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Fluid Flow in Porous Media PDF
Fluid Flow in Porous Media PDF
CA(P gz)
Q= (1)
L
P v 2 1 v 2
gz + = P gz + , (2)
2 2
12 2 12 2
1 Darcy = 0.987 10 m 10 m . (6)
The Darcy unit is defined such that a rock having a permeability of
1 Darcy would transmit 1 cc of water (with viscosity 1 cP) per
second, through a region of 1 sq. cm. cross-sectional area, if the
pressure drop along the direction of flow were 1 atm per cm.
Many soils and sands that civil engineers must deal with
have permeabilities on the order of a few Darcies. The original
purpose of the Darcy definition was therefore to avoid the need
for using small prefixes such as 10-12, etc. Fortunately, a Darcy is
nearly a round number in SI units, so conversion between the two
units is easy.
The permeabilities of various rock and soil types vary over many
orders of magnitude. However, the permeabilities of petroleum
reservoir rocks tend to be in the range of 0.001-1.0 Darcies. It is
therefore convenient to refer to permeability of reservoir rocks in
units of milliDarcies (mD), which equal 0.001 Darcies.
The values in the above table are for intact rock. In some
reservoirs, however, the permeability is due mainly to an
interconnected network of fractures. The permeabilities of
fractured rock masses tend to be in the range 1 mD to 10 Darcies.
In a fractured reservoir, the reservoir-scale permeability is not
closely related to the core scale permeability that one would
measure in the laboratory.
Pc = P g ( z zo ) . (5)
R1
R2
Ro
P = Po H
R
2kH dP
Q= R . (2)
dR
dR 2kH
= dP
R Q
R P 2kH
dR
= dP
Ro R Po Q
R 2kH
ln = (P Po )
Ro Q
P(R) = Po
Q ln R . (3)
2kH Ro
0.00
1.00
(P-Po )2kH/ Q
2.00
3.00
Thiem formula
4.00
5.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
R/Ro
Q Rw
Pw = Po + ln .
2kH Ro
(5)
q(x+x)
q(x)
x x+x
Note that the property that is conserved is the mass of the fluid,
not the volume of the fluid.
Consider the period of time between time t and time t +t.
To be concrete, assume that the fluid is flowing from left to right
through the core. During this time increment, the mass flux into
this region of rock between will be
m = Vp = V = Ax , (6)
d ( )
A[ q ( x + x ) q ( x )] = Ax . (7)
dt
d ( q ) d ( )
= . (8)
dx dt
d( q ) d ( q ) d ( q ) d ( )
+ + = . (9)
dx dy dz dt
d( ) d d
= +
dt dt dt
d dP d dP
= +
dP dt dP dt
= 1 d + 1 d dP
dP dP dt
= (c +cf ) dP , (1)
dt
d( q) d k dP k d 2P d dP
= = +
dx dx dx dx 2 dx dx
k d 2P d dP dP
= +
dx 2 dP dx dx
2
k d 2P 1 d dP
= +
dx 2 dP dx
dP 2
k d 2 P
= + cf . (2)
dx 2 dx
d 2P dP 2 (cf + c ) dP
+ c f = . (3)
dx 2 dx k dt
dP 2 Q 2
cf cf , (4)
dx 2kHR
d 2P Q
, (5)
dx 2
2kHR 2
cf Q cf (Po Pw )
Ratio = = . (6)
2kH ln(Ro /Rw )
10 10 107
Ratio = = 10 4 << 1 . (7)
10
This example shows that, for liquids, the nonlinear term in eq. (3)
is small. In practice, it is usually neglected. For gases, however, it
cannot be neglected (see section 9).
The one-dimensional, linearised form of the diffusion
equation is therefore
dP k d 2P
= , (8)
dt ct dx 2
k
DH = . (10)
ct
Roughly, the distance over which a pressure disturbance will
travel during an elapsed time t is (we will prove this in section
2.5)
4kt
= 4D H t = . (11)
ct
ct 2
t= . (12)
4k
Pressure pulses obey a diffusion equation, not a wave
equation, as one might have thought. Rather than travelling at
a constant speed, they travel at a speed that continually
decreases with time. To prove this, differentiate eq. (11) with
respect to time, and observe that the velocity of the pulse,
d/dt, decays like 1/ t .
R
R q(R) q(R+R)
m = V = 2HRR , (3)
dm d( 2HRR) d( )
= = 2HR R . (4)
dt dt dt
d( qR) d( )
=R . (5)
dR dt
k d dP dP
R = (cf + c )R . (6)
dR dR dt
Follow the same procedure as that which led to eq. (1.6.3), to find
1 d dP dP 2 (cf + c ) dP
R + cf = . (7)
R dR dR dR k dt
dP k 1 d dP
= R .
dt ct R dR dR
(8)
kkro dPo
qo = , (2)
o dx
where the subscripts w and o denote oil and water, respectively.
The two relative permeability functions are assumed to be known
functions of the phase saturations. For an oil-water system, the
two saturations are necessarily related to each other by
Sw + So = 1. (3)
In general, the pressures in the two phases at each point in
the reservoir will be different. If the reservoir is oil-wet, the two
pressures will be related by
Po Pw = Pcap (So ) , (4)
d( oqo ) d(oSo )
= , (5)
dx dt
d( wqw ) d(wSw )
= . (6)
dx dt
The densities of the two phases are related to their
respective phase pressures by an equation of state:
o = o (Po ) . (7)
w = w (Pw ) . (8)
where the right-hand sides of eqs. (7) and (8) are known functions
of the pressure, and (for our present purposes) the temperature is
assumed constant.
= (Po ) . (9)
etc., where the subscript i denotes the initial state, and the
compressibility co is taken to be a constant.
______________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 1:
(1) A well located in a 100 ft. thick reservoir having permeability
100 mD produces 100 barrels/day of oil from a 10 in. diameter
wellbore. The viscosity of the oil is 0.4 cP. The pressure at a
distance of 1000 feet from the wellbore is 3000 psi. What is the
pressure in the wellbore? Conversion factors are as follows:
1 barrel = 0.1589 m3
1 Poise = 0.1 Newton-seconds/m2
1 foot = 0.3048 m
1 psi = 6895 N/ m2 = 6895 Pa
(2) Carry out a derivation of the diffusion equation for spherically-
symmetric flow, in analogy to the derivation given in section 1.7
for radial flow. The result should be an equation similar to eq.
(1.7.8), but with a slightly different term on the right-hand side.
ct dP 1 d dP
= R .
dt R dR dR
(1)
k
1 d dP c dP
Governing PDE: R = , (1)
R dR dR k dt
dP dP d 2cR dP cR 2 2 dP 2 dP
= = = = . (6)
dR d dR kt d kt R d R d
1 d dP 1 2 d dP 4 d dP
R = 2 = .
R dR dR R R d d R2 d d
(7)
dP dP d cR 2 dP dP
= = = ,
dt d dt kt 2 d t d
c dP c dP cR2 dP 2 dP
= = = 2 . (8)
k dt k t d kt R 2 d
R d
d dP dP
= . (9)
d d 4 d
dy y dP
= , where y = , (12)
d 4 d
dy d
=
y 4
y( ) dy d
=
y (0) y 0 4
y()
ln =
y(0) 4
/ 4
y() = y (0)e . (13)
Q
y(0) = , (14)
4 kH
Q / 4
y() = e . (15)
4 kH
dP() Q e / 4
= . (16)
d 4 kH
P( )
Q e / 4
dP = d
Pi 4 kH
Q e / 4
P() = Pi d . (17)
4 kH
on the left-hand side of eq. (17), and also at the lower limit of
integration on the right, but not inside the integral, because inside
the integral, is merely a dummy variable:
2
cR Q
e / 4
= Pi 4 kH 2 d
P . (18)
kt cR
kt
Simplify the integrand by defining u = / 4 , in which case
d / = du / u , and the lower limit of integration becomes
u = cR2 / 4kt :
cR 2 Q
e u
= Pi 4 kH 2 u du
P . (19)
4 kt cR
4kt
The integral in eq. (19) is essentially the so-called exponential
integral function, which is defined by mathematicians as (see
Matthews and Russell, p. 131)
u
e
Ei ( x ) = u du . (20)
x
x10-1 1.82 1.22 0.91 0.70 0.56 0.45 0.37 0.31 0.26
x10-2 4.04 3.35 2.96 2.68 2.47 2.30 2.15 2.03 1.92
x10-3 6.33 5.64 5.23 4.95 4.73 4.54 4.39 4.26 4.14
x10-4 8.63 7.94 7.53 7.25 7.02 6.84 6.69 6.55 6.44
x10-5 10.94 10.24 9.84 9.55 9.33 9.14 8.99 8.86 8.74
x10-6 13.24 12.55 12.14 11.85 11.63 11.45 11.29 11.16 11.04
x10-7 15.54 14.85 14.44 14.15 13.93 13.75 13.60 13.46 13.34
x10-8 17.84 17.15 16.74 16.46 16.23 16.05 15.90 15.76 15.65
x10-9 20.15 19.45 19.05 18.76 18.54 18.35 18.20 18.07 17.95
x10-10 22.45 21.76 21.35 21.06 20.84 20.66 20.50 20.37 20.25
x10-11 24.75 24.06 23.65 23.36 23.14 22.96 22.81 22.67 22.55
x10-12 27.05 26.36 25.96 25.67 25.44 25.26 25.11 24.97 24.86
x10-13 29.36 28.66 28.26 27.97 27.75 27.56 27.41 27.28 27.16
x10-14 31.66 30.97 30.56 30.27 30.05 29.87 29.71 29.58 29.46
x10-15 33.96 33.27 32.86 32.58 32.35 32.17 32.02 31.88 31.76
2kH( Pi P)
PD = . (2)
Q
1
PD = Ei(1/ 4t D ) . (3)
2
-3
tD = kt/ cR2
-42
-5
-7
44
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Dimensionless Time, t D
cRw2
t> . (1)
4k
2 3
1 1
1 2 1 3
= (ln1 lnx) (1 x ) + (1 x ) (1 x ) + L
2!2 3!3
1 2 1 3 1 1
= ln x + x x + x + L 1 + + L
2!2 3!3 2!2 3!3
1 2 1 3
Ei(x) = ln x ln + x x + x + L, (3)
2!2 3!3
Department of Earth Sciences and Engineering Imperial College
M.Sc. in Petroleum Engineering Flow in Porous Media Section 2
2002-2003 Dr. R. W. Zimmerman Page 36
1 1 e u
where ln = 1 + + L du . (4)
2!2 3!3 1 u
Eq. (4) may look messy, but the important point is that the term
ln is merely a number, and does not depend on x, so we can
evaluate it numerically to find
1 2 1 3
x x + x +L < x . (6)
2!2 3!3
cR2 kt
x= < 0.01 > 25 . (7)
4kt cR 2
Q
P(R,t) = Pi +
4 kH
[ln x + ln ]
Q
P(R,t ) = Pi + ln(x )
4 kH
Q cR2
P(R,t ) = Pi + ln
4 kH 4kt
Q 4kt
P(R,t ) = Pi ln
4 kH cR 2
P(R,t) = Pi
Q ln 2.246kt (8)
4 kH cR2
Q kt .
P(R,t ) = Pi ln + 0.80907 (9)
4 kH cR 2
PD =
1
2
[
ln(t D ) + 0.80907) ] (10)
2
Exponential Integral Solution
3 Logarithmic Approximation
4
0.1 1 10 10 2 10 3
Dimensionless Time, tD
Q e u
P(R,t) = Pi +
4kH x u
du, x = cR2 / 4kt , (1)
where t is the elapsed time since the start of injection. The + sign
is used because we are injecting rather than extracting fluid, so
the pressure in the reservoir will increase.
Now imagine that we stop injecting fluid after a small amount
of time t. This is equivalent to injecting fluid at a rate Q starting
at t = 0, and then producing fluid at a rate Q (or, equivalently,
injecting at a rate -Q) starting at time t. The pressure drawdown
in the reservoir due to this fictitious production would be given by
the same line-source solution, except that:
(1) For extraction of fluid we must use a - sign in front of
the integral;
(2) If t is the elapsed time since the start of injection, then t-
t will be the elapsed time since the start of the fictitious extraction
of fluid (i.e., since the end of injection!)
Hence, the full expression for the pressure will be
Q e u Q e u
P(R,t) = Pi +
4kH
du
4kH
du
cR2 u cR2 u
x= x=
4kt 4k (t t )
cR2
x=
4k (t t )
Q e u
= Pi +
4kH
u
du . (2)
cR2
x=
4kt
Q 4kt
cR2 cR 2 cR 2
P(R,t) Pi + e 4kt
4kH cR 2 4k(t t) 4kt
Q 4kt
cR2 cR 2t
Pi + e 4kt
4kH cR 2 4kt 2
cR2
Q t
Pi + e 4kt . (4)
4kHt
As Q is the rate of injection in [m3/s], and t is the duration of
the injection, the total volume of injected fluid is Qt, which we
can denote as Q*, with units of [m3].
Now imagine that we are monitoring the pressure at some
distance R from the borehole. From eq. (4), we se that the
pressure buildup at R will be the product of two terms:
(a) an exponential term that increases with t, then levels off to a
value of 1 as t ;
(b) a 1/t term that decays to zero as t .
Department of Earth Sciences and Engineering Imperial College
M.Sc. in Petroleum Engineering Flow in Porous Media Section 2
2002-2003 Dr. R. W. Zimmerman Page 41
0.3
2H(P-Pi) cR2 /Q*
0.2
0.1
-0.1
0.01 0.1 1 10 1
P Q 1 cR2 cR2
= + e 4kt , (5)
t R 4kH t 2 4kt
3
P cR 2
=0 t = , (6)
t R 4k
which is equivalent to eq. (1.6.12).
Q 2.246kt
P(R,t) = Pi ln . (1)
4 kH cR 2
dPw Pw Q
= m= , (3)
d lnt lnt 4 kH
Q
kH = . (4)
4 m
t (mins) 1 5 10 20 30 60
Pw (psi) 4740 4667 4633 4596 4573 35
4800
4650
4600
4550
4500
1 10 100
t (mins)
(2) Look for a straight line at long times, and find its slope:
P 4760 4510
m= = = 54.3 psi
lnt 2 2.303
6895 Pa
= 54.3psi = 374,400 Pa .
psi
Note: lnt has the same value regardless of which units are used
for t!
(3) Calculate k from eq. (4). First convert all data to SI units:
0.001 Pa s
= 0.3 cP = 0.0003 Pa s
cP
0.3048 m
H = 15 ft = 4.572 m
ft
Q 2.246kt *
a Pi = Pi ln
4 kH cRw2
2.246kt *
a ln =0
cR2
w
2.246kt *
a =1
cRw2
2.246kt *
c = , (5)
Rw2
where t* is the intersection time; see the well test analysis module
for details.
Department of Earth Sciences and Engineering Imperial College
M.Sc. in Petroleum Engineering Flow in Porous Media Section 2
2002-2003 Dr. R. W. Zimmerman Page 46
______________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 2:
(1) A well with 3 in. radius is located in a 40 ft. thick reservoir
having permeability 30 mD and porosity 0.20. The total
compressibility of the oil/rock system is 3x10-5/psi. The initial
pressure in the reservoir is 2800 psi. The well produces 448
barrels/day of oil having a viscosity of 0.4 cP.
(a) How long will it take in order for the line-source solution to be
applicable at the wellbore wall?
(b) What is the pressure in the wellbore after six days of
production, according to the line-source solution?
(c) How long will it take in order for Jacobs logarithmic
approximation to be valid at the wellbore?
(d) What is the pressure in the wellbore after six days of
production, according to the logarithmic approximation?
(e) Answer questions (b)-(d) for a location that is 800 ft.
(horizontally) away from the wellbore.
Conversion factors can be found at end of Tutorial Sheet 1.
(2) A well with radius 0.3 ft. produces 200 barrels/day of oil, with
viscosity 0.6 cP, from a 20 ft. thick reservoir. The wellbore
pressures are as follows:
d
dt
[ ]
dP (R,t)
cP1(R,t) = c 1
dt
. (4)
dP1 dP dP dP
= P1 + P2 1 + P1 2 + P2 2
dt dt dt dt
dP1 dP
= M {P1}+ M {P2}+ P2 + P1 2
dt dt
L{P1 + P2} L{P1}+ L{P2}! (5)
Q cR 2
P1 = Pi P1(R,t) =
Ei . (1)
4kH 4kt
Q cR 2
P2 = Pi P2(R,t) = Ei . (2)
4kH 4k(t t 1)
NOTE: it is implicitly understood in all equations such as (2) that
the Ei function is taken to be zero when the term in brackets is
positive, which is to say when t < t1.
Q cR 2 Q cR2
=
Ei +
Ei
4kH 4kt 4kH 4k(t t1)
Q cR2 cR 2
= Ei Ei .
(3)
4kH 4kt 4k(t t1)
Q cR 2 cR 2
P(R,t) = Pi + Ei Ei .
(4)
4kH 4kt 4k(t t 1)
2.246k 2.246k
Q
P(R,t) = Pi lnt + ln ln(t t 1) ln
4kH cR
2
cR
2
Q
P(R,t) = Pi
4kH
{lnt ln(t t1)}
Q t
P(R,t) = Pi ln . (5)
4kH (t t1)
Q t + t
Pw (t ) = Pi ln .
4kH t
(6)
Pw
t t
time
Q0 cR 2 (Q1 Q0 ) cR2
P(R,t) = Ei Ei . (3)
4kH 4kt 4kH 4k(t t1
)
Q0 cR 2 (Qi Qi 1 ) cR2
P(R,t) = Ei Ei . (5)
4kH 4kt i =1 4kH 4k(t t i )
P(R,t;Q) cR2
PQ (R,t)
Ei , (6)
Q 4kH 4kt
Q4
Q0
t
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
dQ Q Qi Qi 1
= . (1)
dt t t t i t i 1
i
dQ(t i )
P(R,t) = Q0 PQ (R,t) + PQ (R,t t i )[t i t i 1 ] . (3)
i =1 dt
physicist who first derived this equation in 1833 (in the context of
solving heat conduction problems).
The importance of eq. (6) is that it allows us to find the
drawdown for any production schedule, by merely performing a
single integral utilising the constant-flowrate solution. The
principle also works for other boundary-value problems that are
governed by a linear PDE. For example, if we have a reservoir
with, say, a closed outer boundary (see section 6), then we need
only to find the solution for the case of constant flowrate in a
reservoir with a closed outer boundary; the solution for a variable
flowrate then follows from eq. (6), with the constant-flowrate
solution playing the role of the function PQ.
Another form of the convolution integral that is sometimes
more convenient to use can be derived by applying integration-by-
parts to the integral in (6). First, recall that the general expression
for integration by parts is
dg( ) df ( )
]
t t t
f ( ) d = f ( )g( ) 0 g( ) d . (7)
0 d 0 d
We now put f ( ) = PQ (R, t ) and g( ) = Q( ) , in which case (6)
becomes
t dPQ (R,t )
Q( ) d
0 d
(8)
= Q0 PQ (R,t) + Q(t) PQ (R,0) Q(0)PQ (R,t)
t dPQ (R,t )
Q( ) d .
0 d
Department of Earth Science and Engineering Imperial College London
M.Sc. in Petroleum Engineering Flow in Porous Media Section 3
2003-2004 Dr. R. W. Zimmerman Page 58
Well 2
k,,,c,H
Well 1
Q1 cR12 Q2 cR22
P(R,t) = Pi + Ei + Ei . (1)
4 kH 4k(t t 1) 4 kH 4k(t t 2 )
Q Q
P(R ,t) = Pi + Ei ( )+ Ei ()= Pi , (2)
4 kH 4 kH
R1 R2
d d
k,,,c,H
Impermeable fault
Q cR2 Q cR 2
P(R,t) = Pi + Ei 1 + Ei 2 . (1)
4 kH 4kt 4 kH 4kt
R1 = Rw , R2 = 2d Rw 2d , (2)
Q cR 2 Q c(2d) 2
Pw (t ) = Pi + Ei w +
Ei . (3)
4 kH 4kt 4 kH 4kt
25cR w2
t< , or t Dw < 25 . (4)
k
In this regime, we would have to use the full infinite series
expansion for the exponential integral function.
However, we saw in Section 2.3 that the duration of this
regime is usually very short, so there is no need for us to
study it further.
25cR w2
t> , or t Dw > 25 . (5)
k
This regime ends when the front edge of the pressure pulse from
the image well reaches the actual well (which is a distance 2d
away). We can consider that this occurs when the second Ei
function in eq. (3) reaches, say, 0.01.
0.3cd 2
t< , or t Dw < 0.3(d / Rw )2 . (6)
k
i.e., this is the drawdown that would occur in the absence of the
fault, because in this time regime the actual pressure pulse has
not yet had time to travel to the fault and reflect back to the
wellbore (where it can be detected).
2.246k 2.246k
Q
= Pi lnt + ln + lnt + ln
4 kH 2
cRw c4d
2
2.246k 2.246k
Q .
= Pi 2ln t + ln 2
+ ln
2
(10)
4 kH cRw c4d
This equation will also yield a straight line on a plot of Pw vs. lnt,
but with a slope that is twice that of the earlier slope:
dPw Pw 2 Q Q
= = = . (11)
d lnt lnt 4 kH 2 kH
Well
d
Impermeable faults
d
d Symmetry lines d
d d
d d
Fig. 4.3.2. Use of image wells to solve problem of a well near two
intersecting impermeable faults.
1 1 (d / R )2 1 2(d /R ) 2
PDw = Ei Ei w
Ei w
. (2)
2 4t Dw t Dw 2 t Dw
Q cR2 Q cR 2
P(R,t) = Pi +
Ei 1
Ei 2. (1)
4 kH 4kt 4 kH 4kt
Q cR12 cR 2
1 .
P(midplane,t) = Pi + Ei Ei
4 kH 4kt 4kt
Q cR2 Q c(2d)2
P(R,t) = Pi + Ei w Ei . (3)
4 kH 4kt 4 kH 4kt
Again, aside from a very-early time regime defined by eq.
(4.2.4), which we ignore, we have, in analogy with eqs. (4.2.5,6),
a regime defined by tDw > 25 and
0.3cd 2
t< , or t Dw < 0.3(d / Rw )2 , (4)
k
during which the effect of the image well has not yet been felt in
the actual well, and so the pressure in the well is given by
Q 2.246kt
Pw (t ) = Pi ln . (5)
4 kH cRw2
25c(2d)2
t> , or t Dw > 100(d /Rw ) 2 . (6)
k
Q 2.246kt Q 2.246kt
Pw (t ) = Pi ln + ln
4 kH cRw2 4 kH c(2d )2
Q 2.246k 2.246k
= Pi lnt + ln lnt ln
4 kH cRw
2
c(2d)
2
Q 2.246k 2.246k
= Pi ln
4 kH c
ln(Rw2 ) ln
c
+ ln (2d )2 { }
Q 2d
= Pi
Q
4 kH
{ 2
ln (2d / Rw ) = Pi } ln .
2 kH Rw
(7)
Recall that the slope of Pw vs. lnt was -Q/4kH for a well in
an infinite reservoir. An impermeable linear boundary eventually
causes an additional slope of -Q/4kH, leading to a total late-
time slope of -Q/2kH. On the other hand, a constant-pressure
linear boundary causes and additional slope of +Q/4kH,
leading to a late-time slope of 0:
Dimensionless drawdown, Pw
0
t Dw ~ 1.781(d/Rw ) 2
5
10
infinite reservoir
15 impermeable fault
constant-pressure boundary
20
10-1 101 103 105 107 109
Dimensionless time, tDw
____________________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 4:
(1) As explained in Section 4.2, a doubling of the slope on a semi-
log plot of drawdown vs. time indicates the presence of an
impermeable linear fault. The drawdown data can also be used to
find the distance from the well to the fault, as follows. If we plot
the data and then fit two straight lines through the early-time and
late-time data, the time at which these lines intersect is called tD w .
Show that the distance to the fault can then be found from the
following equation:
d = 0.749 (t D w )1/2Rw .
(2) The curves in Fig. 4.4.1 were actually drawn for the case d/Rw
= 200. What would the curves look like for the case of a fault
located at a distance d = 400Rw?
P=Po
Reservoir, kR
Skin Zone, ks
Pw
Rw
Rs
Ro
2kH dP
Q= R , (3)
dR
1 dR 2H
= dP
k R Q
Rs
1 dR Ro 1 dR Po 2H
+ = dP
k
Rw s R k
Rs R R Pw Q
1 Rs 1 Ro 2H
ln + ln = (P Pw )
ks Rw k R Rs Q o
1 R k R 2H
ln o + R ln s = (P Pw )
kR Rs ks Rw Q o
1 R Rs k R Rs R s 2 H
ln o + ln + ln ln = (P Pw )
kR Rs Rw ks Rw Rw Q o
1 ln Ro Rs + kR 1 ln Rs = 2H ( Po Pw )
kR Rs Rw ks Rw Q
2kR H( Po Pw ) Ro kR R
= ln
+
1 ln s . (4)
Q Rw k s Rw
Equation (4) is identical to eq. (1.4.3), except for the second term
on the RHS. This excess dimensionless pressure drop, which is
due to the presence of the skin effect, is denoted by s, i.e.,
2kR H( Po Pw ) R
= ln o + s . (5)
Q Rw
Q Ro
Pw = Po ln + s , (6)
2k RH Rw
k R
where s = R 1 ln s . (7)
ks Rw
Damaged
Zone
w/o skin P
Ps
w/ skin
Rw
Rs
Q Ro s
Pw = Po ln ln(e )
2k RH Rw
Q R
= Po ln o
2kR H Rwe s
Q R
= Po
ln o , (9)
2kR H Rweff
eff s
where Rw = Rwe . (10)
eff
Rw can be thought of as the hypothetical wellbore radius (in an
undamaged formation) that would lead to the same drawdown as
is actually observed in the well that is surrounded by the damaged
formation.
[However, this interpretation is potentially misleading, because in
general it is not correct to merely replace the actual wellbore
radius with the effective radius given in eq. (10). This
interpretation only applies to drawdown tests in an infinite
reservoir.]
Q cRw2
Pw = Pi Ei + 2s , (2)
4kH 4kt
Q kt
Pw = Pi ln + 0.80907 + 2s , (3)
4kH cRw
2
Q 2.246e 2s kt
or, Pw = Pi ln . (4)
4kH cRw2
It is clear from eq. (3) that the skin will have no effect on the
semi-log slope of pressure vs. lnt, but it will shift the entire
drawdown curve downward by a constant amount.
The skin factor can be found by proper interpretation of a
pressure buildup test. Incorporating the skin effect into the
equation for the buildup pressure, eq. (3.2.5), gives
Q 2.246e 2s k(t + t) 2.246e kt
2s
Pw = Pi ln ln
4kH cRw 2
cR w
2
Q t + t
Pw = Pi ln .
4kH t
(5)
The two skin terms cancel out, and do not appear in the equation
for the wellbore pressure.
Now consider the difference between the wellbore pressure
immediately before shut-in, which we will call Pw , and the
+
wellbore pressure a short time after shut-in, Pw . Using eq. (4) for
+
Pw , and eq. (5) for Pw , we find
+ Q t + t Q 2.246e 2s kt
Pw = ln +
4kH t 4kH cRw2
Pw ln
2.246k
Q t + t
= ln ln 2s . (6)
4kH tt
cRw
2
2.246k
+ Q + 2s .
Pw Pw = ln t + ln (7)
4kH cRw
2
Buildup Drawdown
Flow Flow
Rate Rate Qwh
Qwh Qsf
Qsf
Time Time
dPw dP
Qsf Qwh = Vwcf Cs w , (2)
dt dt
where Cs is the wellbore storage coefficient., and Vw is the total
volume of fluid within the wellbore, from the wellbottom to the
surface. [If the wellbore is not fully filled with liquid, the
appropriate expression for Cs can be found in Advances in Well
Test Analysis by Earlougher (SPE, 1977)].
At early times after the start of a constant-rate drawdown
test, Qwh = Q (the nominal flowrate), but Qsf 0 , so eq. (2) takes
the form
dPw
Q = Cs
. (3)
dt
Eq. (3) can be integrated, using the initial condition that Pw = Pi
when t = 0:
t Pw (t )
Q Qt
dt = dPw Pw = Pi . (4)
C
0 s P Cs
i
2kH(Pi Pw ) 2kHQt
PDw = = . (5)
Q QCs
(2) Express the RHS of eq. (5) in terms of tD:
2kHQ ct Rw2 t Dw t Dw
PDw = , (6)
QCs k CD
Outer
boundary Wells
of reservoir
No-flow
boundaries
Reservoir
P=Pw
Rw P=Pi
R Re
1 d dP c dP
Governing PDE: R = , (1)
R dR dR k dt
1 d dP dP
Governing PDE: RD D = D , (8)
RD dRD dRD dt D
1 d dPDs
Governing ODE: RD = 0, (13)
RD dRD dRD
dPDs
RD = B = constant . (16)
dRD
PDs (RD ) RD
dR
dPDs = B R D + A,
D
Comparison of eq. (17) with eqs. (14) and (15) shows that A =
1 and B = 1/ lnRDe , so eq. (17) can be written as
ln RD ln(RD / RDe )
PDs ( RD ) = 1 = . (18)
ln RDe ln RDe
ln(RD / RDe )
Initial condition: pD (RD , t = 0) = . (22)
ln RDe
1 d dF dG
G (t D ) RD = F ( RD ) . (24)
RD dRD dRD dt D
1 d dF 1 dG
RD = . (25)
RD F ( RD ) dRD dRD G (t D ) dt D
(d) The LHS of eq. (25) doesnt depend on tD, and the RHS
doesnt depend on RD; since they are equal to each other, they
cannot depend on either variable! Hence, each side of eq. (25)
must equal a constant, which we call 2 :
1 d dF 1 dG
RD = = 2 . (26)
RD F ( RD ) dRD dRD G (t D ) dt D
1
F (RD ) + F (RD ) + 2F( RD ) = 0 . (27)
RD
We now make a change of variables x = RD , after which eq. (27)
can be written as
1
F (x ) + F (x) + F(x) = 0 . (28)
x
n(n 1)a x
n =0
n
n2
+ nan x
n =0
n2
+ an x n = 0 .
n =0
(30)
1 1 1
a2 = , a4 = , a6 = .... (36)
4 64 2304
The solution to eq. (28) that is given by eqs. (29), (35) and (36) is
known as the Bessel function of the first kind (of order zero), and
is denoted by Jo(x):
x2 x4 x6
J 0 ( x) = 1 + + ... ,
4 64 2304
x2 x4 x6
or J 0 ( x) = 1 2 2 + 4 + ... , (37)
2 (1!) 2 (2!) 2 26 (3!) 2
2
J 0 ( x) cos x asx . (38)
x 4
0.5
Jo(x) or Yo(x)
0.0
-0.5 Jo(x)
Yo(x)
-1.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
x
2
Y0 (x) sin x x .
x
as (41)
4
J 0( ) Y0 ( ) A 0
= . (46)
J0 ( RDe ) Y0 (RDe ) B 0
. (48)
An J 0 (n )
Bn =
Y0 (n ) , (50)
J 0( n )
Fn (RD ) = AnJ0 ( nRD ) An Y0 ( nRD )
Y0 ( n )
=
An
Y0 ( n )
[Y0 ( n )J0 (nRD ) J 0( n )Y0 ( nRD ) ]
[
= Cn Y0 ( n )J 0( nRD ) J0 ( n )Y0 ( nRD ) , ] (51)
where the Cn are arbitrary constants, and the functions inside the
brackets are the eigenfunctions of this problem.
We now return to the time-dependent part of the solution,
which, according to eq. (26), must satisfy
dGn
= 2nGn (t D ) . (52)
dt D
The solution to eq. (52) is
Gn (t D ) = e nt D .
2
(53)
Recalling eq. (23), the most general solution that satisfies the
diffusion equation (19) and the BCs (20,21) is given by
pD (RD ,t D ) = Cn [Y0 ( n )J 0( nRD ) J0 ( n )Y0 ( nRD ) ]e ntD . (54)
2
n=1
All that remains now is to satisfy the initial condition, eq. (22).
Evaluating eq. (54) at t D = 0 , and invoking eq. (22), yields
Cn[Y0( n )J0 ( nRD ) J0 (n )Y0( nRD )]=
ln(RD / RDe )
. (55)
n= 1 lnRDe
analysis (not given here) of the flowrate shows that at early times
it is proportional to t -1/2, and it gradually approaches a steady-
state value given by eq. (1.4.4).
Reservoir
Q
Rw P=Pi
R Re
dJ0 (x ) dY (x)
J1(x) , Y1(x ) 0 . (5)
dx dx
2
Y1(x )J0 (x) J1(x )Y0( x) = ; (9)
x
the result is (Matthews and Russell, p. 12):
2 J 02 (n RDe )e ntD
2
PDw (t ) = ln RDe + 2 2 . (10)
n =1 n [ J 0 (n RDe ) J 1 (n )]
2
Reservoir No-flow
Q
Rw
R Re
2 RD2
PD ( RD , t D ) = + t D RDe
2
ln RD
2
RDe 1 4
3R De
4
4 R De
4
ln R De 2 R De
2
1
4 ( R 2
De 1) 2
J12 (n RDe )U n (n RD ) t
+
2
e ,
n D
(2)
n =1 n [ J 1 (n RDe ) J 1 (n )]
2 2
U n (n RD ) = J1 (n )Y0 (n RD ) Y1 (n ) J 0 (n RD ) , (3)
1 1 3R 4 4R4 lnRDe 2R 2 1
PDw (t D ) = + 2t D De De De
2
RDe 1 2 4(RDe 1)
2 2
2 J 12 (n RDe )e ntD
2
+ 2 2 . (5)
n =1 n [ J 1 (n RDe ) J 1 (n )]
2
In most cases of practical interest, however, RDe >> 1 , and eq. (5)
can effectively be written as
3 2J12 ( nRDe )e nt D
2
2t D
PDw (t D ) = 2 + lnRDe + 2 2 . (6)
n=1n[J1 ( nRDe ) J1 ( n )]
RDe 4 2
It is not easy to see that eq. (5) reduces to eq. (2.4.10) during
this time regime, but it does.
(ii) A second regime that is late enough that the presence of the
closed outer boundary is felt at the well, but still early enough
that the exponential terms in eq. (6) have not yet died out.
The start of this regime is given by the upper bound in eq. (7);
it ends when t Dw 0.3RDe
2 (see Tutorial Sheet 5). This regime
is therefore defined by
2 <t
Dw < 0.3RDe .
0.1RDe 2 (8)
t Dw > 0.3RDe
2 . (9)
Q 2kt Re 3
Pw (t ) = Pi + ln . (11)
2kH cRe2 Rw 4
dPw Q 2k Q
= = . (12)
dt 2 kH cRe2 Re2Hc
Q 1/ 2
Re = , (13)
H c(dPw /dt )
Q
A = Re2 = . (14)
cH(dPw /dt )
Eq. (12) can also be derived in the following, much simpler way,
by just doing a mass balance on the oil in the reservoir:
dM = V c dP . (15)
dt t dt
(d) - dM/dt is the mass flowrate out of the reservoir, and Q is the
volumetric flowrate, so dM/dt = -Q, in which case
-Q =Vct dP . (16)
dt
2
Constant-pressure RDe =
4 outer boundary
102
6
No-flow outer 103
boundary
8
RDe = 102 103 104
10
1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
Dimensionless Time, t Dw
same form as eq. (6.3.10) must hold for the drawdown, except
that the constant term may be different.
The duration of this regime is roughly given by eq. (6.3.9),
again with Re replaced by A / , although the start of this regime
2
1 4A
PDw = 2 t DA + ln 2 , (2)
2 RwCA
kt
t DA = , (3)
cA
= 1.781, and CA is a dimensionless constant known as the
Dietz shape factor.
Comparison of eq. (2) and eq. (6.3.10) reveals that, for a well
at the centre of a circular reservoir,
4
CA = = 31.62 . (4)
e 3 / 2
The shape factor tends to decrease as the drainage area
becomes more non-circular, or as the location of the well
becomes more off-centre. Shape factors for numerous geometries
can be found on p. 111 of Matthews & Russell; a few cases are
shown in Fig. 6.4.1.
CA CA
31.6 1 22.6
1 2.07
31.6
2
27.6 1 2.36
12.9 1 0.232
~
L {f (t )} f (s ) f (t )e st dt . (1)
0
~
Both notations, L{ f (t) } and f (s ) , are useful, depending on the
context. In the general theory of Laplace transforms, s must be
regarded as a complex variable, but for our purposes this is
usually not necessary.
If we have a function of two variables, such as P(R,t), we
can defined its Laplace transform in the same manner:
~
P (R, s ) P (R, t )e st dt . (2)
0
Note that the Laplace transform is taken with respect to the time
variable, not the spatial variable. To simplify the notation, we will
usually suppress the R variable when discussing the general
theory.
f(t) f(t-t0)
t
0 t0
Fig. 7.1.1. A function, f(t), and its time-shifted variant, f(t-t0).
Note that f(t - t0) = 0 if t < t0, which is consistent with the fact that,
when using Laplace transforms, we always consider all functions
f (t) to be zero when t < 0. (This is also consistent with the
physical fact that drawdowns will be zero before production
begins.).
The Laplace transform of f(t - t0) can be found directly from
the Laplace transform of f(t), as follows. First,
{ }
L f (t t 0 ) = f (t t 0 )e st dt . (11)
0
=e st 0
f ( )e s d = e st 0 f(s) . (14)
0
So, delaying a function f (t) by an amount of time t0 corresponds
to multiplying its Laplace transform by e st 0 .
If we take a function f (t) , and damp it out by multiplying it
-at
by e , this is equivalent to replacing s with s+a in the Laplace
transform of f (t) . The proof is as follows:
L {
e at f(t) }= f (t)e
0
at e st dt
(15)
= f (t)e (s+a)t dt = f(s + a).
0
1/ 2 2 2
e m dm =
2
L{t }= = , (21)
s 0 s 2 s
L1{ 1/ 2s 1/ 2 } = t 1/ 2 . (22)
1 3 5 ... (2n 1)
L{t n (1/ 2) } = . (24)
2n s n+(1/ 2)
Singularity
1 + i ~ 6
f (s ) = f (s )est ds x
2i i
6 6
6
x=
(25)
dP d dP(R,s)
L =
dR dR [{
L P(R,t) =
dR
}]
. (26)
dP(R,t ) dP(R,t)
L = e st dt
dR 0 dR
(27)
d st dP(R,s)
= P(R,t)e dt = dR .
dR 0
Top View
Flow
Wellbore
Fracture
dP d 2P
PDE: =D , (1)
dt dz 2
IC: P( z, t = 0) = Pi , (2)
dP Q
fracture BC: ( z = 0, t ) = . (4)
dz 4kLH
dP
L = sL{ P( z, t )} P( z, t = 0) = sP( z, s ) Pi . (6)
dt
d 2P( z, s )
ODE: D sP(z, s) = Pi . (8)
2
dz
~
Although P ( z,s ) is a function of two variables, z and s, there
~
are no derivatives of P ( z,s ) with respect to s in eq. (8). So s
really appears in eq. (8) as a parameter, not a variable.
Consequently, eq. (8) is an ODE rather than a PDE.
The initial condition is already incorporated into eq. (8).
However, we must now take the Laplace transforms of the
two BCs, eqs. (3) and (4):
far-field BC:
P
L{ P( z = , t )} = P(z = , s) = L{ Pi } = i , (9)
s
fracture BC:
dP dP Q Q
L (z = 0, t ) = (z = 0, s ) = L = . (10)
dz dz 4kLH 4kLHs
1 Q D 1
= Pi L1 L1
s 4kLH s 3 / 2
Q Dt
= Pi . (15)
2kLH
t = =t
L{f g} = f( )g(t )d e st dt . (3)
t =0 =0
t= t=
t t
= t =
L{f g} = st
g(t )e dt f ( )d . (4)
= 0 t =
= x=
L{f g} = s( +
dx f( )d
g( x)e x)
= 0 x= 0
(5)
= x=
= f ( )e d g( x)e dx = f(s) g(s).
s sx
=0 x= 0
We have therefore proven that convolution of two
functions in the time domain corresponds to multiplication of
the their respective Laplace transforms. This is extremely
useful, because
(a) It implies that, if we can break up a difficult Laplace
transform into the product of two simpler transforms whose
inverses are known, then we can find the complete inverse
function by convolution.
(b) More importantly, it implies that, for any given reservoir
geometry, if we can solve the diffusion equation for the case
of a constant production rate, then the solution for an
arbitrary production schedule can be found by convolution.
Actually, we already knew this from section 3.4. However,
the concept is more general, since, for example, we can also
use it to find the solution for the case of varying wellbore
pressure from the solution for the case of constant wellbore
pressure.
As an example of the use of convolution in the Laplace
domain, consider the hydraulic fracture problem of section
7.2, but with an arbitrary time-dependent flowrate into the
P Q(s) D z
P(z,s) = i e s /D
. (7)
s 4kLHs 1/ 2
Pi Q(s) D
P(z = 0,s) = . (8)
s 4kLHs1/ 2
We now take the inverse Laplace transform, and in doing so
make use of linearity and convolution:
(s) D
P(z = 0,t) = L 1
{
P(z = 0,s) = L }
Q
1Pi
s 4kLHs
1/ 2
1 D
Q(s)
= Pi L1 L1
s 4kLH 1/ 2
s
= Pi
D
4kLH
[L (s)}
1{Q
] [L 1{s 1/ 2 }
]. (9)
D/ t Q( )
= Pi d
4kLH 0 t
1 t Q( )
= Pi d
4LH kc 0 t
1 t Q( )
= Pi d
A kc 0 t
t q( )
= Pi d . (10)
kc 0 t
f(x)
f(b)
f(a)
x
a b
ln 2 2N ~ nln 2
Pw (t ) = Vn Pw s = , (2)
t n =1 t
min(n,N )
k N (2k)!
Vn = (1) n . (3)
k= (n+1) / 2 (N k)!k!(k 1)!(n k)!(2k n)!
______________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 6:
(1) What is the Laplace transform of the function f(t) = e-at?
(2) Starting with the basic definition of the Laplace
transform, eq. (7.1.1), verify eq. (7.1.16).
(3) Following the steps that were taken in section 7.2, use
Laplace transforms to try to solve the one-dimensional
diffusion problem with a constant-pressure boundary
condition:
1 dP d 2P
PDE: = , (i)
D dt dz 2
8. Naturally-Fractured Reservoirs
Many reservoirs contain a network of interconnected
naturally occurring fractures that provide most of the reservoir-
scale permeability. In fact, it has been estimated that about 40%
of the worlds known reserves occur in fractured reservoirs. Flow
through such reservoirs is more complicated than through
unfractured reservoirs, and cannot be analysed with the equations
that we have developed and solved in the previous sections.
The basic mathematical model used for fractured reservoirs
was first developed by Barenblatt, Zheltov and Kochina in 1960,
and by Warren and Root in 1963 (SPEJ, 1963). Several
refinements have been made since then, and the resulting
equations have been solved for many different reservoir
geometries, with and without wellbore storage, skin effects, etc. In
this section we will briefly describe this model, and present and
discuss the solution for flow to a well in an unbounded dual-
porosity reservoir.
dPf kf 1 d dPf
(c)f = R + qmf ,
R dR dR
(1)
dt
Q dPDf kf
= (c) f
2kf H dt D ( f cf + mcm ) Rw
2
c Q dP
= f f Df . (5)
( f c f + mcm )2HRw2 dt D
kf 1 d dPf Q 1 d dPDf
R = RD .
R dR dR 2HRw2 RD dR D dRD
(6)
Lastly, we transform the qmf term in eq. (8.1.1), using eq. 8.1.7).
In analogy with eq. (5), this term becomes
dPm mcmQ dP
qmf = (c)m = Dm
. (7)
dt ( f cf + mcm )2HRw2 dt D
Eqs. (8,10) are two coupled differential equations for the two
dimensionless pressures, PDf and PDm .
These two equations contain two dimensionless parameters.
The first is the ratio of fracture storativity to total (fracture + matrix)
storativity, known as :
f cf
= . (11)
(f cf + mcm )
The second dimensionless parameter, , is essentially a ratio of
matrix permeability to fracture permeability:
kmRw2
= . (12)
kf
In practice, we usually have < 0.1, and < 0.001.
In terms of these dimensionless parameters and , and the
dimensionless variables defined in eqs. (1-4), the two governing
equations for a dual-porosity reservoir are
1 d dPDf dP dP
RD = Df + (1 ) Dm , (13)
RD dRD dRD dt D dt D
dPDm
(1 ) = (PDf PDm ) . (14)
dt D
If the reservoir is actually a single-porosity reservoir, then
the storativity ratio would be 1, and these two equations, (13)
and (14), would reduce to the standard pressure diffusion
equation, (6.1.8).
In the usual form of the dual-porosity model, fluid does not
flow from one matrix block to another. Only the fractures provide
the macroscopic, reservoir-scale permeability. Hence, the
pressure that we measure in the wellbore represents the pressure
in those fractures that are nearest the wellbore. Therefore, the
drawdown in the wellbore is found from
1 t D t D
PDw = lnt D + 0.8091+ Ei Ei . (2)
2
(1 ) (1 )
1 t D t D
PDw = lnt D + 0.8091+ ln ln
2 (1 ) (1 )
1 t D t D
= lnt D + 0.8091+ ln ln ln
2 (1 ) (1 )
=
1
2
{
ln(t D / ) + 0.8091 . } (4)
Q kf t
+ 0.8091 ,
i.e., Pw = ln (5)
4k f H (c)f Rw
2
PDw =
1
2
{
ln t D + 0.8091 , } (6)
Q kf t
+ 0.8091 .
Pw = ln (7)
4k f H [(c)f + ( c) m ] Rw2
Both the early-time solution given by eq. (5) and the late-time
solution given by eq. (7) will give straight lines when plotted on a
semi-log plot, with exactly the same slope,
dPw Q
= . (8)
d lnt 4k f H
tD1 tD2
ln(tD)
where = 1.78 is Eulers constant, and and are the two dual-
porosity parameters defined in eqs. (8.2.11,12).
This horizontal line intersects the late-time semi-log straight
line at a dimensionless time t D2 given by
1
t D2 = . (12)
Eqs. (11,12) show that the horizontal offset of the two asymptotic
semi-log straight lines is equal to ln(1/).
In dimensional form, these intercept times are
( c )f
t1 = , (13)
km
[(c )f + ( c )m ]
t2 = . (14)
km
______________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 7:
(1) Without looking at the paper by Warren and Root, sketch the
forms that you think the drawdown curve in Fig. 8.3.1 would have
if
(a) The storativity ratio increased (or decreased) by a factor of
10.
(b) The permeability ratio increased (or decreased) by a factor
of 10.
d( qR) d( )
=R . (1)
dR dt
We now use Darcys law, in the form given by eq. (1.4.1), for
the flux term q on the left-hand side, i.e.,
k dP
q= , (2)
dR
in which case eq. (1) takes the form
1 d k dP d( )
R =
R dR dR
. (3)
dt
1 d k dP dP
R = (Cf + C ) . (4)
R dR dR dt
P = RT , (1)
1 d kP dP (Cf + C ) dP
R = P . (2)
R dR RT dR RT dt
The simplest model of gas flow can be derived from eq. (2)
by making the following assumptions.
(a) Assume that the temperature is constant.
(b) Assume that the viscosity of the gas is independent of
pressure. This is actually rigorously true for an ideal gas, for
which the viscosity depends only on temperature. This
assumption allows us to take outside of the derivative on the
left-hand side of eq. (2).
(c) Assume that the compressibility of the gas is much larger than
that of the formation, as is usually the case. In fact, the
compressibility of an ideal gas is (1/P), since
1 d RT d P RT 1 1
Cf = = = = . (3)
dP T P dP RT T P RT P
1 d dP dP
RP =
dR kP dt
P . (4)
R dR
dP 1 d(P 2 ) dP 1 d(P 2 )
P = , and P = , (5)
dR 2 dR dt 2 dt
1 d d(P 2 ) d(P 2 )
R = . (6)
R dR dR kP dt
Pi + Pw (end of test)
Pm = . (7)
2
If this is done, then eq. (6) becomes a linear diffusion equation,
with P2 rather than P as the dependent variable.
P
P
P = zRT, or = , (1)
zRT
where z is the (dimensionless) gas deviation factor.
Using this equation of state, eq. (9.1.3) takes the form
1 d k dP d P
R = .
R dR zRT dR dt zRT
P (2)
1 d k dP d P
R = .
R dR z dR
P (3)
dt z
P
k(P)P
m(P) = 2 dP . (4)
0 (P)z(P)
2k P k 2
m(P) PdP = P . (5)
0
Hence, for an ideal gas in a stress-insensitive reservoir, the
pseudopressure m is, aside from a multiplicative constant, equal
to P 2 .
Returning to the real gas case, we differentiate eq. (4) with
respect to P, to find
dm( P ) 2k (P )P
= , (6)
dP ( P )z( P )
which implies that
dm dm dP 2k( P )P dP
= = . (7)
dR dP dR ( P )z( P ) dR
Substituting eq. (7) into the left-hand side of eq. (3) leads to
1 d dm d P
R = .
2R dR dR
(8)
dt z
d P d ( RT ) d d dP
= = RT = RT . (9)
dt z dt dt dP dt
1 d d
Cg = , = Cg ,
dP T
so (10)
dP T
d P dP
= R T( P )Cg (P ) . (11)
dt z dt
Next we recall from eq. (1) that = P / zRT , and rewrite eq. (11)
as
d P Cg ( P) P dP
=
dt z
. (12)
z (P ) dt
1 d dm Cg ( P )P dP
R =
2R dR dR
. (13)
z (P ) dt
dm 2k( P )P dP
= , (14)
dt ( P) z( P) dt
so that
dP ( P )z( P ) dm
= . (15)
dt 2k ( P) P dt
1 d dm (P )Cg ( P) dm
R =
R dR dR
. (16)
k (P ) dt
P
P
m ( P) = 2k dP . (18)
0 ( P ) z( P )
d 2 d 2
k= , (2)
96 100
d = 10 k / . (3)
q
v= . (5)
Hence, the criterion (4) for the validity of Darcys law can be
written as
3 / 2
q< . (6)
10 k
Q = Aq = 2RHq , (7)
2RH 3 / 2 RH 3 / 2
Q< , (8)
10 k k
s = s + DQ, (11)
8c k BT 1
kgas = k 1+ . (3)
2 d 2 P
Klinkenberg Effect
300
Permeability, kGAS (mD)
150
100
50
kabs = kgas (line, at 1/P = 0) = 30 mD
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
1/Pressure (atm -1)