ADVANCEMENTS IN GARMENT

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
Shanmugeshwari M1, Hari Priya S2
Department of Textile Technology, PSG College Of Technology, Coimbatore, India
mshanmugeshwari@gmail.com1 , harimedusa@gmail.com2

Abstract
The liberalization of world apparel trade in the year 2005 has eliminated quota
restrictions on imports from a large number of low labour cost countries. The
competition against suppliers can only be won if companies can achieve competitive
advantage in terms of factors other than cost. These include, for instance, design and
manufacture of high value products, providing manufacturing flexibility for rapid change
in garment style, providing better service to customers and fast responsiveness to meet
changing market requirements. These conditions can be met only if the companies adopt
the appropriate manufacturing strategy within the market context.
Developments in clothing production technologies have been rapid and significant in two
areas. The first concerns sew-free technologies, this paper reviews the fundamental
principles of alternative methods of joining in the garment industry. Adhesive-bonding
and thermal-welding (conventional and advanced) processes are reviewed as an option to
sewing. The technology innovations have affected many markets, but primarily lingerie
and sportswear. Seamless garments, also known as one-step-molding garments, are
widely used for stretchable underwear, sportswear, fashion clothing, and medical
garments. Seamless garments provide improved comfort to the wearer and give a sense of
fitting, vigor, grace, fashion, and diversity. In this paper an overview of seamless-knitted
products, seamless knitting technology, and machines is provided. The other area
concerns three-dimensional (3D) body scanning. Unit Production System employed in
clothing factories is also discussed here. The paper provides an overview of recent
literature and a critical discussion of the issues emerging from these technologies.

Keywords: Sew-free technologies, Seamless garments, adhesive-bonding, thermal-

welding, three-dimensional (3D) body scanning, Unit Production System.

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1 Introduction
The competition in the domestic and international markets has led to many new
ideas and concepts. To improve the productivity and to have a leading edge in the
market, companies are using different alternative technologies such as bonding,
welding and seamless garments to reduce the production cost by 40% compared
from the existing apparel production system as well as production time. These
developments eliminate the fabric laying, cutting and sewing processes. 3D
scanning technologies are applied to different parts of the human body and
systems are commercially available for the measurement of practically any surface
area of the human body. This technique provides ease and accuracy in measuring
the model.

2 Seamless garments
When a seamless shaped textile product is needed, cutting and sewing are
required. There are a number of adverse consequences caused from utilising
seams in a textile product.
The process of cutting and sewing is the most labour intensive step in them
formation of a product. The sewing process can also create needle holes in
the fabric as well as damage the fibre within the yarn. The presence of
needle holes and damaged fibres could adversely affect the strength and
performance of the fabric.
There is a concentration of stress where the seams are located, which
ultimately results in premature product failure.
Cutting and sewing are done manually, which introduces the potential for
human error.
In addition, fabric wastes are generated by the cut and sew process and
seams in a garment create a bulkiness especially at the shoulders and
underarms, which can affect the comfort of a garment.
These products are mainly to be found in the underwear sector, particularly in a
percentage of:
Ladies underwear (78%)
Mens underwear (13%)

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 Outerwear (2%)
Swimwear (2%)
Sportswear (4%)
Sanitary products (1%)

2.1 Technique
Seamless knitting creates a complete garment by several different feeders with
minimal or no cutting and sewing processes. The garment is knitted into shape,
rather than knitting the cloth and then cutting and reassembling the pattern pieces
into a garment. All the machine needs to do is keep openings for head, arms and
legs. Knitting the products in one-piece has the benefit that they are seamless at
the sides and they have a knitted in waistband, which does not pinch or roll.

2.1.1Loop transfer mechanism at V-bed knitting machine

Seamless garment can be developed through knitting technology by widening or
narrowing the fabric by doing the loop transfer mechanism. Loop transfer is
nothing but transfer of stitches from one needle to other needle: this mechanism is
described with the below fig.1, which is how the loop transfer taking place.
For the fully fashioned garment body portion, sleeve portions are prepared
separately but the joining of these portions requires a sewing process or
linking process.
Transfer two loops for each back rib knitting (red coloured yarn) from front
to the back bed. Then, knit 2 x 2 rib for front body knitting (red coloured
yarn). After knitting, transfer stitches back to the original position (red
coloured yarn).
Transfer two stitches for each front rib knitting (green coloured yarn) from
back to the front bed. Then, knit 2 x 2 rib for back body knitting (green
coloured yarn). After knitting, transfer stitches back to the original position
(green coloured yarn).

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 Repetition of the steps 1 and 2 creates 2 x 2 rib tube. The upper figures
show 2 x 2 rib tubular type knitting. Green coloured yam and red coloured
yam represent the same yarn.

Fig.1, Loop transfer mechanism

2.2 Seamless knitting machines

1) Santoni is now known as the world leader in seamless machine manufacturing.
They have produced the seamless warp knitting machine with the model of SDW 8.
It is a double needle bar Raschel machine contains 8 guide bars with a working
width of 44 inches. This machine can form 2 seamless garments side by side in a
chain formation, which can be separated later by cutting.
2) Santoni has recently introduced the SM4 TL2 machine, which shapes the knitted
tube and will eliminate the cutting process.
3) The new machine produced from KARL MAYER, called "Seamless Smart" is
designated as 'DJ' series. The very first machine in this series is DJ 4/2, developed
by Nippon Mayer Ltd. The working width of this machine is 42", can operate at a
rate of 1,000 stitches/minute.
4) The Shima Seiki company invented the Whole Garment machine and
introduced the commercial complete garment knitting (SWGV machine) in 1995 at
ITMA

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Electronic WARP knitting machine for seamless item (pantyhouse, underwear and
outwear garment).
Double needle bed bars/maximum working width 44 inch 1,118 mm.
Four guide bars.
Stitch comb sinker bars.
Gauge: GG.24 and GG.28 compound, needles.
Number of beams: 8 beams of 21''.
Electronic drive feeding devices for warp yarns.
Electronic takedown device.
Main motors brushless KW 3,9/Voltage: 220V 440V
3 phases.
Other voltages available on request.
Electronic patterning by means of PIEZO elements.
Maximum speed: up to 700 strokes per minute.
Production: underwear and outwear garment.
Weights: fully loaded beam jam about kg 5,100
Approx. dimensions (Area ~ 7 mq): Front = 2,300 mt Side = 3,110 mt H =
3,200 mt.
Compressed area consumption: 30 nL (liters/1').
Normative: Machine according to CE normative and UL compatible.

5) Shima Seiki CAD system and machines

Figure 2 shows the Shima Seiki knitting machine system. In general, knit
patterns can be created on the CAD (Computer-Aided Design) system and all data
can be saved to a diskette. The saved data can then be transferred to the Shima
Seiki knitting machine and the machine can be operated. The machine-tuning
screen allows operator interface with the settings of the machine. Finally, one
complete three-dimensional garment can be knitted on the machine.

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 Fig.2, shows the Shima Seiki knitting machine system

2.3 Production process flow of seamless garment

1. Yarn inspection and testing.
2. Seamless knitting.
There are three ways to produce seamless garment:
Double needle bar warp knitting: Front needle bar and needle bar knit the
front and back panels respectively, the middle jacquard bar connects them
to form the seamless garment.
Computerised flat knitting: The yarn knits on front and back needle beds in
turn to form tubular fabric. The complete garment was formed by stitch
move.
Body size circular knitting: The cylinder needles knit the tubular fabric. It
could be formed garment by simple cut and sew. It can be categorised into
single jersey and double jersey.
3.100% greige inspection of tubes for visual defects.
4. Stretch ability test Electric Stretch Tester".
5. Boarding steamed and heated to the desired shape.
6. Garment dyeing paddle dyeing machine, Rotary dyeing machine.
7. Garment washing rotating tumble washer/dryer machines.
8. Inspection and testing.

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9. Seaming.
Gusset seam and leg open elastic for the underwear.
In seam for the leggings.
Neck and armhole binding/sleeve attachment.
Strap/spaghetti attachment for camisoles, sports bras, etc.
10. Finishing.
Pressing (optional).
Packing.

2.4 Applications of seamless knitting

1. Seamless knitted goods are mainly used for apparel. This new three-dimensional
knitting technique has been extended in other areas such as fashion, upholstery,
industrial, automotive, and medical textiles.
2. Apparel: Hand gloves, Hats, Socks, Sweaters, Trousers, Skirts.
3. Upholstery: Office chairs.
4. Auto motives: Seat covers.
5. Medical textiles: bandages, orthopaedic supports, and medical compression
stockings.
6. The incorporation of high performance fibres and additional sensors or
electronics could provide further opportunities for seamless products in
healthcare applications.

2.5 Advantages of seamless knitting

1. Minimising or eliminating labour intensive cutting and sewing process.
2. Savings in production times and cost.
3. Minimal yarn consumption.
4. Higher productivity.
5. Multi-gauge knitting.
6. Lightness and softness.
7. No bulky and irritating stitches/seams.
8. More constant product quality.

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9. Better trimmability for finished edge lines.
10. Better look, better fit and more comfortable.

3 Fabric welding and bonding

Fabric welding is the process of joining pieces of fabrics using heat and pressure.
Thermoplastic coatings, such as polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyurethane (PU),
polyethylene fabric (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are used for heat sealing. It is
done when the product needs to have special functional properties like water
resistance, abrasion resistance, resistance to thread decay, and fine appearance.
Bonding is a process used to join two fabrics that are non-thermoplastic such as
cotton or wool or blends with little synthetic content. In this process, a heat
activated materials is placed between the two layers, and as heat is applied, this
heat- activated material begins to flow into the fibres of the fabric, joining them
together.

3.1 Welding Technology

The term welding refers to the thermal bonding and sealing of seams in knitted,
woven, and nonwoven thermoplastic materials without adhesives, chemical
binders, staples, needle, or thread. The three principles for welding are heat, speed,
and pressure. The precise combination of these principles allows one to achieve a
properly welded seam in thermoplastic materials either by point bonding of fabric
or continuous sealing of film. The efficiency of welding of a woven fabric is affected
by yarn density, thermoplastic content, tightness of weave and uniformity of
material thickness while the random orientation of fibres in nonwovens gives
them excellent bond strength. In knits, the style and elasticity of construction affect
the bond strength. Coated materials are often welded to seal the seams. The nature
of coating, film thickness and other substrate properties are important parameters
in such cases.
Materials suitable for processing with the welding technique include 100%
synthetics such as nylon, polyester, polypropylene, polyethylene, modified acrylics,
some vinyls, urethane, film, coated paper, and synthetic blends with 35-50% non-
synthetic fibre content. Several methods of generating heat are employed. The

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most popular methods are hot air welding and hot wedge welding. In hot air
welding, a hot air nozzle is used to deliver heat, while in hot wedge welding, a
precisely controlled high temperature wedge is injected between two or
more layers of thermoplastic material, thus heating the thermoplastic and
preparing the two surfaces for molecular bonding. Other methods include
ultrasonic welding, laser welding and RF welding. Some less common methods
include impact welding techniques. Usually, each heat system can be used in place
of the other. However, there are certain applications and scenarios when one heat
system may be better than the other. Speed is the amount of time the heat is
applied to the thermoplastic material. This is controlled by the rate at which the
material passes through the system. Pressure is used to compress the heated
thermoplastic materials together during the sealing process to complete the
molecular bond between two or more surfaces. Variable air pressure is applied to
the weld rollers creating the necessary strength. Driven weld rollers advance the
thermoplastic material through the system at a precisely controlled variable speed.
Welding produces sealed edges and seams with no stitch holes, thus preventing
penetration of chemicals, liquids, blood- borne pathogens, or particulates,
providing a benefit over conventional stitching methods.

3.1.1 Hot Air Fabric Welding

Hot air welding is used to thermally bond (melt) foils and textiles. In this method, a
hot air nozzle is used to deliver heat, fig.3. Since there is no contact with the
product, the impressions and soiling on the surface of a product can be eliminated.
The machine is equipped with a pneumatic tape cutter, a temporized tape feeding
system and an electronic temperature control regulator with digital display to
allow the monitoring of working temperature. Fabric transport is provided by two
rollers, speed and pressure of rollers is controlled by specific electronic/pneumatic
device and can be adjusted to cope with all different fabric types and thicknesses.

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 Fig.3, Hot air welding

3.1.2 Hot Wedge Fabric Welding

In hot wedge welding, a small metal wedge is used to deliver heat to the fabric
immediately before it passes between the drive wheels where pressure is applied
to seal the fabric together. PFAFF 8320-010 is a highly sophisticated
programmable fabric joining hot-wedge welding equipment. Equipped with a
touch screen, it allows electronic control of all parameters with 100% accuracy. An
integrated control board monitors the sealing temperature, air volume,
sealing power and the two motors for controlling the speed of the top and bottom
rollers. Proportional valves enable the dynamic adjustment of air volume and
sealing power while two precision-controlled motors enable a very accurate
differential feed. A revolutionary new two-axis engaging system allows the wedge
to be adjusted accurately without tools.

Fig.4, a) Hot Wedge Fabric Welding b) PFAFF 8320-010 hot-wedge welding

equipment

3.1.3 Ultrasonic Welding

Ultrasonic energy is used to seal, slit, form and convert textiles into garments or
other products. An ultrasonic welding system contains a power supply which takes
line power at 50- 60 cycles and changes it to high ultrasonic frequency at 20,000
cycles/s, while a converter containing piezoelectric crystals dissipates the

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incoming electrical signal into mechanical vibrations with the same frequency.
These mechanical vibrations, applied to fabric under pressure are absorbed and
reflected at the interfaces. This vibration energy is delivered to the fabric or film
with the help of a horn. The horns having a maximum width of about 25 cm are
made of titanium with a carbide coating. The resulting molecular and interfacial-
friction produces heat which causes the material to soften and adjacent layers to
fuse. The anvil is a backup part used to support the work piece. When equipped
with a cutting edge, the anvil can cut and seal the edges at the same time.
Advantages of this thread less sewing technique include speed, width of seam (up
to 5mm), versatility of material movement (left, right, mechanical or electronic
on/off), programming and cutting, sealing and welding in one step.

Fig.5, Ultrasonic Welding

3.2 Bonding Technology

Bonding technology is different from welding in the sense that while welding is
based on thermal bonding, the former is based on chemical or liquid glue bonding.
It uses an adhesive between two layers of materials and bonding occurs through
the effect of heat, pressure and moisture. Depending on the type of textile to be
welded, different types of adhesives such as hot-melt adhesives and spray glues
are also used in some systems. Sufficient adhesion between the textile surfaces is
important for durability. This technology is also used to seal the insertion holes
made by the needles. Applications are mainly in medical use garments, protective
clothing and sportswear.
With advancements in material science and increasing use of coated and laminated
fabrics in functional clothing, the technology for joining and assembling of these

11
materials has also advanced. There is a distinct shift towards use of welding and
bonding technologies in functional clothing because of the reduced bulk and
weight, cleaner appearance and sealing qualities offered by them. Some
challenges continue to exist like joining of deep curves, seam elasticity and
flexibility and also in joining of non-compatible materials.

3.2.1 Adhesive bonding

Adhesive bonding uses a separate material between the two layers of materials,
and bonding occurs through the effects of heat, pressure, chemical reaction, or
their combination. The type of adhesive that is used will primarily depend on the
type of adhesive and the production speed that is required. It is used to
manufacture seamless garments. Applications are primarily in sports, medical and
protective clothing. A variety of different chemical-base polymers are available for
adhesive for adhesive formulation, each with their own set of properties. For
example, polyurethanes are flexible and have good adhesion, but may discolour.
Polyvinyl acetate emulsion adhesives are relatively inexpensive, but they are fairly
brittle and have limited water resistance. Base polymers are classified as being
either thermoplastic or thermosetting.
Adhesive bonding provides large stress are, excellent toughness, abrasion
resistance, smooth contours, continuous, non-perforated seams, attractive
strength to weight ratio, and moisture resistant barrier. It is a less expensive and
faster method of joining.

4 3D body scanning technology

Nowadays, 3D scanning technologies are applied to different parts of the human
body and systems are commercially available for the measurement of practically
any surface area of the human body.
Technologies used commercially for the digital measurement of the human body
can be divided into five different groups:
(a) laser scanning, (b) projection of white light patterns, (c) combination modeling
and image processing, (d) digital manual measurement, (e) technologies based on
other active sensors.

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4.1 Laser scanning
Laser scanning technology consists of using lasers to project onto the human body
one or more thin and sharp stripes. Simultaneously, light sensors acquire the scene
and by applying simple geometrical rules the surface of the human body is
measured. To assure the inoffensiveness of the light beam, only eye-safe lasers are
used. Special optical systems and mirrors are used for the generation of stripes
from a single laser light beam. The laser scanner unit, which is composed of the
laser, the optical system and the light sensor, is moved across the human body to
digitize the surface.

Fig. 6. Left: laser stripe on the human body. Center: triangulation method, different
object heights d result in different triangulation angles a that can be measured by
the light sensor. Right: the scanner unit is moved across the human body to scan its
surface.

Left: full body scanner Vitus LC of Vitronic GmbH (Germany). Center: head scanner
HS 3030RGB/PS of Cyberware Inc. (USA). Right: foot scanner Yeti of Vorum
Research Corp. (Canada).
The type of movement and the number of employed units can vary depending on
the human body part to be measured. For example, the full body scanner of

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Vitronic1 (Figure 6 left) consists of three scanner units that move vertically
synchronously along three pillars. A second example is the head scanner of
Cyberware2 (Figure 6 center). In this case, a unique scanner unit moves in circle
around the head of a person. As last example is shown the foot scanner of Vorum
Research Corp.3: the scanner is composed of three units, which moves
horizontally, two laterally and one from the bottom (Figure 6 right).

5 Digital tape measurements

As last technology available for the digital measurement of the human body, has to
be mentioned a simple but effective method: the electronic tape measurement. The
method combines classical human body measurement and digital technology. The
measurement process is completely similar to classical tape measurement, where
lengths are measured by a tape at different key-location of the human body (chest,
waist, sleeve, etc.). The tape device records electronically the measured distances.
Some devices, as for example the e-tape of E-Measurement Solutions11 showed in
Figure 7, delivers the measured data to PC via wire-less. In this way, the tape
measurement process results faster and simpler.
Fig.7,Electronic tape measurement. Left: e-tape device of E-Measurement Solutions
Ltd. (UK). Center: measuring the chest of a person. Left: measured data is
transferred via wire-less to the PC.

6 Use of active sensors

A second technology based on other active sensors is also exploited for the
measurement of the external surface of the human body. In this case, 3D cameras
employ special CMOS sensors where each pixel measures the distance to the

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imaged surface part. Different manufactures are present in the market. Figure 10
(right) shows the example of 3D camera of CSEM10. These cameras are based on
the phase-measuring time-of-flight (TOF) principle. A light source (in this case, an
array of emitting diodes) emits a near-infrared wave front that is intensity-
modulated. The light is reflected by the scene and imaged by an optical lens onto
the dedicated 3D-sensor. Depending on the distance of the target, the captured
imaged is delayed in phase compared to the originally emitted light wave.
Measuring the phase delay, the distances of the complete scene can be determined.
The result of the acquisition is a depth map of the scene.
The core of such cameras is the CMOS sensor. In fact, the 3D measurement method
based on TOF is integrated in the CMOS sensor. Each pixels of the sensor is
constructed to measure the phase difference between the emitted light source and
the captured returning light. The result are real-time 3D images of the recorded
scene. The actual CMOS technology limits the sensor size to about 25 KPixels. For
this reason, to time, these sensors can be exploited only for few applications
regarding the human body, as for example in security (surveillance) or automotive
(recognition of pedestrians).

Fig.8, Systems based on active sensors. Left: full body scanner FotoScan of Intellifit
Corp. (USA) and collected points on the human body; the right box shows the L-
shaped millimeter-waves transceiver that swings around the person.
Right: 3D camera SwissRanger SR 3000 of CSEM (Switzerland) and example of real-
time acquired 3D data.

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7 Unit Production System (UPS)
As a mechanical system this has been in use for many years, but a major advance
was made in 1983 when computers were first used to plan, control and direct the
flow of work through the system.
The essential features of this type of system are:
1. The unit of production is a single garment and not bundles.
2. The garment components are automatically transported from workstation to
work station according to a pre-determined sequence.
3. The work stations are so constructed that the components are presented as
close as possible to the operator's left hand in order to reduce the amount of
movement required to grasp and position and component to be sewn.
The operational principles are as follows:
All the components for one garment are loaded into a carrier at a workstation
specially designed for this purpose. The carrier itself is divided into sections, with
each section having a quick-release clamp, which prevents the components from
falling out during movement through the system. When a batch of garments has
been loaded into carriers they are fed past a mechanical or electronic device, which
records the number of the carrier and addresses it to its first destination. Some of
the more intelligent systems address the carriers with all the destinations they will
have to pass through to completion.
The loaded carriers are then fed onto the main powered line, which continually
circulates between the rows of machines. This main, or head, line is connected to
each workstation by junctions, which open automatically if the work on a carrier is
addressed to that particular station. The carrier is directed to the left side of the
operator and waits its turn along with the other carriers in the station.
When the operator has completed work on one carrier, a push button at the side of
the sewing machine is pressed and this actuates a mechanism, which transports
the carrier back to the main line. As one carrier leaves the station, another is
automatically fed in to take its place. When the carrier leaves the station it is
recorded on the data collection system, and then addressed to its next destination.
Unit Production System requires substantial investments, which are not always
justified by conventional payback calculations. Apart from the measurable tangible

16
benefits, UPS also have many intangible benefits such as a more orderly and
controlled flow of work, and the ability via the control computer of simulating the
production situation some time in advance. These intangibles are difficult to
measure, but in themselves make a very positive contribution to the overall
viability of the unit.
All things considered, unit production systems have major advantages over all the
other manual and the mechanical systems used for the mass production of
clothing. Most importantly, they provide a clothing factory with the capability to
respond quickly to any changes, which might occur. In the fast moving fashion
business, this is essential.
7.1 Advantages
1. Bundle handling completely eliminated.
2. The time involved in the pick-up and disposal is reduced to minimum.
3. Output is automatically recorded, eliminates the operator to register the work.
4. The computerized systems automatically balance the work between stations.
5. Up to 40 styles can be produced simultaneously on one system.
7.2 Disadvantages
1. Unit production system requires high investments.
2. The payback period of the investment takes long time.
3. Proper planning is required to be effective.

8 Conclusions
The introduction of the seamless product has revolutionized the global production
process, allowing the knitting of ready-made apparel, very different from cut &
sews classical process. The seamless concept spread all over the world with a
surprising quickness because it allows to get to the finished garment in a few
minutes starting from the yarn and without passing through cutting and sewing
operations, it offers savings in terms of production times and cost, and it
minimizes yarn consumption. Starting with intimate apparel and other body wear,
today seamless technology has emerged into areas such as fashion, outwear, active
wear and functional sportswear, upholstery, industrial, automotive and medical
textiles. With advancements in material science and increasing use of coated and

17
laminated fabrics, the technology for joining and assembling of these materials has
also advanced. There is a distinct shift towards use of welding and bonding
technologies in functional clothing because of the reduced bulk and weight, cleaner
appearance and sealing qualities offered by them. Some challenges
continue to exist like joining of deep curves, seam elasticity and flexibility and also
in joining of non-compatible materials. With the overview of the different latest
manufacturing technologies used in the garment sector, this paper gives an idea
about areas which has scope for further developments.

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[13] Assyst-Bullmer GmbH, http://www.assyst-bullmer.com
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