Cosmic Engine

Aristotle (384 -322 BC)- Geocentric Model

Supported Pythagoras idea that the Sun, Moon, planets and
stars were on a number of sphere moving with a variety of
circular motions around the Earth (in the centre)
Eudoxis (408 356 BC) put forward the idea that there
were 27 spheres and that these spheres were concentric
(share the same centre)
These ideas were more based upon perfect mathematics
rather than actual observations
Aristotle accepted ideas of the concentric circle model but
places the known heavenly bodies on 55 concentric spheres to
explain their motion around the Earth

Aristarchus (310- 230 BC) Heliocentric model

First astronomer to suggest that the Sun was the centre of the Universe
Based on his attempts to estimate the relative sizes of the Earth, Moon and Sun and
their distances from each other
His estimates of the relative sizes of planets prompted him to argue that it was more
logical to place the largest object, the Sun at the centre rather than the smaller
Earth
He claimed that the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies was due to the Earth
rotating on its axis once per day
Not detailed enough to explain all observations of the motion of heavenly objects
Thus, Aristotles much more detailed model stayed in favour

Apollonius (265- 190 BC) Geocentric Model

Developed concept of epicycles to account for the
retrograde (backward motion) of planets as viewed from
Earth
Planets followed their own circular paths as they moved
in their circle around Earth
Model refined by Hipparchus who suggested the Sun
was further from Earth at some times of the year than
others
Placing Earth slightly off-centre to account for difference
Hipparchus also established the system of stellar magnitudes that we use today

Ptolemy (100- 170 AD)- Geocentric Model

Modified Aristotle model
Developed a complex model based on
concentric circles to predict position of
orbiting heavenly objects
 His theory had a motionless Earth at the centre of the Universe with the Sun, Moon
to the Earth than the stars but further away than the Sun and planets orbiting the
Earth at various speeds within their own orbits (epicycles)
Adopted by Church of Rome as correct model of the Universe
Model lasted until 1500 with authority of the Church

Copernicus (1473- 1543) Heliocentric Model

First copy if his work was printed on the day he died
In the model, Mercury and Venus were closer to the Sun than Earth and other planets
and he observed that the further a planet was from the Sun the longer the orbit
Power of Church and punishments against the status quo resulted in Copernicus
keeping ideas to himself until he dies
A problem with the heliocentric model was that if Earth is rotating around the Sun
then there should be relative movement of the stars during a year (parallax movement)
Not until 1837 were telescopes good enough to detect parallax and prove Heliocentric
model

Tycho Brahe (1546- 1601) Heliocentric/Geocentric Model

Famous for the precision and the number of observations made of the night sky
Plotted the positions of thousands of stars relative to each other
Detected star positions accurate to 30 arc seconds rather than 15 arc minutes
Brahes own model of the universe was combination of geocentric and heliocentric
Model had Sun revolving around
a stationary Earth, but all
other planets revolving around
the Sun
Johannes Kepler (1571- 1642) Heliocentric Model
Braes assistant and inherited all his mathematical data
In early 1600s he publishes model for the Universe based on Copernicus idea of
planets orbiting Sun
Proposed that orbits were elliptical rather than circular
Not limited by technology as he analysed Brahes mathematical data which fitted with
elliptical rather than circular mathematics
Keplers 1st law states that Planets and orbiting bodies move in elliptical paths, the
sun being at on focus
Keplers 2nd law states that The area swept out in a given time by the radius vector
(line joining the planet to the focus) is always constant; the closer the orbiting mass is
to the central mass, the greater the speed
Keplers 3rd law states that for orbiting planets (or satellites) of any system, the ratio
is a constant for all satellites of that system
Galileo Galilei (1564- 1642)
First scientist to use telescope to observe planets
Telescope had a magnification of 9x
Observations could only be explained by Heliocentric model

Discovered
4 largest moons of Jupiter
Rings of Saturn
Sun has spots
Moon has craters and mountains
That the Moon was not a luminous object but actually reflected light from the Sun
Milky Way is a collection of stars
Venus has phases like the moon
Definition: Sunspots are whirlwinds of gas on the surface of the Sun associated
with strong local magnetic activity
Sunspots do appear singly but are usually in pairs or groups
Isaac Newton (1642- 1727)
Discovered that gravity was the same force that held the Moon in orbit around
the Earth and the planets around the Sun
Deduced three mathematical laws of gravitational forces
Newtons mathematics can be used to derive Keplers equations
Support Hubbles theory of 1684 the force acting between the Sun and the planet
was inversely proportional to the square of the planets distance from the Sun.
Led to discovery of Neptune as Uranus didnt follow Newtons mathematics
Geocentric and heliocentric model of the solar system
Geocentric model
The sun rises in the east travels across the sky and sets in the west as does the
Moon, the stars and some planets. This inferred that the Sun was the object
moving, not the Earth due to lack of technology to prove it
Naked eye observations also see everything in the heavens as orbiting the Earth

Heliocentric model
Galileos observation of the phases of Venus, also supported by Keplers math
The moons of Jupiter orbited Jupiter and not the Earth, contradicting existing
geocentric models to a degree

Technological Limitations
Tycho Brahes model of the universe was both helio and geo centric on basis
measuring instruments of his time were not sensitive enough to detect the movement
of the Earth
A moving earth would result in a slight shift in positions of some stars
Evidence was only able to be found once the telescope was invented and plot position
of stars in the sky

The Doppler Effect

When a source of a wave is moving the waves ahead of the moving source are
bunched together
Waves behind the moving source are spread out
If a source of light is moving the same thing occurs
Instead of a change in pitch there is a change in colour
The Big Bang Theory

Before Big bang- no space or time

The Big Bang Occurs

The universe contains only energy

The universe undergoes rapid expansion and cooling. Energy condenses into matter
according to mass energy relationships
1 second after Big Bang, protons, neutrons and electrons are formed
3 seconds hydrogen and helium atoms are formed

Matter was spread throughout the universe with very small variations in
density. Universe continues to expand and cool, resulting in the slowing
down (loss of kinetic energy) of the speed of atoms

The more dense regions of matter began to coalesce under the force of
attraction due to gravity

Density and pressure in the core of these clumps of matter allowed

nuclear fusion to over- synthesising the heavier elements
Stars are formed

The Expanding Universe

In 1915 Albert Einstein publishes his general theory of relativity
Gravity is not a regular force but simply an effect, the result of warped space-time.
Large masses warp space-time and this affects the way masses move
Energy can be converted to mass and vice
versa according to
E- Energy
E = mc m- Mass (kg)
c- Speed of light 3x 108 m/s
 Einsteins theory also predicted that the universe was expanding
Einstein did not accept this but rather believed the universe was static and unchanging
To overcome this Einstein introduced a cosmological constant into his equations

Aleksandr Friedmann
Considered Einsteins solution to an expanding universe an error and set about
proving the universe was expanding
Friedman expressed the expansion of the universe in mathematical terms
Stated the radius of curvature of space increases with time
Einstein eventually acknowledged Freidmann was correct

Edwin Hubble
In 1929 Edwin Hubble found that nearly all galaxies displayed a red-shift in their light
He showed that Andromeda was a separate galaxy and went on to disover 20 more
galaxies
Hubbles expanding Universe model is likened to an exploding bomb with pieces
moving outward in all directions
He found that the further away the galaxy the faster it is receding from us
Hubble discovered that the universe was expanding 5 yrs after Friedmanns
predictions

Luminosity and Brightness

Luminosity is the total energy radiated by an object per second
Luminostity is measured in Joules per second (Js-1) or watts (W)
Luminosity of stars is often measured as a multiple of Suns luminosity
L0 = 3.9 x 1026W
The brightness of a radiant object is a measure of the intensity of the energy
received per square metre
Brightness is measured in Joules per square metre per second (Jm-2s-1)
Brightness depends on the luminosity of the object and how far away it is
The relationship between the brightness of a star and distance away is an example of
the inverse square law

Absorption Spectra
Scientists use a device called a spectrometer to view various colour or spectrum of
light source
A spectrum with dark lines in it due to atoms absorbing some of the light is known as
an absorption spectra
This means that each element has its own unique absorption spectra
 Absorption spectra can be used to identify the elements present in a gas sample much
like fingerprints for humans
The darks lines in the absorption spectra of all galaxies are seen to shift to a lower
frequency (red shift). Indicating that galaxies are all moving away from Earth

Black Body Radiation and Star Colour

All hot materials, no matter what their composition emitted radiations of varying
wavelength which depended not on the substance but on the temperature of the
substance

Hotter stars (20,000+K) appear blue-white, while cooler stars (3000K) look red
A yellow star will have surface temperature of 6,000 K
 Definition: A spectrograph is an instrument used to obtain record astronomical
spectra by splitting the light from an object into its component wavelengths so that
it can be recorded and analysed
From the spetrogrpah, the main colour of the light from a star is represented by a
series of letters- O, B, A, F, G, K and M
Can be remember by mnemonic: Oh Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me!
Blue stars fall into the O class; these are very hot stars
Our sun belongs to the G group and is one of the yellow stars
Red stars fall into the M group

The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

Discovered by Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung (1911) and American Henry
Norris-Russell (1913)
The H-R diagram is a graph of stars luminosity plotted against its temperature
(Hetzsprung) or colour (Russell)
Luminosity, on the y-axis is usually equal division for each power of 10 while
temperature on the x-axis is usually in approximately equal divisions for each
doubling of the temperature
The masses of the stars on the Main Sequence increase towards the upper left of the
Main Sequence curve

A graph can be drawn plotting the luminosity or absolute magnitude on the y-

axis against the spectral class on the x- axis, referred to as a HR diagram
Main Sequence Stars
Stars on the Main Sequence produce their energy by fusing hydrogen to produce
helium
Stars stay on the Main Sequence until they have used the central 10% of their
hydrogen at which time their helium rich core stops fusing (not hot enough) and
become red giants or supergiants
Takes 1,000,000 years for the energy produced at the core of the Sun to reach its
surface
The cooler stars burn hydrogen more slowly and stay on the Main Sequence much
longer (red stars up to 5 x 106 years compared to the Sun about 7 x 109 years) than
blue stars (2 x 106years)
Main Sequence stars with masses less than 0.5 that of Sun form smaller, less luminous
red giants which are too small to go to the next stage of stellar life. They will mostly
use their hydrogen, not becoming hot enough to start helium fusion and simply cool
down to become black dwarfs
Main Sequence stars with 0.5 to 5 solar masses will form the red giants while those
with stellar masses greater 5 solar masses will form more luminous supergiants

Red Giants
Red giants are cool but quite luminous occupying the upper right of the HP diagram.
Given their low temperature, their size must be huge to produce the high luminosity
Red giants are 10 to 1000 times the diameter of their Main Sequence size and have a
core composed of helium
Produce their energy by hydrogen fusion to form helium in an outer core
Process is known as shell burning
The denser inner core of helium is initially not hot enough to begin helium fusion and
there no energy production to counteract gravity which pulls it inward.
As the inner core contracts it starts to heat up until it eventually reaches a temperature
high (100,000,000K) for helium fusion to commence

White Dwarf
When red giants with original masses between 0.5 and 5 solar masses become hot
enough to start helium burning they become hotter and move to left of the HR
diagram
When their helium is used they become a shell-burning red giant they move to the
right of the HR diagram
Depending on size they do this several times before its mass decreases to the point
where helium burning can no longer continue
The star becomes unstable and loses its outer layers, forming a nebula around a
rapidly shrinking and cooling core.
White dwarf forms below Main Sequence as they have small size, low luminosity but
very hot
 They eventually cool further to form brown and black dwarfs toward the bottom right
of the HR diagram

Nova and Supernova

Supergiants are larger and hotter than red giants
They proceed through helium burning to the fusion of larger nuclei like carbon,
nitrogen and oxygen each outer layer collapsing and becoming the core as each
element is burnt
Eventually it will reach a stage when the temperature cannot rise high enough to fuse
the next element in the chain (the core is usually iron nuclei)
Gravity takes over and shrinks the star
Under high pressures the iron nuclei disappear and become free protons and neutrons
The temperature rises extremely rapidly and the star explodes- novas or supernovas
depending on size
All layers are blown off and all that is left is a small neutron star- Pulsar

Nuclear Radiations
Definition: Nuclear fission is the splitting of the atom to normally produce two
smaller elements combined with the release of energy
Definition: Nuclear fusion is the joining of two smaller nuclei to produce a larger
nucleus and it also results in a release of energy
Alpha particles
Helium nuclei and are positively charged (+2) with 2 protons and 2 neutrons
Being quite large their ability to penetrate other matter is low
Alpha particles can be stopped by a sheet of paper only travelling a few cm
High ionising ability, they can collide with other atoms and knock electrons out
of orbit forming ions of those atoms
Emitted from nuclei during nuclear reactions with velocity between 1-20% of
speed of light
Being positively charged they are deflected towards negatively charged
electric plates and by magnetic fields according to right hand palm rule
If the moving charge is negative we conisder it to be a postivei charge moving in
the opposite direction
 Beta particles
Much less mass than alpha particles and are negatively charged
They are deflected towards a positively charged electric plate and also by
magnetic fields according to right hand palm rule (reverse their direction of
travel when applying this)
Emitted with velocity approaching speed of light and penetrate one metre of air
and only stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium
They have a lower ionising power than alphas due to lower mass

Gamma rays
Electromagnetic waves and there travel at speed of light
With no charge they are not affected by either electric or magnetic fields
Dont interact with other particles electrically and have little ionising power
Very high penetrating power and pass through living tissue easily and 10cm of
lead

The Sun
Main Sequence star
Sun is a second generation star being once a red giant due to existence of heavier
elements
It controls our climate and the weather and emits radiation over a wide range of
wavelengths including ultra violet, infra- red etc.
The emission spectrum of the Sun has enabled scientists to determine the composition
of the Sun
Emissions from the Sun
Obvious emissions of heat and light energy
All wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum
Neutrinos are emitted but have no charge and for practical purpose no mass
Solar Wind
Enormous amounts of heat generated by the
hydrogen fusion reactions at the Suns core
and outbursts of solar material sometimes
causes pressure differences between the Sun
and space
They combine to produce a constant
outflow of ionised material in all directions
from the Sun and into space
Although ejected straight out from the Sun
the stars rotation results in solar wind to
form a spiral
The solar wind made up of mostly proton, electrons and 8% helium ions
Temperature of 100,000K streams away from the Sun at 450kms-1

Van Allen radiation belts

As moving charges induce magnetic fields around them, the solar wind also
carries a magnetic field outward
When it reaches Earth the magnetic field associated with the wind interacts with
the magnetic field of Earth and traps the charged particles in belts
Belts cause minor communication problems between spacecraft and Earth

Sunspots
Definition: Sun spots are the cooler regions of the photosphere that appear as dark
spots on the Suns surface; areas of intense magnetic activity
First seen by Galileo they appear darker as they are 1500K cooler
Sunspots are regions of intense magnetic activity producing magnetic fields
4,000 greater than usual
Sunspots follow an 11 yrs cycle and times of their peak activity correspond to
increased radiation received by Earth
Can cause spectacular swirling light in both the aurora borealis northern lights
and aurora australis southern lights
 Sunspots, associated with other types of solar activity can be used to predict both
space weather and the state of the ionosphere
They increase the magnetic intensity of solar wind

Consequences of charged particles emitted and the increased magnetic field

Disrupt radio communications
Power blackout
Disrupt magnetic navigation systems
Affect electric signals to and from and within satellites