the coating specification for information about inspecting a given pipeline
coating.
930 Internal Pipeline Coatings

Pipe is coated on the inside to prevent corrosion or to increase the efficiency of
flow by reducing losses from friction. There are other alternativescement and
plastic liningswhich are critiqued as a comparison to coatings in Figure 900-33
Internal Coating/Lining Alternatives for Pipelines.
Fig. 900-33 Internal Coating/Lining Alternatives for Pipelines

Material Recommended Services Advantages Limitations Approximate Cost(1)
Cement Lining Produced water Thick, usually very Joints are potentially a weak Shop = $1.60/ft
Salt water reliable against water link, not good in many chemicals
Almost always for new corrosion Min. pipe diameter: 2-3 inches
lines Temp. approx. 250F Pressure
approx. 5,000 psig.
Velocity approx. 10 fps
Plastic Liner Process chemicals Excellent corrosion resis- Typically comes in 20-ft flanged Include pipe and
(shop-applied) tance to a variety of lengths flanges = $80/ft (PPL)
services Flange joints can leak to $300/ft (Teflon)
Pipe diameter 1-16 inches
Temp. approx. 200F
(PPL) to approx. 500F (Teflon)
Plastic Liner Produced water Very reliable Pipe diameter 3-16 inches (but $9.20/ft
(field-applied) Salt water Very few joints larger sizes can be done)
(HPDE) New existing lines Can salvage existing lines Temp. 200F
Coatings Produced water Fair to good corrosion Joints are potentially a weak link
(shop-applied) Salt water resistance Relatively thin film (may give
Flow friction reduction shorter, less reliable life)
Coatings Produced water Fair to good corrosion Good chance of field foul-ups
(field-applied) Salt water resistance Spotty history of quality control
Flow friction reduction Relatively thin film (may give
New or existing lines shorter, less reliable life)
(1) Except as noted, costs are for lining an 8-inch pipe at the shop location. Pipe costs extra. Costs are for rough comparative
purposes only.
Note For detailed information about lining pipelines, see also the Company's
Pipeline and Piping Manuals.
Shop- or mill-applied coatings control corrosion of known aggressive systems or
help reduce friction. Field-applied coatings primarily extend the service life of pipe-
lines by preventing additional damage from corrosion. If internal damage from
corrosion results in an unacceptable operating pressure, replace the pipeline or
install a plastic liner to increase the pipeline's maximum operating pressure (MOP).

931 Shop-applied Internal Pipeline Coatings

This section discusses the following issues regarding shop-applied internal pipeline
coatings:
Quality control
Coatings selection
Surface preparation
Application
Inspection
Quality Control
Specifications. Although the Company does not have a specification for internal
pipeline coatings, information is available from CRTC specialists in M&EE.
Coating Quality. If holidays occur, you should not repair FBE coatings and liquid
coatings with a primer but you must burn the material off and recoat. You can patch
FBE and liquid-epoxy coatings that do not have primers by following the manufac-
turers' recommendations.
If the specification requires a 100-percent-holiday-free coating, the coatings applica-
tors must make the pipe smooth enough, clean enough, and capable of being coated
to this requirement.
The Company's representative is responsible for specifying proper surface preparation.
Coatings Selection
As liquid coating systems need a furnace bake, there is no known method to apply
them to internal weld joints; therefore, there are two, basic, internal coating
systems: heat-cured powder and baked-on liquid.
Heat-cured Powder. The heat-cured powder is a thermosetting resin, applied by
FBE process, with or without primer. Typically, select unprimed FBE for environ-
ments requiring improved flow efficiency or having mild internal corrosion, and
primed FBE for environments with severe internal corrosion.
Baked-on Liquid. Baked-on liquid may be epoxy, epoxy-phenolic, or possibly a
polyurethane.
For fresh water, saltwater, and production water at temperatures up to about 150F,
select straight epoxies such as O'Brien NapGard, Scotchkote 134, Scotchkote 206N,
and Scotchkote 150.
For very corrosive environments with higher temperatures (200F to 400F), choose
epoxy-phenolic or epoxy-modified phenolics.
Note Phenolics tend to be brittle and will crack when bent.
For internal coating of girth welds in the field, the Company typically chooses
Scotchkote 206N because it cures in less than one minute from the residual heat of
the weld joint.

The range for field-and-mill application of FBE is a 25- to 48-inch diameter and up
to a maximum wall thickness of 0.750 inches.
Surface Preparation
All pipe needs the same surface preparation: cleaning and abrasive blasting,
followed in some cases, by priming.
Cleaning. Chemical treatment is the best cleaning method, but costly disposal is a
factor. Thermal burnoff at 600F to 800F is particularly important for a heavy mill
scale/rust.
Abrasive Blasting. Suitable abrasive is necessary to obtain the desired anchor
profile and a white metal (SSPC SP5) finish. Finish is checked visually with a high-
intensity light.
Priming. In water service, internal FBE does not usually require a primer; however,
you should alert the coatings manufacturer if the water is aggressive (contains CO 2
or H2S, is hot, or at high pressure).
Application
See the list of current contractors in the Quick Reference Guide.
Inspection
Virtually all shops inspect and test internally coated pipe, for holidays, adhesion,
and bends.
Holidays. The inspector checks 100 percent of the coating against an agreed-upon
standard (e.g., 100 percent holiday free, or 4 holidays maximum per length of pipe).
Typical voltage is 100 to 125 volts per mil of coating thickness.
Adhesion. Typically, the inspector cuts an x pattern into the coating and prods it with
a knife to check adhesion. The inspector conducts the test every two hours on the
weld cutback area of a section of pipe that is left deliberately unmasked for this test.
Bends. Typically, once per shift, often at a cool temperature, the inspector tests the
flexibility of the coating by bending a strip of coated metal over a specified mandrel
and checks it for holidays and cracks.
932 Field-applied Internal Pipeline Coatings

Liquid epoxy is the only internal coating that the Company field applies (in situ),
generally for one or more of the following reasons:
To prolong the life of a line
For product purity
To reduce friction loss
Brands of field-applied, internal pipeline coatings include Hempel 233U,
Hempel 458U, Sigma In-Situ Pipecoating 15, Sigmaguard HTR.

Factors affecting field-applied coating are its limitations, the coating contractors
and applicators, acceptable brands, surface preparation, application, and inspection.
Limitations
Field application of internal pipeline coatings is less likely to produce pinhole-free
coatings than shop-applied systems. Field application is also unsuccessful with slip-on
flanges because the ID discontinuity at the pipe ends causes excess coating deposits
which rapidly disbond in shingles to plug the line or create a site for corrosion.
Coating Contractors and Applicators

Select coating contractors and applicators carefully because they can have a
profound affect on the success of a project.
Improperly applied coatings may result in inadequately protected lines, delays in
returning the line to service, and complete loss of the line.
Before choosing a coatings applicator, review in detail the work history (resume) of
the foreman and personnel proposed for the job.
See the list of contractors who field-apply pipeline coatings in the Quick Reference
Guide.
Acceptable Brands
Sigma Coatings In-Situ Pipecoating 15 and Hempel 233U have longer pot lives, but
Sigmaguard HTR and Hempel 458U have better high-temperature resistance. All
products have the same chemical resistance.
Note For more detailed background on field-applied coatings, see the references
at the end of this section [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
Surface Preparation
Prepare an internal steel pipe by cleaning it in one of two ways:
Inhibited acid
Abrasive blasting
Existing pipelines may also require initial cleaning by scraper pigs and with
solvents.
Application
See list of current contractors for pipeline coatings in the Quick Reference Guide.
Inspection
Compared to shop-applied internal coatings, inspection of field-applied internal
coatings is relatively crude.
The inspector often visually examines a flanged, removable spool located near the
middle of the line and also tests it for holidays and thickness. Video cameras allow
full-length inspection of the line for pipe sizes as small as 10 to 12 inches in diameter.

933 Weld-joint Application & Inspection

In Figure 900-34, Properties of Internal Pipeline Coatings, a method of weld-joint
protection is recommended for each coating system, where applicable.
Fig. 900-34 Properties of Internal Pipeline Coatings

System Recommended Services Advantages Limitations Weld Joint Protection
Shop-Applied
Heat-Cured Powder:
Epoxy with Primer Sour water Good corrosion Resistant to low Mechanical joints
Wet sour gas (CO2 up to resistance concentrations of H2S
10%) Girth weld cannot be
Inspection and disposal coated
wells
Epoxy without Primer Produced water Can coat girth weld with Low resistance to H2S 8-inch pipe diameter:
Fresh water crawler crawler < 8-inch pipe
Salt water (CO2 up to Fair corrosion resistance diameter: mechanical
10%) joints
Baked Liquid:
Epoxy Produced water Sizes up to 20 inches: Mechanical joints

Fresh water very low flexibility
Salt water Temp. 150F
Cannot repair holidays
Epoxy-Phenolic Sour water Good corrosion Cannot bend Mechanical joints

Wet sour gas (CO2/H2S) resistance Maximum pipe diameter:
20 inches
Temp. 400F
Cannot repair holidays
Field-Applied In situ:
Liquid Epoxy Sour water Good corrosion High chance of foul-up if Does not apply
Produced water resistance wrong contractor has job
Fresh water High temp. service
Salt water (+200F)
Flow friction reduction Extends serviceable life
Gas lines of existing line
Application
The crawler is the method for applying internal pipeline coating systems. Mechan-
ical joints are also available as an alternative for 2- to 12-inch-sized pipes.
Crawlers. A self-propelled, in-line tool that performs a task under remote control,
the crawler works in either field or shop. For the latter, that means that the shop can
join pipe lengths to reduce the number of field-welded joints. Currently, the
minimum pipe diameter for a crawler is ten inches.
Some of the crawler's coating tasks are as follows:
For non-primed FBE internal coatings, crawlers clean and coat the girth welds.
After welding, an abrasive-blasting crawler travels through the pipe to clean
the cutback area of weld splatter slag and to degloss the powder.

An induction coil, applied to the pipe's exterior, heats the girth weld area and a
powder-coating crawler then travels through the pipe.
There are basically two circumstances under which shop or field coatings applica-
tors cannot use a crawler:
The pipe requires a liquid primer or coating
The pipe diameters are less than ten inches
Mechanical Joints. One alternative to the crawler is mechanical joints. There are at
least a dozen mechanical joint systems that provide a continuous internal seal.
Some, such as Crimp-Kote from Tuboscope Vetco International, are fully mechan-
ical interference-fit joints. Some are elaborate mechanical sleeve systems, which
may include welding. Most require special equipment for field installation.
Mechanical joints are usually available in 2- to 12-inch sizes.
Inspecting Internal Pipeline Coatings

Inspection varies with the coating material and the application method. For informa-
tion about inspecting internal pipeline coatings, contact CRTC's specialists listed in
the Quick Reference Guide.
940 References
1. O'Carroll, B. M., The Performance of Pipe Coatings in Relation to Cathodic
Protection, 5th International Conference on the Internal and External Protec-
tion of Pipes, Innsbruck, Austria, October 25-27, 1983.
2. Materials Laboratory Report, 150F Cathodic Disbondment Tests of Pipeline
Coatings, C.A. Shargay, September 17, 1982, File No. 6.55.5.
3. Article, What's New in Distribution/Transmission Pipeline Coatings, Ron
Sloan.
4. Materials Laboratory Report, Rangley CO2 Pipeline Coating Tests, J. H.
Kmetz, File: 6.55.75, December 21, 1984.
5. Davis, J. A. and Thomas, S. J., Properties and Application Procedures for
Polyethylene Tape Coating Systems, Pipeline, April 1985, p. 6.
6. Materials Laboratory Report, Sudan Pipeline Coatings - Tape Wrap Tests,
L. J. Klein, File 6.55.50.
7. Materials Laboratory Report, Aramco Mastic Tape Tests, Final Report,
C. A. Shargay, File 6.55.50, April 27, 1983.
8. Choate, L. C., New Coating Developments, Problems, and Trends in the
Pipeline Industry, Materials Performance, April 1975.
9. O'Donnell, John P., Coal-Tar Enamel Resins: Most-Preferred Pipe Coating,
Oil and Gas Journal, July 6, 1981.

10. Ward, D. K., Moore, D. E., and Hawkins, P. J., External and Internal Pipeline
Coatings in the Arabian Gulf Area, 5th International Conference on the
Internal and External Protection of Pipes, Innsbruck, Austria, October 25-27,
1983, Paper C3.
11. Chevron Pipe Line Company Memo, Field Joint Coatings from P. T. Groff to
R. G. Lueders, July 1, 1987.
12. Memo to CRTC File, Bakersfield Experience with Extruded Plastic Control
Pipe, E. H. Niccolls, File 6.55.15, May 24, 1990.
13. Materials Laboratory Report, KLM Pipeline Reclamation Trial Coatings,
K. K. Kirkham, File 6.55.15, January 4, 1984.
14. Materials Laboratory Report, KLM Pipeline Reclamation Trial Coatings,
B. J. Cocke, File 6.55.15, October 25, 1983.
15. Materials Laboratory Report, Hot Subsea Pipeline Coatings Disbonding Tests,
N. E. Daley, File 6.55.30, December 27, 1988.
16. E.H.Niccolls, InSituInternalPipelineCoatings, Materials Laboratory File
N28.15, July 17, 1981.
17. S. E. Pfeiffer, Fusion Bond Coated Girth Welds, External/Internal, Corrosion
83 Paper 117, NACE International.
18. P. J. Bryant, Internal In-Place Pipe Coating, Pipeline Gas Journal, Volume
214, Pages 17-18, February 1987.
19. S. V. Daily, An Alternative Surface Preparation Procedure for the Application
of Internal In-Situ Pipeline Coating, Corrosion 88 Paper 308, NACE Interna-
tional.
20. S. Selinek, In Situ Internal Coating of PipelinesNorth Sea Experience,
Corrosion 90 Paper 254, NACE International.
21. R. E. Carlson, Jr., Internal Lining of Pipeline Weld Joints, Material Perfor-
mance, Volume 31, Number 9, pages 46-49, September 1992.
22. Dr. J. M. Leeds, A High-temperature (120C) Gas Pipeline Coating-
Refurbishment Programme, Using High-solids Epoxy, Pipeline Risk Assess-
ment, Rehabilitation and Repair Conference, Houston, Texas, May 20-23, 1991.
23. P. Barrien, S. E. McConkey, M. A. Trzecieski, Coating Evaluation Program
for 116C Service Temperature, Corrosion 84 Paper # 358, NACE Interna-
tional, New Orleans, Louisiana, April 1984.
24. John Bethea and Adel Botros, A New Approach to Fusion Bonded Epoxy
Coatings for Pipeline Protection, API Pipeline Conference, April 1994.
25. NAPCA Bulletin 1-65-91, Recommended Specification Designations for Coat
Tar Enamel Coatings.

26. NAPCA Bulletin 2-66-91, Standard Applied Pipe Coating Weights for
NAPCA Coating Specifications.
27. NAPCA Bulletin 3-67-91, External Application Procedures for Hot Applied
Coal Tar Coatings to Steel Pipe.
28. NAPCA Bulletin 6-69-90-1, Suggested Procedures for Hand Wrapping Field
Joints Using Hot Enamel.
29. AWWA Standard C-203, Coal-tar Protective Coatings and Linings for Steel
Water Pipelines - Enamel and Tape Hot Applied.
30. AWWA Standard C-213, Fusion-bonded Epoxy Coating for the Interior and
Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines.

Quick Reference Guide
Contents Page
Introduction QR-2
Company Contacts QR-3
CRTCs Coatings Specialist
Facilities for Analyzing Lead in Coatings
Coating Manufacturers
Suppliers
Steps to Coating System Selection QR-7
System Number Selection Guide QR-8
Atmospheric Coatings for On- & Offshore
Coatings for Concrete
Coatings Under Insulation & Fireproofing
Coating Compatibility Chart QR-11
Coating System Data Sheets QR-12
Available System Data Sheets
System Data Sheets
Acceptable Brands by Generic Classification
Acceptable Brands by Manufacturer
Chevron Corporation QR-1 May 1998

Introduction Coatings ManualQuick Reference Guide
Introduction
This Quick-Reference Guide from Chevrons Coatings Manual has been designed to
give you easy access to the selection process for certain types of coating projects:
Atmospheric (both on- and offshore)
Concrete (mild environment only)
Internal vessel
Under insulation and fireproofing
By following the coating selection process, you will find a system data sheet which
details the specifications and approved manufacturers for the coatings that fit your
project. (See sample system data sheet below.) The design of the data sheet simplifies
your preparation of a selection-and-specification package for a coating contractor: just
photocopy the appropriate data sheet(s) and specification(s).
Sample of a System Data Sheet

Coatings Manual Chevron Corporation
SYSTEM DATA SHEET
Two-Component Systems
Self-Cured Inorganic Zinc | High-Temperature Silicone
2.4
Surface Prep: SSPC-SP10 (NACE No. 2) Near-white Touch Up: Use pure silicone topcoat only, two coats.
blast finish.
Anchor Pattern: 1.5 - 2.5 mils
Total DFT (min) 4.5 mils
Coat, Generic By Max
Manufacturer Product Designation VOC (G/L) Svc Temp
Classification, DFT
PRIMER Ameron Dimetcote 21-9 293
Ameron Dimetcote 6 500
Self-Cured Inorganic
Ameron Dimetcote 9 506
Zinc - Solvent
Carboline Carbozinc 11 515
Reducible
Carboline Carbozinc 11 HS 264
2.0 - 3.0 mils DFT Dampney Thurmalox 245C Silicone Zinc Dust Primer 413
Devoe Catha-Coat 304V 336
Hempel Galvosil 1570.3 340
Hempel Galvosil 1578 520
International Interzinc 311 530
PPG Industries Metalhide 1001 Primer 97-673/97-674 397
Sherwin Williams B69VZ1/B69VZ3/B69D11 312
Sherwin Williams Zinc Clad II B69V11/B69D11 462
Sigma Tornusil MC 58 7558 528
Valspar V13-F-12 324
Keep inorganic zinc silicate mixed, using agitated pot while applying.
TOPCOAT Ameron PSX 892HS 324

Carboline Thermaline 4631WB 108
Silicone - High Temp
Dampney Thurmalox 230C* 360
Rated to 700F
Devoe HT-12 572
1.5 - 2.5 mils DFT Hempel 5690 400
Hempel 5691 586
International Intertherm 230 612
PPG Industries Pittherm High Heat Silicone 554
Sherwin Williams Aluminum 100-A-518 420
Sherwin Williams Black 880-B-001 514
Sigma Sigmatherm 5267 600
Valspar 37-A-1 599
Non-catalyzed silicones remain tacky until exposed to heat above 300F to 400F.
* Thumalox 230C topcoat will go over ONLY Thurmaloc 245C Silicone Zinc Dust Primer.
VOC at or below 340 g/l is the anticipated regulatory limit. Check local standards for current VOC limits.
Consult manufacturer's product data sheets for specific details about applying any coating.
May 1998 Last Update: 5/15/98 Page 15
Note The system data sheets outnumber the references to coating systems in the
selection criteria because Chevron has many coating systems in use.
Do not choose a coating system unless you have been directed to do so by following
either:
The selection guide in this publication.
Instructions from one of the Companys coating specialists or a coating
manufacturer.
Also included in this Guide, the Coatings Compatibility Chart is a resource for
projects involving maintenance coatings.
For questions about the Guide, contact the CRTC specialists listed on the Contacts page.
May 1998 QR-2 Chevron Corporation

Coatings ManualQuick Reference Guide Introduction
Company Contacts
CRTCs Coatings Specialist
Rich Doyle CTN 242-3247 Atmospheric, Concrete, Internal Vessel Coatings,
Downhole Tubular Coatings, Pipeline Coatings
Other Company Contacts
Corporate Identity Colors Company Identity Center, Corporation Public Affairs DepartmentCTN 894-0260
Chevron Color Chips Additional copies from Technical StandardsCTN 242-7241
CRTC Environmental Resource CTN 242-5696
CRTC Mat'ls & Equip. Engineering CTN 242-3247
Facilities for Analyzing Lead in Coatings

Clayton Environmental Consultants 800/294-1755 22345 Roethel Drive Novi MI 48375
Forensic Analytical Specialties 800/827-3274 3777 Depot Road, Suite 409 Hayward CA 94545
Coating Manufacturers
Manufacturers of Atmospheric and Internal Vessel Coatings
Ameron 714/529-1951 201 North Berry Street Brea CA 92621
Ashland Chemical 800/643-1234 1851 E. First Street, #700 Santa Ana CA 95705-4017
Carboline 314/644-1000 350 Hanley Industrial Court St. Louis MO 63144
Ceilcote 216/831-5500 23700 Chagrin Boulevard Cleveland OH 44122
Dampney Company, Inc. 617/389-2805 85 Paris Street Everett MA 02149
Devoe 502/897-9861 4000 Dupont Circle Louisville KY 40207
Dudick 216/562-1970 1818 Miller Parkway Streetsboro OH 44241
Glidden 216/344-8000 925 Euclid Avenue Cleveland OH 44115
Hempel 713/672-6641 6901 Cavalcade Houston TX 77028
International 800/525-6824 P. O. Box 4806 Houston TX 77210-4806
PPG (Attn Dave Landry) 713/944-8550 P. O. Box 5772 Pasadena TX 77502
Sherwin Williams 800/321-8194 101 Prospect Avenue
NW Corporate Offices Cleveland OH 44115
Sigma 504/347-4321 1401 Destrehan Avenue Harvey LA 70058
Southern Coatings 800/845-0487 P.O. Box 160 Sumpter SC 29151
Tempil 908/757-8300 2901 Hamilton Boulevard So. Plainfield NJ 07080
Valspar 800/638-7756 1401 Severn Street Baltimore MD 21230
Wisconsin Protective Coatings 414/437-6561 614 Elizabeth Street Green Bay WI 54302
Manufacturers of Concrete Coatings

Dudick 800/322-1970 P.O. Box 2550 Streetsboro OH 44241
(Attn: Customer Service)
KCC Corrosion Control Co. 800/395-5624 4010 Trey Road Houston TX 77084
(Attn: Sales Engineer)
Master Builders 800/821-3582 23700 Chagrin Boulevard Cleveland OH 44122-5554
(Attn: Technical Support)
Sauereisen 412/963-0303 160 Gamma Drive Pittsburgh PA 15238-2989
(Attn: Technical Service)
Sentry Polymers 800/231-2544 P.O. Box 2076 Freeport TX 77541
(Attn: Technical Support)

Sika 800/933-7452 12767 E. Imperial Highway Santa Fe Springs CA 90670

Stonhard 800/854-0310 1 Park Avenue Maple Shade NJ 08052
Wisconsin Protective Coatings 414/437-6561 614 Elizabeth Street Green Bay WI 54308-8147
Manufacturers of Pipeline Coatings

3M Albert Schupbach 512/984-5683
Canusa Ben Medley 713/367-8866
Hank Reuser 713/974-7211
Carboline John Montle 314/644-1000
Denso (Carboline markets) 713/821-3355
DuVal Trevor McClery 416/284-1681
DuPont Canada Jamie Cox 416/338-3764
Elf Atochem Igor Leclere 215/419-5610
Hempel Michael Bentkjaer 713/672-6641
Lilly Mark Schaneville 334/365-9454
Montell (Himont) Ed Phillips 302/996-6236
OBrien Nap-Gard John Bethea 713/939-4000
Sherill Miller 713/939-4000
Polyguard Bob Nee 918/749-3634
Polyken Grover Marshall 918/627-3635
Bob Hayes 510/284-1515
Power Marketing Group James Power 303/741-3993
Raychem Shiv Kumar 619/482-8306
Walt Greuel 619/482-8302
Joseph Merket 415/361-4095
Reilly Coal Tar John Johnson 317/247-8141 (ext. 6771)
Sigma Coatings Lou Cucker 800/221-7978
Tapecoat John Ward 704/896-7803
Trenton Thomas Weber 713/556-1000
Valspar Trevor McClery 416/284-1681
Manufacturers of Pipeline Coating Applicators

Bayou Pipe Coating Co 713/591-1614 450 N. Sam Houston Houston TX 77060
Parkway East #232 Baton Rouge LA
(F) 713/591-0284 Plants: New Iberia LA
Bredero Price International, Inc. 713/ 974-7211 7211 Regency Square Bl. St. 104 Houston TX 77036
(Domestic USA) (F) 713/260-4500 Plants: Fontana CA
Harvey LA
Pearland TX
Bredero Price International, Inc. 713/999-2600 250 North Belt, Suite 220 Houston TX 77060
(Foreign) (F) 713/999-6189 Plants: Australia
Indonesia
Malaysia
Nigeria
Scotland
Singapore
U.A.E.

Commercial Coating Services, Inc. 409/539-3294 Post Office Box 3296 Conroe TX 77305-3296
(CCSI) (F) 409/539-3073 Plants: Bakersfield CA
Conroe TX
Commercial Resins Co. 918/438-6522 2001 North 170th East Avenue Tulsa OK 74116
(F) 918/437-5410 Plants: Napa Valley CA
Tulsa OK
Compression Coat, Inc. 713/353-8597 3513 N. Frazer Conroe TX 77303
(F) 409/756-8599 Plants: Uses portable equipment
Energy Coatings Co. (Encoat) Now Bredero Price International, Inc.
Shaw Pipe, Inc. 713/367-8866 2408 Timberloch Place, Bldg C-8 The Woodlands TX 77380-1038
800/SHAW PIPE Plants: Australia
(800/742-9747) Canada
(F) 713/367-4304 New Iberia LA
Suppliers
Suppliers of Coated Tubing and Accessories
Baker Hughes Tubular Service (USA: Now owned by ICO, Inc.)
(Overseas: Now owned by Tuboscope Vetco International)
Tuboscope Vetco Intl 713/799-5100 P. O. Box 808 Houston TX 77001
(F) 713/799-5183
ICO, Inc. 713/872-4994 100 Glenborough, Suite 250 Houston TX 77067
(F) 713/872-9610
Shield Coat, Inc. 504/879-3539 Station 1, Box 10185 Houma LA 70363-5990
(F) 504/868-3173
Suppliers of Cement Linings

Permian Enterprises, Inc. 915/683-1084 P. O. Box 2745 Midland TX 79702
(now owned by ICO Inc.) (F) 915/683-1319
Suppliers of Fiberglass Linings

Rice Engineering Corp 800/533-5480 1020 Hoover Great Bend KS 67530
316/793-5483
(F) 316/ 793-5521
Suppliers of PVC Linings

Rice Engineering Corp 800/533-5480 1020 Hoover Great Bend KS 67530
316/793-5483
(F) 316/ 793-5521
Sealtite 800/835-0133 P. O. Box 965 Independence KS 67301
(F) 316/331-6832

Suppliers of Pipeline Coatings

Canusa 713/367-8866 2408 Timberlock Pl., Bdg C-8 The Woodlands TX 77380-1038
(F) 713/292-8571
Denso North America Inc. 713/821-3355 18211 Chisholm Trail Houston TX 77060
(F) 713/821-0304
DuPONT Canada, Inc. 519/862-5700 Albert Street Corunna, Ontario N0N 1G0 Canada
Modified Polymers Division (F) 519/862-5880
Elf Atochem 215/419-7000 2000 Market Street Philadelphia PA 19103-3222
North America Inc. (F) 215/419-5305
Hempel Coatings (USA), Inc. 800/678-6641 6901 Cavalcada Houston TX 77028
(F) 713/674-0616
Kop-Coat Carboline Co. 314/644-1000 350 Hanley Industrial Court St. Louis MO 63144-5199
(F) 314/644-4617
Lilly Powder Coatings, Inc. 816/421-7400 1136 Fayette North Kansas City MO 64116
Pipe Clad Products Div (F) 816/421-4563
3M Company 512/984-1800 6801 River Place Boulevard Austin TX 78726-9000
(F) 512/984-3556
Madison Chemical Industries, Inc. 905/878-8863 490 McGeachie Drive Milton, Ontario L9T 3V5 Canada
(F) 905/878-1449
Nap-Gard Pipe Coatings 713/939-4000 9800 Genard Street Houston TX 77041
OBrien Powder Products, Inc. (F) 713/939-4027
Polyguard Products, Inc. 214/875-8421 P. O. Box 755 Ennis TX 75119
(F) 214/875-9425
Polyken Technologies Kendall Co. 508/261-6200 15 Hampshire Street Mansfield MA 02048
800/248-7659
(F) 508/261-6271
Power Marketing Group, Inc. 303/741-3993 6416 South Quebec St, Ste 41 Englewood CO 80111
(F) 303/ 741-2548
Raychem Corp., Ultratec Div. 619/482-8300 1670 Brandywine Avenue Chula Vista CA 91911
(F) 619/ 482-2813
Reilly Industries, Inc. 317/ 247-8141 1500 South Tibbs Avenue Indianapolis IN 46241
(F) 317/248-6402
Royston Laboratories, Chase Corp 412/828-1500 128 First Street Pittsburgh PA 15238
800/245-3209
Tapecoat Co., 847/866-8500 1527 Lyons Street Evanston IL 60201-3551
TC Manufacturing Co., Inc. (F) 708/866-8596
Valspar Inc. 416/284-1681 645 Coronation Drive West Hill, Ontario M1E 4R6 Canada
(F) 416/284-6549
Suppliers of Inspection Tools

Paul N. Gardener Co., Inc. 954/946-9454 316 NE First Street Pompano Beach FL 33060
(F) 954/946-9309 or -9375
KTA-Tator Inc. 412/788-1300 115 Technology Drive Pittsburgh PA 15275

Steps to Coating System Selection
Start
Type of Coating:
Atmospheric Coating?
No
Concrete Coating (Mild Environment)?
Internal Vessel Coating?
Contact a CRTC
Coating Specialist
Yes
System Number
Selection Guide
Choose a system number
by type of surface, service,
voc units.
System Data Sheets
Locate the correct data sheet

by system number
No
Coating over an existing system?
Yes
No Yes Photocopy Coating

Compatibility Chart: Compatible? System Fact Sheet.
Attach to spec.
End

System Number Selection Guide Coatings ManualQuick Reference Guide
System Number Selection Guide

Note Pick a coating system number from one of the following tables then find that
number in the System Data Sheets for Coating Systems.
For coatings under insulation & fireproofing, see chart next page
Atmospheric Coatings for On- & Offshore (1 of 2)

Onshore
Off-
Type of Equipment Std Hi Perf shore
Code C/E: Vessels & Heat Exchangers
Uninsulated below 200F 2.2 3.1 3.1
Uninsulated to 200F and steamed out 2.6 3.1 3.1
Uninsulated 200600F N/R 2.4 2.4
Uninsulated 300-600F 2.4 N/R N/R
Code D: Tanks
Uninsulated to 200F 2.2 3.1 3.1
Wind girders 2.2
Floating roofs (Uninsulated) 2.6 3.1 N/R
Stairways & railings 2.2
Code F: Furnaces
Structural steel & platforms 2.6 2.6

N/R
Stacks, breeching, furnace body to 600F 2.4 2.4
Code G/K: Pumps, Turbines, Compressors & Drivers
Uninsulated to 200F N/R 3.8 3.8
Uninsulated 200600F 2.4 2.4 2.4
Motors 3.8 3.8

N/R
Externally insulated exhaust ducts N/R 1.4
Code J: Instruments
Field instrument panels (steel) 2.2 2.6 3.1
Weatherproof housings (steel) 3.1

N/A N/A
Instrument tubing (stainless)
N/R
Instruments (galvanized or aluminum) N/R N/R
Code L: Piping (including Valves & Fittings)
Uninsulated to 200F 2.2 3.1 3.1
Uninsulated below 200F steamed out 2.6 3.1 3.1
Uninsulated 200600F 2.4 2.4 2.4

Coatings ManualQuick Reference Guide System Number Selection Guide
Atmospheric Coatings for On- & Offshore (2 of 2)

Onshore
Off-
Type of Equipment Std Hi Perf shore
Code M: Structural
Concrete N/R N/R N/R
Exposed steel, platforms, ladders, supports 2.2 3.1 3.1
Floor plate (smooth) 4.6 4.5 4.5
Galvanized floor grating repairs 1.6 1.6 1.6
Galvanized stairways and railings N/A
Jacket above splash zone; deck modules; boat landing 3.1
Jacket splash zone - structural members 4.2
Jacket splash zone - appurtenances

N/A N/A
Risers, conductors: splash zone below 140F not 4.1
pressure treated
Risers, conductors: splash zone to 160F 4.3
Risers, conductors: splash zones to 250F 4.2
Code P: Electrical Equipment
Galvanized or aluminum N/R N/R N/R
Steel 2.2 3.1 3.1
Code R: Buildings and Control Houses (Exterior)
Galvanized steel
N/R N/R
Masonry walls
N/A
Steel 2.2 2.6
Wood N/R N/R
Code S: Miscellaneous Equipment
Subsea completion equipment

Standard: N/A N/A 8.4
High Performance: 11.4
Coatings for Concrete

Coating System by Exposure
Item Temperature Environment Physical Abuse Continuous Intermittent
Oil/water Separator < 140F Oil/water mixture Moderate(1) 20.1 N/A

(2) (1)
Secondary < 140F Hydrocarbons, dilute acids, Mild 20.2 20.2
Containment caustics
Moderate(1) 20.1 20.1
(3)
Aggressive 20.3 20.3
(2) (4)
Equipment < 140F Hydrocarbons , dilute acids, Mild N/A 20.2
Foundations caustics
(1) Moderate coating loss due to abrasion, light equipment wear. Possibility of impact on coating.
(2) Crude oil, jet fuel, gasoline, etc.
(3) Severe coating loss due to abrasion, heavy equipment wear. Definite potential for impact on coating.
(4) No coating loss due to abrasion, possible light foot traffic. No physical impact on coating

System Number Selection Guide Coatings ManualQuick Reference Guide

Substrate Exposure to Temperature Temperature(1) Coating System
Carbon Steel Continuous -50F to 140F 12.1
Continuous 140F to 300F 12.2
Cyclic (produce wet/dry 12.3

conditions)
Continuous Above 300F Do not coat
Special Conditions Above 300F 12.7
Stainless Steel Continuous -50F to 140F 12.4
Continuous 140F to 300F 12.5
Cyclic (produce wet/dry 12.6

conditions)
Continuous Above 300F 12.7
(1) Actual temperature of steel not design temperature.

High Temperature/Pressure
Reinforced
Non-Reinforced Glass High Temperature/ High Temperature/ High Pressure/
Services Thin Film Flake Laminate Cathodic Non Cathodic Non Cathodic
Fresh Water 8.1 9.1 10.1
Demineralized Water 8.2 9.2 10.2 11.2 11.2.1
Potable Water 8.3 9.3 N/R
Salt Water & Brine 8.4 9.4 10.4 11.4 11.4.1 11.4.2
Produced Water 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 11.5.1 11.5.2
Crude Oil (sweet or sour) 8.6 9.6 10.6 11.6 11.6.1 11.6.2
Fuels (low aromatic) 8.7 9.7 10.7
Fuels (high aromatic) 8.8 9.8 10.8
Aromatic Hydrocarbon 8.9 9.9 10.9
Acetone 8.10
N/R
Ethyl & Methyl Alcohol 8.11

Coatings ManualQuick Reference Guide Coating Compatibility Chart
Coating Compatibility Chart
Coating Being Overcoated
Chlorinated Rubber
Polyamide Epoxy
Silicone Alkyds
Asphalt Mastic
Latex Emulsion
Inorganic Zinc
Wash Primers
Coal Tar Paint
Epoxy Mastic
Polyurethane
Amine Epoxy
Vinyl Acrylic
Phenolics
Lacquer
Vinyls
Alkyd
Coating Being
Applied
Alkyd YES YES N/R YES N/R YES N/R YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
3 3 3 3
Amine Epoxy N/R YES N/R YES N/R N/R YES N/R N/R N/R YES YES N/R N/R N/R YES
2 2 2
Asphalt Mastic YES N/R YES N/R YES N/R YES N/R YES YES N/R N/R YES N/R N/R YES
Chlorinated N/R YES N/R YES LTD YES YES N/R YES YES YES YES N/R YES YES YES
Rubber 3 3 3 3
Coal Tar Paints N/R N/R N/R N/R YES N/R YES N/R YES LTD N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R YES
Epoxy Mastic YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
Inorganic Zinc N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R YES N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
Lacquer N/R YES N/R YES N/R N/R LTD YES YES N/R YES LTD N/R YES N/R YES
1 1
Latex YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
Emulsion 3 3 3 3
Phenolic YES YES N/R YES N/R YES LTD YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
Polyamide LTD YES N/R YES N/R LTD YES N/R N/R LTD YES YES LTD N/R N/R YES
Epoxy
Polyurethane N/R YES N/R YES N/R N/R YES N/R YES N/R YES YES N/R N/R N/R YES
2 2 2
Silicone Alkyd YES YES N/R YES N/R YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
3 3 3 3
Vinyl N/R N/R LTD N/R LTD N/R YES N/R YES N/R N/R N/R N/R YES YES LTD
Vinyl Acrylic LTD YES N/R YES LTD YES YES N/R YES LTD YES YES YES YES YES YES
Wash Primers N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R YES N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
Notes:
YES: Applied coating will not lift, wrinkle, blister; will have reasonable bond; check in field with a test patch.
LTD: Some formulae are compatible; some not. Consult manufacturer.
N/R: Not recommended
1 Durability and use depend on type of lacquer.
2 Must apply topcoat before coated surface has hardened.
3 Gloss on paint being overcoated must be removed by weathering or sanding.
4 Topcoat may blister if high-solvent topcoat applied too thickly, too quickly.

Coating System Data Sheets Coatings ManualQuick Reference Guide
Coating System Data Sheets
Available System Data Sheets
Primer Only Systems

1.1 Inhibited Alkyd (Primer Only)
1.2 Silicone Alkyd (Primer Only)
1.3 Self-Cured Inorganic ZincSolvent Reducible (Primer Only)
1.3.1 Self-Cured Inorganic ZincWater Reducible
1.4 Polyamide Epoxy (Primer Only)
1.5 Amine Adduct Epoxy (Primer Only)
1.6 Organic Zinc-Rich Primer for Galvanizing Repair
1.7 Vinyl Butyral Wash Primer
1.8 Epoxy MasticSurface-Tolerant Prime
1.8.1 Epoxy MasticSurface-Tolerant PrimerAluminum Color Only
1.9 Temperature-Indicating Paint
Two-Component Systems
2.1 Inhibited Alkyd | Alkyd Enamel
2.2 Inhibited Alkyd | Alkyd Enamel | Alkyd Enamel
2.3 Silicone Alkyd | Silicone Acrylic
2.4 Self-Cured Inorganic Zinc | High-Temperature Silicone
2.5 Self-Cured Inorganic Zinc | Silicone Acrylic
2.6 Self-Cured Inorganic Zinc | Polyamide Epoxy (High Build)
2.7 High-Temperature Silicone | High-Temperature Silicone
2.8 Manufacturer's Standard | Alkyd Enamel
2.9 Manufacturer's Standard | Alkyd Enamel | Alkyd Enamel
2.10 Manufacturer's Standard | Silicone Acrylic
2.11 Manufacturer's Standard | High-Temperature Silicone
2.12 Epoxy MasticSurface-Tolerant Primer | Polyamide Epoxy (Finish)
2.12.1 Epoxy MasticSurface-Tolerant PrimerAluminum Color Only |
Aliphatic Polyurethane
2.13 Epoxy MasticSurface-Tolerant Primer | Polyamide Epoxy (High
Build)
Polyamide Epoxy (High Build)
2.14 Polyamide Epoxy | Polyamide Epoxy

Coatings ManualQuick Reference Guide Coating System Data Sheets
2.15 Epoxy MasticSurface-Tolerant Primer | Aliphatic Polyurethane

Three-Component Systems
3.1 Self-Cured Inorganic Zinc | Polyamide Epoxy (High Build) | Aliphatic
Polyurethane
3.1.1 Self-Cured Inorganic Zinc | Polyamide Epoxy (High Build) | Aliphatic
Polyurethane
3.2 Zinc-Rich Epoxy | Polyamide Epoxy (High Build) | Aliphatic Polyure-
thane
3.3 Self-Cured Inorganic Zinc | Vinyl Tie-Coat | Vinyl (High Build) |
Vinyl (High Build)
3.3.1 Self-Cured Inorganic Zinc | Vinyl Tie-Coat | Vinyl (High Build) |
Vinyl (High Build)
3.4 Zinc-Rich Epoxy | Vinyl (High Build) | Vinyl (High Buid)
3.5 Epoxy Mastic | Polyamide Epoxy (High Build) | Aliphatic Polyure-
thane
3.5.1 Epoxy MasticAluminum Color Only | Polyamide Epoxy (High
Build) | Aliphatic Polyurethane
3.6 (reserved for future use)
3.7 Manufacturer's Standard | Universal Primer | Polyamide Epoxy (High
Build) | Aliphatic Polyurethane
3.8 Manufacturer's Standard | Universal Primer | Aliphatic Polyurethane
Specialty Coating Systems

4.1 Splash Zone CoatingSprayable
4.1.1 Splash Zone CompoundAsbestos Free Rated to Cure Underwater
4.2 Monel Sheath for Splash Zones
4.3 Vulcanized Neoprene for Splash Zones
4.4 Polyamide Epoxy | Fireproofing | Polyamide Epoxy (High Build) |
4.5 Polyester Non-Skid | 2030 Mesh Grit | Polyester Non-Skid
4.6 Epoxy Non-Skid | Grit | Epoxy Non-Skid
Non-Reinforced Thin Film Internal Coatings

5.1 FDA-Approved Epoxy (Polyamide or Amine Cured) for Potable
Water
5.2 Polyamide Epoxy (Thin Film) | Polyamide Epoxy (Thin Film)

5.3 Amine Adduct Epoxy (Thin Film) | Amine Adduct Epoxy (Thin Film)
5.4 Polyamide Coal Tar Epoxy | Polyamide Coal Tar Epoxy
5.5 Amine Adduct Coal Tar Epoxy | Amine Adduct Coal Tar Epoxy
5.6 Epoxy Phenolic | Epoxy Phenolic
Glass Flake Reinforced Internal Coatings

6.1 Polyamide Epoxy Glass Flake (Spray) | Polyamide Epoxy Glass Flake
(Spray)
6.1.1 Polyamide Epoxy Glass Flake (Trowel) | Polyamide Epoxy Glass
Flake (Trowel) | Glass Flake-Free Epoxy Resin Gel Coat
6.2 Amine Adduct Epoxy Glass Flake (Spray)| Amine Adduct Epoxy
Glass Flake (Spray)
6.3 Isophthalic Polyester Glass Flake (Spray) | Isophthalic Polyester Glass
Flake (Spray)
6.3.1 Isophthalic Polyester Glass Flake (Trowel) | Isophthalic Polyester
Glass Flake (Trowel) | Wax Coat of Glass Flake-Free Isopolyester
Resin
6.5 Vinyl Ester Glass Flake (Spray) | Vinyl Ester Glass Flake (Spray)
6.5.1 Vinyl Ester Glass Flake (Trowel) | Vinyl Ester Glass Flake (Trowel)
Laminate Reinforced Internal Coatings

7.1 Polyamide Epoxy Laminate
7.2 Amine Adduct Epoxy Laminate
7.3 Isophthalic Polyester Laminate
7.4 Bisphenol A Laminate
7.5 Vinyl Ester Laminate
Non-Reinforced Thin Film Coatings for Immersion Service

8.1 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for Fresh-Water Immersion
Service
8.2 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for Demineralized Water or
Condensate Immersion Service
8.3 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for FDA-Approved Potable
Water Immersion Service
8.4 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for Salt Water and Brine Immer-
sion Service
8.5 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for Produced-Water Immersion
Service

Coatings ManualQuick Reference Guide Coating System Data Sheets
8.6 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for Crude Oil (Sweet or Sour)

Immersion Service
8.7 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for Fuel (Low-aromatic) Immer-
sion Service
8.8 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for Fuel (High-Aromatic)
Immersion Service
8.9 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for Aromatic-Hydrocarbon
Immersion Service
8.10 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for Acetone Immersion Service
8.11 Non-Reinforced Thin-Film Coatings for Ethyl & Methyl Alcohol
Immersion Service
Glass Flake Reinforced Coatings for Immersion Service

9.1 Glass-Flake-Reinforced Coatings for Fresh-Water Immersion Service
9.2 Glass-Flake-Reinforced Coatings for Demineralized Water or Conden-
sate Immersion Service
9.3 Glass-Flake-Reinforced Coatings for FDA-Approved Potable Water
Immersion Service
9.4 Glass-Flake-Reinforced Coatings for Salt Water and Brine Immersion
Service
9.5 Glass-Flake-Reinforced Coatings for Produced Water Immersion
Service
9.6 Glass-Flake-Reinforced Coatings for Crude Oil (Sweet or Sour)
Immersion Service
9.7 Glass-Flake-Reinforced Coatings for Fuel (Low Aromatic) Immer-
sion Service
9.8 Glass-Flake-Reinforced Coatings for Fuel (High Aromatic) Immer-
sion Service
9.9 Glass-Flake-Reinforced Coatings for Aromatic Hydrocarbon Immer-
sion Service
Laminate Reinforced Coatings for Immersion Service

10.1 Laminate-Reinforced Coatings for Fresh-Water Immersion Service
10.2 Laminate-Reinforced Coatings for Demineralized-Water or Conden-
sate Immersion Service
10.4 Laminate-Reinforced Coatings for Salt-Water Brine Immersion
Service
10.5 Laminate-Reinforced Coatings for Produced-Water Immersion Service

10.6 Laminate-Reinforced Coatings for Crude-Oil (Sweet or Sour) Immer-

sion Service
10.7 Laminate-Reinforced Coatings for Fuel (Low Aromatic) Immersion
Service
10.8 Laminate-Reinforced Coatings for Fuel (High Aromatic) Immersion
Service
10.9 Laminate-Reinforced Coatings for Aromatic Hydrocarbon Immersion
Service
High-Temperature/High-Pressure Coating Systems

11.2 Demineralized Water or Condensate Coatings Resistant to Tempera-
ture Gradients of 50F & Compatible with Cathodic Protection
11.2.1 Demineralized Water or Condensate Coatings Resistant to Tempera-
ture Gradients of 50F & Incompatible with Cathodic Protection
11.4 Salt Water & Brine Service Coatings Resistant to Temperature Gradi-
ents of 50F & Compatible with Cathodic Protection
11.4.1 Salt Water & Brine Service Coatings Resistant to Temperature Gradi-
ents of 50F & Incompatible with Cathodic Protection
11.4.2 Salt Water & Brine Service Coatings Resistant to Temperature Gradi-
ents of 50F & Incompatible with Cathodic Protection
11.5 Produced Water Service Coatings Resistant to Temperature Gradients
of 50F & Compatible with Cathodic Protection
11.5.1 Produced Water Service Coatings Resistant to Temperature Gradients
of 50F & Incompatible with Cathodic Protection
11.5.2 Produced Water High Temperature/High Pressure Service Coatings
Resistant to Temperatures to 180F, Pressures of 1000 PSI & Incom-
patible with Cathodic Protection
11.5.2 Crude Oil Service (Sweet or Sour) Coatings Resistant to Temperature
Gradients of 50F & Compatible with Cathodic Protection
11.6.1 Crude Oil Service (Sweet or Sour) Coatings Resistant to Temperature
Gradients of 50F & Incompatible with Cathodic Protection
11.6.2 Crude Oil (Sweet or Sour) High Temperature/High Pressure Service
Coatings Resistant to Temperatures to 180F, Pressures of 1000 PSI &
Incompatible with Cathodic Protection

12.1 Under Insulation & FireproofingNon-Reinforced Thin Film Epoxy
Coatings for Continuous Carbon Steel Temperatures -50F to 140F

Coatings ManualQuick Reference Guide

Coatings for Continuous Carbon Steel Temperatures 140F300F
Coatings for Cyclic Carbon Steel Temperatures that Produce Wet/Dry
Conditions
Coatings for Continuous Stainless Steel Temperatures -50F to 140F
Coatings for Continuous Stainless Steel Temperatures 140F300F
Coatings for Cyclic Stainless Steel Temperatures that Produce
Wet/Dry Conditions
12.7 Under Insulation & FireproofingNon-Reinforced Thin Film Inor-
ganic Coatings for Carbon Steel or Stainless Steel Temperatures
Above 300F
(Series 13 through 19 Reserved for Future Use)
Concrete Coatings
20.1 Epoxy Coatings for Concrete: Service Temperatures <140F,
Moderate Physical Abuse, Intermittent & Continuous Exposure
20.2 Epoxy Coatings for Concrete: Service Temperatures <140F, Mild
Physical Abuse, Intermittent & Continuous Exposure
20.3 Epoxy Coatings for Concrete: Service Temperatures <140F, Aggres-
sive Physical Abuse, Intermittent & Continuous Exposure

Appendix A. Conversion Charts
Chevron Corporation A-1

Appendix A Coatings Manual
A-2 Chevron Corporation

Coatings Manual Appendix A
Chevron Corporation A-3

Appendix B. Color Chips
(Not available in electronic format. Please find a paper copy of the manual in your
facility, or chips may be obtained by contacting the Technical Standards team at
CTN 242-7241.)
Chevron Corporation B-1 January 1995

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COATINGS MANUAL

CHEVRON RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY COMPANY

Manual sponsor: For information or help regarding this manual,

This material is transmitted subject to the Export Control Laws of the

December 1998 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation December 1998

December 1998 Chevron Corporation

Street: P.O. Box:

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Requesting Signature Date

Send this completed form to: Document Control, Room 50-4328

CRTC Consultants Card

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Page or Section Number Comments

Chevron Corporation December 1998

December 1998 Chevron Corporation

List of Current Pages

50 Using this Manual 50-1

100 General Information 100-1

200 Environment, Health & Safety 200-1

300 Coatings Selection 300-1

400 Surface Preparation 400-1

500 Application 500-1

600 Coating Concrete 600-1

700 Downhole Tubular Coatings & Linings 700-1

800 Offshore Coatings 800-1

900 Pipeline Coatings 900-1

Quick Reference Guide QR-1

Chevron Corporation December 1998

51 Scope and Application

Chevron Corporation 50-1 September 1996

51 Scope and Application

September 1996 50-2 Chevron Corporation

Other Company Manuals

60 Reasons for Coating

Chevron Corporation 50-3 September 1996

62 Under Thermal Insulation and Fireproofing

September 1996 50-4 Chevron Corporation

70 Components of Coatings and Coating Systems

Methods of Film Formation

Chevron Corporation 50-5 September 1996

September 1996 50-6 Chevron Corporation

80 The Successful Coating Program

Chevron Corporation 50-7 September 1996

110 Coating Descriptions (A-E) 100-3

Chevron Corporation 100-1 November 1998

151 Non-reinforced Thin-film Coatings

November 1998 100-2 Chevron Corporation

110 Coating Descriptions (A-E)

Chevron Corporation 100-3 November 1998

Fig. 100-1 Summary of Properties in Coatings (1 of 2)

Acrylic Solvent Chalk Good 1. Good 1. Good 1. Good 1. Fair

Alkyd Oxidation Slow Poor-Good 1. Fair- Poor 1. Poor 1. Fair 1. Fair

Polyamide Cross Linked Chalks Excellent 1. N/R 1. N/R 1. N/R 1. N/R

Chlorinated Solvent Evap. Slow Excellent 1. N/R 1. N/R 1. N/R 1. N/R

Vinyl Solvent Evap. Slow Excellent 1. Excellent 1. Excellent 1. Excellent 1. Poor

Organic Cross Linked Chalk Excellent(2) 1. Topcoat 1. Topcoat 1. Topcoat 1. Excellent

November 1998 100-4 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 100-1 Summary of Properties in Coatings (2 of 2)

Acrylic N/R N/R Good Limited Good High to Semi Full

Alkyd N/R N/R Fair Fair Fair Chalks to Flat Full

Moisture-cured N/R N/R Excellent Good Excellent High Full