Unit 4

HISTORY OF BOOKS

I Pre-reading. Why is the invention of printing press one of the most important
discoveries that humanity has ever made?

II Reading
Task 1 Read the text From Papyrus to Paperbacks and do the reading comprehension
below.

From Papyrus to Paperbacks

1. Ever since the ancient Babylonians and Egyptians began experimenting with alphabets
some five thousand years ago, people have found ways to preserve their written symbols.
Initially, pictorial symbols and letters appeared on wood strips or clay tablets, tied or
stacked together to form the first "books." As early as 2400 B.C., the Egyptians wrote on
papyrus (from which the word paper is derived) made from plant reeds found along the
Nile River. They rolled these writings in scrolls, much as builders do today with
blueprints. This method was adopted by the Greeks in 650 B.C. and by the Romans (who
imported the papyrus from Egypt) from 300 to 100 B.C.

2. Around 1000 B.C., the Chinese made book like objects from strips of wood and
bamboo tied together in bundles. About the time the Egyptians started using papyrus, the
Babylonians began pressing symbols and marks into small tablets of clay. These stacked
tablets recorded business transactions, government records, favorite stories, and local
history. Gradually, parchmenttreated animal skinreplaced papyrus. Parchment was
stronger, smoother, more durable, and less expensive because it did not have to be
imported from Egypt.

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3. Although the Chinese began making paper in A.D. 105, paper made by hand from
cotton and linen did not replace parchment in Europe until the thirteenth century. Paper
was not as strong as parchment, but it was cheaper. The first postmodern book was
probably produced in the fourth century by the Romans, who created the codex, a type of
book cut into sheets of parchment and sewn together along the edge, then bound with thin
pieces of wood and covered with feather. Whereas scroll had to be wound, unwound, and
rewound, codices could be opened to any page, and, their configuration allowed writing
on both sides of a page.

4. During the Middle Ages (A.D. 400 to 1500), the Christian clergy strongly influenced
what has become known as manuscript culture, a period in which books were
painstakingly lettered, decorated, and bound by hand. During this time, priests and monks
advanced the art of bookmaking; in many ways, they may be considered the earliest
professional editors. Known as scribes, they "wrote" most of the books of this period,
making copies of existing philosophical tracts and religious books, especially versions of
the Bible. Through tedious and painstaking work, scribes became the chief caretakers of
recorded history and culture.

5. Many works from the Middle Ages were illuminated manuscripts. These books
featured decorative, colorful designs and illustrations on each page. Their covers were
made from leather, and some were inscribed with precious gems or gold and silver trim.
During this period, scribes developed rules of punctuation and made distinctions between
small and capital letters; they also put space between words, which made reading easier.
Older Roman writing had used all capital letters, and words ran together on a page,
making reading a torturous experience.

6. The oldest printed book still in existence is China's Diamond Sutra by Wang Chieh,
from A.D. 868. It consists of seven sheets pasted together and rolled up in a scroll. To
make copies of pages, early Chinese printers developed block printing, a technique using
sheets of paper applied to a block of inked wood with raised surfaces in hand-carved
letters and sketches. This constituted the basic technique used in printing newspapers,

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magazines, and books throughout much of modern history. Although hand-carving each
block, or "page," was time-consuming, this printing breakthrough enabled multiple
copies to be produced and then bound together. In 1295, explorer Marco Polo introduced
these techniques to Europe after his excursion to China. The first handmade printed
books appeared in Europe during the 1400s, and demand for them began to grow among
the literate middle-class populace emerging in large European cities.

7. The next step in printing was the radical development of movable type, first invented
in China around the year 1000. Movable type featured Chinese characters made from
reusable pieces of wood or metal. Printers arranged or moved letters into various word
combinations, greatly speeding up the time it took to make a page. This process, also
used in Korea as early as the thirteenth century, developed independently in Europe in the
1400s.Then, in Germany, between 1453 and 1456, Johannes Gutenberg used movable
type to develop a printing press, which he adapted from a wine press. Gutenberg's staff of
printers produced the first so-called modern books, including two hundred copies of a
Latin Bible, twenty-one copies of which still exist. The Bible required six presses, many
printers, and several months to produce. It was printed on fine handmade paper, a treated
animal skin called vellum. The pages were hand-decorated, and the use of woodcuts
made illustrations possible.

8. Essentially, Gutenberg and his printing assistants had not only found a way to carry
knowledge across geographic borders but had also formed the prototype for mass
production. Printing presses spread rapidly across Europe in the late 1400s and early
1500s Chaucer's Canterbury Tales became the first English work to be printed in book
form. Many early books were large, elaborate, and expensive, taking months to illustrate
and publish. They were usually purchased by aristocrats, royal families, religious leaders,
and ruling politicians. Printers, however, gradually reduced the size of books and
developed less expensive grades of paper, making books cheaper so more people could
afford them.

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9. The social and cultural transformations ushered in by the spread of printing presses and
books cannot be overestimated. As historian Elizabeth Eisenstein has noted, when people
could learn for themselves by using maps, dictionaries, Bibles, and the writings of others,
they could differentiate themselves as individuals; their social identities were no longer
solely dependent on what their leaders told them or on the habits of their families,
communities, or social class. The technology of printing presses permitted information
and knowledge to spread outside local jurisdictions. Gradually, individuals had access to
ideas far beyond their isolated experiences, and this permit led them to challenge the
traditional wisdom and customs of their tribes and leaders.

(adapted from Media&Culture, pp. 349-351)

III Reading comprehension

Task 1 Sum up the main ideas of the paragraphs 2-9. The first one has been done.

1. ____First books/The use of papyrus_________________________

2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________
6. ________________________________________________________
7. ________________________________________________________
8. ________________________________________________________
9. ________________________________________________________

IV Vocabulary in context
Task 1 Using the context clues, circle the most appropriate meaning of the choices given.
The paragraph numbers are given in brackets to help you find the words in the text.

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1) stacked (1)
a) piled
b) pulled
c) glued

2) scrolls (l)
a) rolls of cloth
b) rolls of papyrus
c) rolls of cotton

3) bound (3)
a) moved
b) limited
c) fastened

4) wound (3)
a) damaged
b) twisted
c) reduced

5) lettered (4)
a) written
b) printed
c) received

6) featured (5)
a) enabled
b) included
c) feathered

7) carved (6)

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 a) illustrated
b) written
c) cut

8) movable type (7)

a) flying class
b) mobile block
c) moral character

9) elaborate (8)
a) plain
b) sophisticated
c) interesting

10) ushered in (9)

a) made sth bad begin
b) made sth new begin
c) made sth planned begin

Task 2 Use the words covered in Task 1 to fill in the gaps in the sentences below. Make
any grammatical changes if necessary.

1) My parents have a leather-____________ volume of Shakespeare's plays.

2) This statue is _____________ from a single block of marble.
3) The exhibition _________________ paintings by Picasso.
4) The discovery of oil ________________ an era of employment and prosperity.
5) The assistants price the items and _____________ them on the shelves.

Task 3 Read the text From Papyrus to Paperbacks again and find the names of the
materials used as writing media (e.g. wood strips). What were their features or qualities?
What are their Croatian equivalents?

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Task 4 Find the corresponding English expressions in the text for the Croatian
expressions listed below. The paragraph numbers are given in brackets.

usvojiti metodu (1)

uvezati u sveanj (2)
usavriti vjetinu pravljenja knjiga (4)
razviti pravila (5)
uvesti tehnike (6)
prenositi znanje (8)
smanjiti veliinu knjiga (8)
ne moe biti dovoljno istaknuta (9)
iskljuivo ovisna (9)

Task 5 The expressions in the box below refer to different book types throughout the
history. The author of the text often provides the direct definition of a difficult word.
Look back at the reading, find the definitions or comparisons explaining the meaning of
the words in the box and underline them.

scroll, manuscript, codex, illuminated manuscript, block-printed book

Task 6 Using the vocabulary covered in the previous tasks, translate the following
paragraph into English.

Samo pedesetak godina nakon izuma tiskarskog stroja u Senju se pojavila skupina ljudi
koja je shvatila vanost ovog izuma. Jedan od njih bio je i Bla Baromi, jedna od
najvanijih osoba hrvatske kulturne povijesti. On je 1493. u Veneciji tiskao brevijar koji
nosi njegovo ime. Sauvano je pet primjeraka njegova brevijara: dva u Nacionalnoj i
sveuilinoj knjinici u Zagrebu, te po jedan primjerak u Dravnoj knjinici u Mnchenu,

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knjinici Parma u Schwarzau (Austria) te u Sibiu (Rumunjska). Nakon tiskanja brevijara
Baromi se vratio u Senj te ve sljedee godine nabavio sve potrebne strojeve za
ustrojstvo tiskare. Prvo i najvrjednije djelo Senjske tiskare je Misal. Misal je knjiga u
kojoj su skupljeni svi tekstovi to se upotrebljavaju kod mise za cijelu liturgijsku godinu.

(adapted from http://www.tz-senj.hr/glagoljica-senjska-tiskara)

V Vocabulary development
Task 1 Different verbs reflect different writing styles. Match the underlined words in the
following sentences with their definitions below.

1) Jane scribbled her address in my notebook, but I couldnt decipher her

sloppy handwriting later on.
2) Let me jot down your number and I'll call you tomorrow.
3) I have to write up my essay before the next tutorial.
4) Brad was doodling on a sheet of paper instead of taking notes.
5) You cannot write down every word your lecturer says.

a) to draw shapes, lines, or patterns without really thinking about what you are doing
b) to write something on a piece of paper
c) to write a report, article etc using notes that you made earlier
d) to write something quickly and untidily
e) to write a short piece of information quickly
(source:
Task 2 In pairs, find the odd one out in each set of the words below. Give explanations
for your decisions.

a) compelling/evocative/compulsive/controversial/breathtaking reading
b) boring/remarkable/lightweight/heavy going/dull reading
c) editor/proofreader/monitor/reviewer/citric

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 d) higher education textbooks/ bookworm/ mass market paperbacks/
professional books/ reference books
e) shop/title/shelf/club/pocket

Task 3 Use one word from each set in the Task 3 to make your own sentences referring to
the books.

VI Speaking
Task 1 What do you think that the following quotes mean? Discuss in pairs.

a) All books are divisible into two classes, the books of the hour, and the books of
all time. (John Ruskin, British philosopher)
b) Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed
and digested. (Francis Bacon, British philosopher and essayist)
c) If you cannot enjoy reading a book over and over again, there is no use in
reading it at all. (Oscar Wild, Irish writer)
d) We read to know we are not alone. (C. S. Lewis, British scholar and novelist)
e) We should be as careful of the books we read, as of the company we keep. The
dead very often have more power than the living. (Tryon Edwards, American
theologian)

Task 2 Talking about books often means putting them into different categories. There are
numerous categorizations of literary genres. The most common categorization
distinguishes two main categories of books: fiction and nonfiction. In pairs, compare the
names of some English genres below with their Croatian equivalents.

Nonfiction: autobiography, biography, essays, informational text

Fiction: drama, fable, fairy tales, fantasy, folklore, historical fiction, horror, humor,
legend, mystery, poetry, science fiction, short story

In small groups, discuss your favorite literary genres and give reasons for your choice.

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Task 3 Compare traditional, paper books and e-books and point out advantages and
disadvantages of both media.

VII Grammar

PAST PERFECT TENSE

Task 1 Study the following paragraph and underline the verb forms. Explain the reasons
for their use.

During the Middle Ages, scribes developed rules of punctuation and made distinctions
between small and capital letters; they also put space between words, which made
reading easier. Older Roman writing had used all capital letters, and words ran together
on a page, making reading a torturous experience.

PAST PERFECT TENSE generally refers to

action that happened before another past action Before I made contact
with them, I had
studied all the
relevant information.

when it is obvious that one action followed When I entered the

another one in a short period of time, house I took off my
past simple is preferred coat and turned on
the lights.

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PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS is generally used when

the emphasis is given to the duration of the action I had been talking with
my parents before I
made a decision.

Task 2 Fill in the missing gaps with the correct form of the verbs in brackets. Use the
Past Perfect or the Past Simple Tense.

1. By the end of the 2nd century AD, the Chinese apparently __________ (discover)
printing; certainly they then ____________ (have) at their disposal the three
elements needed for printing: (1) paper, the techniques for the manufacture of
which they ____________ (know) for several decades; (2) ink, whose basic
formula they ____________ (know) for 25 centuries; and (3) surfaces bearing
texts carved in relief.

2. In Korea, on the contrary, typography, which ___________ (appear) by the first

half of the 13th century, was extensively influenced by King Htai Tjong, who, in
1403, __________ (order) the first set of 100,000 pieces of type to be cast in
bronze.

3. It seems that typography was assimilated by the Uighurs who _________(live) on

the borders of Mongolia and Turkistan, since a set of Uighur typefaces, carved on
wooden cubes, has been found that date from the early 14th century. It would be
surprising if the Uighurs, a nomadic people often considered to have been the
educators of other Turco-Mongolian peoples, ____________ (not spread) the
knowledge of typography as far as Egypt.

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 (source:Encyclopedia Britannica )

Task 3 Complete the following texts using the present, past, and perfect tenses.

Text A: Decline in high street bookshops _______________ (go on) in 2011

According to The Booksellers Association the number of bookshops on UK high streets

_______________ steadily (decline). Membership of the body, which _______________
(represent) 95% of booksellers in the UK and Ireland, _______________ (continue) to
fall over the last six years. Since 2006, the total number of members _______________
(fall) by 20%. Chief executive officer Tim Godfray _______________ (call) for the
government and publishers to step in to stop the decline. "At a time when literacy is an
issue and libraries are under threat from government cuts, we need to build a coalition of
publishers, government and consumers to provide opportunities for the passionate and
creative entrepreneurs who can make the bookshop business successful," he
_______________(say). In 2006, there were 4495 outlets who _______________ (hold)
memberships with the Booksellers Association, including 1483 independents. By June
this year, the total number _______________(fall) to 3683, while independents
_______________(drop) to 1099. Last year, 50 new independent bookshops
_______________ (open) across the UK but 72 _______________(close). In a recent
Booksellers Association survey, the top three issues concerning shop owners that the
government could address _______________(be) the cost of rates, parking and planning.

Text B: Traditional bookshop to die out

Here is a story about a branch of bookshops which _______________(exist) for over 50

years in the UK. One of the bookshops has been run for the last 29 years by Steve
Pritchard.
The branch _______________ (close) last month, but Pritchard will continue to run his
branch in nearby Crosby.

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"I _______________ (be) in the business for 36 years and it _______________ (change)
out of all recognition," Mr Pritchard _______________ (say). "As soon as the net book
agreement _______________ (go) in the mid-90s, that _______________ (leed) to a
huge amount of competition from the likes1 of Tesco and Asda, who _______________
(come in) selling the top books for very low prices. Obviously we _______________
(can) compete on price because they _______________ (sell) them cheaper than we were
buying them for. With the level of customer service that we can offer, we
_______________ (manage) to hang on for the last 10 or 15 years. But now with the
internet and e-books, and the slowdown of the high street in general, it _______________
(come) to the point where we can no longer cover our overheads," he _______________
(continue), referring to the Formby branch. "There will always be somebody who
_______________ (want) a proper book, and there will be a few of us left. I think e-
books _______________ probably (be) the final straw. We _______________ (used to)
do regular local books to the libraries. That _______________ (slow off), and schools
_______________ (order) quite as much through us, they _______________ (order)
direct. All these little things - a few pounds here, a few pounds there, and
it_______________ (reach) the tipping point where we can't support a bricks and mortar
shop any more. I _______________ (read) in the paper that at the current rate of closure,
the last independent book shop will close in 2015. The cultural heart of a lot of our small
towns and cities _______________ (be) the independent bookshop. It really
_______________ (be) heartbreaking."

adapted from:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-
15157017

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likes,n. - used to talk about people of a particular type

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