PLANNING 1

MOVEMENT SYSTEMS

PEDESTRIAN
VEHICULAR
ROAD LAYOUTS

PREPARED BY:

MARTINO, MARIEL PAZ R.

INSTRUCTOR:

AR. ANTHONY ANDERSON, UAP

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page 1

Table of contents 2

MOVEMENT SYSTEMS 3

PEDESTRIAN 3

VEHICULAR 13

ROAD LAYOUTS 15

Glossary 21

References 23

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 MOVEMENT SYSTEMS
In the field of architecture, circulation refers to the way people move through and interact with a
building. In public buildings, circulation is of high importance; Structures such as elevators, escalators,
and staircases are often referred to as circulation elements, as they are positioned and designed to
optimize the flow of people through a building, sometimes through the use of a core.
In some situations, one-way circulation is desirable.
Circulation access includes:
1. Pedestrian
2. Vehicular
3. Public Transit Movement Systems

Sustainable design planning attempts to design infrastructure and utilities that work with the
natural ecosystem. Locating them in locations that complement existing conditions through sympathetic
solutions which reflect the local topography, climate and vegetation.

Five key principles define mobility-friendly circulation:

Connectivity: Create interconnected street networks with frequently spaced intersections, and
interconnected pedestrian pathways and bicycle networks.
Multi-use Streets: Design complete streets and intersections that serve pedestrians, persons
with disabilities, bicyclists, transit vehicles, and trucks as well as motorists.
Legibility: Provide a legible environment that helps users orient themselves, navigate, and
understand their surroundings.
Safety by Design: Encourage safe and predictable behavior by all road users. Road features
should enforce desired speeds, accommodate safe use by senior drivers and encourage shared
use by motorists, bicyclists, and pedestrians.
Sensitivity to Surroundings: Design roads and bridges in context, with respect for the
surrounding environment.

PEDESTRIAN

DESIGN FOR PEOPLE

The human scale of site design is a primary interest for site developers.
Site designs reflect the values of the society at that time through the work of designers.
The Ideal City, a painting by Piero della Francesca (Fig. 5.1), reflects the values of the
Renaissance: civic order, intellect, and beauty as found in the works of society. The Ideal
City is presented on a flat plain, its avenues uninterrupted by inconvenient topography or natural
features. With the exception of a few clouds in the sky, nature is completely absent. Although the
ideal might have been a sterile projection of society over nature, the reality was quite different.
Figure 5.2 of an actual village shows its accommodation to the topography, the use of aspect to
collect the sun, the use of local materials, and so forth.
Sites often support multiple uses and users with different needs and expectations, and
accommodating those needs and expectations has led to a variety of approaches to design.
Early accommodations were usually in the form of some sort of conspicuous add-on, even in new
construction. Access ramps, for example, were often reluctantly added to an entrance because
the need for accommodation was not addressed early in the design.
Universal design principles have become more widely recognized and accepted in recent years.
These principles go beyond site and building concerns to include product and industrial design.
In essence the precepts of universal design are intended to provide equity and simplicity in
access and use of all products of design.
A site designed using these precepts avoids segregating one set of users from another whenever
possible.
Multiple but equal points of access to accommodate people with accessibility issues are planned
to avoid stigmatizing some users.
Signage is designed to be useful regardless of ones language.
Understanding the limitations of site users who range from toddlers to the elderly requires more
than the common human factors and range of motion charts established for the average person.

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FIGURE 5.1 The Ideal City by Piero della Francesca.

FIGURE 5.2 This village illustrates an organic form of development that accommodates and uses local
conditions to the advantage of residents. (Photograph by Rebecca Russ.)

General Site Design Guidelines for Pedestrians

It remains the responsibility of the design professional to select and specify the materials
appropriate to the site.
A working knowledge of human dimensions and behavior is necessary.
Figures 5.3 through 5.8 provide an outline of human dimensions and design conventions.

FIGURE 5.3 Standing and walking dimensions. FIGURE 5.4 Chair and table dimensions.

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FIGURE 5.5 Wheelchair use dimensions. FIGURE 5.6 Wheelchair use dimensions.

FIGURE 5.7 Wheelchair 180 degree turn. FIGURE 5.8 Wheelchair 180 degree turn alternative.

Pedestrian Walkways
A fundamental element of design for the pedestrian is the pathway or sidewalk (Fig. 5.9).
The peak time for walking is midday (countercyclical to vehicle traffic), and sidewalks should be
designed to account for this peak time.

FIGURE 5.9 Pathway design parameters.

The sidewalk width must provide the level of service suited to the user.
The parameters of sidewalk width are the anticipated volume of foot traffic, how quickly
pedestrians will be walking, and the desired density of traffic.
The width can be determined using the following method:
W = V(M)/S
Where: W = the width of the pathway or sidewalk
V = volume in person/minute
M = the space module or square feet allowed per person
S = walking speed in feet per minute

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 Walking speeds vary greatly among people, but an average walking speed of 4 ft per second is
usually assumed. A number of factors influence this speed, and the needs of particular users
should be considered.
People tend to walk faster in the middle of a block and slow down at intersections.
To determine the appropriate level of service, designers should weigh the designated site use,
the user, and the character of the final design (Table 5.1).

TABLE 5.1 Levels of Service for Sidewalks

Grades also affect walking speed, level of service, and safety.
Sidewalks should be designed with a minimum cross slope of 1 percent to allow for drainage, but
the cross slope should not exceed 3 percent. A longitudinal slope of up to 3 percent is desirable,
but slopes greater than 5 percent should be avoided in areas where freezing may be an issue.
Where climate is a consideration, any sidewalk with a slope in excess of 5 percent should be
treated as a ramp with associated handrails. Changes in sidewalk width may be appropriate to
maintain walking pace where notable changes of grade occur.
When incorporating stairs into an outdoor design, local standards often need to be considered
(Table 5.2; Figs. 5.10 and 5.11). When such regulations are not in place, use this equation to
determine tread width:
2R + T = 26 to 27 in.

where R = riser height

T = tread width

TABLE 5.2 Design Considerations for Outdoor Stairways

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FIGURE 5.10 Usable tread width and FIGURE 5.11 Stair treads with painted nosing.
acceptable nosing, flush riser.

Ramps with a slope between 1:12 and 1:16 should be designed to not exceed a rise of 30 in.
(760 mm) or a run of 30 ft (9 m).
Flatter ramps of 1:16 to 1:20 may be designed to a run of 40 ft, but the maximum rise should not
exceed 30 in. The minimum clear width of a ramp is 36 in. (915 mm).
Ramps shall have level landings at the bottom and top of each ramp and each ramp run. The
cross slope of ramp surfaces shall be no greater than 1:50.
Outdoor ramps and their approaches shall be designed so that water will not accumulate on
walking surfaces.
Landings shall be at least as wide as the ramp run leading to it and be a minimum of 60 in. (1525
mm) clear. If the ramp changes direction at landings, the minimum landing size is 60 by 60 in.
(1525 by 1525 mm). If a ramp run has a rise greater than 6 in. (150 mm) or a horizontal projection
greater than 72 in. (1830 mm), then it shall have handrails on both sides (handrails are not
required on curb ramps).
Designers may need to consider other factors, such as the number of people using the ramp and
the trend toward larger personal mobility vehicles.

FIGURE 5.12 Ramp detail.

FIGURE 5.13 Curb ramp up detail. FIGURE 5.14 Curb ramp down detail.

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FIGURE 5.15 Built-up curb ramp. FIGURE 5.16 Accessible corner detail.

FIGURE 5.17 Measurement of curb ramp slopes. FIGURE 5.18 Sides of curb ramps returned curb.

FIGURE 5.19 Sides of curb ramps flared sides. FIGURE 5.20 Gratings orientation.

FIGURE 5.21 Gratings. FIGURE 5.22 Protruding objects overhead hazards.

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FIGURE 5.23 Curb ramp at marked crossings. FIGURE 5.24 Curb ramp at marked crossings.

FIGURE 5.25 Curb ramp at marked crossings. FIGURE 5.26 Minimum clear width for single wheelchair.

Handrails should be continuous along both sides of ramp segments. The inside handrail on
switchback on dogleg ramps shall always be continuous. If handrails are not continuous, they
shall extend at least 12 in. (305 mm) beyond the top and bottom of the ramp segment and shall
be parallel with the floor or ground surface. The clear space between the handrail and the wall
shall be 1 1/2 in. (38 mm). Top of handrail gripping surfaces shall be mounted between 34 and 38
in. (865 to 965 mm) above ramp surfaces. Handrails shall not rotate within their fittings.
In addition to the standards of sidewalk design, we should be aware of the quality of the sidewalk
itself. When designing a quality sidewalk, it may be necessary to go beyond the standards and
consider how the sidewalk best meets the needs of the various users.
Sidewalks are a more intimate space than streets and parking lots where we move enclosed in a
vehicle. A high-quality sidewalk creates a human-oriented space for interaction, movement,
commerce, relaxation, and perhaps vegetation; and it does this in a manner that is safe.
Design will influence how this important public space is used and contributes to the community.
Street furniture and plantings, attractive lighting, appropriate signage, widths sufficient for the
level of service, and paving materials all contribute to the quality of a sidewalk.

Paving Materials and Design

The choice of paving materials is broad and generally is determined by the nature of the project
and the preferences of the designer and the client (Table 5.4).
Areas of concern for paving include installation and lifecycle costs, durability, slip resistance, and
appearance.
Brick and pavers for pathway and sidewalk paving are described in ASTM C 902 by grades and
by type. Type I brick is recommended for high-traffic areas such as driveways or entranceways;
Type II is used on walkways and other areas of moderate traffic. Type III is used in areas where
low levels of traffic are anticipated such as patios (Figs. 5.27 through 5.30).

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 TABLE 5.4 Materials for Pathway and Sidewalk Paving

FIGURE 5.27 Paver installation detail.

FIGURE 5.28 Brick bonds and patterns.

FIGURE 5.29 Typical asphalt pavement for a pathway, light duty.

FIGURE 5.30 Typical concrete pavement for a sidewalk, light duty.

Pervious Paving
Pervious (permeable) paving is an important alternative to traditional paving systems.
Pervious paving systems have become more widely available and represent an excellent
alternative to traditional nonporous paving systems.
Pervious paving systems include reinforced turf systems, mortarless pavers, porous paving using
concrete or macadam, and gravel and crushed stone.

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 One advantage of porous paving is the ready flow of storm water to the substrate and underlying
soil. Care should be taken to be certain the substrate and soil have the capacity to absorb the
water they will receive.
Roof tops and other impermeable surfaces may increase the amount of storm water flowing to the
pervious paving. If the subsurface is unable to absorb the water, unwanted accumulation and
saturation of the paving may occur. This can be a particular concern where freeze/thaw cycles
occur. It may be necessary to provide a storage volume below the porous paving system, and this
could require a designed substrate of 24 to 36 in., perhaps more in areas with high clay content
soils.
In general porous paving systems can be designed to handle the light vehicle traffic of driveways
and parking areas, but they are not suitable for most roads or areas with heavy vehicle traffic.
In a development it might be feasible to use paving of different degrees of porosity so that more
heavily traveled areas or areas used by heavier vehicles have less porosity but other areas have
more.
Porous paving systems are not recommended for areas with slopes greater than 5 percent.

Signage
Designing signs is a specialty itself, and many types of signs are available commercially.
For common signs identifying designated handicapped parking or restroom facilities, it is best to
rely on signs that are familiar and in common use.
The key elements for signs are readability and effective reading distance.
To determine readability, it is necessary to understand the purpose of the sign.
Signs providing direction or those meant to draw attention from a distance require larger lettering
than signs describing a display or vista immediately before the viewer (Table 5.5).
In many communities sign and lettering sizes are regulated in the zoning ordinance. In designing
and locating signs, it is important to remember that the farther away the desired effective reading
distance, the larger the letters and the higher the sign must be located.
In general a person is less likely to look up more than 10 degrees to view a sign; signs placed
above the viewing distance tend not to be seen.
Signs that use symbols to convey information such as warnings or directions are preferred over
those that have information in only one language.
If the information conveyed on the sign is necessary for access to be provided, textural signals
should be installed with the signs.
The familiar universal symbols have made sign selection for many purposes much easier. Many
standard signs are familiar shapes and colors, and care should be taken not to duplicate these
combinations unintentionally.
It is easier to read light images on dark colors than the other way around.
Signs directed toward drivers must be visible and readable from quite a distance.
Common street and traffic signs have been developed with fairly explicit standards of design and
installation; however, drivers have a very short time in which to read and comprehend the
information on a specific site sign.
In most instances, several signs in a sequence are more effective than providing too much
information on a single sign.
Information should be organized and presented in a hierarchy of importance from general to more
specific rather than a single unweighted set of data.

TABLE 5.5 Effective Reading Distance and Letter Size

PEDESTRIAN CIRCULATION
The area covered by a person is approximately 3 SF
This is based on a shoulder breadth (width) of 24 and a body depth of 18 (adult male)
In order to move about easily in a crowd and not be touched, 13 SF is required. less area tends to
impede movement

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 At 7 SF or less, pedestrians move in groups rather than individually
At 3 SF or less, movement is extremely difficult and body contact may occur
Walking involves balance, timing and sight
Sidewalks should be no less than 5 wide
Collector walkways, handling larger numbers of people should be no less than 6-10 wide
Because pedestrian movement follows the path of least resistance, it is quite common to see
footpaths worn into the turf on a college campus. Paving these footpaths is an old and practical
technique
The primary objectives of good pedestrian circulation design are:
i. Safety
ii. Security
iii. Convenience
iv. Continuity
v. Comfort
vi. Attractiveness
To provide safety, pedestrian-vehicular separation is desirable, this can be achieved by grade-
separation walkways above or below streets
Security can be achieved through clear sight lines and well lit pathways

PROVITIONS FOR THE HANDICAPPED

Impediments to the free movements of handicapped persons are referred to as architectural
barriers.
There are several types of disabilities, each requiring special considerations in planning and
design. The five most common are:
i. Non-Ambulatory disabilities confine persons to wheelchairs. This type is of particular
concern because it influences the physical layout and configuration of sites and buildings.
ii. Semi-ambulatory disabilities cause persons to walk with insecurity or difficulty and may
necessitate the use of crutches, walkers, or braces.
iii. Coordination disabilities are manifested by impairments of muscle control to the limbs.
iv. Sight disabilities affect sight, totally or partially, to the extent that an individual functioning
in public areas is insecure and prone to injury.
v. Hearing disabilities affect hearing ability. Totally or partially, to the extent that an
individual functioning in public areas in insecure or prone to injury due to an inability to
communicate, or to hear warning signals.

The basic wheelchair is shown in the figure above, the electric wheelchair is 9 inches longer.
The minimum turning space for a wheelchair is 60 inches, or 5.
The minimum space required for two wheelchairs to pass each other is 60 inches or 5. This
suggests that all public walks should be no less than 5 wide.
Minimum walkway gradient for wheelchairs is 1:20 or 5% with a max cross gradient of 1:50 or 2%
Where an accessible walk crosses a curb, the width of the walk should be 3 minimum with flared
sides that slope a maximum of 1:10. Where the curb height is 6 inches, a minimum curb cut out of
13 is necessary.
There must not be edges or cracks greater than inch.
Whenever two walks join, they should blend to a common level. The blend should not exceed a
gradient of 1:12 or 8 1/3 %
Curb cutouts should be identified by a 1/16 inch yellow abrasive anti-slip epoxy finish applied to
the entire area of the curb cutout, or by abrasive strips 1/16 inch thick and 2 to 3 inches wide
These yellow strips and paint color should be placed wherever walkways intersect with streets no
matter the type of curb or gradient treatment used.
Where traffic islands intersect pedestrian walkways, a 3 wide street level path (cutting through
the island) must be provided.

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RAMPS
Ramps should be provided wherever a vertical drop is greater than inch
As before, the gradient of the ramp must not exceed 1:12 or 8 1/3 percent.
Preferably it should be 1:16 or 6 percent whenever possible.
Ramps should be a minimum 3 wide and not exceed 30 in length
At all ramp surfaces between inclinations, a 5 long level landing must be provided.
If a ramp rises more than 6 or runs longer than 72 inches, handrails must be provided.
A protective curb should be provided on either side of the ramp if above finish grade.

PARKING
The spaces should be a minimum of 8 wide with a 5 wide access isle between every two
spaces. These access isles must be connected to the accessible route present at the site.
The handicap spaces should be as close as possible to the building entrance but never more
than 200 and clearly marked with the symbol of accessibility.
Ratio of parking to handicap spaces:
i. 7 to 50 spaces = 2 handicap required
ii. 51 to 100 spaces = 3 handicap required
iii. 101 to 150 spaces = 5 handicap required
iv. 150 + spaces = 5 plus 2 for every additional 100 spaces
Other handicap requirements include special non grasp hardware for doors, and other
characteristics for stairs, elevators, restrooms, drinking fountains, telephones, signage, and
vending machines.
Special facility accommodations include: performing arts, school laboratories, and kitchens.

VEHICULAR
CIRCULATION SYSTEMS
Vehicular circulation systems are the primary structuring element of a land use plan, often
determining the location of utilities and communication networks and pedestrian circulation
systems.
In land planning and site planning, it is standard to begin laying out the site with the surface
roads. This most often determines the patterns of land use and utility systems.
Roads systems must be carefully adapted to the topography.
Utility services are generally located above/ or below the road system.
Surface drainage channels are usually located along side the roadways connecting to
underground storm water conduits.
As the amount of vehicular/ pedestrian flow increases, the need to organize and define the
channels of flow also increases. (ex. Which streets will channel the heaviest traffic).
As a result, those channels that carry large volumes over greater distances are often
physically separated from the region served. (ex. expressways, freeways, and railroads).

Forms of Circulation (types):

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 1. grid
2. radial
3. linear
4. curvilinear
5. or a combination of these

A Grid System: consists of equally spaced streets or roads which are perpendicular to each other.
Often used for its regularity, simplicity, and convenience.
It simplifies the subdivision of land for both agriculture and urban use, along with providing a
sense of orientation if not extended (vast) and sufficient landmarks are present.
Grids can be used on sloped sites if carefully configured.
Traffic flows can be controlled by increasing capacity in certain channels while decreasing them
in others. This can direct heavier through-traffic to those channels that are capable of handling
them.
A grid system can lose its effectiveness with regard to circulation when its channels become
congested. Usually before this point is reached, a freeway or expressway is introduced.

A Radial System: directs flow to or from a common center, with straight channels of circulation radiating
from this center point.
This is the typical pattern created by traditional city growth outward (radially) from the original
settlement.
This usually causes the center point, where all channels converge, to become congested. This
can be alleviated by creating by-passes that connect outlying hubs/radials thus allowing through
traffic to avoid the congested area. As a result, a radio-centric pattern is created. This can also
sometimes create concentric rings around the center.

A Linear System: of circulation connects flow between two points, either along a single line or along a
series of parallel lines.
Activities can be situated along the route or be routed into loops or branches on either side.
Excessive traffic along the route could ultimately cause congestion.
A drawback to this system is a lack of focal point and the on-and-off movements from the
branches or activities can impede the flow of traffic. This can cause inefficiency and be hazardous
to oncoming traffic.
This type of system is useful for restricted sites such as a narrow valley between hills, or when
parallel to existing infrastructure like a railroad, canal or freeway.
Such routes lined with business are often called strip commercial developments. These
businesses are often visually chaotic, very inefficient in terms of land use. They serve as good
incubator spaces, Places for new businesses.

A Curvilinear System: responds to the topography of the land and aligns with natural contours.
This system works best at small scales because the curving of the path reduces speeds.
A network of curvilinear systems can conform to the natural topography of the landscape as well
as be arbitrary. Most common to residential neighborhoods/suburbs.
(PUDs) employ this system for more interesting street layouts, better views, and site adaptability
(topographic changes).

VEHICULAR CIRCULATION
The development potential of land is largely determined by the system of traffic access to the
land.
Vehicular traffic flows in sequential order from low intensity to high intensity.
Local access streets collector/ distributor streets arterial streets freeways

Basic categories of traffic arteries are:

1. Freeways/ Expressways/ Motorways
2. Arterial Streets/ Highways
3. Collector/ Distributor Streets
4. And Local Access Streets

Freeways/ Expressways/ Motorways: are designed to allow movement of large volumes of traffic
between, around, or through urban areas.
Velocity is reached because of high intervals between traffic interruptions (on-off ramps).
All cross traffic is accomplished by overpasses and underpasses eliminating all grade level
intersections which would impede traffic.

Arterial Streets/ Highways: are continuous vehicular channels that connect with expressways by means
of on-and-off ramps at carefully determined locations.

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 These are typically two and three lanes wide in each direction.
On street parking is prohibited
Access to adjacent commercial property could be restricted
Access to residential streets is allowed
All crossings are controlled by traffic signals
Typical speed limit is 35 mph
Major intersections should be separated by at least 800-0

Collector-Distributor Streets: serve as the transition between arterial streets and the local access
streets of a neighborhood.
They provide access to adjacent residential properties
They are usually discontinuous, thereby preventing through-traffic and reducing vehicular speed
Curb-side parking is allowed but only at certain times of the day and may be limited or prohibited
When collector streets intersect with arterial streets, traffic signals are used
Local and collector streets are usually controlled by stop signs

Local Access Streets: provide access to low intensity uses fronting on them.
They carry low traffic flows
Such streets consist of loops and cul-de-sacs or combination of the two
Unrestricted curbside parking
Unlimited Pedestrian use

ROAD LAYOUTS

There are two principle areas of road planning, residential and arterial, the latter being the major
distribution system to the local street network.
A fundamental requirement of the planning process is for designers and planners to determine
networks that respond to the following inputs:
Environment.
Environmental sustainability
Demography and demographic trends.
Neighborhood identity.
Integration of movement modes.
Recreational / community needs.
Strategic residential planning.
Public transport issues.
Pedestrian and cyclist requirements, including access for disabled persons.
Whole of life costs.

The road transport network should:

Reflect a broad based (eg. metropolitan / district level) land use / transportation strategy.
Translate that strategy into a series of movement routes and elements that perform
desired functions, such as those listed above.

The spectrum of movement elements range from high level roads (high volumes, high speeds, no
travel constraints) to low level streets and places (low volumes, low speeds, shared spaces, human scale
and interconnectivity).
A key Guiding Principle of Accessibility is that movement around the city by walking, cycling, public
transport and driving should be easy and accessible. Priority should be given to the needs of transport
modes in the following order of precedence:
Walking
Cycling
Public Transport
Commercial Vehicles
Private cars

Performance Statement
The primary objective is to provide street networks in which the function of each street is clearly
identified and which provide acceptable levels of access, safety, amenity and convenience for all users.
This is achieved by addressing the following:
Provide convenient and safe access to leases for vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians and
disabled persons.
Provide appropriate access for buses, and emergency and service vehicles.

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 Provide for a quality product that minimizes whole of life costs.
Provide an appropriate space for public utilities.
Provide an opportunity for street landscaping.
Provide convenient parking for visitors.
Have appropriate regard for climate, geology, topography and the environment.
Consider the impact on air quality in residential areas.

Major roads and intersections are the core elements of the overall road transport system. They
provide links between the various land uses and communities. Their function is to provide a safe, reliable,
efficient, convenient transport route for all types of vehicles and cyclists. Whilst the development of major
roads will normally have significant impacts on the environment and local topography, road planning
should address such issues as:
Noise levels at adjacent communities.
Impact on areas which have sensitive heritage, cultural and archaeological status.
Impact on flora and fauna.
Requirements to accommodate crossings for off road pedestrian and cycling routes in a
way that minimizes pedestrian / cyclist and vehicle conflicts.
Minimize operational costs and costs to manage the road system.
Air quality issues

ROAD DESIGN CRITERIA

Road design includes such elements as:
i. Pavement
ii. Curbs
iii. Gutters
iv. Shoulders
v. Walks
vi. Landscaping
vii. Border Strips
viii. Lighting
ix. Signs
x. Traffic Signals
xi. Utilities

Depending on traffic intensities, the materials often used for paving and roads include (in order of
preference):
1. concrete
2. asphalt concrete
3. gravel
4. decomposed granite
5. stabilized soil
6. graded and compacted earth shaped for drainage

The paved vehicular right-of-way usually slopes from a high point at the center, know as the
crown, to the sides at a rate of 1/8 to 1/ 2 inch per foot depending on the finish surface to provide
positive drainage.
Roads with heavier traffic are designed with a six inch curb and gutter.
Residential streets can have 4 inch roll curbs or simple gravel shoulder flanked by narrow
drainage devices.
For major roads, lanes should be between 11 & 12 feet wide.
A two lane highway with 9-0 shoulders on either side is therefore 40-42 wide.
Parking lanes should be 8-0 wide. For angled parking 2-2.5 times that is typical.
Planting strips should be 7-0 wide for trees and 4-0 wide for simple ground cover. Tree wells or
raised planters can be used as well.
When designing roads, the services of a civil engineer is required
Actual roads consist of straight sections called tangents which may or may not be level, and
horizontal/ vertical curves
Horizontal curves generally are arcs of a circle allowing a vehicle to negotiate the curve smoothly
There are certain types of intersections which should be avoided:
i. An acute angle intersection (two approaching streets at less than 80-85 degrees) is
difficult to negotiate and limits driver visibility.
ii. Intersections that are (slightly) offset create difficult crossing situations and impede the
intersection being crossed. Intersections with straight crossings or offsets (no less) than
150 feet are preferred.
iii. Intersections on major arterial roads should be separated by 800-0
iv. Freeway on-off ramps are usually separated by one-half to one mile
v. On minor roads T intersections are permissible

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 The length of a cul-de-sac should not exceed 400-0. There must be a minimum turn-around of
80 in diameter.
Maximum depth of loop streets is 700-0
Maximum block length 1,600-0
Minimum radii at major road intersections is 50, minor road intersections 12
Types of control devices:
i. Stop signs
ii. Traffic signals
iii. Turning lanes
iv. Islands
v. Medians
vi. Grade separations
When intersection volume exceeds 750 cars per hour, traffic signals are required.
Grade separations, which are needed once traffic volume exceeds 3,000 cars per hour is the
most expensive type of control and the most space consuming

When laying out roads horizontally, certain practices are commonly followed:
1. Two curves in the same direction (broken-back curves) should be separated by a tangent
(straight line) no less than 200-0
2. Two curves in opposite directions (reverse curve) should be separated by a tangent (straight
line) no less than 100-0
3. Two curves in the same direction with different radii (degree of turn) (compound curves) should
NOT be done.
4. Simple curves where a circular arc connects two tangents at either end (of the arc) can have any
size tangent.

Vertical curves (changes in grade/height)

Vertical road alignment is parabolic (flattened)
Good vertical alignment provides a comfortable transition between two different grades avoiding
overly steep inclines, sudden bumps, and hollows.
Freeways, for example, may require considerable cutting and filling which is expensive and
requires extensive reshaping of the landscape.
Sight distances are kept long, to maintain a relatively distant forward view for the driver
Most common type of grade separation intersection is the cloverleaf (type of interchange)
configuration is based on a system of right turns
The Direct left turn interchange is used where two freeways intersect, this configuration is more
complex and expensive than a cloverleaf but allows for more high speed lanes and transitions
Diamond intersections are used where freeways intersect secondary roads.
These are economical and use little space. The important characteristic of these are ramp
grades. Up-ramp slopes are usually 3 and 6 percent; down ramps are 8 percent.

Left to right (cloverleaf-right turns), (Direct-left interchange-series of lefts turns), (Diamond Interchange)

PARKING
Designers should consider provision of on street / off-street parking in conjunction with other
issues such as driveway access, drainage, waste collection and streetscape. In developments with
narrow frontages, parking provision on-street may be problematical and should be investigated on a case
by case basis. There may be a need to prepare an economic evaluation of frontage dimensions and
parking and access arrangements.
A desirable location for parking is to locate the onsite drive between the building and the parking
area, providing a clear view of the building entrance. The approaching driver then knows where to
enter the building and searches for a convenient parking stall
When the amount of parking exceeds 400-500 cars, a distributor drive or cartridge drive is
needed to handle the inordinate number of vehicles. (Similar to the road around dolphin mall and
Dadeland mall)
All parking areas, surface or structured should have handicapped parking clearly marked and
situated for easy building access. (less than 200 feet from entrance)
These spaces are specified in the ADA and ANSI legislated codes.

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 Parking/ storage should be provided for bicycles and motorcycles as well
8-4 is a reasonable minimum width for a typical parking stall
For parking angles less than 40 degrees, stall width may be reduced to 8 since car doors are
clear of the next car
Stalls are generally 18-20 long
The minimum desirable width for a one-way driveway is 12-0
For 90 degree parking, the width of the drive is determined by the required length to get out of a
stall comfortably. Typical structured cross section is 18(stall)+24(drive isle)+18(stall) = 60 wide
Or 20 (stall) + 24 (drive isle) + 20 (stall) = 64 wide
For angled parking characteristics see (Kaplan page 12)
When valet or attendant parking is utilized, minimum standards can be 8 by 18 stall with a 20
drive isle for 90 degree parking. This is usually a result of attendant familiarity with the facility
In estimating total area need, it is advisable to allow for 400 SF of parking area per vehicle. Ex.
For shopping centers; 3,000-4,000 SF of parking for every 1,000
SF of tenant space should be considered. Such ratios are usually specified in the local zoning
ordinance
More cars can be parked in a 90 degree configuration than a 60 or 45 degree configuration
60 and 45 degree configurations establish a one way circulation system and are easier to
maneuver in and out of. 90 degree parking however is less dangerous to back out of because of
the greater drive isle width.
For structured parking, ramps should not exceed 15% (speed ramp)
For slopes 10% or higher, a transition of 8 feet on either side is required, the slope would usually
be half of the actual slope of the ramp. Ex. For a 10% ramp
2 sections of 5% at 8 long on top and bottom would be required
A ramped driveway exit rising up to a public sidewalk must have a transition section no more than
5% so as not to obstruct the drivers view of pedestrians on the sidewalk ahead (the hood of the
car)
The parking surfaces should be sloped for proper drainage between 1% and 5%
Parking areas used at night should be well lit, generally one-half to one footcandle

PUBLIC TRANSIT
Public Transit Types
Walking; walking speed varies from 2.5 to 4.5 miles per hour. The maximum distance that most
people will walk to a destination is to mile
Local Bus; is useful for trips in medium density areas. Buses travel at an average of 15 to 30
miles per hour. People are willing to spent up to a hour for most urban travel, whatever the
mode
Express bus; is useful for trips between medium density areas and at specially planned and
convenient stops/terminals between high density areas. These travel at an average of 40 to 60
miles per hour
Rail rapid transit; is useful for trips between medium density areas, high density areas and for
short trips within high density areas. These usually travel between 40-70 miles per hour
Monorail; is a one-rail system but most in fact have several rails. These have the disadvantage of
only being above ground which may not be possible in central city areas. A truly useful rail rapid
transit system should be capable of being above, below or at ground level and thus fully
adaptable to the area it serves
Sustainable design encourages TOD (transit oriented design) development to encourage the use
of public transit and give the people of housing, commercial, and institutional developments more
options for transportation. This allows property owners to save energy, invest more in their
properties and spend less money on private vehicles.
Bus routes should have a minimum carriageway width of 7.5m. Intersections and slow points on
bus routes should be designed for adequate passage of buses.

Road Network
Designers are encouraged to develop road layouts that address the core Performance Criteria
rather than merely adopting the minimum standard and solution. Innovation can lead to improvements in
amenity, safety and other elements such as streetscape, legibility and ongoing maintenance costs.
The design features of each type of road convey to the driver its primary functions and encourage
appropriate driver behavior. This can be achieved by complying with the following requirements wherever
possible:
Traffic volumes and speeds on any road should be compatible with the residential functions of
that road.
The maximum length of an access street should ensure its status as a residential place is
retained, where the traffic, in terms of speed and volume will enable the integration of pedestrian,
bicycle and vehicular movements. This length will also ensure that residential convenience is not
unduly impaired as a result of speed restraints.

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 The length of collector street (major) within a development should be minimized.
The time required for drivers to travel on all streets within the development should be minimized.
Where access streets form part of a pedestrian or bicycle network, access links should provide
suitable connectivity with adjoining access streets or open space systems so as to ensure such
pedestrian and bicycle networks are functionally efficient.
The road network should ensure that no road links with another road which is more than two
levels higher or lower in the hierarchy. In exceptional circumstances roads may link with others
that are more than two levels apart, however, no access street or local street should have access
to an access-controlled arterial road.
Connections between internal roads should be T-junctions or controlled by roundabouts.
The road layout should conform to the requirements of the external road network and satisfy the
transport provisions of an outline plan.
The external road network should be designed and located to provide routes which are more
convenient for potential through traffic within the network. Major roads should be provided at
intervals of no more than 1.5km and should be complete and of adequate capacity to
accommodate through network movements. The internal road system should not provide through
routes that are more convenient than the external road network.
It is preferred that the residential road network should be such that speed control is inherent in
the layout design, ie. bends and some intersection types provide speed calming rather than
devices such as raised platforms or chicanes.

Design Speed
Design speed is generally used as the basic parameter in the specification of other design
standards. Therefore from a road planning perspective it is important that the road hierarchy and road
layout are developed in an integrated manner to ensure the design speeds can be maintained without
undue artificial treatments.
Adoption of a low design speed discourages speeding, however, where vertical or horizontal
curves of low design speed are located in otherwise high speed sections the result is a potentially
dangerous section of road. It should be recognized that in low standard roads, operating speeds will tend
to be in excess of arbitrary speed standards. Attention should be given to ensuring that potentially
hazardous features are visible to the driver and adopting traffic engineering measures which will help a
driver.
Designers should be aware of the impact that terrain has on the function of the road network in
terms of speed. Steep terrain requires special attention to road planning and design. Designers should
take care to avoid designs in steep terrain that are developed using minimum design standards. In such
cases the compound effect can lead to a less than desirable outcome.

Road Reserve Characteristics

The cross section of the road reserve must provide for all functions that the road is expected to
fulfill including safe and efficient movement for all users, provision for parked vehicles, acting as a buffer
from traffic nuisance and noise, the provision of public utilities and streetscaping.
In addition to the above requirements, the road layout and selected reservation should comply with the
following:
Widening may be required to allow for wider vehicle paths (using AUSTROADS turning templates
or acceptable computer software).
The carriageway width must allow vehicles to proceed safely at the operating speed intended for
that level of road in the network and with only minor delays in the peak period. This must take into
consideration the restrictions caused by parked vehicles where it is intended or likely that this will
occur on the carriageway. Vehicles include trucks, emergency vehicles and, on some roads,
buses.
The safety and convenience of pedestrians and cyclists where it is intended they use the
carriageway must also be assured by providing sufficient width or off road paths.
The carriageway width should also provide for unobstructed access to individual blocks where
permitted in residential areas. Drivers should be able to comfortably enter or reverse from a block
in a single movement, taking into consideration the possibility of a vehicle being parked on the
carriageway opposite the driveway.
Appropriate verge width should be provided to enable the safe location, construction and
maintenance of required footpaths and public utility services (above or below ground) and to
accommodate the desired level of streetscaping. Wherever possible services should be located in
shared trenches.
The verge, when considered in conjunction with the horizontal alignment and permitted fence and
property frontage treatments, should provide appropriate sight distances, taking into account
expected speeds and pedestrian and cyclist movements.
Stopping sight distances and junction or intersection sight distances, provided by the verge,
should be based on the design speeds for each road type in residential areas.

The road reserves for arterial, distributor and collector roads and roads in Town Centres and
Industrial Areas should be designed for the predicted ultimate traffic volumes, accepted levels of service

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at intersections and accommodation of users including cyclists and commercial vehicles. Traffic analysis
and pedestrian / cycling network master plans are required to identify planning requirements. In the case
of Town Centres and Industrial Areas road planning should address provision of parking, bus facilities,
waste collection, heavy vehicle access and appropriate facilities for pedestrians in Town Centres. The
planning of major roads in greenfields areas should consider fencing requirements such as:
Ultimate residential fencing at the road boundary to suit noise attenuation and privacy
requirements.
Adjustments to rural fencing to accommodate interim land uses.

Planning for Restricted Vehicle Access

Depending on the urban environment and planning intentions, there may be a need, from traffic
speed and operational considerations, to restrict vehicle access to leases from some roads. There are a
number of solutions that can address this requirement:
Lease conditions that require provision for turning around on the block to force forward exit. This
could apply where traffic volumes are such that reversing movements would be unsafe or cause
undue disruption to the traffic stream. This arrangement is generally permissible when there are
adequate gaps in the traffic stream to allow vehicles to quickly exit from driveways. For roads with
traffic volumes over 3000 vehicles per day, direct frontage access is not generally permitted.
Prohibit vehicle access to the road and provide driveways at the rear via a lane or standard
residential street. In the latter solution planners should avoid linear rear fences on the main road
which present a poor urban streetscape. The rear lane option provides vehicle access at the
back of the block whilst the block retains the front address on the main street. The streetscape
in this case can be very good, particularly for medium / high density housing. For this option to
work well, designers should consider the needs of visitor parking and how to develop a
streetscape in the rear lane that is not merely wall to wall linear garages.
Multi unit housing with single two way entry / exit road. Garaging is within the development and
usually visitor parking is provided on block also.
Provide a separate service road where residential access and on street parking are available.
This option reduces the number of access points to the major road and provides a low volume
and low speed environment for the house frontage. Such an arrangement could include driveway
access or rear lane access if garages are not permitted on the service road (often also called a
slip road).

Intersections
The layout of intersections and roundabouts shall comply with the requirements of the reference
documents. Necessary for minor roundabouts in local residential streets, eg:
Minor roundabouts with central islands and splitter islands that are trafficable by commercial
vehicles are acceptable in low volume environments (Access Streets, Local Streets).
In the design of roundabouts and intersections Designers should consider options to minimize the
number of sign posts. Signage at these locations is a costly maintenance task for asset owners.
The provision of vehicle access points to properties close to intersections and roundabouts needs
to be carefully examined.
Operational and safety considerations, particularly in high volumes roads, may warrant
restrictions on access. Satisfying sight distance criteria may not be sufficient.

Signalized Intersection or Roundabout

At major intersections there are a significant number of factors that impact on the assessment of
treatment solutions. Whether traffic signals or a roundabout are suitable is partly a planning task and
partly an engineering design task. The following factors should be considered:
Safety of motorists, cyclists and pedestrians
When operating within their capacity limitations, roundabouts offer superior safety to traffic
signals for motorists. Numerous studies indicate lower casualty accidents for roundabouts. The
situation is less definitive for cyclists and pedestrians but it appears that if traffic volumes are
moderate the splitter islands at roundabouts provide adequate crossing opportunities for
cyclists and pedestrians. However, at higher traffic flows, particularly at dual lane roundabouts,
the more positive control of signal operation may provide safer crossing opportunities,
particularly for the very young and the aged. Partly for this reason there is a general preference
to provide traffic signals in town centres.
In high speed areas the safety advantage of roundabouts over traffic signals is increased.
Whilst the provision of multi lane roundabouts can be suitable for vehicles, it typically creates a
hazard for cyclists on-road.
Operating efficiency
The volume and distribution of turning traffic are the prime considerations in determining
relative operating efficiency between roundabouts and signals. Traffic signals are clearly
favored when through flows predominate, whereas roundabouts perform best when right
turning flows are relatively heavy. A potential problem with roundabouts is the monopolization
of capacity which arises when one movement predominates.
Operating and maintenance cost

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 A signalized intersection is more costly to operate and maintain than a roundabout.
Traffic flow characteristics required for satisfactory operation of downstream intersections.
Uncontrolled downstream intersections (typically T junctions) may operate more satisfactorily if
traffic signals are installed upstream. This is because the exit flow from roundabouts tends to
be uniform and lacks the interruption caused by signals.
Effect of possible traffic growth and / or traffic redistribution
The capacity of the control type needs to be adequate for possible future growth and this may
favor a particular control type. The introduction of a control may either attract or divert traffic to
a particular intersection depending upon the relative congestion and delays associated with
alternative routes.
Public transport requirements
The need to accommodate public transport routes may influence the choice of control type. Bus
priority measures can be provided at signalized intersections.
Requirement to accommodate long vehicles
Long vehicles, because of their wide swept path when turning, may not be readily
accommodated through small roundabouts.
Speed of traffic
Roundabouts, as well as controlling the speed of traffic, are inherently safer in high speed
environments for the reasons mentioned previously.
Construction costs
Construction costs are normally site specific but in green fields situations traffic signals and
roundabouts with similar capacity have been shown to favor roundabout construction primarily
due to their adaptability for staging purposes.
Land take
High capacity roundabouts are generally more consumptive of land. However, small
roundabouts can often be provided within the normal road reserve.
Traffic management during construction
This aspect requires examination to determine if a design solution has any particular advantage
in maintaining traffic flow through an existing intersection.
Service alterations
The location of underground and overhead services may inhibit the development of certain
control types.
Consistency with adjacent intersections
In choosing a junction type, account must be taken of adjacent intersections for operational as
well as aesthetic conditions. Traffic signals are readily linked to provide progression in the
roundabout within a system of linked signals is inappropriate. Similarly, a traffic signal adjacent
to a roundabout may cause operational problems due to queues from the signals banking up
and disrupting flow on the roundabout.
Environmental factors
The operation of traffic signals causes stop-start traffic at all times of the day which may be
environmentally intrusive whereas roundabouts permit un-interrupted flow during much of the
day and night. However, any form of control may increase noise levels over the uncontrolled
situation.
Civic design considerations
Traffic signals, while introducing obtrusive elements in the form of lanterns allow the continuity
of through pavements to be maintained which may be of importance on ceremonial routes to
maintain vistas and permit the passage of processions.
Roundabouts, because of the requirement to install regulatory and warning signs and street
lighting, do interrupt vistas along routes. The requirement to maintain sight distance across the
roundabout limits the opportunity to ameliorate these aesthetic defects with landscaping except
on larger roundabouts.
Adjacent land use
Adjacent land use may influence control type. For example, if a school or elderly citizen
facilities are nearby, the speed reduction effected by a roundabout may indicate preference for
this form of control.

GLOSSARY
Acceptable Solutions: Qualitative or quantitative measures that are considered to satisfy the relevant
Performance Criteria, such that generally no further evidence of compliance is required.
Access Right: Right of an owner to have ingress and egress to and from a property.
Access Street: A street whose main function is to provide access to a small number of residential units.
Accessible Parking: Handicapped parking
Amenity: Features or facilities which provide an agreeable and comfortable quality of life.
Arterial Road: A road with a prime function to provide for major regional and inter-regional traffic
movements.

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Barrier-Free: The absence of environmental barriers, permitting free access and circulation by the
handicapped.
Carriageway: Area of a road reserve provided for the movement or parking of vehicles.
Circulation: The flow or movement of people, goods, vehicles, etc., from place to place.
Collector Road: A road with a prime function to distribute traffic between arterial rods and local streets.
Collector Street: A street into which minor streets empty and which leads to a major arterial.
Cul-De-Sac: A short road with an outlet on one end and a turnaround on the other.
Curb: A raised margin running along the edge of a street pavement, usually of concrete.
Curb Cut: A depression in a curb that provides vehicular access from a street to a driveway.
Dead-end Parking: A circulation layout in which cars are unable to circulate in a continuous one-way flow
from the entrance to the exit of a parking area.
Design Speed: A speed unlikely to be exceeded by most cyclists or drivers as appropriate, and not less
th
than the 85 percentile speed. It is used to co-ordinate sight distance, radius, superelevation
and friction demand for elements of the road or path so that hazards.
Driveway: A roadway providing access from a road or street to abutting property.
Driveway: A vehicular path generally leading from a public street to a structure on private property.
Drop-off: An area adjacent to a vehicular drive where pedestrians may safely exit (or enter) a car.
Eminent Domain: The right of a government, under the police power concept, to take private property for
public use.
Footpath: That portion of a road or street or other public place set aside for use by pedestrians only.
Frontage Access: Driveway access to a block at the front of the block, which is determined as the
address to the street.
Greenbelt: A belt-like area around a city, reserved by ordinance for parkland, farms, open space, etc.
Handicapped: Individuals with physical impairments that result in functional limitations.
Handicapped Parking: Spaces designated for physically handicapped persons, consisting of a typical
space with adjacent access aisle no less than five feet wide.
Interchange: The junction of a freeway with entering or exiting traffic.
Intersection: The point at which two streets come together or cross.
Local Street: A street with a prime function to provide access to adjacent land uses.
Network: A system of circulation channels which covers a large area.
90-degree Parking: A pattern of vehicle storage in which car stalls are arranged at a right angle to the
access lane. Also known as perpendicular parking.
Off-street Parking: Space provided for vehicular parking outside the dedicated street right-of-way.
One-way Traffic: A circulation system in which all vehicles move in the same direction.
Parallel Parking: A pattern of vehicle storage in which car stalls are arranged to the access lane, as in
conventional street parking.
Parking Lot: An open space for the storage of motor vehicles.
Parking Stall: A space in a parking lot marked off for the storage of a single motor vehicle.
Percentile Speed: Speed at or below which the nominated percentage (eg. 15, 50, 85) of vehicles are
observed to travel under free flow conditions.
Performance Criteria: General statements that provide a basis for judging whether a stated intent has
been met.
Planting Street: A landscaped strip of ground dividing pedestrian walk from a street.
Rear Lane: Type of road that is relatively narrow (less than 5m carriageway width with 1.5m verges)
which provides vehicle access to the rear of blocks. The blocks address the street at the
frontage.
Residential Street: A road, the main function of which is to provide access to residential properties.
Right-of-Way: A strip of land granted by deed or easement for a circulation path.
Roundabout: A channelized intersection at which all vehicles move clockwise around a central traffic
island.
Service Road: Type which is linked to and is generally parallel to a major road of low volume, low speed
road and which provides vehicle access to a block.
Slow Point: An isolated treatment of a carriageway introduced as a traffic calming measure, eg. chicane,
bend, raised platform, mini roundabout.
th
Speed Environment: Effectively the 85 percentile speed for a particular road or path section.
Stopping Sight Distance: The sight distance required to enable a driver of a vehicle to perceive the
need to stop, to react and actually stop the vehicle. It is the distance travelled by the time
between when the vehicle actually stops moving.
Switchback Road: A road that doubles back on itself with a hairpin curve.
Utilities: Those underground and overhead facilities that provide services to residential blocks and
commercial developments. Normally includes gas, telecommunications and electricity, but can
be expanded to include water, sewerage and stormwater drainage.
Verge: Public land with within a Road Reserve between the road kerb and the property boundary.

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Way: Street, alley, or other thoroughfare or easement permanently established for passage of persons or
vehicles.

REFERENCES

DESIGN STANDARDS FOR URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE

ND
SITE PLANNING AND DESIGN HANDBOOK BY THOMAS H. RUSS 2 EDITION
TIME SAVER STANDARDS FOR LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE BY CHARLES W. HARRIS
ND
AND NICHOLAS T. DINES 2 EDITION

Streets are more than public utilitiesmore than linear physical spaces that permit people to get from
here to thereStreets moderate the form and comfort of urban communities. Allan Jacobs

All too often...walkways are thought of only as insignificant adjuncts to the streets. Kevin Lynch

Paths, the network of habitual or potential lines of movement through the urban complex, are the most
potent means by which the whole can be ordered. The key lines should have some singular quality which
marks them off from the surrounding channels: a concentration of some special use or activity along their
marginsa special texture of floor or faade, a particular lighting patterna typical mode of planting.
Kevin Lynch

Speed in locomotion should be a function of human purpose. If one wants to meet and chat with people
on an urban promenade, three miles an hour will be too fast; if a surgeon is being rushed to a patient a
thousand miles away, 300 miles an hour may be too slow. --Lewis Mumford

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