Agroforest Syst
DOI 10.1007/s10457-011-9441-0
Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.)
for livelihoods and biodiversity conservation
in the orangutan habitat of Batang Toru, North Sumatra,
Indonesia: mixed prospects for domestication
Endri Martini James M. Roshetko Meine van Noordwijk Arif Rahmanulloh
Elok Mulyoutami Laxman Joshi Suseno Budidarsono
Received: 1 August 2011 / Accepted: 12 October 2011
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
Abstract Domestication of desirable forest resources
in agroforestry is expected to contribute to community
based forest conservation efforts, but there may be an
optimum level of domestication in this respect. Aren or
sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) is a
multipurpose tree that provides livelihoods for local
people and food for other biota in the landscape.
However, its domestication is still limited in many
places, such as in Batang Toru Forest Block, an area of
high conservation value, including habitat for the
Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii). Options for aren
management were prioritized as part of a landscape-
scale conservation study by comparing domestication
levels in the area. Data on economic indicators and
ecological knowledge were gathered through inter-
views with key farmers, focus groups and transect
walks. Four representative villages were selected for
the study, that is, (i) two villages with no domestication
of aren; and (ii) two villages with aren cultivation in
rubber-based land-use systems. Costbenefit analyses
E. Martini (&)
J. M. Roshetko
M. van Noordwijk

A. Rahmanulloh
E. Mulyoutami
L. Joshi

S. Budidarsono
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Jl. CIFOR Situ
Gede, Sindang Barang, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia
e-mail: endri.martini@gmail.com
J. M. Roshetko
Winrock International, Jl. CIFOR Situ Gede, Sindang
Barang, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia
suggested that in a rich biodiversity area, such as
Batang Toru, although aren was one of the sources of
local livelihoods, additional investment for domestica-
tion beyond cultivation was not an option considered by
farmers. Farmers still perceived wildlife as an efficient
mode of aren regeneration, supported by the coexis-
tence of people and other biota in the area. It appears the
value of aren for local peoples livelihoods and
conservation can be enhanced by increasing its stock-
ing density. There is also scope for improving market
access and share of end-user value received by farmers.
Keywords Natural regeneration
Enrichment

Planting
Aren
Introduction
Biodiversity conservation in densely populated parts
of the humid tropics requires new solutions in the
trade-offs between conservation and local livelihoods
(Brown 2002). One entry point in analyzing such
trade-offs is to focus on agricultural systems that
directly link livelihoods and biodiversity conservation
(Cromwell 1999; Scherr and McNeely 2008). Such
systems may focus on the domestication of wild
species that can meet the economic needs of local
people (income diversification, risk spreading, effi-
cient labor, and land use) and contribute to biodiver-
sity conservation (Michon and de Foresta 1997;
Belcher et al. 2005). Tree domestication provides a
123

powerful incentive for subsistence farmers to diversify
their farms with indigenous trees that provide eco-
nomic returns and environmental services, including
biodiversity conservation (Schroth et al. 2004; McNe-
ely 2004). Native multipurpose trees may therefore be
a stabilizing element in the interface of (and gradient
between) human use and biodiversity conservation
(Kang and Akinnifesi 2000).
Domestication of a species is driven by increased
utilization by humankind (Roshetko and Evans 1999),
through an iterative dynamic process that spans a
continuum from the wild to the genetically trans-
formed state (Simons and Leakey 2004). Clement
(1999) focused on genetic changes in populations as a
basis for stages of domestication. Based on different
interpretations of the concept of plant domestication,
Wiersum (1997a) distinguished two hierarchical lev-
els in domestication, i.e. the biological aspects of
human control over the reproduction of organisms and
the social dimensions of resource access that make it
worthwhile for individuals or communities to engage.
In the biological sense, domestication refers to the
processes operating at species or population level, i.e.
the cultivation and gradual adaptation of a species
morphological and genetic characteristics for specific
uses as well as specific environments. Cultivation in
the sense of altering the location or growth habit of a
crop may precede domestication in a genetic sense. In
the combined social plus biological sense, domestica-
tion refers to processes operating at agro-ecosystem
level.
In Indonesia, aren or sugar palm (Arenga pinnata
(Wurmb) Merr.) is a multipurpose tree species widely
used by different ethnic groups, particularly in North
Sulawesi, South East Sulawesi, North Sumatra, West
Java, Central Java, East Java, East Kalimantan and
West Kalimantan (Mogea et al. 1991). Aren is also
identified as a priority species for human livelihood in
Indonesia and Thailand (Gunasena and Roshetko
2000). The vernacular nomenclature comprises about
150 local names for Indonesia alone (Heyne 1987),
showing the importance of aren in local livelihoods.
Different ethnic groups utilize aren differently, mainly
dependent on their socio-economic (religion, cultural)
background, the availability of other natural resources
(including fuel-wood for sugar processing), and mar-
ket opportunities (Mogea et al. 1991). Within an ethnic
and cultural context, aren utilization also varies with
elevation.
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Agroforest Syst
Arens products are not only the sugary sap from its
flower stalks but also its edible fruits and fibers for
building material and household utensils. The socio-
economic importance of aren and other palm species
for the rural poor is described by Dalibard (2007).
Aren contributes to both the livelihoods of people and
the diets of wild animals, including species of high
conservation value: Tonkean macaque (Macaca ton-
keana) (Pombo et al. 2004), babi rusa (Babyrousa
babyrussa) (Clayton 1996), bees (Apis cerana) (Erwan
2006), palm civets (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
Pallas), and Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii)
(Sitaparasti 2007). The year-round availability of
fruits and high density (8.8 trees/ha) of A. pinnata in
human-modified habitats offer a stable source of
calories for Tonkean macaques; this is particularly
critical in degraded environments (Riley 2007). Ani-
mals play an important role in aren natural regener-
ation; in many areas farmers believe that the best aren
planters are the palm civets (Mogea et al. 1991).
The Batang Toru forest area in North Sumatra is
recognized as the largest remaining orangutan popu-
lation outside national parks (Wich et al. 2003); hence,
it is the focus of conservation efforts. The long-term de
facto cohabitation of this landscape by people and
orangutans is no guarantee for continued survival of
orangutans, but offers opportunities for seeking con-
servation solutions that do not exclude people from the
landscape. Conservationlivelihoods enhancement
work in the Batang Toru area identified aren, durian
(Durio zibethinus), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) and
cocoa (Theobroma cacao) as four species that con-
tribute significantly to human livelihoods and can
directly or indirectly contribute to the protection of
orangutan habitats (Roshetko et al. 2007).
Interestingly, despite the importance of aren for
local livelihoods, very few farmers in Batang Toru
actively propagate or domesticate the species. Similar
findings have been reported from other parts of
Indonesia (Mogea et al. 1991; Smits and Widawati
1999). The perception that aren trees are still abundant
in the landscape may be a reason for farmers
reluctance to put in more effort for aren cultivation.
Farmers may also have other economic consider-
ations. Thus, this study was conducted to document
the current practices in aren utilization and domesti-
cation in the Batang Toru area, to investigate farmers
motivations in aren domestication, and to assess
contribution of aren utilization and domestication for
Agroforest Syst
livelihoods and biodiversity conservation. Options for
aren domestication development were prioritized as
part of a landscape-scale conservation study by
comparing aren domestication practiced in the area.
Methodology
Species information of Aren sugar palm
Aren (Arenga pinnata, syn. Arenga saccharifera) is a
large palm that belongs to the Arecaceae family. The
trunk is single and covered with a black, fibrous,
hessian-like material. The leaves are 612 m long and
1.5 m broad, pinnate, with the pinnae in 16 rows,
4070 cm long and 5 cm broad. The male inflores-
cence, in a dense cluster of 4 ft long is purple and has
an unpleasant odor. The female inflorescences are
longer than the male and ripen very slowly into glossy,
brown, plum sized fruit. Male inflorescence is tapped
for its sugary sap with a production of 540 l of sap per
day per inflorescence. Aren is often found in well-
drained, tropical Asian landscapes with ample sun and
water (usually near a river). The species grows best at
high altitudes (500800 masl) with precipitation
above 1,200 mm/year, 710 rainy months and average
temperature around 25C (Soeseno 2000).
Site description and selection of study villages
Batang Toru is located in North Sumatra, Indonesia,
and has a high orangutan conservation value. It covers
approximately 105,000 ha in three districtsNorth
Tapanuli, South Tapanuli and Central Tapanuli
(Fig. 1)with an elevation of 2001,500 masl and
annual precipitation of 1,5003,000 mm. The domi-
nant vegetation is primary rainforest. The Batang Toru
area was selected for this study for two reasons.
1. The area provides habitat for a population of at
least 400 Sumatran orangutan at the southern-
most extremity of the species range (Singleton
2004; Sitaparasti 2007).
2. Aren is commonly cultivated and has strong
cultural relevance to the dominant Batak tribe in
the area (Roshetko et al. 2007).
Tree management of aren in Batang Toru is
primarily based on natural regeneration and extrac-
tive management. Efforts to domesticate aren are
uncommon in the area. However, over the last decade
some farmers in Arse subdistrict (South Tapanuli)
have collected aren seedlings from the wild and
replanted in their fields. Four villages were selected
for this study to represent type of aren domestication
efforts in the area.
1. Two villages where aren planting is practiced:
Lumban Lobu and Pagaran Tulason; both are
located in Arse subdistrict and have predomi-
nately Moslem populations.
2. Two villages where there is no practice of aren
planting: Paran Julu (Sipirok subdistrict, South
Tapanuli) with a predominately Moslem popula-
tion; and Hutagurgur village (Sibabangun subdis-
trict, Central Tapanuli) with a predominantly
Christian population.
Data collection and synthesis
Data were collected regarding: (i) utilization of aren in
the local socio-economy; (ii) current efforts of aren
domestication; and (iii) environmental services poten-
tial of aren based on local knowledge. Data were
collected from primary and secondary sources between
23 November and 6 December 2008. Discussions with
extension officers and traders in Sipirok were held to
obtain information on: (i) use and value of aren in the
local socio-economy; and (ii) other potential uses of
aren. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted
with 510 key persons per village to identify garden
management systems and economic value at plot level.
In-depth interviews on the productivity of the plots
were conducted with plot owners. Land-use economic
values (revenues, costs, net present value and return to
labor) were calculated based on input/output data of
the plots where the aren inventory was conducted. A
rapid plot inventory was conducted to describe types
of land use. At least two representative rectangular
plots were sampled per village. Direct observation was
made to validate the information obtained through
interviews. Additional focus groups were held in
villages that harvested aren products daily, that is,
Paran Julu village (for sugar) and Hutagurgur village
(for tuak). Secondary data were gathered from various
published and unpublished sources before and after
primary data collection from stakeholders.
Domestication levels in this study were defined by
modifying the categories of indigenous tree utilization
123

Fig. 1 Study areas in Batang Toru landscape, North Sumatra, Indonesia
and management practices that were proposed by
Wiersum (1997b). From Wiersum (1997b) tree utili-
zation categories, we add more detail definition on tree
regeneration (i.e. seedling production and planting),
tree maintenance (e.g. thatch removal, pruning) and
tree genetic selection (i.e. selection and production of
improved quality germplasm). We classified the
domestication levels in this study as wild, enriched,
planted and domesticated (Table 1).
Potentials for aren domestication were evaluated
through strengths, weaknesses, opportunity and
threats SWOT analysis from both the livelihoods and
conservation perspectives. Rapid Assessment of Agro-
forestry Practices and Technology (RAFT) analytical
framework (Joshi and van Noordwijk 2009) was used
to describe potential effective agroforest management
practices.
Findings
Arens utilization in the local socio-economy
The Batang Toru landscape has a wide range of
biophysical characteristics and diverse social condi-
tions that influence how local people use the natural
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Agroforest Syst
resources in the area. Based on observations and
discussions with local people, aren utilization in
Batang Toru varied between different religious
groups, that is, Moslem and Christian, and was
affected by the varying biophysical characteristics of
the landscape.
From a biophysical perspective, elevation played a
major role in how people utilized aren in Batang Toru.
All villages had approximately the same annual precip-
itation (2,0003,000 mm) and soil characteristics.
Elevation, mean temperature and topography vary
among villages. Hutagurgur, the only village located
in the lowlands, differs the most from other villages
(Table 2). At lower elevations (below 200 masl) aren
produces less sap than at higher elevations (more than
200 masl), thus, at lower elevations aren is less utilized.
Of the four villages, elevation and temperature in Paran
Julu is the most conducive for aren productivity.
From a socio-economic perspective, results from
interviews with village heads and other key informants
confirmed that livelihoods in all four villages were based
on on-farm and off-farm activities (Fig. 2). Off-farm
activities included share-cropping, traditional textile
(ulos) production, drivers of public transportation.
On-farm sources of income were derived primarily from
the several land-use systems.
Agroforest Syst

Table 1 Definition of domestication levels modified from Wiersum (1997b) to classify aren domestication in Batang Toru, North
Sumatra, Indonesia
Domestication Wiersum Seedling Tree Tree Genetic Note
level (1997b) production planting maintenance selection
category

Wild Uncontrolled None None None None Uncontrolled, open access gathering or
procurement controlled gathering of wild tree products.
of wild tree No tree maintenance is practiced
products
Enriched Controlled None Yes Yes None Systematic collection of wild tree products
utilization with protective tending of valued tree
species; and selective cultivation of valued
trees by artificial in situ regeneration
Planted Purposeful Yes Yes Yes None Cultivation of wild tree species in artificially
regeneration established plantations
Domesticated Domestication Yes Yes Yes Yes Cultivation of domesticated tree crops in
intensively managed plantations

Table 2 Characteristics of study villages in Batang Toru, North Sumatra, Indonesia

Village Village area Altitude Temp Annual precipitation Topo- Religion of inhabitants Total
(ha) (masl) (8C) (mm) graphy households

Paran Julu 484 9001200 1326 20003000 Hilly 80% Moslem; 20% 245
Christian
Pagaran 311 800900 1526 20003000 Flat 100% Moslem 21
Tulason
Lumban 382 800900 1526 20003000 Flat 100% Moslem 82
Lobu
Hutagurgur 3571 100600 2632 20003500 Hilly 100% Christian 135
Source BPS North Sumatra 2006, BPS Tapsel 2006, BPS Tapteng 2006

(a) Rice systems: average 0.51 ha/HH (household),
irrigated or semi-irrigated. This land-use system
is found in all four villages where rice cultivation
is important for food security.
(b) Aren-based agroforestry systems: plots of
12 ha/HH, typically 12 km from settlements.
Number of aren trees in the systems varied from
10 to 50 trees/ha. Common associated tree
species encountered in the system were durian,
petai (Parkia speciosa) and various timber tree
species of the Lauraceae family (for example,
Litsea sp.). Most of the tree species in the
gardens were from natural regeneration. This
land-use system is most common in Paran Julu.
(c) Rubber-based agroforestry systems: character-
ized by irregular spacing and a diverse mix of
tree species (primarily fruit and timber). Each
household owned 14 ha. Rubber and various
fruit species dominated the system; some timber
trees were also present. Most of the rubber
agroforests were over 30 years-old with 100200
mature rubber trees/ha, being around 40% of
total trees.
(d) Rubber monocultures: regularly spaced rubber
plantations, occasionally mixed with a few
cinnamon trees. The holding size was 14 ha/
HH. Rubber spacing was commonly 3 9 6 m.
Clonal planting material or a mix of clonal and
local seedlings were used in monoculture sys-
tems. Clonal planting materials were provided
free by the district Estate Crop Office to facilitate
the development of smallholder rubber systems.
Rubber monocultures were only found in Paga-
ran Tulason and Lumban Lobu villages.
(e) Other less-common land-use systems in the
study area included mixed tree-based systems
(dominated by cocoa, candlenut, and vegeta-
bles); secondary forests; and small monoculture

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 Agroforest Syst

Fig. 2 Main sources of

household income in the
four study villages based on
data from focus group
discussions with key
informants in Batang Toru,
North Sumatra, Indonesia

systems with cocoa, candlenut or vegetables as Farmers also harvested aren thatch (ijuk) and fruit
the crops. (kolang-kaling) annually. Sometimes, the long dis-
tance from aren gardens to the village made farmers
Culturally, all four villages in this study were
reluctant to harvest thatch and aren fruit. In such cases,
dominated by the Batak tribe. The three villages of
farmers harvested thatch and fruits, only if there was
Paran Julu, Lumban Lobu and Pagaran Tulason were
an urgent need for cash in the family. Although aren
primarily inhabited by the Batak Angkola sub-tribe,
was an important source of income in Paran Julu, no
while Hutagurgur was inhabited by the Batak Toba
domestication efforts had evolved. Farmers in Paran
sub-tribe. In Batak culture, aren plays a unique and
Julu still depended on natural regeneration for aren
important role. In Moslem areas, aren flower sap is
propagation; and civets (Paradoxurus sp.) were con-
used to produce sugar, while in Christian areas aren
sidered to be the best aren planter.
sap is processed to prepare tuak, an alcoholic bever-
In Lumban Lobu and Pagaran Tulason villages,
age. However, not all Moslem farmers in Batang Toru
both located far from the forests (more than 10 km),
processed aren sap for sugar because sugar production
aren trees were considered only a secondary source of
requires ample firewood. Similarly, not all Christian
income. Before the 1990s, the primary sources of on-
farmers produced tuak, as not all farmers have the
farm income in Lumban Lobu and Pagaran Tulason
expertise to tap aren flowers.
were coffee, candlenut and aren. Tapping rubber was
Paran Julu was the village most dependent on aren:
the primary source of livelihoods in both villages at the
approximately 12% of households (30 of 245 house-
time of this study. Firewood from rubber trees and
holds) relied on aren as their primary source of
other native vegetation was used to process aren sap
income. The remaining households (88%) had off-
into sugar. Farmers without sufficient firewood of their
farm activities and paddy rice as the primary source of
own bought from other farmers, at about USD 10/m3.
income. Aren was an important and productive crop in
Farmers in Lumban Lobu and Pagaran Tulason
Paran Julu because: (i) the local biophysical condi-
harvested thatch more regularly compared to their
tions in the village were suitable for aren; and (ii) the
peers in Paran Julu. The two former villages are closer
existence of natural forests (home for seed dispersal
to roads. Farmers believed that regular thatch harvest-
agents and source of firewood) close to the village
ing improves aren growth. Farmers normally started
(4 km from the settlement).
harvesting aren sap and fruit when aren trees reached
In Paran Julu, farmers tapped aren twice a day,
810 years of age. Some farmers believed harvesting
mainly for sugar production; only trees within 12 km
aren fruits reduced sap production.
from the settlement were tapped. Farmers reported that
Compared to the other three villages, Hutagurgur
they needed about 1 m3 of firewood per week to
village was unique owing to its location at a low
process aren sap into sugar. Thus, farmers needed
elevation and its dominant Christian population
good accessibility to tree gardens or forests to secure
(Table 2.). The village is located 1020 km from the
sufficient firewood. Weekly sugar production in Paran
nearest natural forest. Rubber had been cultivated in
Julu varied from 10 to 30 kg sugar/household.

123
Agroforest Syst

the village for the last 50 years and had become the
main source of income for the villagers. Secondary
sources of livelihoods in Hutagurgur were fruit trees,
primarily durian, petai, langsat (Lansium domesti-
cum), and cocoa. Aren was a tertiary source of
livelihoods.
Also unique to Hutagurgur was that farmers
fermented aren sap to produce tuak, a local alcoholic
beverage sold in traditional cafes (lapo). Tuak was
consumed daily and also in traditional ceremonies.
Occasionally, farmers harvested aren fruits and thatch
for sale. Because of Hutagurgurs location in the
lowlands, aren sap production was only 510 l per
flower per day compared to 2030 l per flower per day
in the other three villages. Hence, only a few people in
this village processed aren sap for sugar production.
The sap from a single tree was used either to prepare
tuak or sugar, but not both.
The four study villages had different livelihood
strategies that influenced how local people utilized and
managed aren trees. Generally, aren contribution to
local livelihoods in Batang Toru can be classified into
four product types.
(1) Sugar: trees tapped daily to provide weekly
income; aren contributed 50% of weekly house-
hold income; producers lived near the forest and
had easy access to firewood for producing sugar.
(2) Thatch (ijuk): leaves harvested no more than
twice a year to provide yearly income; aren
contributed less than 10% of yearly income of
farmers.
(3) Alcoholic beverage (tuak): trees tapped daily to
provide weekly income; aren contributed
4050% of weekly income of farmers, who were
mostly Christians.
(4) Aren fruit (kolang-kaling): harvested to provide
yearly income; aren contributed 20% of yearly
income; demand for fruit was highest during the
annual Ramadan (fasting) month; primary mar-
kets were Sumatra and Java.
Aren domestication practices in Batang Toru
Transect walks, direct observations and interviews
with key informants were used to collect data. From
four domestication levels defined for this study
(Table 1.), only three levels were encountered in
Batang Toruwild, enriched, and planted (Table 3).
Harvesting and post-harvest techniques in the study
villages were relatively similar to those described by
Mogea et al. (1991) for other locations in Indonesia.
Tapping began when aren trees were 810 years old,
continuing until the age of 25 years. No specific pest
and disease control was practiced in Batang Toru
because pests and diseases were not yet seen as a
problem in the landscape.
The most intensive domestication was practiced in
Pagaran Tulason, where farmers produced their own

Table 3 Description of tree management practices at three aren domestication levels in the four study villages in Batang Toru,
North Sumatra, Indonesia
Domest- Village Main Tree propagation Tree spacing Tree main- Land-use types
ication products tenance
level

Wild Hutagurgur Alcoholic None Irregular, based on None Mixed gardens; rubber
beverage natural agroforests; intensive
Paran Julu Sugar regeneration rubber gardens
Enriched Lumban Thatch Collect and plant wild Irregular Remove Mixed gardens; rubber
Lobu seedlings (transplanting in thatch to agroforests; intensive
gaps or other stimulate rubber gardens
selected trunk
locations) growth
Planted Pagaran Sugar and Propagate seedlings from Planted at regular Remove Degraded land; rubber
Tulason thatch local seed sources; spacing thatch to agroforests; intensive
collect and plant wild (8 9 8 m) stimulate rubber gardens; mixed
seedlings trunk gardens
growth

123

seedlings and also collected wildlings to plant at
regular spacings (8 9 8 m). In a slightly less intensive
practice, farmers in Lumban Lobu simply collected
wildings from the forests to plant in natural gaps in the
forest and other selected locations. In both Pagaran
Tulason and Lumban Lobu, farmers removed the
thatch regularly (every 34 months) to simulate aren
stem growth. Aren cultivation in Arse subdistrict was
similar to that in Lumban Lobu. In Paran Julu and
Hutagurgur, where aren trees were still abundant in
the surrounding forest, farmers did not plant aren.
Tree management practices in the two villages were
similar while the final products from aren sugar were
different: sugar in Paran Julu and tuak in Hutagurgur.
The tree species diversity in aren plots varied with
intensity of aren domestication (Table 4). In a
tendency, plots with increasing intensity of aren
domestication (from wild to planted) showed a
decrease in the number of accompanying tree species
in the same plot. Around 50% of the total tree species
encountered regenerated naturally, the remaining
species were deliberately planted. All the species
planted had economic value, for example, cacao,
durian, cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmanii), jackfruit
(Artocarpus heterophyllus), petai, langsat and aren.
The number of aren trees in an area depends on the
biophysical characteristics and the primary product
harvested: more aren trees are required for sugar
production than for tuak production. For instance,
farmers needed at least 100 l of aren sap to produce
20 kg sugar per week, while 100 l of aren sap
produced 100 l of tuak. Hence, in this study, wild
plots were divided into two sub-categories: wild sugar
and wild tuak. Between plots, the density of tappable
aren trees differed among plots of different domesti-
cation levels and varied from 5 to 12 (Table 5).
The total productivity of the tree component of
plots also varied with the biophysical characteristics
(Table 5). Under local management conditions, rubber
trees came into production 7 years after planting,
while petai and durian started producing fruit at
1015 years. The contribution of each commodity to
total household income over a 25-year period is
illustrated in Fig. 3. Interestingly, in all plots, kolang-
kaling contributed 3040% of the total income.
The economic value profitability of each plot was
calculated by including the four dominant commod-
ities as noted in Table 5rubber, durian, petai and
arenand by using a 25-year production cycle.
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Agroforest Syst
Among the plots, the wild tuak plot had the highest
NPV and return to labor (Fig. 4). Thus, the wild tuak
plot would be the type of management preferred by
farmers. And, if compared between plots, enriched
plot has the lowest NPV and return to labor.
Contrary to the NPV and return to labor trend
shown in Fig. 4, enriched and planted plots had
higher revenues compared to wild tuak and wild
sugar (Fig. 5). However, both enriched and planted
plots had higher costs compared to wild plots.
Interestingly, wild tuak production had the lowest
revenue and the lowest cost but highest profit (NPV
and return to labor). Moreover, the cost for wild
sugar, enriched and planted plots was 10 times higher
than for the wild tuak plot. With sugar production,
the cost of fuelwood is more than 50% of its total cost
(Table 6), although at the time of study fuelwood is a
non-tradable product, that is, most farmers do not buy
fuelwood for sugar production. Meanwhile, the total
cost of domestication (planting, enrichment, land
preparation and maintenance) was only around USD
500 for enriched and USD 600 for planted. In
conclusion, NPV value depends more on the final
product than on type of garden management (domes-
tication level).
From gender perspective, the aren-based manage-
ment system was mainly dominated by men, partic-
ularly during tapping (Fig. 6). Women played an
important role in cooking sugar and in the production
of sweetmeat (kolang-kaling) from aren fruit. In
general, in Batang Toru communities men play a
larger role in aren management. Women have impor-
tant responsibilities in managing other land-use types
located close to settlements. There is no significant
change of gender roles between different aren domes-
tication levels (i.e. wild, enriched, planted).
Landscape-level opinion on Arens environmental
services potentials
At landscape level, aren occurs in most parts of
Batang Toru, from lowlands to uplands. Aren trees are
still considered to be abundant, thus domestication had
not been considered necessary. From discussions with
key stakeholders (farmers and government officers),
aren trees also provided services such as preventing
erosion and providing sources of food for animals such
as civets, bees, orangutans, monkeys (Macaca spp and
Presbytis melalophos) and squirrels. The provisioning
Agroforest Syst

Table 4 Tree species composition of aren plots of different domestication levels in Batang Toru, North Sumatra, Indonesia
Local name Scientific name Main product Occurrence on aren plots of different domestication level
Wild sugar Wild tuak Enriched Planted

Aren Arenga pinnata Fruit Natural Natural Natural Planted

Flower sap
Thatch
Bambu Phyllostachys sp. Timber Natural
Cempedak Artocarpus integer Fruit Natural
Coklat Theobroma cacao Fruit Planted
Durian Durio zibethinus Fruit Planted Planted
Timber
Goti Alstonia angustiloba Timber Natural
Jambu batu Syzygium sp. Fruit Natural
Timber
Karet Hevea brasiliensis Latex Planted Planted Planted
Fuelwood
Kayu manis Cinnamomum burmanii Bark Planted Planted
Fuelwood
Kopi Coffea robusta Fruit Natural
Langsat Lansium domesticum Fruit Planted Planted
Timber
Mangga Mangifera sp. Fruit Natural
Timber
Medang Lauraceae Timber Natural
Fuelwood
Medang labu Litsea sp. Timber Natural
Fuelwood
Nangka Artocarpus heterophyllus Fruit Planted Planted Planted
Nangka-nangkaan Artocarpus sp. Fuelwood Natural
Petai/Parira Parkia speciosa Fruit Planted
Timber
Pohon kayu Various timber species Timber Natural Natural
Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum Fruit Natural
Salak Sallaca zallaca Fruit Natural
Waru Hisbiscus sp. Timber Natural
Total number of species naturally regenerated 8 5 2 2
Total number of species planted 3 5 4 3
Total number of species 11 10 6 5
Sample plot size (ha) 0.16 0.08 0.12 0.08
Note Natural means established by natural regeneration, Planted means established by the farmers, means the species not
encountered

service is a potential source of greater conflict between
animals and humans, more than has already been seen
in some parts of Batang Toru (Sitaparasti 2007).
Villages located near the forest commonly have more
conflict with orangutans, which consume aren flower
sap and fruit. To avoid further conflict with orangu-
tans, the villagers usually try to block the orangutan
route to the aren trees. It is important to note that
villagers do not kill orangutans for disturbing aren
trees, as farmers believe that the aren trees will no

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 Agroforest Syst

Table 5 Average productivity in USD of aren plots of different domestication levels based on interviews with plot owners in Batang
Toru, North Sumatra, Indonesia
Price (USD/unit)* Plots
Unit Wild tuak Wild sugar Enriched Planted

Number of tappable aren trees N.a. Tree/ha 5 5 10 12

Number of rubber trees N.a. Tree/ha N.a. N.a. 350 350
Production
Sap production Liter/tree 7.14 10 7.14 7.14
Palm sugar 0.78 Kg/ha/year N.a. 600 857 1028
Fruits (kolang-kaling) 0.28 Kg/ha/year 1500 1500 3000 3600
Alcoholic beverage (tuak) 0.11 Bottle (600 ml)/ha/year 5000 N.a. N.a. N.a.
Thatch (ijuk) 0.22 Kg/ha/year 12.5 12.5 25 30
Rubber 0.22 Kg/ha/year N.a. N.a. 847 847
Petai 0.22 Fruit/tree/year 189 N.a. N.a. N.a.
Durian 0.56 Fruit/tree/year 200 100 N.a. N.a.
Annual gross income USD/year 1128.1 941.7 1693.7 1994.4
Note n.a. not applicable, * the price at November 2008, USD 1 Rp 9000

Fig. 3 Contribution by
commodity to income
received per plot in one
25-year aren cycle by aren
farmers in Batang Toru,
North Sumatra, Indonesia

Fig. 4 Net Present Value

(NPV) and return to labor
per hectare for various levels
of aren domestication
(product combinations
calculated for a 25-year aren
cycle with aren production
starting at 10 years old), in
Batang Toru area, North
Sumatra, Indonesia. Wild
plots are calculated from 5
aren trees/ha, planted plots
from 12 aren trees/ha, and
enriched plot from 10 aren
trees/ha

123
Agroforest Syst

Fig. 5 Revenue and total

costs per hectare of each
observed plot, calculated for
a 25-year aren cycle with
aren production starting at
10 years old, in Batang Toru,
North Sumatra, Indonesia

Table 6 Cost breakdown for a 25-year aren cycle by domestication level in Batang Toru, North Sumatra, Indonesia
Cost breakdown Type of expense Aren domestication types
Wild tuak Wild sugar Enriched Planted

Total cost (USD) 1,880.25 16,997.39 22,047.95 22,707.46

Fuelwood Non-tradable 0% 76% 58% 56%
Labor for aren tapping Non-tradable 50% 10% 8% 10%
Labor for beating the flower/pre-harvesting (mangoal-goal) Non-tradable 9% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%
Labor for sugar processing Non-tradable 0% 7% 7% 7%
Labor for rubber tapping Non-tradable 0% 0% 16% 16%
Natural fermented additive (raru) Tradable 33% 0% 0% 0%
Other (equipment, fertilizers) Tradable 8% 6% 11% 11%
Note Non-tradable means farmers do not buy the material; Tradable means farmers buy the material

longer provide sap if orangutans are physically
harmed or killed.
Stakeholders believe that the aren root structure is
good for preventing land erosion, thus aren can be
used in land rehabilitation programs, particularly on
steep slopes. However, aren has not yet been included
as tree species for land rehabilitation program in
Batang Toru landscape, one of the reasons is because
there are still plenty of aren trees in the landscape.
Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
(SWOT) of domesticating aren in Batang Toru
Based on the SWOT analysis of aren domestication in
Batang Toru (Table 7), aren trees can be (trans-)
planted in a mixed tree-based system (agroforestry) at
spacings of 8 m from other tree species; with the
number of aren trees ranging from 12 to 30 trees/ha.
Aren can be planted with any kind of tree species, for
example, durian or rubber, however, spacing between
trees is an important factor for optimum production. It
is best to plant aren only 35 years after planting other
tree species. Based on the information received from
farmers and from direct observation, the aren root
system is fibrous and horizontal and has the potential
to affect the growth of other tree species.
Based on the SWOT analysis of aren products
(Table 8), price fluctuations may affect tree mainte-
nance intensitythe higher the price, the higher the
intensity of garden managementincluding intensive
harvesting and processing of products. Tuak and aren
sugar have the potential to provide weekly income,
while thatch and kolang-kaling are sources of annual
income. Another potential product from aren is
ethanol for biofuel. Fuelwood stock may be the
biggest constraint for sugar or biofuel production,

123

Fig. 6 Gender role
allocation in aren-based
systems in Batang Toru,
North Sumatra, Indonesia
thus planting species that provide useful fuelwood in
or near aren gardens may be useful.
In conclusion, although current domestication
efforts are limited, aren positively contributes to local
peoples livelihoods and also provides a source of food
for wildlife in the landscape. Further domestication
effortsparticularly germplasm selection, planting
and management techniques, harvesting and post-
harvest management and technologystill require
further work.
Discussion
This study confirms the observations of Mogea et al.
(1991) that the role of aren in local livelihoods
remains valid. A recent study in the area showed that
in addition to rubber, durian, cacao and kemenyan
(Styrax benzoin), approximately 30% of farmers in
Batang Toru also depended on aren to meet their
livelihoods needs (Tata and van Noordwijk 2010).
Despite arens importance to local livelihoods, in the
past two decades there has been little effort by farmers
to domesticate aren. This slow progress of domesti-
cation has been documented with other palm species.
Byg and Balslev (2006) showed that most palms in the
tropics are exploited in wild stands and are only
occasionally cultivated, while only a few palms have
been domesticated.
123
Agroforest Syst
Out of 46 subdistricts in the Batang Toru landscape,
only in Arse subdistrict of South Tapanuli district had
farmers begun to cultivate aren by transplanting wild
seedlings and planting seedlings produced on farms
into a mixed-tree garden or agroforestry system.
Discussion with farmers in Arse revealed some
reasons why farmers cultivate aren the way they do.
One motivation was the important role of aren in local
livelihoods. Similar motivations of smallholder farm-
ers to adopt agroforestry systems have been reported
in the Philippines (Schurren and Snelder 2008) and
Indonesia (Manurung et al. 2008).
Farmers aren domestication efforts in Arse sub-
district were supported by the local government. The
head of Arse subdistrict in the 1990s built an aren
nursery near the subdistrict office and distributed aren
seedlings to nearby farmers. Simultaneously, Arse
extension officers were actively promoting aren to
improve local peoples livelihoods. In this context,
government stimulus was important to motivate
farmers to improve aren production and productivity.
Simmons et al. (2002) highlighted government
involvement as a key factor that influenced small-
holders tree-planting behavior.
Our study identified three major types of aren
domestication (wild, enriched and planted). Compar-
ison of NPV and return to labor data showed that the
wild type, which depends on natural regeneration of
aren, was the most profitable; while the enriched type
Agroforest Syst

Table 7 SWOT analysis by level of aren domestication in Batang Toru, North Sumatra, Indonesia
Domestication Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats
level

Wild Least costly because it
requires no labor for
planting
Culturally embedded with
local livelihoods
Usually occurs in mixed
garden systems with high
biodiversity that supports
food security
Enriched Many species from these
mixed systems provide
farmers with income, for
example, rubber and fruit
trees
Planted Many species from these
mixed systems provide
farmers with income, for
example, rubber and fruit
trees
Tree regeneration not only
depends on natural stock
in the area but also nursery
grown seedlings that may
be from other areas
Tree populations are Tree production can be
dependent on enhanced by regularly
natural regeneration removing thatch at least
Gardens are becoming once a year
further from villages
due to land
conversion and
limited natural
regeneration
In the extreme, Cultivation of many
systems become valuable species to
monocultures with enhance income and
low biodiversity reduce risks (the number of
aren should be about 30
trees per ha)
Aren propagation methods
should be introduced to
farmers
In the extreme, Cultivation of many
systems become valuable species to
monocultures with enhance income and
low biodiversity reduce risks (the number of
Higher management aren should be about 30
cost per ha because trees per ha)
of labor Mother tree selection, seed
requirements for management and nursery
planting and management methods can
maintenance be introduced to provide
farmers with alternative
income opportunities
Without enrichment
planting of seedlings or
wildlings by humans, the
number of aren trees will
decrease
Intensive fruit harvesting
reduces source of seeds
for natural regeneration
If farmers only depend on
natural seed germination,
the quality and quantity
of available seedlings
(wildlings) will be low
The development of
extensive areas of
monoculture will
decrease biodiversity and
fragment the landscape

was the least profitable. However, the wild type is
profitable under conditions where aren trees are still
abundant and the wildlife (such as civets) are still
available to help in pollination and seed dispersal. In
many areas where natural vegetation has been con-
verted to other land uses, enriched or planted types
may be the better options for utilizing aren as a source
of local livelihoods. A link between environmental
conditions and land-use intensification was also
observed by Snelder and Lasco (2008), who showed
that in a forest-rich environment tree management is
practiced but primarily in a rather passive way. In
forest-deprived areas, trees are established on farms
and field boundaries through intercropping and line
planting.
Moreover, Byg and Balslev (2006) showed that
perceptions of declining palm availability in combi-
nation with heavy reliance on palm products were
positively related to palm cultivation (domestication).
Thus, the stage in Batang Toru (that is, the enriched
and planted practices) could be seen as a turning point
for the current optimum progress of aren domestica-
tion particularly in areas where aren availability is
declining, as in Arse subdistrict. From an economic
perspective, optimum domestication level relates to
the costs and benefits of the system. Enriched and
planted plots have similar costs. However, the differ-
ences in numbers of trees between enriched (10 trees)
and planted (12 trees) resulted in differences of
profitability. Thus, setting the optimum number of
aren trees per hectare in aren cultivation with enriched
or planted types of practice is important aspect that
needs to be considered in enhancing arens positive
contribution to the local livelihood.
Aren yields multiple products that contribute pos-
itively to local livelihoods. Tree species utilized for

123
 Agroforest Syst

Table 8 SWOT analysis by aren product in Batang Toru, North Sumatra, Indonesia
Main Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats
product

Alcoholic Require less labor Limited market Production and marketing High tuak production may threaten
beverage and investment opportunity (only to can be improved to sugar production in the area
(tuak) (no fuelwood non-Moslems) increase income (tertiary
requirement) source of income)
4050% of weekly Ethanol from aren has
family incomes potential as source for
Culturally biofuel
embedded with
local livelihoods
Palm sugar 50% of weekly High requirements for Production system can be A decrease in fuelwood supply will
family incomes labor and fuelwood improved to increase increase the cost (and amount of
income planning) of sugar production
Harvesting technique can
also be improved.
Fuelwood species can be
planted in aren gardens
Thatch Low harvesting Only harvested in High market demand, Farmer perceptions indicate that
costs compared gardens located near sometimes with intensive thatch harvest at productive
to sugar roads international market age may reduce the sap production
production Different biophysical orientation and moisture content
\ 10% of yearly characteristics result Can be harvested twice per
family incomes in different thatch year
quality Routine thatch removal
good for tree growth
Aren fruits 20% of yearly Intensive fruit Demand for kolang-kaling If harvest regulations or guidelines are
(kolang- family incomes harvesting reduces is greatest during the not developed, kolang-kaling
kaling) Harvested once a source of seeds for annual Ramadan production might not be sustainable
year natural regeneration (Moslem) holiday

multiple purposes are important to farmers for liveli-
hoods needs (Garen et al. 2011). There are four main
aren products with economic value: alcoholic bever-
age, sugar, thatch and sweets. Only sugar and
alcoholic beverage are harvested for weekly income.
Our profitability data showed that alcohol production
had higher NPV compared to sugar, thus, if there is no
social barrier (such as religion) to alcohol consump-
tion and there is sufficient market, production of
alcohol maybe the best option for farmers to fulfill
their weekly income. Interestingly, during the 2008
world financial crisis when the global rubber price
decreased, some rubberaren farmers in Batang Toru
switched from producing sugar to tuak. Farmers
shifted to alcohol production that required less labor
compared to sugar production. This allowed farmers to
allocate more time to alternative livelihood activities
to fill the gap left by reduced income from rubber.
Moreover, discussion of the role of domestication
cannot be divorced from that of commercialization,
since without a new market the incentives to domes-
ticate intensively for self-use are insufficient (Leakey
and Simons 1998). Future success of domestication
and commercialization depends on the benefits
remaining with the farmers and their local industries
and markets (Simons and Leakey 2004). Belcher and
Schreckenberg (2007) showed that the size and nature
of the market are crucial factors to be considered in the
commercialization of agricultural products. Goods
and services that are primarily exported outside the
producing region tend to have significantly larger
markets. Thus, the main constraints to entering export
markets, from a local or regional perspective, are on
the supply side. Farmers biggest challenge is to
increase the quality and quantity of production at
competitive prices. However, in the case of aren,

123
Agroforest Syst
which is not an export commodity, advanced domes-
tication seems unlikely unless a large, steady and
lucrative domestic demand evolves.
Planting aren has the potential to provide diet for
wildlife (Clayton 1996; Pombo et al. 2004; Erwan
2006; Sitaparasti 2007). While beneficial from a
conservation and biodiversity point of view, this may
cause conflict between wildlife and farmers if local
communities do not value biodiversity or lack aware-
ness regarding the benefits of wildlife in the landscape
(pollination and dispersal of aren seeds, which reduces
tree regeneration costs). Cropping intensification and
greater emphasis on short-term productivity can result
in loss of species diversity and reduced genetic
variation in farming systems (Donald 2004; Lengkeek
et al. 2006). Thus, interventions that support biodiver-
sity and improve livelihoods should be more concerned
with maximizing functional diversity than with just
increasing the number of tree species found in
landscapes per se (Dawson et al. 2009). However,
smallholder farmers tend to choose a low-cost and low-
risk practice that can contribute to their farm income
(Schroth et al. 2004). Hence, Greiner et al. (2009)
suggested that the design of conservation policies and
programs at the regional level ought to be guided by a
better understanding of the motivations and risk
attitudes of farmers so as to be able to tailor and bundle
incentives for maximum effectiveness and efficiency.
Conclusion
In conclusion, farmers motivation to domesticate
aren is influenced by environmental conditions, mar-
ket opportunities, and social aspects (including gov-
ernment programs). From the livelihoods and
biodiversity points of view, profitability analysis
shows that the wild type of aren domestication
practice is the optimum practice in a biodiversity-rich
landscape such as Batang Toru. With the conditions in
Batang Toru landscape as studied, although aren is
one of the sources of local livelihoods, additional
investment for domestication beyond cultivation was
not the option considered by farmers as the cost or
investment for intense genetic selection may exceed
the benefits that can be gained. However, in converted
or agriculturally intensified landscapes, where the
remnant population of aren trees is limited, enriched
or planted domestication levels may be optimum.
To optimize the role of aren for local livelihoods and
biodiversity conservation, the number of aren trees per
hectare needs to be considered. From our data, a
stocking density of 12 aren trees/ha seems to be the
minimum for an aren agroforest to contribute to a
familys livelihood in a significant manner. Domesti-
cation efforts will benefit farmers only if supported by
improved market access and share of the end-user
value received by the farmers.
Acknowledgments This study was funded through the Trees
in Multi-use Landscapes in Southeast Asia (TULSEA) project
funded by the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and
Development (BMZ) and Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Initial work was conducted through the
Development of Sustainable Economic Alternatives component
of the USAID-funded Development of Collaborative Orangutan
Habitat Protection in Batang Toru Watershed, North Sumatra,
project. We appreciate the assistance and contribution of the
collaborating communities and local government offices in
Batang Toru, and Robert Frederick Finlayson for final language
editing of the paper. We also thank two anonymous reviewers
for valuable comments on the manuscript.
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