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Basic Principles of Electricity PDF
Basic Principles of Electricity PDF
METU
Basic Principles of
Electricity
by
Prof. Dr. Osman SEVAOLU
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 1
Basic Principles of Electricity
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Course Syllabus
EE 209
Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering (3-0)3
Basic Principles of Electricity,
Circuit Analysis,
AC Circuits,
AC Power,
Phasors,
Three Phase Systems,
Transformers,
Magnetic Circuits,
Electrical Safety
(Offered to non-EE students only)
Prerequisite: PHYS 106 or consent of the department.
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 2
Basic Principles of Electricity
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 3
Basic Principles of Electricity
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ISBN: 0072463473
Copyright year: 2003
999 Pages
Available in Reserve Division of the
Middle East Technical University
Central Library
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 4
Basic Principles of Electricity
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Course Syllabus
Chapters to be Covered
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 5
Basic Principles of Electricity
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Examinations
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 6
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Homework
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 7
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Examinations
Midterm examinations will cover all the material taught until the
examination date,
Final Examination will cover the overall course material,
Announced exam schedule can neither be changed nor discussed
after it has been settled,
Duration of the examination will never be extended,
Questions will never be allowed during the examination
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 8
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Make-up Examinations
Will be given only to those students with valid documented excuse,
Requests for make-up exam that does not include a valid documented
excuse will be rejected,
A single make-up exam will be given to all students with legitimate
rights for the exam,
Exam will be carried out in an officially settled date and hour,
Exam will not be repeated, i.e. Make-up of make-up will not be
performed,
Students will be responsible for answering the questions only from the
parts covered in the exam that they have missed
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 9
Basic Principles of Electricity
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 10
Basic Principles of Electricity
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http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ee209/
Yahoo Group for the course is;
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ee209/
This group is intended to be the main communication medium for
information exchange and storage for the course
Enrollment to this group is compulsory ---
All students are obliged to subscribe to this group by using the
procedure described in the next page
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 11
Basic Principles of Electricity
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E-mail Group
Enrollment
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 12
Basic Principles of Electricity
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E-mail Group
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 13
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E-mail Group
Communication
All questions, suggestions, complaints, demands, requests and other
communication concerning the course should be directed to the e-mail
communication address of the group:
ee209@yahoogroups.com
The Course Instructor keeps the right of not answering some or all
of the questions, suggestions, complaints, demands, requests
forwarded in this mail group, in case that it is not necessary, or not
relevant, or not possible
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 14
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E-mail Group
Rules of Communication
In your e-mails;
Be polite,
Start your letter with; Dear Group Members or Dear Friends
and end with; With best regards
Do not use disturbing abbreviatons, such as slm for selam,
Do not discuss your own personal, social or academic problems,
Do not be aggressive to the Group members and to Course
Instructor,
Do not discuss subjects not relevant to the course, (such as
last match of Fenerbahe)
People who violate the above rules will be deleted from the group
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 15
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E-mail Group
Group Moderators
Course Instructor is the Main Moderator of the e-mail Group.
Assistant Moderator
An assistant moderator who is familiar with the management of
yahoogroups activities, will be elected and appointed for managing
the group from valunteer candidates in the class during the first hour.
Moderators have identical authorities in group management in all
respects
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 16
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Problems
E-mail Group
Office Hours
Unfortunately, there will not be any chance for office hour
Please do not refer my office for any reason,
and do not blame for that.
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 18
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E-mail Group
Telephone Calls
My GSM No: 0 532 384 78 65
Telephone calls for concerning your personal, social and academic
problems will neither be listened, nor be appreciated nor be interested
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 19
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E-mail Group
Atom
Structure of atom Helium Atom
Proton
Neutron
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 21
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Electrical Charge
Definition
Unit of Electrical Charge Coulomb
6.3 x 10 electrons = 1 Coulomb
18
or
Electrical charge / electron = 1/ (6.3 x 1018)
Coulomb
= 1.602 x 10-19 Coulomb
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 22
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h2
h1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 23
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Water Circuit
Pump
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 24
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Water Circuit
P2
Gravitational force
P = P2 - P1 Pump
P1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 25
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Electrical Circuit
Electrical Current (I)
Electromotive force
Consumer
(Load)
Electrical Circuit
Current (I)
Electromotive force
Voltage (V)
Consumer
(Load)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 27
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Voltage Difference
Current (I)
P2 V2
Gravitational force
+
P = P2 - P1 Pump V = V2 - V1
P1
V1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 28
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V1
V1 = 0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 29
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Definition
Ground Node is the point (junction) at which the
voltage is assumed to be zero
All other voltages takes their references with
respect to this ground node
Ground Node
(Black Terminal )
Measured Node
(Red Terminal )
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 30
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Electrical Current
Current = no. of electrons transferred / time duration Charge = Current x Time duration
I = Q / t Q = I x t
1 Amp = 1 Coulomb / 1 Seconds
Current
(I)
Voltage difference +
(V) Consumer
(Load)
Current
(I)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 31
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Traffic Current
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 32
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Water Current
2 mm diameter
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 34
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2 mm diameter
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 35
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Electrical Current
1 meter
2 mm diameter
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 36
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Electrons
Electromotive force Current
V2
V = V2 - V1
Electrons
V1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 37
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Electrical Current
DC (Direct Current) Sources
V2 V2 V = V2 - V1 V1
V = V2 - V1
V1 = 0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 38
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Simple AC Circuit
Current
(I)
Generator Customer
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 39
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 40
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Qn-1
+
------------
Qin
Charges leaving
Qout = Qn
Balance
Qin = Qout or
Qin Qout = 0 or
Q=0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 41
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or
Q = 0
Qn Coulombs/sec
or
Q / t = 0
or
i=n
Ii = 0
i =1
Mechanical Force
Definition F=mxa
Accelaration = 1 m/sec2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 43
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Mechanical Energy
1 Meter 1 Newton
Wagon Wagon
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 44
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Power
1 sec 2 seconds
Energy = 1 Joule, Power = 1 Joule / sec. Energy = 1 Joule, Power = 1 Joule / 2 sec.
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 45
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+
Wagon Wagon Voltage
(V)
1 Joule
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 46
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Electrical Power
Definition
Similar to mechanical power, electrical power is
the work done within a certain unit of time, i.e.
one second or one hour
Elecrical Power = Electrical Energy / Duration
= 1 Joule / sec (1 sec)
Current (I)
1 sec
1 Meter 1 Newton +
Voltage
(V)
Wagon Wagon
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 47
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(1 sec)
1 sec Current (I)
1 Meter 1 Newton
+
Voltage
Wagon Wagon (V)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 48
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Electrical Power
(1 sec)
1 sec Current (I)
1 Meter 1 Newton
+
Voltage
Wagon Wagon (V)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 49
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Electrical Power
P = V x I
Current (Amp)
(Watt) = (Volt) x (Amp)
+
DC Voltage
(Volt) Power (Watt)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 50
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Voltage
Definition Current
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 51
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Voltage
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 52
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Electrical Energy
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 53
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 54
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Electrical Energy
Example
Calculate the monthly payment for the energy
consumed by the lamp shown on the RHS
V = 220 V
Source voltage is 220 Volt
Current drawn by the lamp is 5 Amp
Price of electrical energy is 12 Cents / kWh
Power = Voltage x Current
P = V x I
P = 220 x 5 = 1100 Watts I = 5 Amp
Energy = P x t
= 1100 Watts x ( 24 hours /day x 30 days/month)
= 792000 Watt hours = 790.2 kWh
Monthly payment = 790.2 x 12 Cents / month
= 90.504 USD = 122 .1 YTL / month
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 55
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 56
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Resistance
Pump I1 Pump I2
Resistance
R1 > R2 I1 < I 2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 59
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Ohm Law
Hence I = V / R
(Amp) (Volt) (Ohm)
Unit of resistance is Ohm
or
1 Ohm is the resistance that allows 1 Amper
to pass at 1 Volts voltage; V = R x I
1 Ohm = 1 Volt / 1 Amper (Volt) (Ohm) (Amp)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 60
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Ohm Law
+ +
Voltage Voltage Resistance
(V) Resistance (V) (R2)
(R1)
V / R1 = I1 I 1 < I2 V / R2 = I2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 61
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Ohm Law
V-I Characteristics
30,0
Current I (Amp)
Voltage (Volts)
25,0
Voltage (Volt)
+ Resistance
20,0
(R)
15,0
Slope = V / I = R
10,0
5,0
V = R x I
V varies linearly with I
(Volt) (Ohm) (Amp)
0,0
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0
Current I (Amp)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 62
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V = R x I
(Volt) = (Ohm) x (Amp)
I =V/R
= 220 / 5 = 44 Amps
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 63
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Ohm Law
Nonlinear V-I Characteristics
V = R x I Note that resistance increases with temperature,
hence current is reduced
(Volt) (Ohm) (Amp)
R = R0 (1 + t) 250
Voltage (Volts)
t = T 23 0 C 200
R0 = Resistance at 23 0 C 150
50
0
Slope = V / I = R
V = 220 V -50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
I = 5 Amp Load Current I (Amp)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 64
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Resistance Formula
ACSR Conductor
Resistance Formula
(Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced)
l (meter) A (mm2)
R=l /A
where, R is the resistance of conductor,
is the resistivity coefficient,
= 1 / 56 Ohm-mm2/m (Copper)
1 / 32 Ohm-mm2/m (Aluminum)
l (m) is the length of the conductor
A (mm2) is the cross sectional area of
the conductor
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 65
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Resistance Formula
Resistance Formula
Resistance of a cable is proportional to the
length and inversely proportional to the
cross sectional area of the cable
R=l /A
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 66
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Resistance Formula
Resistance Formula Aluminum Conductors
Example
Calculate the resistance of a
copper cable with length 3200
meters and cross section 240 mm2
Solution
R = (1 / 56) 3200 / 240
= 0.238 Ohms
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 67
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Resistance Formula
Resistance Formula ACSR Conductor
(Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced)
Example
Calculate the resistance of a copper cable
with length 3200 meters and cross section
240 mm2
Solution
R = (1 / 56) 3200 / 240 = 0.238 Ohms
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 68
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= 0.0178571 Ohm-mm2/m
Ohm-mm2/m Ohms/feet
R=l /A
Silver 0.0162 0.00094
Copper 0.0172 0.00099
where, R is the resistance of conductor, Gold 0.0244 0.00114
is the resistivity coefficient,
= 1 / 56 Ohm-mm2/m (Copper)
Aluminum 0.0282 0.00164
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 69
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Rule
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 70
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Insulator
Insulator HV side
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 71
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Current, I
V = R x I
(Volt) = (Ohm) (Amp)
+
On the other hand, it was shown
Voltage, V R
in this lecture that;
Power = Voltage x Current Power
or
P=VxI
Hence, power dissipation in
resistance R is
Power = R x I x I
= R x I2 Watt
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 72
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l 3200 (m) A = 240 (mm2) l 3200 (m) A = 240 (mm2) Rtotal = l total / A
= (l 1 + l 2 ) / A
=l1/A+l2/A
= R1 + R2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 73
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Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ... + Rk
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 74
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V = Rtotal x I V = R1 x I + R2 x I
(Volt) (Ohm) (Amp) (Volt) (Volt) (Volt)
Voltage (Volt)
Voltage (Volt)
+ Resistance
+ Resistance (R1)
(Rtotal)
Resistance
(R2)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 75
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V = R1 x I + R2 xI
(Volt) (Volt) (Volt)
= V1 + V2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 76
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Admittance
Definition
g = 1/R
(Siemens) (1 / Ohm)
Example
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 77
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+ V = VT
+ V = VT
I1
R1
I1
R1
I2 I1 = VT / R1 = VT x g1
I2
R2 ITotal R2 ITotal
I2 = VT / R2 = VT x g2
Ik
Rk
Ik Ik = VT / Rk = VT x gk
Rk
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 78
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+ V = VT
R1 I1
I1 = VT / R1
I2
R2 ITotal
I2 = VT / R2
Rk Ik
Ik = VT / Rk
+
V = VT
Itotal = VT(1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ... + 1 / Rk) = VT / Requivalent
1
Hence,
R equiv = -------------------------------------
1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...+ 1 / Rk
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 79
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Example 1
Find the equivalent resistance of the R equiv = -------------------------------------
following connection 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...+ 1 / Rk
1
+ V = VT R equiv = ---------------------------------
I1 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/4
R1 = 1 Ohm
= 1 / (7/4) = 4 / 7 = 0.5714 Ohm
I2 ITotal
R2 = 2 Ohms
Rk = 4 Ohms
Ik
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 80
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Example 1
Find the equivalent admittance of the R equiv = -------------------------------------
following connection 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...+ 1 / Rk
or
+ V = VT
1
I1 1 / gequiv = -----------------------
g1 = 1/1 Siemens
g1 + g2 + ...+ gk
I2 ITotal gequiv = g1 + g2 + g3
g2 = 1/2 Siemens
=1/1 + 1/2 + 1/4
Ik =7/4
gk = 1/4 Siemens
= 1.75 Siemens
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 81
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...
Vs (Volt) V (Volt)
+
+
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 82
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i = n-1
Vs (Volt)
Vn - Vi = 0 +
i=1
i=n V2 (Volt)
Vi = 0
i=1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 83
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Vi = 0 V1 = -100 (Volt)
i=1
V2 = -120 (Volt)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 85
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+
Simple Rules
Head (pinpoint) of the arrow is negative,
V1(Volt)
Tail of the arrow is positive
This current is assigned Vs (Volt) +
such a direction that it
always enters from the +
side of the resistance
+
V2 (Volt)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 86
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A Simple Rule
+
Choose a ground node,
Assume that current I flows
clockwise, V1
Starting from the ground node, V -
assign + and - signs to those s +
Current I
...
passive elements (i.e. those
elements other than source) in
such a direction that the current - +
enters to + side and the leaves
from the - side, Vk
Assign + sign to the that side
of the source from which current -
is leaving
Ground node
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 87
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...
Assign - sign to those voltage
terms in the equation that you - +
pass from + to -,
Stop and equate it to zero when
you come again to the ground Vk
node that you have started -
Example;
+Vs V1 V2 = 0 Vs = V1 + V2 Ground node
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 88
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Ii = 0 Vi = 0
i=1 i=1
Current I (Amp)
Node (Junction)
+
Current I1 V1 = -100 (Volt)
Current In V = 220 V
+
Current I2
...
+
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 89
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Input Voltage
V1 = R1 x I
V2 = R2 x I Current I
... +
Vk = Rk x I R1
+ V1
-----------------------------
Vs = V1 + V2 + ... Vk
+ R2 V2
= ( R1 + ... + Rk ) x I Vs
Vk / Vs = Rk / ( R1 + ... + Rk )
...
+
Rk Output Voltage
Voltage Division Ratio = ------------------ Rk Vk
= Vs Rk / (R1+..Rk)
R1 + ... + Rk
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 90
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Principle Rk Rk
Vk = --------------- Vs Division Ratio = ---------------
R1 + ... + Rk R1 + ... + Rk
Input voltage is divided and a
certain fraction is given to the Current I
+
output
R1
V1
Vs + R2 V2
...
+
Rk Vk
A B C
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 91
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Circuit Arrangement Rk
Division Ratio = ------------------
Rotary Potentiometer R1 + ... + Rk
Rotary
Potentiometer
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 92
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gk gk
VT x g1 = I1 Ik = --------------- Is Division Ratio = ---------------
VT x g2 = I2 g1 + ... + gk g1 + ... + gk
...
VT x gk = Ik + V = VT
+-----------------------------------
g1 I1= VT x g1
VT (g1 + ... gk ) = I1 + ... Ik
Source Current Is
or I2= VT x g2 Is
g2
VT (g1 + ... gk ) = Is
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 93
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Voltage Sources
+ +
+ +
V = 24 V V = 24 V
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 94
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30,0
25,0
+
20,0
Internal V = R x I = 0
15,0 resistance
VT = constant VT = Vs
10,0 +
5,0 Vs = 24 V
0,0
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0
Load Current I (Amp)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 95
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Definition +V = 24 Volts
VT = Vs V +
where, Internal
V = R x I
resistance
V = R x I VT = 24 - V
+
is called internal voltage drop Vs = 24 V
Definition
VT depends on I
Writing down KVL for the above cct; i.e. it is reduced as I is increased
25,0
VT = Vs V
= Vs R x I 20,0
+ 10,0
Internal V = R x I
resistance
VT = 24 - V 5,0
+
Vs = 24 V
0,0
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0
Load Current I (Amp)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 97
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Source Current Is
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 98
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g =1 / R VT
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 99
Basic Principles of Electricity
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Is
15,0
+ Slope = - IT / VT = - g
Ideal Current I
Source Is 10,0
g =1 / R VT
5,0
0,0
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0
Terminal Voltage (Volts)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 100
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 101
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Is Ix
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 102
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Vs Vx
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 103
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Vs Ix
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 104
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Example
Vs 10 2 Ix = 0
Vs Ix
10 Ix 10 2 Ix = 0 2 Ohm
8 Ix = 10 Ix = 10 / 8 = 1.25 Amp
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 105
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+
RL
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 107
Basic Principles of Electricity
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Ammeter Ramp
Iload
+
RL
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 108
Basic Principles of Electricity
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Ideal Ammeter
Ammeter
Definition Ramp 0 Iload
An ideal ammeter is the one with zero
internal resistance (Short Circuit)
+
An ideal ammeter behaves as a short
circuit, i.e. Ramp 0. Vs RL
An ideal ammeter has zero resistance
so that the measured current is not
influenced
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 109
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Ideal Ammeter
An ammeter should not influence
the current measured
I = Vs / ( R + Ramp )
Ramp 0
Hence,
I = Vs / ( R + Ramp ) Vs / R
Ammeter
Ramp 0 Iload
+
RL
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 110
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Iload = Vs / ( R + Ramp )
I load = Vs / R } Iload < I ideal
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 112
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A voltmeter has a high internal Red lines are not part of the circuit
resistance so that it passes only a small
current I Source
I Voltmeter
A voltmeter is always shunt (parallel) (negligible)
Ideal Voltmeter
I Source
Definition Im
(negligible)
Ideal Voltmeter
I Source
No voltmeter can ever be ideal, and Im
(negligible)
therefore all voltmeters draw some Rm
current. R1 I Load Voltmeter
Rm i.e. Rm >> RL +
Vs RL
I m << I Load
Vo
ISource = ILoad + Im I Load
Vo = RL ( Isource Im )
= RL I Source RL Im
RL I Source
}
Negligible
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 116
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Example
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 117
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Example
Req = Rs // Rm
Hence,
Req =(Rs x Rm) / (Rs + Rm) = 24607.17
Rm = 155.39 M
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 118
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 119
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Wheatstone Bridge
I=0
C D
B
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 120
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Wheatstone Bridge
Principle
Wheatstone Bridge
A
Principle
x
VC = VD +
I=0
VC = Vs Rb / ( Rx + Rb ) Vs C D
VD = Vs R2 / ( R1 + R2 )
Vs Rb / ( Rx + Rb ) = Vs R2 / ( R1 + R2 ) A
or B
A
Rb / ( Rx + Rb ) = R2 / ( R1 + R2 )
Rb ( R1 + R2 ) = R2 ( Rx + Rb ) Rx
+ R1
Rb R1 + Rb R2 = R2 Rx + R2 Rb Vs C D
or
Rb R2
Rx = Rb x R1 / R2 B
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 122
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Wheatstone Bridge
Basic Rule
Rx x R2 = Rb x R1 +
I=0
Vs C D
Please note that voltage Vs
is neither used, nor needed
in the above equation, i.e.
its value is arbitrary
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 123
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Wheatstone Bridge
Example
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 124
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R1
+
Vs R1
Open Closed
Off On
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 125
Basic Principles of Electricity
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I Load = 0 I Load
R1 R1
+ +
R1 R1
Vs Vs
I Load = 0 I Load
R1 R1
+ +
Vs R1 Vs R1
Open Circuit
R1
I Load = 0
Vacuum tube enclosing
breaker poles
+ Tripping buttons
R1
Vs
Spring handle (taken off)
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 129