Project Report 2016-17 Ultrasonic Blind Walking Stick

1. INTRODUCTION

This project is designed to guide a visually impaired person to walk and avoid bumping
into obstacles. Low cost ultrasonic rangefinders along with a microcontroller is used to measure
the distance to obstacles and if they are close enough provide a feedback to the user in form of
beeps or vibrations.

The project is made on a small single layer PCB. The sensors are not mounted on the
PCB but they are mounted on front of the stick and connected to the main board using wires. All
the parts of project PCB is shown in the image below.

Using the stick is simple, just plug the power bank to the USB plug and switch on board
using the On/Off Switch. The power indicator LED should glow. The system is now read For
testing purpose keep all the three sensors on flat surface such as ultrasonic beam emitted by them
is horizontal. Make sure there are no obstacles in front of any sensor up-to a distance of 1 meter.
Slowly come close to the center sensor until the buzzer starts beeping. For obstacles found by the
center sensor there are two quick beeps. Try to remember this beep pattern. Now move slowly
towards the right sensor also make sure there is no obstacle in front of the front sensor. For
obstacles sensed by right sensor it will give three quick beeps. Similarly for left sensor it will
give single beep.

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Project Report 2016-17 Ultrasonic Blind Walking Stick

2. BLOCK DIAGRAM

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Project Report 2016-17 Ultrasonic Blind Walking Stick

4. COMPONENTS USED

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

In this section we will see the components used in the cell phone detector and also
discuss about the main aspects of their working and features. But before the discussing of above
let us see about some quality of the semiconductor devices.

Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic properties
of semiconductor materials, principally silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide, as well
as organic semiconductors. Semiconductor devices have replaced thermionic devices (vacuum
tubes) in most applications. They use electronic conduction in the solid state as opposed to
the gaseous state or thermionic emission in a high vacuum.

Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete devices and as integrated
circuits(ICs), which consist of a number from a few (as low as two) to billionsof devices
manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor substrate, or wafer.

Semiconductor materials are so useful because their behavior can be easily manipulated
by the addition of impurities, known as doping. Semiconductor conductivity can be controlled by
introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by exposure to light or heat, or by mechanical
deformation of a doped mono crystalline grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors.

By far, silicon (Si) is the most widely used material in semiconductor devices. Its
combination of low raw material cost, relatively simple processing, and a useful temperature
range make it currently the best compromise among the various competing materials. Silicon
used in semiconductor device manufacturing is currently fabricated into bowls that are large
enough in diameter to allow the production of 300 mm (12 in.) wafers.

Germanium (Ge) was a widely used early semiconductor material but its thermal
sensitivity makes it less useful than silicon. Today, germanium is often alloyed with silicon for
use in very-high-speed SiGe devices.

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also widely used in high-speed devices but so far, it has been
difficult to form large-diameter bowls of this material, limiting the wafer diameter to sizes

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significantly smaller than silicon wafers thus making mass production of GaAs devices
significantly more expensive than silicon. Other less common materials are also in use or under
investigation.

Silicon carbide (SiC) has found some application as the raw material for blue light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and is being investigated for use in semiconductor devices that could
withstand very high operating temperatures and environments with the presence of significant
levels of ionizing radiation.

Various indium compounds (indium arsenide, indium antimonies, and indium phosphide)
are also being used in LEDs and solid state laser diodes. Selenium sulfide is being studied in the
manufacture of photovoltaic solar cells. The most common use for organic
semiconductors is Organic light-emitting diodes.

Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio, computers,

and telephones. Semiconductor-based electronic components include transistors, solar cells,
many kinds of diodes including the light-emitting diode (LED), the silicon controlled rectifier,
photo-diodes, and digital and analog integrated circuits.

4.2 COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

THE POWER BANK

Finding a good power source for this project was a challenge, the power supply should
have to be mobile, so that we cannot use power adapters. Also it had to be rechargeable so that it
is economical for day long use to. And last but not the least! It had to be low cost. So we picked
up a rechargeable 5v power bank used to charge mobile phones or tablets. Due to mass
production and high demand as a mobile accessory these are dirt cheap! A common 2700mAH
power bank with USB type socket is shown below.

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These can be charged in 2hours using a 5v charger. The charger is plugged into the wall
socket and 5v output from the charger is given to the power bank and allowed to charge for 2
hours. The power bank must be detached from the project while charging.

ULTRASONIC RANGE FINDERS

These are used to measure the distance to the obstacle. They emit sound waves with their
frequency lying in the ultrasonic spectrum (more than 20Kz) and thus inaudible to human ears.
These sound waves go to the obstacle and bounces back to the detectors. We use a common HC-
SR04 rangefinder module for this purpose.

Ultrasonic transducers are transducer that converts ultra sound waves to electrical signal or
vice versa. Those that both transmit and receive may also be called ultrasound transceivers;
many ultrasound sensors besides being sensors are indeed transceivers because they can both
sense and transmit. These devices work on a principle similar to that of transducers used
in radar and sonar systems, which evaluate attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes from
radio or sound waves, respectively. Active ultrasonic sensors generate high-frequency sound
waves and evaluate the echo which is received back by the sensor, measuring the time interval
between sending the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance to an object. Passive
ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect ultrasonic noise that is present under
certain conditions, convert it to an electrical signal, and report it to a .computer.

Ultrasonic probes and ultrasonic baths are used to apply sound energy to agitate particles in a
wide range of laboratory applications.

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Capabilities and limitations

This technology can be used for measuring wind speed and direction, tank or channel fluid level,
and speed through air or water. For measuring speed or direction, a device uses multiple
detectors and calculates the speed from the relative distances to particulates in the air or water.
To measure tank or channel level, the sensor measures the distance to the surface of the fluid.
Further applications include: humidifier, sonar, medical ultra sonography, burglar alarm ,non-
destructive testing and wireless charging.

Systems typically use a transducer which generates sound waves in the ultrasonic range, above
18 KHz by turning electrical energy into sound, then upon receiving the echo turn the sound
waves into electrical energy which can be measured and displayed.

The technology is limited by the shapes of surfaces and the density or consistency of the
material. Foam, in particular, can distort surface level readings.

This technology, as well, can detect approaching objects and track their positions.

Transducers

Sound field of a non focusing 4 MHz ultrasonic transducer with a near field length of N = 67 mm in water. The plot
shows the sound pressure at a logarithmic db-scale.

Sound pressure field of the same ultrasonic transducer (4 MHz, N = 67 mm) with the transducer surface having a
spherical curvature with the curvature radius R = 30 mm

An ultrasonic transducer is a device that converts AC into ultra sound, as well as the reverse,
sound into AC. In ultrasonic, the term typically refers to piezoelectric transducer or capacitative
transducer. Piezoelectric crystals change size and shape when a voltage is applied; AC voltage
makes them oscillate at the same frequency and produce ultrasonic sound. Capacitive transducers
use electrostatic fields between a conductive diaphragm and a backing plate.

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The beam pattern of a transducer can be determined by the active transducer area and shape, the
ultrasound wavelength, and the sound velocity of the propagation medium. The diagrams show
the sound fields of an unfocused and a focusing ultrasonic transducer in water, plainly at
differing energy levels.

Since piezoelectric materials generate a voltage when force is applied to them, they can also
work as ultrasonic detectors. Some systems use separate transmitters and receivers, while others
combine both functions into a single piezoelectric transceiver.

Ultrasound transmitters can also use non-piezoelectric principles such as magneto striction.
Materials with this property change size slightly when exposed to a magnetic field, and make
practical transducers.

A capacitor ("condenser") microphone has a thin diaphragm that responds to ultrasound waves.
Changes in the electric field between the diaphragm and a closely spaced backing plate convert
sound signals to electric currents, which can be amplified.

The diaphragm (or membrane) principle is also used in the relatively new micro-machined
ultrasonic transducers (MUTs). These devices are fabricated using silicon micro-machining
technology, which is particularly useful for the fabrication of transducer arrays. The vibration of
the diaphragm may be measured or induced electronically using the capacitance between the
diaphragm and a closely spaced backing plate or by adding a thin layer of piezo-electric material
on diaphragm .Alternatively, recent research showed that the vibration of the diaphragm may be
measured by a tiny optical ring resonator integrated inside the diaphragm (OMUS).

Use in medicine
Medical ultrasonic transducers (probes) come in a variety of different shapes and sizes for use in
making cross-sectional images of various parts of the body. The transducer may be passed over
the surface and in contact with the body, or inserted into a body opening such as the rectum.
Clinicians who perform ultrasound-guided procedures often use a probe positioning system to
hold the ultrasonic transducer.

Air detection sensors are used in various roles. Non-invasive air detection is for the most critical
situations where the safety of a patient is mandatory. Many of the variables, which can affect

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performance of amplitude or continuous-wave-based sensing systems, are eliminated or greatly

reduced, thus yielding accurate and repeatable detection.

One key principle in this technology is that the transmit signal consists of short bursts of
ultrasonic energy. After each burst, the electronics looks for a return signal within a small
window of time corresponding to the time it takes for the energy to pass through the vessel. Only
signals received during this period will qualify for additional signal processing. This principle is
similar to radar range gating.

Use in industry
Ultrasonic sensors can detect movement of targets and measure the distance to them in
many automated factories and process plants. Sensors can have an on or off digital output for
detecting the movement of objects, or an analog output proportional to distance. They can sense
the edge of material as part of a web guiding system.

Ultrasonic sensors are widely used in cars as parking sensors to aid the driver in reversing into
parking spaces. They are being tested for a number of other automotive uses including ultrasonic
people detection and assisting in autonomous UVA navigation.

Because ultrasonic sensors use sound rather than light for detection, they work in applications
where photo electric sensors may not. Ultrasonic are a great solution for clear object detection,
clear label detection and for liquid level measurement, applications that photoelectric struggle
with because of target translucence. As well, target color and/or reflectivity do not affect
ultrasonic sensors, which can operate reliably in high-glare environments.

Passive ultrasonic sensors may be used to detect high-pressure gas or liquid leaks, or other
hazardous conditions that generate ultrasonic sound. In these devices, audio from the transducer
(microphone) is converted down to human hearing range.

High-power ultrasonic emitters are used in commercially available ultrasonic cleaning devices.
An ultrasonic transducer is affixed to a stainless steel pan which is filled with a solvent
(frequently water or isopropanol). An electrical square wave feeds the transducer, creating sound
in the solvent strong enough to cause cavitations.

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Ultrasonic technology has been used for multiple cleaning purposes. One of which that is gaining
a decent amount of traction in the past decade is ultrasonic gun cleaning. Gun cleaners based out
of north NJ has been doing it for over 20 years with over two million guns cleaned ultrasonically.
[7]

Ultrasonic testing is also widely used in metallurgy and engineering to evaluate corrosion, welds,
and material defects using different types of scans.

PIC MICROCONTROLLER

This is the heart of the project. It reads distance to obstacle using the sensor and also
commands the buzzer. There are several members in the PIC MCU family, but we have
chosen PIC16F877A because it is very popular, easily available and is recommended in the
academic course of many universities of Bharat.

PIC16F877A

High-Performance, Enhanced PIC Flash Microcontroller in 40-pin PDIP

The PIC16F877A CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller is upward compatible with
the PIC16C5x, PIC12Cxxx and PIC16C7x devices. It features 200 ns instruction execution, 256
bytes of EEPROM data memory, self programming, an ICD, 2 Comparators, 8 channels of 10-bit
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter, 2 capture/compare/PWM functions, a synchronous serial port
that can be configured as either 3-wire SPI or 2-wire I2C bus, a USART, and a Parallel Slave
Port.

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Microchip PIC16F877A Microcontroller Features

i. High-Performance RISC CPU

ii. Lead-free; RoHS-compliant

iii. Operating speed: 20 MHz, 200 ns instruction cycle

iv. Operating voltage: 4.0-5.5V

v. Industrial temperature range (-40 to +85C)

vi. 15 Interrupt Sources

vii. 35 single-word instructions

viii. All single-cycle instructions except for program branches (two-cycle)

Special Microcontroller Features

i. Flash Memory: 14.3 Kbytes (8192 words)

ii. Data SRAM: 368 bytes

iii. Data EEPROM: 256 bytes

iv. Self-reprogrammable under software control

v. In-Circuit Serial Programming via two pins (5V)

vi. Watchdog Timer with on-chip RC oscillator

vii. Programmable code protection

viii. Power-saving Sleep mode

ix. Selectable oscillator options In-Circuit Debug via two pins

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BUZZER

A small 10mm diameter 5 volt buzzer is used to alert the user about the obstacles. It
beeps once for a obstacle in left, twice for a obstacle in front and thrice for an obstacle in right.
You can also connect a vibrator motor in parallel with the buzzer. This will provide a vibrational
feedback along with audio beeps.

4.2.3 PIEZO BUZZER

Figure 1: Piezo Buzzer

Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials (notably crystals and certain ceramics,
including bone) to generate an electric field or electric potential in response to applied
mechanical stress. The effect is closely related to a change of polarization density within the
material's volume. If the material is not short-circuited, the applied stress induces a voltage
across the material. The word is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein, which means to
squeeze or press.

A buzzer or beeper is a signaling device, usually electronic, typically used in

automobiles, household appliances such as microwave ovens, or game shows .It most commonly
consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that determines if and
which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on the

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appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or
intermittent buzzing or beeping sound.

Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was identical to an
electric bell without the metal gong (which makes the ringing noise). Often these units were
anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another
implementation with some AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC
current into a noise loud enough to drive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit up to an 8-ohm
speaker. Nowadays, it is more popular to use a ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder which makes
a high-pitched tone. Usually these were hooked up to "driver" circuits which varied the pitch of
the sound or pulsed the sound on and off.

The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that buzzers made when they were
electromechanical devices, operated from stepped-down AC line voltage at 50 or 60 cycles.
Other sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a ring or a beep.

Uses

i. Annunciator panels

ii. Electronic metronomes

iii. Game shows

iv. Microwave ovens and other household appliances

v. Sporting events such as basketball games

vi. Electrical alarms

4.2.2 LED

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Figure 2: Labeled Diagram of an LED

Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an electronic light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many kinds of electronics and increasingly for lighting. LEDs work by the effect of
electroluminescence, discovered by accident in 1907. The LED was introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962. All early devices emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infra red wavelengths, with very high
brightness.

LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased (switched
on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of light. This
effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the energy gap of
the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical
components to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.

LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching. However,
they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than
traditional light sources.

Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators but also for
replacements for traditional light sources in general lightning, automotive lightning and
traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors
to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology.

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Figure 3: Different Types of LED's

Applications

i. Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external
electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an
integrated multi vibrator circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period
of one second.
ii. Tri-color LEDs are three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is
connected to a separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead
arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or cathode) and an
additional lead for each color.
iii. RGB LEDs are Tri-color LEDs with red, green, and blue emitters, in general
using a four-wire connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). These
LEDs can have either common positive or common negative leads. Others
however, have only two leads (positive and negative) and have a built in
tiny electronic control unit.
iv. Alphanumeric LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format.
Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst
displays can display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread
use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rise in use of LCDs, with their lower power
needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and
alphanumeric LED displays.

4.2.1 TRANSISTOR

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Figure 4: Transistors

A transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic

signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor
provides amplification of a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found
in integrated circuits. The transistors are the fundamental building block of modern electronic
devices, and its presence is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.

The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types currently predominate
but certain advanced microwave and high performance versions now employ the compound
semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy silicon germanium
(SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as elemental.

In a transistor, the higher the electron mobility the faster the transistor can operate. It is
proven early, that Ge is a better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge has four major
shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide:

i. Its maximum temperature is limited.

ii. It has relatively high leakage current.
iii. It cannot withstand high voltages.
iv. It is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.

Usage

The bipolar junction transistor, or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor in the
1960s and 70s. Even after MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained the transistor
of choice for many analog circuits such as simple amplifiers because of their greater linearity and
ease of manufacture. Desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their utility in low-power
devices, usually in the CMOS configuration, allowed them to capture nearly all market share for

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digital circuits; more recently MOSFETs have captured most analog and power applications as
well, including modern clocked analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power
transmitters, motor drivers, etc.

Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power applications
such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates.

Advantages

The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube
predecessors in most applications are:

i. Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized

electronic devices.
ii. Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost.
iii. Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery-
powered applications.
iv. No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application.
v. Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.
vi. Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
vii. Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more
than 30 years.
viii. Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementary-
symmetry circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.
ix. Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of
microphones in audio applications.
Limitations

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i. Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1,000 volts (SiC
devices can be operated as high as 3,000 volts). In contrast, electron tubes have
been developed that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts.

ii. High power, high frequency operation, such as used in over-the-air television
broadcasting, is better achieved in electron tubes due to improved electron
mobility in a vacuum.

iii. On average, a higher degree of amplification linearity can be achieved in electron

tubes as compared to equivalent solid state devices, a characteristic that may be
important in high fidelity audio reproduction.

iv. Silicon transistors are much more sensitive than electron tubes to an
electromagnetic pulse, such as generated by an atmospheric nuclear explosion.

Bipolar junction transistor:

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the first type of transistor to be mass-produced.
Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority
carriers. The three terminals of the BJT are named emitter, base, and collector. The BJT consists
of two p-n junctions: the baseemitter junction and the basecollector junction, separated by a
thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two junction diodes wired together
without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not make a transistor). "The [BJT] is
useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by the
relatively small base current.

In an NPN transistor operating in the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward
biased (electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into the base
region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased
(electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction) base-collector junction and
be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base,
which is the dominant mechanism in the base current.

By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons
entering the collector can be controlled. Collector current is approximately (common-emitter

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current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors
but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications.

Piezoelectric Sound Generators (Transducers and Buzzers)

The heart of all piezoelectric sound generators is a simple piezo ceramic disc, consisting
of a metal plate, glued together with a ceramic layer. If the disc is driven by an external
oscillating circuit, the piezo sound generator is called piezoelectric transducer. If the disc is
driven by a built-in oscillating circuit its called piezoelectric buzzer. The advantages of these
simple structured, acoustic components are their robustness and cost-efficient sound
solution. Piezo sound generators are the ideal choice for applications, which need a simple sound
signal within a small frequency range, e. g. warning and control sound signals of kitchen devices,
medical and health care products.

The dimension range of piezo sound generators starts from the miniaturized size of 11
mm 9 mm 1.7 mm up to 45 mm and covers sound pressures between low soft sound and
aggressive noisy sound. The design of almost all piezoelectric sound generators is adjusted to
meet the most popular frequencies in the range between 2000 Hz and 5000 Hz.
Operation temperature range is available from -40C to +120C. Standard voltage range is
between 3 V and 12 V, in special cases higher, according to customers demand. Piezoelectric
sound generators are available with pins, wires or SMD pads.

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PIC16F877A

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