(McKesson, C.B.) The Practical Design of Advanced Marine Vehicles PDF

ThePracticalDesignofAdvanced
MarineVehicles
By:
ChrisB.McKesson,PE
SchoolofNavalArchitectureandMarineEngineering
CollegeofEngineering
UniversityofNewOrleans
2009
Version:Fall2009rev0
Thisworksponsoredby:
USOfficeofNavalResearch
GrantNo:N000140910145
CONTENTS
1 Summary&PurposeofthisTextbook................................................................................................27
1.1 RelationshipoftheCoursetoProgramOutcomes.....................................................................28
1.2 Prerequisites...............................................................................................................................28
1.3 Resources....................................................................................................................................28
1.3.1 Numberedreferencescitedinthetext.................................................................................29
1.3.2 Importantreferencesnotexplicitlycitedinthetext............................................................31
1.3.3 AMVWebResources.............................................................................................................32
1.3.4 AMVDesignAgents...............................................................................................................32
1.3.5 AMVBuilders.........................................................................................................................33
2 ANoteonConventions.......................................................................................................................34
3 AbouttheAuthor................................................................................................................................35
4 NavigatingWithoutaMap..................................................................................................................36
4.1 Exploration101BasicExplorerSkills........................................................................................37
4.2 Exploringadesignspace.............................................................................................................37
5 TheSearchForSpeed..........................................................................................................................39
5.1 WhatisFast?WhatisSpeed?....................................................................................................40
5.2 HigherFroudeNumbermeansMorePower..............................................................................42
5.3 HullFormvsFroudeNumber......................................................................................................45
5.3.1 HighPerformanceMonohulls...............................................................................................46
5.3.2 StabilizedMonohulls.............................................................................................................48
5.3.3 Catamarans...........................................................................................................................49
5.3.4 WavePiercingCatamarans...................................................................................................50
5.3.5 HydrofoilAssistedCatamarans.............................................................................................52
5.3.6 Hydrofoils..............................................................................................................................52
5.3.7 SurfaceEffectShips...............................................................................................................54
5.3.8 ACVsorHovercraft................................................................................................................56
5.3.9 WinginGroundEffectorWIGs..........................................................................................57
6 TheSustentionSpace..........................................................................................................................58
6.1 TheSustentionTriangle..............................................................................................................58
6.1.1 TheProblemWithTheSustentionTriangle..........................................................................59
6.2 TheSustentionCube...................................................................................................................60
6.2.1 FirstAxis:StaticLiftorDynamicLift......................................................................................61
6.2.2 SecondAxis:AeroLiftorHydroLift....................................................................................61
6.2.3 ThirdAxis:PoweredorPassive.............................................................................................61
6.3 TheContentsoftheSustentionCube.........................................................................................62
6.3.1 PassiveHydrostatics..............................................................................................................62
6.3.2 PassiveHydrodynamics.........................................................................................................62
6.3.3 PassiveAerostatics................................................................................................................62
6.3.4 PassiveAerodynamics...........................................................................................................62
6.3.5 ActiveHydrostatics................................................................................................................62
6.3.6 ActiveHydrodynamics...........................................................................................................62
6.3.7 ActiveAerostatics..................................................................................................................63
6.3.8 ActiveAerodynamics.............................................................................................................63
6.4 FinalRemarksonSustentionSpaceModels...............................................................................63
7 TheDomainoftheAMVs....................................................................................................................64
7.1 PerformanceSpaceFast,Comfortable,andCheap:Pickanytwo........................................64
7.2 TheAdvancedMarineVehicles?.................................................................................................64
7.2.1 PassiveHydroStatic(Buoyant)AMVs...................................................................................65
7.2.1.1 Multihulls......................................................................................................................65
7.2.1.1.1 Catamarans..............................................................................................................65
7.2.1.1.2 Trimarans.................................................................................................................67
7.2.1.1.3 SWATHSmallWaterplaneAreaTwinHull............................................................70
7.2.2 PassiveAeroStatic(AirBuoyant)AMVs................................................................................76
7.2.3 PassiveHydroDynamic(DynamicLift)AMVs.......................................................................76
7.2.3.1 PlaningCraft.................................................................................................................77
7.2.3.2 Hydrofoils.....................................................................................................................77
7.2.4 PassiveAeroDynamic(DynamicLift)AMVs.........................................................................80
7.2.4.1 WIGs.............................................................................................................................80
7.2.5 ActiveHydroStatic(PoweredLift)AMVs..............................................................................83
7.2.5.1 ACVAirCushionVehicle(hovercraft)........................................................................84
7.2.5.2 SidewallHovercraft/SurfaceEffectShip/SES............................................................93
7.2.6 ActiveAeroStaticAMVs.......................................................................................................97
7.2.7 ActiveHydroDynamicAMVs.................................................................................................97
7.2.8 ActiveAeroDynamicAMVs..................................................................................................97
8 WhataboutHybrids?..........................................................................................................................99
8.1 TheChallenge..............................................................................................................................99
8.2 MissionsAndSpeeds.................................................................................................................100
8.3 SpeedAndLift...........................................................................................................................100
8.4 Drag...........................................................................................................................................103
8.5 DragCrises................................................................................................................................106
8.6 WhenHybridsWork..................................................................................................................107
8.7 TheVKGap:PhysicsOrJustLackOfImagination?..................................................................107
8.8 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................108
9 WhataboutWeinblums?..................................................................................................................109
10 PerformanceMetrics....................................................................................................................111
10.1 VonKarman/Gabriellicurve....................................................................................................112
10.2 TheValueofSpeed...................................................................................................................114
10.2.1 TheCostofSpeed...........................................................................................................115
10.2.2 TheValueofSpeed.........................................................................................................115
10.2.3 TechnologyAffectsCost..................................................................................................116
10.2.4 CargoAffectsValue.........................................................................................................117
10.2.5 EconomicsAffectsBoth..................................................................................................118
10.2.6 WhatDoestheFutureHold?..........................................................................................120
10.3 KennellTransportFactor...........................................................................................................121
10.3.1 TransportFactorDefined................................................................................................122
10.3.2 StudyofSize&SlendernessEffects................................................................................123
10.3.3 FuelConsumptionTFfuel.............................................................................................126
10.3.4 SFCeffects.......................................................................................................................128
10.3.5 FuelWeightFraction.......................................................................................................128
10.3.6 EmptyshipWeightTfship.............................................................................................129
10.3.7 ConclusionsonKennellsTransportFactor.....................................................................133
10.4 McKessonParametrics..............................................................................................................133
10.4.1 TheSampleQuestion......................................................................................................134
10.4.2 MajorParameters...........................................................................................................135
10.4.3 Lift/DragRatios.............................................................................................................135
10.4.4 McKessonBestPracticesL/DCurve................................................................................136
10.4.5 FuelWeight.....................................................................................................................138
10.4.6 LightShipWeight............................................................................................................140
10.4.7 PuttingitalltogetherNotionalExample.....................................................................141
10.4.8 ArangeofExamples.......................................................................................................142
10.4.9 TheDesignSpace............................................................................................................144
10.4.10 AnalysisOfExistingShips................................................................................................146
10.4.11 AnalysisOfPacificat........................................................................................................147
10.4.12 AnalysisOfLimits............................................................................................................149
11 HydrostaticBalance......................................................................................................................151
12 SWBS051Resistance..................................................................................................................153
12.1 TheResistanceComponents.....................................................................................................153
12.2 FrictionalResistance.................................................................................................................156
12.2.1 WettedSurfaceVariation...............................................................................................158
12.3 Wavemaking(Hull,notCushion)..............................................................................................161
12.3.1 EstimatingwavemakingdragofaSingleSlenderHull....................................................162
12.3.1.1 Computationalpredictivemethods............................................................................162
12.3.1.2 Serieshullpredictions................................................................................................163
12.3.1.3 Modelextrapolations.................................................................................................165
12.3.1.4 OneOffparents(WormCurves)................................................................................166
12.3.1.5 OnthewavemakingresistanceofSESsidehulls.........................................................166
12.3.1.6 CokeBottlingofSWATHhulls....................................................................................167
12.3.1.7 Conclusionregardingthewavemakingresistanceofasinglehullalone...................167
12.4 MultihullInterferenceDrag......................................................................................................167
12.4.1 Methodsforpredictinginterferencedrag......................................................................168
12.4.2 ModelTestingTechniques..............................................................................................169
12.4.3 Limitations......................................................................................................................170
12.4.4 TheoreticalInterferenceLimits.......................................................................................171
12.5 LiftSystemAirMomentumDrag..............................................................................................172
12.6 SkirtDrag...................................................................................................................................173
12.7 AirCushionWavemaking..........................................................................................................175
12.8 SprayandSprayRailDrag.........................................................................................................182
12.9 Appendagedrag........................................................................................................................182
13 SWBS070HullFormDesign........................................................................................................183
13.1 Catamaranhulls........................................................................................................................183
13.1.1 Catamaranhullformteleology.......................................................................................183
13.1.2 Catamaranhullformparents..........................................................................................183
13.1.3 Catamaranhullformdevelopmentprocedure...............................................................184
13.2 TrimaranAmas..........................................................................................................................185
13.2.1 TrimaranAmahullformteleology..................................................................................185
13.2.2 TrimaranAmahullformparents....................................................................................186
13.2.3 TrimaranAmahullformdevelopmentprocedure.........................................................187
13.3 SESSidehulls..............................................................................................................................188
13.3.1 SESSidehullhullformteleology.....................................................................................188
13.3.2 SESSidehullhullformparents........................................................................................189
13.3.3 SESSidehullhullformdevelopmentprocedure.............................................................190
13.4 SWATHHulls..............................................................................................................................192
13.4.1 SWATHhullformteleology.............................................................................................193
13.4.2 SWATHhullformparents...............................................................................................195
13.4.3 SWATHhullformdevelopmentprocedure....................................................................197
14 SWBS070ShipArrangement......................................................................................................200
14.1 GeneralArrangement...............................................................................................................200
14.2 Aesthetics..................................................................................................................................217
15 SWBS079Stability......................................................................................................................220
15.1 StabilityCurvesforMultihulls...................................................................................................220
15.2 SESStability...............................................................................................................................226
15.2.1 SESStaticStability...........................................................................................................226
15.2.2 SESDynamicStability......................................................................................................228
15.2.3 SESBeamSeaCapsize.....................................................................................................232
15.3 AMVStabilityCriteria................................................................................................................233
15.3.1 IntactStability.................................................................................................................233
15.3.1.1 SESRulesofThumb....................................................................................................233
15.3.1.2 USCGRequirements...................................................................................................234
15.3.2 DamageStability.............................................................................................................237
15.3.2.1 USNRequirements.....................................................................................................238
15.4 AMVIntactStabilityTests.........................................................................................................238
16 SWBS079Motions&Seakindliness...........................................................................................240
16.1 WhatisUniqueAboutAMVOperations?.................................................................................240
16.2 AMVUniqueMotions...............................................................................................................242
16.2.1 Corkscrewing...................................................................................................................243
16.2.2 BowDiving......................................................................................................................243
16.2.3 SurfaceSuction&theMunkMoment............................................................................245
16.2.4 Cobblestoning.................................................................................................................246
16.2.5 PlowIn............................................................................................................................246
16.3 AMVMotionsAnalysis&Criteria..............................................................................................250
16.3.1 AddedResistance............................................................................................................252
16.4 MotionControlforAMVs..........................................................................................................253
16.4.1 ModesofControl............................................................................................................253
16.4.2 Effectors..........................................................................................................................254
16.4.2.1 Cushionbasedridecontrol........................................................................................255
16.4.2.2 Foilbasedridecontrol................................................................................................255
16.4.2.3 Interceptorbasedcontroldevices.............................................................................256
16.4.2.4 Propulsorsteering(e.g.waterjets).............................................................................258
16.4.2.5 Highspeedrudders.....................................................................................................260
16.4.2.6 AerodynamicSteering&Control................................................................................261
16.4.2.7 CushionAirThrusters.................................................................................................263
17 SWBS100AMVStructures.........................................................................................................266
17.1 ConventionalShipLoadCases..................................................................................................266
17.2 AMVLoadCases........................................................................................................................266
17.2.1 LongitudinalBendingModes..........................................................................................267
17.2.2 TheDesignVerticalAcceleration....................................................................................268
17.2.3 WaveHeightLimits.........................................................................................................271
17.2.4 DesignPressures/LocalLoads.......................................................................................273
17.2.4.1 Slammingpressureonbottom...................................................................................273
17.2.4.2 Forebodysideandbowimpactpressure...................................................................274
17.2.4.3 WetDeckSlamPressures...........................................................................................275
17.2.4.4 SeaPressure...............................................................................................................275
17.2.5 GlobalLoads....................................................................................................................276
17.2.5.1 LongitudinalBending..................................................................................................277
17.2.5.2 TransverseBending....................................................................................................277
17.2.5.3 TorsionalBending.......................................................................................................278
17.3 AMVLoadCasesSummary........................................................................................................279
18 SWBS119DesignofAirCushionSkirts.......................................................................................280
18.1 PurposeandTypesofSkirts......................................................................................................280
10
18.1.1 VirtualSkirts....................................................................................................................281
18.1.1.1 Peripheraljets.............................................................................................................281
18.1.1.2 WaterCurtain.............................................................................................................282
18.1.2 RigidSkirts.......................................................................................................................283
18.1.3 InflatableFabricSkirts....................................................................................................283
18.1.3.1 CurtainSkirt................................................................................................................284
18.1.3.2 TransverselyStiffenedMembrane.............................................................................284
18.1.3.3 BagSkirt......................................................................................................................284
18.1.3.4 Pericell/Jupe.............................................................................................................284
18.1.3.5 Finger..........................................................................................................................285
18.1.3.6 BagandFinger............................................................................................................286
18.2 BasicsofInflatableStructures...................................................................................................286
18.3 BasicDesignofSESSkirts..........................................................................................................287
18.3.1 SESBowFingerSkirts......................................................................................................287
18.3.2 SESSternBagSkirts.........................................................................................................289
18.4 SkirtForces................................................................................................................................292
18.4.1 Internalforces.................................................................................................................293
18.4.2 Attachmentforces..........................................................................................................293
18.4.3 Dynamicforces...............................................................................................................298
18.5 SkirtFailures..............................................................................................................................299
18.6 SkirtMaterials...........................................................................................................................299
19 SWBS200Propulsors.................................................................................................................302
19.1 ThePropulsionTaskRequiredThrust....................................................................................302
19.1.1 ResistanceMargin...........................................................................................................302
19.2 ThrustRequired........................................................................................................................302
11
19.2.1 HumpThrustMargin.......................................................................................................302
19.2.2 ThrustDeduction............................................................................................................303
19.3 Propulsortypes.........................................................................................................................303
19.3.1 Propellers........................................................................................................................303
19.3.1.1 FullysubmergedCavitatingpropellers.......................................................................303
19.3.1.1.1 NewtonRaderPropellers.....................................................................................307
19.3.1.2 SurfacePiercingpropellers.........................................................................................309
19.3.2 Waterjets........................................................................................................................313
19.3.2.1 WaterjetHydrodynamics............................................................................................313
19.3.2.2 WaterjetEfficiency(Theory).......................................................................................314
19.3.2.3 WaterjetsPumpTypes...............................................................................................315
19.3.2.4 CommercialTypes......................................................................................................319
19.3.2.5 DesignConsiderations................................................................................................321
19.3.2.5.1 InletSuctiontheWaterjetCaptureArea...........................................................321
19.3.2.5.2 InletCavitationInletPressures..........................................................................322
19.3.2.5.3 WaterjetImpellerCavitationBoundaries.............................................................324
19.3.2.6 WaterjetRPMRelationship........................................................................................326
19.3.2.7 Waterjetoveralleffectiveness...................................................................................327
19.3.2.8 WaterjetArrangement...............................................................................................328
19.3.2.9 WaterjetWeight.........................................................................................................328
19.3.2.10 WaterjetStructuralLoads......................................................................................328
19.3.2.11 WaterjetScopeofSupply.......................................................................................330
20 SWBS200PropulsionTransmissions&PrimeMovers..............................................................331
20.1 TransmittingPowertothePropulsorAMVUniqueChallenges.............................................331
20.2 RPMMatching&TwoSpeedOperations.................................................................................332
12
20.2.1 TwoSpeedGearboxesfromZFMarine..........................................................................333
20.2.2 WaterjetsinTwoSpeedApplications.............................................................................335
20.3 Primemoversandtheirselection.............................................................................................336
21 SWBS200Breguet'sRangeEquation..........................................................................................337
22 SWBS500AirCushions..............................................................................................................340
22.1 CushionAirDemandEstimatingP&Q...................................................................................341
22.1.1 AirFlowSimilitude..........................................................................................................341
22.1.2 TheHovergapMethodforAirDemand..........................................................................342
22.1.3 WavePumping................................................................................................................345
22.2 AirDemandAirSupply.......................................................................................................346
22.3 Fans101....................................................................................................................................348
22.4 FanScalingLaws........................................................................................................................353
23 HomeworkProblems....................................................................................................................358
TABLES
Table1AnexampleoftheapplicationoftheFiveParametermethodtogenerateanoverviewsetof
feasibleshipcharacteristics......................................................................................................................141
Table2Afiveparameterinvestigationextendedacrossarangeofshipsizes......................................143
Table3PacificatInputParameters.........................................................................................................147
Table4PacificatDerivedData................................................................................................................147
Table5CfCurveComparison,fromFaltinsen(2005).............................................................................157
Table6LundgrenSSPAseriesparameterscomparedtootherseries....................................................164
Table7NATOStandardseastatedefinitions.........................................................................................194
Table8TableofcharacteristicsforXCraft.............................................................................................242
Table9AsimpleparametriclookatthevaluesgivenbyDNV'sformulaforDesignVerticalAcceleration
..................................................................................................................................................................269
13
Table10TheselectionofAccelerationFactorasafunctionofServiceRestrictionNotationandShip
Type...........................................................................................................................................................270
Table11ThespreadsheetusedtocalculateFigure196........................................................................272
Table12DatatablefromYun&BliaultdescribingtwoskirtfabricsavailableinChina.........................301
Table13DatatablefromYun&BliaultdescribingskirtmaterialsandlifefromsomebuiltSESandACV
..................................................................................................................................................................301
Table14TheeffectoftheBreguetrangecalculation............................................................................339
Table15DataonavarietyoffullyskirtedACVsofvarioussizeandspeed...........................................344
Table16ThreedifferentparentfansallscaledtothesameP&Q........................................................357
FIGURES
Figure1Lewis&Clark...............................................................................................................................36
Figure2Theauthor'ssummerresidence,"SUNDANCE"onthehardinBrownsvilleWAreceivinga
changeofpropeller.....................................................................................................................................36
Figure3Thissmall20knotJetSkiisclearly"fast."...................................................................................40
Figure4This2knotkayakisclearly"slow.".............................................................................................40
Figure5IsthisWashingtonStateFerry"Slow"or"Fast"?Innumericaltermsitisnearlythesame
speedastheJetSki,andyetinhydrodynamictermsitisas"slow"asthekayak.Thistruthiscaptured
throughthenavalarchitect'sFroudeNumber...........................................................................................41
Figure6MotoryachtDestriero.HerFroudeNumberisapproximatelythesameasthatoftheJetSkiin
Figure2.......................................................................................................................................................42
Figure7Speedandpowerdataforacollectionofvessels......................................................................43
Figure8ThesamevesselsastheprecedingFigure,butnowpresentingSpecificPowerversusSpeed..44
Figure9ThesamevesselsastheprevioustwoFigures,butnowpresentingSpecificPowerversusNon
DimensionalSpeed(FroudeNumber)........................................................................................................45
Figure10ThesamedataasFigure9,coloredtoshowhulltype.............................................................46
Figure11TwopicturesoftheMDV3000FastFerry"Jupiter",builtbyFincantieri..................................47
Figure12Cable&WirelessAdventurer,builtforthearoundtheworldrecord.....................................48
14
Figure13PhotographsofthetrimaranferryBenchijiguaExpress...........................................................49
Figure14Threepicturesofthe122mStenaHSS1500catamaranferry,inserviceontheIrishSea.....50
Figure15TheWashingtonStateFerrycatamaranSnohomish................................................................50
Figure16TheJervisBay,amilitaryWavePiercingcatamaran,afterthepatterninventedbyPhil
Hercus.........................................................................................................................................................51
Figure17TheArgentineferryPatriciaOliviaII.........................................................................................51
Figure18Ahydrofoilassistedcatamaran.Photofromwww.foils.org...................................................52
Figure19USNavy"PHM"hydrofoilpatrolcraft.Photofromwww.foils.org..........................................53
Figure20AcommercialBoeingJetFoil.Photofromwww.foils.org........................................................54
Figure21NorwegianCirrus120PclassSurfaceEffectShip,circa1995...................................................55
Figure22NorwegianNavy"Skjold"SESpatrolcraft,circa2000..............................................................55
Figure23TheenglishSR.N4commercialhovercraft,whichservedacrosstheEnglishChannelforover
30years.......................................................................................................................................................57
Figure24TheCaspianSeaMonsteraWinginGroundEffect(WIG).....................................................57
Figure25TheSustentionTriangle,includingillustrationsofsomeoftheshiptypesatvariouspoints
therein.........................................................................................................................................................58
Figure26TheSustentionCube,theauthor'salternativemodeloftheAMVdesignspace.Thismodel
offersbroaderapplicabilitybycoveringmoreofthedesignspacethantheSustentionTriangle.............60
Figure27ThefirstoftheINCAT74mWavePiercingCatamaransHoverspeedGresatBritain,whothen
heldtherecordfortheTransAtlanticCorssing...........................................................................................67
Figure28TheAustaltrimaranferry"BenchijiguaExpress".Photosfrom
http://www.austal.com/index.cfm?objectID=6955E09CA0CC3C8CD9FD2E4C71CE8F0E......................68
Figure29Austal'sUSNavyLittoralCombatShip("LCS")indrydock........................................................69
Figure30TheEarthRacetrimaran,themostexoticlookingtrimaranIhavecomeacross....................70
Figure31ThepartsandnomenclatureofaSWATH.Picturetakenfromwww.swath.com...................72
Figure32SWATHPilotVesselfromGermanshipyardAbeking&Rasmussen.Illustrationfrom
http://www.hamburgerbildungsserver.de/nwz/ph/schiffe/swath.html..................................................73
Figure33USNavyTAGOS19...................................................................................................................74
15
Figure36TheSWATHvariant"SLICE"underconstruction.......................................................................76
Figure37ASurfacePiercinghydrofoilproducedbyRodriquez...............................................................79
Figure38Ahydrofoilcrafthavingfullysubmergedfoils.(Thefoilsarevisiblebelowtheseasurfacein
thisphoto.)..................................................................................................................................................79
Figure39ThePrototypicalWingInGroundEffect...................................................................................80
Figure40TheCaspianSeaMonster.Photofromhttp://www.vincelewis.net/ekranoplan.html...........81
Figure41Thisillustrationoftheforcesonatunnelboat(fromwww.screamandfly.com)highlightsthe
factthatthesecrafttooareWIGs..............................................................................................................82
Figure42TheReverseDeltaconfigurationpreferredbyAntonLippisch................................................83
Figure43AWIGcraftfromGuntherJrg.................................................................................................83
Figure44Asimpleschematicsectionillustratingthedefiningpartsofahovercraft..............................86
Figure45SirChristopherCockerel...........................................................................................................86
Figure46Oneofthefirsthovercraft,theSaundersRoeN1(SR.N1)Notetheabsenceoffabricskirts
asareusedtoday........................................................................................................................................87
Figure47TheSR.N1inoverwateroperation.Notethelargeamountofspraycreated.......................87
Figure48TheSaundersRoeN4(SR.N4)commercialferry.Notethegreatlyreducedspraycompared
totheSR.N1,duelargelytotheuseoffabricskirtsofadesignwhichstillcurrent..................................88
Figure49ARussian"AIST"classamphibiousmilitaryhovercraft,generallyequivalenttotheUSNLCAC
....................................................................................................................................................................89
Figure50ARussian"LEBED"ClassACV....................................................................................................89
Figure51Thelargesthovercraftintheworld,theRussian"POMORNIK"Classat555tonnes...............90
Figure52Acommercialhovercraft,exploitingthehovercraft'samphibiouscapabilityinorderto
operateinice..............................................................................................................................................90
Figure53TheUSNLCAChovercraft..........................................................................................................91
Figure54ThispictureofanLCACclearlyshowstheroleahovercraftcanhaveinshallowwater
operation.....................................................................................................................................................92
16
Figure55Thispictureshowstheultimateinshallowwater:AnLCAConthebeach,withtheaircushion
turnedoff.(Notethedeflatedskirtvisiblearoundtheperimeterofthecraft.).......................................92
Figure56Thetwo100tontestcraftSES100AandSES100B..................................................................95
Figure57TheSES100A,thewaterjetdriventestcraft.............................................................................95
Figure58TheSES100B,thepropellerdriventestcraft............................................................................96
Figure59AcommercialSESferryfromNorway.......................................................................................96
Figure60TheNorwegianNavySESPatrolBoat"Skjold".........................................................................97
Figure61Powerversusdynamicliftfractionfortheexamplegivenintext..........................................105
Figure62Vehicleweightversusdynamicliftfractionfortheexamplegiveninthetext......................105
Figure63Abadplaningboatbutagoodhydrofoil?..............................................................................107
Figure64Asketchofagrapevine,or"weinblum."Notehowtheleavesarestaggeredportstarboard
portstarboardetc.....................................................................................................................................109
Figure65HerrDr.GeorgWeinblum.......................................................................................................109
Figure66AplotofthewavepatternfromaWeinblumhull,consistingoftwoidenticalhullsstaggered
longitudinally............................................................................................................................................109
Figure67TheodorevonKarman............................................................................................................113
Figure68VonKarmansgraphofTransportEfficiency..........................................................................113
Figure69vonKarmandatacollectedbyaclassofundergraduates......................................................114
Figure70TheunarguabletruthsoftheCostofSpeed...........................................................................115
Figure71TheconceptualsketchoftheValueofSpeed.........................................................................116
Figure72Thecostofspeeddependsuponthetechnologyselected....................................................117
Figure73Nearlyacenturyof"valueoftime"dataforpeople,correctedforinflation.........................118
Figure74Nearlyacenturyof"CostofEnergy"data,addedtothepreviousgraph..............................119
Figure75Thevalueoftimeforgoods(interestrates)for50yearsofUShistory(Source:DollarDaze.org)
..................................................................................................................................................................120
Figure76Kennell'sTFtrendline,fromDesignTrendsinHighSpeedTransport,CKennell,Marine
Technology,vol35,no3,July1998..........................................................................................................123
17
Figure77TFTrendlineproposedbyDr.JulioVergara(Chile)................................................................124
Figure78Kennell'sexperiencedataforsmallfastships.Notethatnotallofthemareabletoarriveat
"StateoftheArt"performance................................................................................................................125
Figure79Kennell'sdataontheeffectofslenderness,from"TheEffectofShipSizeonTransportFactor
Properties"1998.......................................................................................................................................125
Figure80Kennell'sgraphoftheeffectofsizeuponattainedTF...........................................................126
Figure81Kennell'shistoricaldataonTFfueltrends..............................................................................127
Figure82Kennell'splotoftherelationshipbetweenpropulsiontechnologyandTFfuel....................128
Figure83Kennell'sfindingontheproportionofTFdevotedtofuel,asafunctionofspeedandrange
..................................................................................................................................................................129
Figure84Kennell'sfindingoftherelationshipbetweenshipweight,cargoweight,andSHP..............130
Figure85Kennell'sgraphicdepictionofthenatureofDeadweightDensityfordifferentshiptypes...131
Figure86Lowdensitypayloadstendtodemandhighervaluesoflightshipweightfraction................131
Figure87Highspeedshipsfollowthesametrend.................................................................................132
Figure88Evenaircraftfollowthesametrend!......................................................................................133
Figure89Kennell'scurveshowingtheeffectofsizeuponTF................................................................136
Figure90McKesson's"ObservedFrontier"ofshipLift/Dragratio,includingselectednameddatapoints
..................................................................................................................................................................137
Figure91DonaldL.Blount'sdataforexperiencedvaluesofOPCforthreedifferentclassesofpropulsor.
..................................................................................................................................................................139
Figure92PropulsionGasTurbineEngines,SFCversusPower,CurrentandFutureEngines.................139
Figure93PropulsionGasTurbineEngines,SFCversusYearofIntroduction,CurrentandFutureEngines
..................................................................................................................................................................140
Figure94ThepredictedcargocapacityfortheshipslistedinTable2..................................................143
Figure95MapoffirstlookHSSLShipSize,(Correspondsto3600LTcargo,43kts,5000nmirange,OPC
=60%,L/DperBestPracticesCurve,WeightofPower=10lbs/shp.CargoCarriageMultiplierfrom1to
11lbs/lb,SFCfrom0to0.5lbs/hphr)......................................................................................................144
Figure96HSSLInstalledPower(SamefamilyofshipsasFigure95.)....................................................145
Figure97HSSLRequiredFuelLoadfor5000milerange(SamefamilyofshipsasFigure95)...............145
18
Figure98PacifiCatDerivedHSSLplottedondesignspacefromFigure95............................................149
Figure99PercentofBestPracticeL/Drequiredtocarrygivenamountofcargo..................................150
Figure100Dragcomponentsofa70mcatamaran,fromFaltinsen.......................................................155
Figure101Dragcomponentsofa40mSES,fromFaltinsen...................................................................155
Figure102AMVdesignoftenfeelslikenavigatingusingmapslikethis:...............................................158
Figure103AreproductionofFaltinsen'sreferenceonRunningSinkageofacatamaran,fromMolland
etal1996..................................................................................................................................................159
Figure104Kolazaev'sfigureforKf(Fn)...................................................................................................160
Figure105Thewettingtapes(thetwogoldstrips)fittedtotheHSSLmodeltomeasurewettedgirth.
Threesuchsetsoftapeswereinstalledatdifferentstationsalongthelengthofthemodel..................160
Figure106ThedynamicwettedsurfacevariationwithspeedasmeasuredontheHSSLmodel..........161
Figure107WavepatternanddistributionofwavepatternresistanceasestimatedbyMichell'sintegral,
fromLazauskasandTuck..........................................................................................................................163
Figure108ContoursofResiduaryResistanceCoefficientforB/T=3CB=0.40fromtheLundgrenseries.
..................................................................................................................................................................165
Figure109TotalResistanceCoefficientforsixArrowTrimaranconfigurations,fromLazauskasandTuck
..................................................................................................................................................................169
Figure110CFDandmodeltestresults,forarecentstudyoftheeffectoflongitudinalpositionofside
hullsontrimaranresiduaryresistance.....................................................................................................170
Figure111Comparisonofthefreesurfacebehindtrimaran5651inExperiment5(left)andExperiment
9(right)atFroudeNumber=0.34............................................................................................................171
Figure112TotalResistanceofOptimizedonetonneGeneralizedTrimarans,fromLazauskas&Tuck172
Figure113Doctors'geometrydefinitionsketchesforasternseal(left)andabowseal(right)...........174
Figure114AnSESsternsealexactlycorrespondingtoDoctors'definitionsketch................................175
Figure115Thewavepatterncausedbyarectangularconstantpressurepatch..................................176
Figure116NewmanandPoolecushionwavedragparameter..............................................................177
Figure117Doctors'figureshowingtheNewmanandPooleinstability,andthesmoothingaccomplished
byintroducingparametersalphaandbeta..............................................................................................178
Figure118Doctors'pressuresmoothingparameters............................................................................178
19
Figure119Doctors'resultsforcushionwavemakingdrag.....................................................................179
Figure120AnenlargedscaledetailofthelowspeedportionofFigure119........................................180
Figure121AUSNavyresultfortotaldragofan8,000tonSESasaFunctionofSpeedandL/Bratio..181
Figure122Saunders'guidancefortheselectionofdesiredCpandFatnessRatio................................185
Figure123GivessomedepictionoftheformofAmapreferredbyDr.TonyArmstrong......................188
Figure124AdepictionoftheSWATHlikeAmaspreferredbyDr.IgorMizine......................................188
Figure125TypicalvariationinSWATHshipheaveresponseatlowspeedsasafunctionoftuningfactor.
(SNAME)....................................................................................................................................................193
Figure126Effectofshipspeedonwaveencounterperiodinheadseas..............................................194
Figure127HighCp/LowSpeedparentSWATHTAGOS.......................................................................195
Figure128HighCp/LowSpeedParent:SWATHTAGOSB...................................................................196
Figure129LowCp/HighSpeedParent:SWATH5972..........................................................................196
Figure130Lamb'sdefinitionsketchforangleBeta................................................................................199
Figure131Lamb'sdefinitionsketchforangleAlpha..............................................................................199
Figure132GalapagosIslandstourboatANAHI,showingthestandardarrangementofanAMV..........201
Figure133KAIMALINO,pioneeringanunusualarrangementapproach...............................................202
Figure134TheCanadianPacifiCatfastferry.Thebridgeisnotthetopdeck,buttheonerightbelowit.
..................................................................................................................................................................203
Figure135AdetailofaPacificat,showingtheoverhangingbridgewing..............................................204
Figure136Aluxuryhotelatrium.GiventhesmoothrideofaSWATHship,whynotuseaconfiguration
likethis?....................................................................................................................................................205
Figure137Afourstoryatrium,withproportionsthatmightfitmanyAMVs.......................................205
Figure138Ahotelatrium.Couldthisbeusedonasmallcatamaran?.................................................206
Figure139RADISSONDIAMOND,aSWATHcruiseship.........................................................................207
Figure140ALowRessectionthroughRADISSONDIAMOND................................................................208
Figure141RADDISSONDIAMONDSternView.......................................................................................208
20
Figure142TheSTENAHSS1500fastferry.............................................................................................209
Figure143USNSWATHTAGOS.............................................................................................................210
Figure144MonohullTAGOS.................................................................................................................211
Figure145SWATHTAGOS.....................................................................................................................212
Figure146ThesmallSWATH"FREDERICKCREED".................................................................................213
Figure147ArrangementdrawingsoftheINCATK50carferry.............................................................214
Figure148Austal'sillustrationtocomparetheflightdecksizeonanAMVversusseveralmonohulls215
Figure149SEASHADOW........................................................................................................................215
Figure150SEASHADOWfromabove.Notethelowerhullsthataredimlyvisibleunderthewater,
forward.....................................................................................................................................................216
Figure151VICTORIACLIPPERIV.............................................................................................................218
Figure152Acounterexample,withtoomanylinesgoingintoomanydifferentdirections................218
Figure153STARSHIPEXPRESS................................................................................................................219
Figure154MonohullStabilityGbelowB.............................................................................................221
Figure155MonohullStabilityGaboveB.............................................................................................222
Figure156TrimaranStabilityGaboveB..............................................................................................222
Figure157CatamaranStabilityGaboveB...........................................................................................223
Figure158Takenfromaforgottensiteontheinternet,thisgraphicdoesanexcellentjobofcontrasting
thestabilityofthreetypesofcraft...........................................................................................................224
Figure159Anotherinternetharvestedgraphic,depictingthesituation.Theconditionofatrimaranis
likethatofamonohullwithGaboveB....................................................................................................225
Figure160Blyth'sillustrationofthebalanceofrightingforcesforanSESoncushion.........................227
Figure161Blyth'sillustrationoftheeffectofemergenceofthesidehullasanSESheels....................228
Figure162ForcesactingonanSESinahighspeedturn........................................................................229
Figure163TherollmomentsassociatedwiththeforcesinFigure162.................................................230
Figure164Theeffectthatrollanglehasuponthemomentinducedbytheplaningforceresultant...231
21
Figure165TheeffectofVCGonRollMoments.....................................................................................231
Figure166EffectofHullFormonCriticalKG.........................................................................................232
Figure167TypicalSEScapsizesequenceinBeamSeas.........................................................................233
Figure168Lewthwaites1986guidanceonformparameterstoavoidcapsize.Theblackspotswere
testedcraft.Thelargegreyspotsweredesignsthatwerethenunderevaluation.Thevalidityofthis
curvehasnotbeenproven.......................................................................................................................234
Figure169AUSCGillustrationbasedontheAssumptionthatMaxRAoccurs>35............................236
Figure170Illustratingtheassumptionthatmostrightingarmcurvesarepositivetoatleast90degrees
..................................................................................................................................................................237
Figure171ThelimitingwaveheighttablefortheXCraft,at1400tonnesandbelow,inheadseas....241
Figure172TheXCraft............................................................................................................................242
Figure173Therelationship(indeepwater)betweenwavespeed(Celerity=(gL/2))andwavelength
..................................................................................................................................................................244
Figure174MCAPhotosequenceofmodeltestsofacatamaranbowdive...........................................245
Figure175Apoorlyreproducedsequenceofphotographsshowingaplowinevent..........................247
Figure178Yun&Bliault'sillustrationofthetypicalplowincapsizeprocess........................................249
Figure179PlowinofamodelR/Chovercraft,whichresultedincapsize.............................................250
Figure180O'Hanlon&McCauleycriteriaformotionsickness,aspresentedinISO2631....................252
Figure181UgoConti'sSpiderBoat.PhotofromSFGatewebsitepermissionnotobtained..............254
Figure182AMaritimeDynamicsTfoil..................................................................................................256
Figure183AnMDITrimTab,3Dview...................................................................................................257
Figure184AnMDItrimtab,profileview,showingthepressureeffectonthebottom(red)...............257
Figure185AnMDIInterceptor,3Dview...............................................................................................257
Figure186AnMDIInterceptorprofileview,showingthepressureeffectonthebottom(red)...........258
Figure187ThesteeringforcesduetoaKaMeWastylesteeringandreversingsuite...........................260
22
Figure188ThesteeringforcesduetoaRamsHornstylesteeringandreversingsuite........................260
Figure189AnLCACClassACV................................................................................................................262
Figure190AblowupoftheLCAC'spropulsionnozzle,withtheruddersmarginallyvisiblebehindthem.
..................................................................................................................................................................263
Figure191AblowupoftheLCAC'sbowthrusters(thesnorkellikestructuresnearthecenterofthe
photo.)......................................................................................................................................................264
Figure192DNV"CrestLanding"condition,equivalenttohogging........................................................267
Figure193DNV"TroughLanding"condition,equivalenttosagging.....................................................268
Figure194Longitudinaldistributionfactorfordesignverticalacceleration.........................................270
Figure195Therelationshipbetweenaccelerationandspeedandwaveheight,forV/L>3..............271
Figure196Aspeed/waveheightrelationshipselectedtoyieldconstantdesignacceleration............272
Figure197ApracticallimitingwaveheightcurveoverlaidonFigure196.............................................273
Figure198Longitudinalslammingpressuredistributionfactorforhighspeedslamming....................274
Figure199Longitudinalvariationofwetdeckslampressure................................................................275
Figure200DNV'sformulaforSeaPressure............................................................................................276
Figure201SeaPressurelongitudinaldistributionfactor,afunctionofblockcoefficient.....................276
Figure202Transversebendingmomentsandshearforce....................................................................278
Figure203Thepitchconnectingmoment,decomposedintoMpandMt.............................................279
Figure204AnACVskirtsystem..............................................................................................................280
Figure206APericellandBag(orJupeandBag)skirtsystem................................................................285
Figure207Thefingerskirt(right)explainedasaderivativecaseofasinglecurtainskirt.....................286
Figure208Abagandfingerskirtsystem...............................................................................................286
Figure209Basicsofinflatablestructures...............................................................................................287
Figure210DrawingsofgenericSESbowfingergeometry.....................................................................289
Figure211AtwolobedSESbagtypesternseal....................................................................................290
Figure212Definitionsketchforasimplifiedcaseofthegeometricbalanceofasternbagseal..........291
23
Figure213Onetypeofboltropestylemethodforattachingtheedgeofafabricskirttoshipstructure
..................................................................................................................................................................294
Figure214Anotherboltropestyleattachmentmethod......................................................................294
Figure215Apianohingetypeofskirtattachment................................................................................295
Figure216BoltedattachmentoffabricelementsonanACV................................................................295
Figure217AdetailoftheAntiChafering.Thispreventsthenutsandboltsfrombeingdamagedby
contactwiththegroundonanamphibiousACV......................................................................................296
Figure218Thecomponentsofabagandfingersystem,highlightingsomeoftheattachmentsthattake
place..........................................................................................................................................................297
Figure219AnSESbowskirt,wherethewearatthetipsofthefingersduetoflagellationisclearly
visible........................................................................................................................................................298
Figure220Showingtheafloatdetachmentoftwobagsegmentsfromathreelobedsternseal.........299
Figure221Cavitationnumberasafunctionofshipspeed,fromFaltinsen...........................................305
Figure222Cavitationdomainsasafunctionofvesselspeed,advanceratio,andcavitationnumber.
FromFaltinsen..........................................................................................................................................307
Figure223NewtonRaderseriesbladesectionshapes..........................................................................308
Figure224PerformancedataontheNewtonRaderpropellerseries,insufficientdetailtoaccomplish
aninitialsizinginvestigation.....................................................................................................................309
Figure225Twinsurfacepiercingpropellersonaraceboat..................................................................310
Figure226ASurfacePiercingPropellertestrig,whichillustratesthemajorparametersoftheSPP...311
Figure227Aphotooftheaircavitybehindasurfacepiercingpropeller..............................................312
Figure228Rose&KruppadataforasurfacepiercingpropellerwithP/D=1.75,12*shaftangle.........313
Figure229Theoreticalwaterjetjetefficiency,forpracticalvaluesofJVRandwakefraction...............314
Figure230Anearlywaterjetbasedonacentrifugaltypepump...........................................................315
Figure231Anearlywaterjetbasedonanaxialtypepump...................................................................315
Figure232Atextbookillustrationofacentrifugalpump.......................................................................316
Figure233Textbookillustrationofanaxialpump.................................................................................317
Figure234ACordierdiagramofpumpregimes.....................................................................................318
24
Figure235Amixedflowwaterjet..........................................................................................................318
Figure236Amixedflowwaterjet..........................................................................................................319
Figure237KaMeWaSSeriesunits,relatingsize(modelnumber)topower.........................................320
Figure238GeometryoftheKaMeWaSseries......................................................................................320
Figure239KeyfeaturesofaWartsila/LIPSjet.......................................................................................321
Figure240Waterjetinletflowupstreamofthejet,illustratingthewaterjetcapturearea..................322
Figure241FromFaltinsen,aprofileofawaterjetinletillustratingthepressuresexperiencedonthe
boundary...................................................................................................................................................323
Figure242Surfacepressuresinaflowingwaterjetinlet.......................................................................324
Figure243AKaMeWaquotationforaspecificproject,involvingquadruplesize153waterjets..........325
Figure244Illustratesthecaseofacraftenteringthecavitationzoneforabriefperiodforanevent
suchashumptransit.................................................................................................................................326
Figure245Relationshipbetweenpower,RPM,andspeedforawaterjet.............................................327
Figure246Attainedwaterjetperformancevaluesforonedesignproject............................................328
Figure247AWartsilajet,clearlyshowingthelocationofthethrustbearing.......................................329
Figure248AtypicalAMVdieselenginepowermap..............................................................................333
Figure249TwospeedgearboxesavailablefromZFMarine..................................................................334
Figure250GearratiosavailableontheZFtwospeedgears.................................................................335
Figure251Faltinsen'scartoonoftheessentialelementsofanSES.......................................................340
Figure252AlesshumorouspictureofanSEScushion..........................................................................341
Figure253StylizedillustrationsofthehovergapforanACV(top)andanSES(bottom)......................343
Figure254ThedatafromTable15,plottedshowinganapparentsensitivityofFlowtoSpeed...........344
Figure255AcrudesketchofanSESprofile,showingthevolumeofthecushionthatmustberefilled
withairbetweenthepassageofacrestandatrough.............................................................................345
Figure256ThedesiredliftfanPressure/Flowcharacteristic...............................................................346
Figure257theshapeofarealfan'spressure/flowcharacteristic.......................................................347
25
Figure258ArealSESliftfan.ThecurveforFSP"isthefanstaticpressureinincheswatergage,plotted
versustheflowincfmx10,000.Othercurvesgiveefficiencyandpowerconsumedbythisfan...........348
Figure259SyracuseUniversityslideonthetypesofFluidMovers.......................................................349
Figure260Depictionofthedifferencebetweenaxialandcentrifugalaeromachinery.........................350
Figure261Amechanicalengineer'sillustrationoftwoaxialflowmachines.........................................351
Figure262Thisturbochargershaftshowstwomixedflowmachines,one(theturbine)toextract
energyfromtheexhaustgasandtheother(thecompressor)toimpartenergyintotheinletflow.......352
Figure263HowdenBuffalofanproductranges.....................................................................................353
Figure264Agivenfandesign,intwodifferentsizestoyieldtwodifferentP/Qcurves.......................355
Figure265ThesametwofansasinFigure265,butwhenplottednondimensionallyrevealedtobethe
sameturbomachine..................................................................................................................................356
26
1 Summary&PurposeofthisTextbook
ThistextisawrittenversionofUniversityofNewOrleanscourseNAME4177intheSchoolofNaval
ArchitectureandMarineEngineering,CollegeofEngineering.Thecourseisa13weektwiceaweek
elective,attheundergraduateJunior/Seniorlevel.
ThistextwillprovideanintroductoryfamiliaritywiththenavalarchitectureofAdvancedMarine
Vehicles,withparticularemphasisonCatamaran,SESandSWATHtypes.Itisassumedthatthestudents
haveaworkingfamiliaritywiththenavalarchitectureofconventionalships,andthusthiscourse
emphasizesthedifferencesbetweenconventionalshipdesignandAMVdesign.
Thecourseisfocusedonearlystagedesign,providingthetoolsforpreliminaryshipsizinginorderto
evaluatewhethertheAMVistheappropriateshiptypeforthemission.
ThecoursewillincludediscussionoftheparticularfeaturesandbenefitsofthemajorAMVtypes,sothat
youcandecidewhenoneAMVtypemightbepreferableoveranother.
ThecoursewillbeginwithanoverviewofthetypesofAMVs.Thisisfollowedbydiscussionsofeachof
thenodesoftheshipdesignspiral,e.g.Resistance,Propulsion,StructuralDesign,Arrangement,
Maneuvering,etc.
Attheconclusionofthiscoursethestudentshouldbeableto:
RecognizethedifferenttypesofAdvancedMarineVehicles
Knowthespecificfeatures(ProsandCons)ofthedifferingAMVtypes
SelectanAMVtypeforagivenmission
PerforminitialsizingoftheselectedAMV
EstimatetheresistanceoftheselectedAMV
SizetheLiftSystemofanSESorACV
Performaweightestimateforamultihull(includingCatamaran,Trimaran,SWATH,andSES)
UnderstandthestructuralloadmechanismspeculiartoAMVs
PursueweightreductiontechnologiesthatmaybeessentialtoAMVs
EvaluateanewlyproposedAMVtypeformeritandfeasibility
StatethenatureandmagnitudeoftheAMV'senvironmentalimpact
Knowwheretolookforspecialisttechnicalresources,includingliteratureandpeople
Knowwhereyourweaknesseslieforfollowondesignphases,sothatyoucansolicittheneeded
specialisthelp
Appropriatetobeinganoverviewtypeofcourseattheundergraduatelevel,thiscoursedoesnot
provideadetailedtreatmentofanyofthehydrodynamicormechanicaldynamicnuancesofhighspeed
vesseldesign.Insteadthecoursepresentsdesignlanesandoverallguidance,suchthatapractitioner
canexecuteareasonableearlystagedesign.Tacklingofspecificdetailedproblemsthatmaycomeup
withinsuchadesignexercisemayrequirerecoursetomoredetailedtexts,andappropriatereferences
andcitationsareprovidedherein.
27
Finally,letmestaterightupfrontthatthisworkisnotdefinitive.Manyfinethinkershavewritten
importantworksonthissubject,andatrulydefinitivebookwouldprobablyhavetoactuallyinclude
thesemanypredecessors.Rather,thisworkisintendedtobeausable,foundationalwork,suitablefor
asingletermcourseofstudy,andasareferencethatwilldirecttheadvancedstudenttothosemore
detailedworksuponwhichIhavedrawn.
1.1 RelationshipoftheCoursetoProgramOutcomes
UNONAME4177contributestothefollowingstandardizedoutcomes,asdefinedbyABET,Inc.,the
recognizedaccreditorforcollegeanduniversityprogramsinappliedscience,computing,engineering,
andtechnology.ABETisafederationof29professionalandtechnicalsocietiesrepresentingthese
fields.FormoreinformationonABETandtheaccreditationservicestheyprovidevisitwww.abet.org.
ABETOutcomes:
_X_a:Anabilitytoapplyknowledgeofmathematics,science,andengineering.
_X_b:Anabilitytodesignandconductexperiments,analyzeandinterpretdata.
_X_c:Abilitytodesignasystem,component,orprocesstomeetdesiredneeds.
___d:Abilitytofunctiononmultidisciplinaryteams
_X_e:Abilitytoindentify,formulate,andsolveengineeringproblems
_X_f:Understandingofprofessionalandethicalresponsibility
_X_g:Abilitytocommunicateeffectively
_X_h:Understandtheimpactofengineeringsolutionsinaglobalandsocietalcontext
_X_i:Recognitionoftheneedfor,andabilitytoengageinlifelonglearning
_X_j:Knowledgeofcontemporaryissues
_X_k:Abilitytousethetechniques,skills,andmodernengineeringtoolsnecessaryforengineering
practice
_X_l:Abilitytoapplyprobabilityandstatisticalmethodstonavalarchitectureandmarineengineering
problems
_X_m:Basicknowledgeoffluidmechanics,dynamics,structuralmechanics,materialproperties,
hydrostatics,andenergy/propulsionsystemsinthecontextofmarinevehicles
___n:Familiaritywithinstrumentationappropriatetonavalarchitectureandmarineengineering
1.2 Prerequisites
SeniorstandingintheSchoolofNavalArchitectureandMarineEngineering.Itisassumedthatthe
studenthasajourneymanunderstandingofconventionalnavalarchitectureinallofitsdisciplines:Hull
forms,stability,resistanceandpowering,shipstrength,shipmotions,shipmaneuveringandcontrol,
etc.
1.3 Resources
Therearereferencesandcitationsthroughoutthistext.Inthissection,however,Ihavetriedtocollect
heresomeofthemoreinterestingexamplesof'omnibus'resourcescoveringthewholespectrumof
AMVdesign.Thisincludes:
Numberedreferencescitedinthetext(Section1.3.1)
Importantreferencesnotexplicitlycitedinthetext(Section1.3.2)
28
AMVWebsites(Section1.3.3)
AMVDesignAgents(Section1.3.4)
AMVBuilders(Section1.3.5)
AMVConferences(recurring/current)(Section1.3.6)
AMVjournals&periodicals(Section1.3.7)
1.3.1 Numberedreferencescitedinthetext
1) S9040AAIDX010/SWBSExpandedShipWorkBreakdownStructureDepartmentoftheNavy
2) Clark,etalTheQuestforSpeedbyClark,Ellsworth,andMeyer,onlineat:
http://www.foils.org/02_Papers%20dnloads/041115NSWCTD_QuestSpeed.pdf.
3) SNAMET&RBulletin475SWATHShips
4) Kobitz&Eggington,"TheDomainoftheSES"SNAMETransactions1975
5) R.Hatton,C.McKesson,R.Scher,andS.TobyWHENTHEWHOLEISLESSTHANTHESUMOFITS
PARTS.HIPER99
6) H.Sding"DrasticResistanceReductionsinCatamaransbyStaggeredHulls"FAST97,Sydney
Australia
7) PaulKamenetalFerriesForTheSanFranciscoBayArea;NewParadigmsFromNew
Technologiesonlineat:http://www.well.com/user/pk/waterfront/Ferry/ferrypk020604.htm
8) TheodorevonKarmanWhatPriceSpeed?JournalofMechanicalEngineering,1950
9) VictorD.Norman"SpeedandTransportEconomy"presentedattheConferenceonHighSpeed
CraftinKristiansandNorway1994.
10) Dr.ColenKennell"DesignTrendsinHighSpeedTransport"MarineTechnologyVol35#3,1998
11) KennethS.M.DavidsonNotesonthePowerSpeedWeightRelationshipforVehiclesMarch
1951
12) Dr.ColenKennell,OntheNatureoftheTransportFactorComponentTFship,Marine
Technology,vol.38,no.2,April2001,
13) ChrisB.McKesson,AParametricMethodForCharacterizingTheDesignSpaceofHighSpeed
CargoShips.RINA2006
14) ChrisB.McKesson,"ACollectionofSimplifiedFieldEquationsforSurfaceEffectShipDesign"
IntersocietyAdvancedMarineVehiclesSymposium,June1992,WashingtonDC.
15) Dr.LawrenceJDoctors,VidarTregde,ChangbenJiang&ChrisB.McKesson,"Optimizationofa
SplitCushionSurfaceEffectShip"FAST2005EightInternationalConferenceonFastSea
Transportation,St.PetersburgRU,2730June2005.
29
16) Yun&Bliault,"TheoryandDesignofAirCushionVehicles
17) LazauskasandTuck1998OptimumHullSpacingofaFamilyofMultihulls
18) LazauskasandTuck1996Unconstrainedshipsofminimumtotaldrag
19) GertlerAreanalysisoftheoriginaltestdatafortheTaylorStandardSeriesTMBreport806,
NSWCCarderockDivision,1954
20) Series64
21) Lindgren,Hans&Williams,keSystematictestswithsmall,fastdisplacementvessels,including
astudyoftheinfluenceofspraystripsSNAMESpringMeeting,1968
22) Zips,JM,NumericalResistancePredictionBasedOnTheResultsoftheVWSHardChine
CatamaranHullSeries'89FAST'95,3rdIntlConfonFastSeaTransportation,2527Sept1995;
LubeckTravemunde,Germany.
23) Mollandetal
24) Dr.TonyArmstrongTheeffectofdemihullseparationonthefrictionalresistanceof
catamaransDateandvenueunknown.
25) L.J.Doctors&C.B.McKessonTheResistanceComponentsofaSurfaceEffectShip2006
ProceedingsofTheTwentySixthSymposiumonNavalHydrodynamics,Rome,ItalySeptember
1722,2006
26) Newman,J.N.&Poole,F.A.P.,Thewaveresistanceofamovingpressuredistributionina
canal.1962Schiffstechnik945,pp.2126.
27) Doctors,L.J.&Sharma,S.D.TheWaveResistanceofanAirCushionVehicleinSteadyand
AcceleratedMotionJournalofShipResearch,1972Volume16#4
28) Variousauthors,ModernShipsandCraft,publishedasNavalEngineersJournalVol97No.2
February1985.Availableasdocument71242fromtheInternationalHydrofoilSociety,AMVCD
No.1:http://foils.org/ihspubs.htm
29) Faltinsen,"HydrodynamicsofHighSpeedMarineVehicles,"CambridgeUniversityPress,2006
30) Saunders,HaroldE.ed.,HydrodynamicsinShipDesign.TheSocietyofNavalArchitectsand
MarineEngineers,VolumeIIII,1957.
31) Mantle
32) Lamb,G.RobertSomeGuidanceforHullFormSelectionforSWATHShipMarineTechnology
Vol25#4October1988
33) Blyth,AndrewG.TheRollStabilityofSurfaceEffectShipsRINA1993
30
34) BlythSESStabilityinTurnsTheinfluenceofSidewallShapeInternationalHighPerformance
VehicleConference,ShanghaiChina,25November1988.
35) USNDDS0791StabilityandBuoyancyofU.S.NavalSurfaceShips
36) Dand,IanWHighSpeedCraftBowDivingInFollowingSeasRINA2006
37) Srensen,A.J.,Steen,S.,Faltinsen,O.M.,CobblestoneEffectonSES1992IntersocietyHigh
PerformanceMarineVehiclesConferenceandExhibit,Washington,DC,USA,
38) STANAG4154CommonProceduresforSeakeepingintheShipDesignProcessNorthAtlantic
TreatyOrganization2000
39) O'Hanlon,JamesF.,&McCauley,MichaelE.MotionSicknessIncidenceasaFunctionofthe
FrequencyandAccelerationofVerticalSinusoidalMotion.1974
40) Rose,J.C.&Kruppa,C.F.L.SurfacePiercingPropellersMethodicalSeriesModelTestResults
1991.FAST91,TravemundeGE
41) Rose,J.C.,Kruppa,C.F.L.&Koushan,K.SurfacePiercingPropellersPropellerHull
Interaction1993FAST93YokohamaJP
42) Allison,MarineWaterjetPropulsionTSNAME1993
1.3.2 Importantreferencesnotexplicitlycitedinthetext
Doctors,L.J.:"HydrodynamicsofHighSpeedSmallCraft",UniversityofMichigan,Departmentof
NavalArchitectureandMarineEngineering,Report292,272+xi~pp(January1985)
V.Dubrovsky,K.Matveev,S.Sutulo:"SmallWaterplaneAreaShips"isbn13:9780974201931,
US$149::Hardbound::255pages::7.5"x10"::2007.
Author'sAbstract:"Startedasexperimentsafewdecadesago,SWATHvesselshavealready
provedtheirsuperiorityincertainapplicationsinwhichtheirexcellentseaworthinesscoupled
withhighdeckareatodisplacementratioareofprimaryimportance.Withtheirsmoothride
andlittleifanylossofspeedonroughseastheyprovidecomfortable,fastandtimelyferry
service,reliablepatrolandrescueservices,andastableplatformforallweatherhelicoptertake
offandlanding.Thelogicofutilizingtheinherentadvantagesofsmallwaterplaneareahullshas
lednavalarchitectsanddesignerstoapplythisfeaturetovariousmultihullarrangements,thus
combiningthebenefitsofdifferenttypesofshipsintoasinglevessel.Thisisexactlythefocusof
thepresentbookwhichprovidesthewealthoftheexistingexperimentalandtheoreticalresults
(withsignificantcontributionsbytheauthors)andtheirapplicationfordesigningnewhigh
performancevessels.
"Smallwaterplanearea(SWA)ships,likeothermultihullships,arerelativelynovelinthemarine
industry.Statisticaldatabasesandpracticalexperiencefordesigningtheseshipsaresporadic
andspreadinscatteredpublications.Thebookpresentsthebasicinformationrequiredfor
designingtheSWAshipsencompassingthefirstprinciplesandabulkofnecessarydatabases
bothdevelopedbytheauthorsandavailableinthepublicdomain,collectedunderasingle
cover.Thebookcontainssevenchaptersandtenappendices."
31
V.Dubrovsky:"ShipswithOutriggers"isbn0974201901::US$95::2004::Softbound::88
pages::7"x10"::97figs
Author'sAbstract:"Thisbookisfocusedonaspecificgroupofmultihullshiphavingoneor
moresmallhulls,calledoutriggers,connectedtoamuchlargermainhullofanyform.Thisbook
canbeusedeffectivelyasasupplementtotherecentlypublishedMultiHullShipsbyDubrovsky
&Lyakhovitsky(MHS).Intheshortperiodafterthisbookwaspublished,recentadvancesin
multihullshiptechnologydemonstratedthegreatpotentialsofshipswithoutriggers.Thisfact
coupledwiththeemergenceofconsiderableamountofspecificdataunavailableatthetimeof
MHSpublication,prompteditsprincipalauthortopresentthenewbook,ShipswithOutriggers.
AsallgeneraltheoryofmultihullshipswasalreadypresentedinMHS,ShipswithOutriggersis
compactedmainlywiththedatarelevanttotheseships,assumingthatthereaderismoreor
lessfamiliarwiththebackgroundorcanfinditinothersources,includingMHS.LikeMHS,this
bookisarrangedinthesameorderandformat.Itprovidesdetailedtechnicaldiscussionsinthe
fieldswherenewinformationisplentifulandsomenoteswhereitisscarce."
V.A.Dubrovsky,A.G.Lyakhovitsky:"MultiHullShips"isbn0964431122::US$259.00::
2001::Hardcover::495pages::7.5"x10"::431fig.::510bibl
Author'sAbstract:"Themonographpresentsasystematicanddetaileddescriptionofmain
aspectsofnavalarchitectureofmultihullships.Thetopicsincludeconceptualdesign,
hydrostaticsandstability,resistanceandpropulsionincalmwaterandhighseas,seakeeping,
controllability,structuralstrength,andspecificsofapplyingthemultihullconceptstovarious
fieldsofmarinetransportation.Thescopeofarchitecturaltypesencompassesallthevarietyof
multihull"species"fromordinarycatamaransandtrimaranstoSWATHships,wavepiercing,
hydrofoilassisted,supercriticalspeedshallowwatercatamarans,andtoshipswithmorethan
threehulls.Thesizesofshipsrangefromsmallfastcraftstolargeferries,fromriverpassenger
catamaranstotransatlanticcontainercarriers,andfromhighspeedpatrolboatstonaval
combatantsandaircraftcarriers.
"ThisbookisamultidisciplinereferencebookakintoSNAME's3volume"PrinciplesofNaval
Architecture".Inthisrespect,thebookisuniqueandistheonlyoneofitstypeavailablein
English.Amajorpartofbackgroundresearch(hardlyavailabletoanEnglishspeakingreader)
hasbeendonebytheauthorsandtheircolleaguesinthefinestRussianresearchorganizations.
"AuthoredbyrecognizedRussianexpertsleadingfordecadesinexperimentalandtheoretical
researchinthisfield,thebookisaddressedtoallreadersinvolvedinproductionandoperation
ofmultihullships,includingdesigners,navalarchitectsandmarineengineers,university
professorsandgraduates,planningandshipoperatingmanagers.Itisa"musthave"for
technicallibraries,ruledevelopingorganizations,designofficesandshipyards,universities,and
consultingexperts."
1.3.3 AMVWebResources
http://www.foils.org
1.3.4 AMVDesignAgents
AlionScience&Technology:http://www.alionscience.com/
AMDAdvancedMultihullDesigns:http://www.amd.com.au/
Band,Lavis&Associates:http://www.cdigs.com/BLA.shtm
BMTNigelGeeandAssociates:http://www.ngal.co.uk/
Dr.Hoppe/HySuCat:http://www.hydrospeed.co.za/andhttp://www.hysucat.net
32
INCATCrowther:http://www.incatcrowther.com/
IslandEngineering:http://www.islandengineering.com/
Marintek:http://www.sintef.no/content/page2____690.aspx
NavatekLtd:http://www.navatekltd.com/
NTNU:http://www.ntnu.no/portal/page/portal/eksternwebEN
Teknicraft:http://www.teknicraft.com/
1.3.5 AMVBuilders
INCATTasmania(buildersofcatamaranstoinhousedesignsbyassociatedfirmRevolution
Design):http://www.incat.com.au/
NicholsBrothersBoatBuilders(buildersofSWATHandcatamaranstooutsidedesigns):
http://www.nicholsboats.com/
AustalShips(buildersofmonohulls,catamaransandtrimaranstoinhousedesigns):
http://www.austal.com/
TextronMarine&LandSystems(buildersofSES&ACVstoinhousedesigns):
http://www.textronmarineandland.com/
KvichakMarine(buildersofACVsandfoilcatstooutsidedesigns)
http://www.kvichak.com/
UmoeMandal(buildersofSEStoinhousedesigns)
http://www.mandal.umoe.no/WEB/um200.nsf/pages/mainframe
AllAmericanMarine(buildersoffoilcatstooutsidedesigns):
http://www.allamericanmarine.com/
33
2 ANoteonConventions
NotethatthiscourseoutlineusestheUSNSWBSnumberingconvention.ASWBSmanual(Reference1)
isprovidedinthecoursereferencematerials.TheUNOversionofthecourseincludesalectureon
SWBS,butthislecturehasnotbeenincludedinthistextversionofthecourse.
Inthesamevein,IhaveendeavoredtoadheretotheSIsystemofunitsinthistextandtheir
abbreviations.Inparticular,Iinvitethereadertonotethattheacceptedabbreviationforthemetricton
istandnotMToranyothersymbol.
34
3 AbouttheAuthor
I,ChrisMcKesson,AdjunctProfessorofNavalArchitectureandMarineEngineeringattheUniversityof
NewOrleans,holdaBSEinNavalArchitectureandMarineEngineeringfromtheUniversityofMichigan,
awardedin1979.IamlicensedasaProfessionalEngineerinNavalArchitectureandMarineEngineering
intheStateofWashington.Ihaveapproximately29yearsofprofessionalexperience,focusedmostly
onhighperformanceandunconventionalships.
Mycareerhistorymaybereviewedbyvisitingmyconsultancywebsiteatwww.mckesson.us.Asis
thereinshown,Ihavespentmycareerasadesignandconsultingengineer.Ihavealongpersonal
interestinAdvancedMarineVehicles,datingbackatleasttomyveryfirstjobofferaftercollege,which
wasintheNavys3KSESprogram.(Actually,myinterestgoesbackevenfurther,totheearly1970sand
boyhooddayscrawlingaroundaRussianhydrofoilpleasureboatwhichwasthenbeing(unsuccessfully)
importedbyKettenburgBoatBuildersinSanDiegoCalifornia.)
Decliningthe3KSESjobofferIhaveneverthelesshadmanyinterestingpositionsandprojectsoverthe
years,andmanywonderfulopportunitiestoworkwithrealluminariesinthisfield.
AllofwhatIwillpresenthereistheresultofotherpeople'sinsights,expertise,andcreations.My
particulartalenthasbeentounderstand,appreciate,andsynthesize.
35
4 NavigatingWithoutaMap

Figure1Lewis&Clark
LewisandClarkarehouseholdnamesinmyhomestateofWashington,whereweprideourselveson
beingdiscoveredbytheseintrepidexplorers.Thesetwobravemenpushedintowhatwasthen
unknownterritory.MywifeandIhavedrivenoverthemountainsofthewest,andweoftencomment
onwhatitmusthavebeenliketoclimbthosemountainsonfoot,neverknowingwhatwouldbeseenon
theotherside.Whatisitliketonavigatewithoutamap?
AMVdesignersareofteninthesituationofnavigatingwithoutamap.
Ourmonohullbrethrenareabletolookatmyriadexamplesofpriorart.Indeed,inundergraduate
coursesinconventionalshipdesignwebeginthedesignprocessbycollectingadatabaseofsimilarships,
andgeneratingourshipscharacteristicsbygentleinterpolationsandextrapolationswithinthat
mappeddesignspace.
InthecaseofAMVdesignweareoftenleftwithoutsuchamap,andwemusthaverecoursetomore
fundamentaltools.

Figure2Theauthor'ssummerresidence,"SUNDANCE"onthehardinBrownsvilleWAreceivingachangeofpropeller
36
LetmeshiftmymetaphorfromLewisandClarktooneoflearningtodriveinAmerica.Ifmycoursein
AMVdesignmaybelikenedtoacourseindriving,thenthisfirstlectureinthecoursewouldbelike
havingthedrivinginstructorbeginthesessionbyhandingoutacompass,ahatchetormachete,and
othertoolsofthebackwoodsman.Wearegoingtogowheretherearenoroads.Learningtodrivethe
processofAMVdesignmeanswehavetoalsolearnhowtobuildourownroadthroughvirginterritory.
WeareNavalArchitectsinthespiritofLewisandClark.ThedesignofAMVsis,bydefinition,unknown
territory,andpractitionersinthisfieldareexplorers.
Goodexplorationtakesdifferentskillsthanusingatrailalreadyblazedbysomebodyelse.
4.1 Exploration101BasicExplorerSkills
Figure2isaphotographofmyPrimaryResidencea1968Columbia36sailboatnamedSUNDANCE.
MywifeandIhavelivedonourboatonandoffforthebetterpartoftenyears.Livingonaboathas
manychallenges,andnotallofthemaretheonesthatarewelldocumentedanddescribedinthe
literatureofthefield.
Take,forexample,thepracticalquestionHowdoyoumountaChristmastreeonasailboat?West
MarinedoesntsellChristmastreestands.AndthetypicalWalMarttreestandwillnotbeagood
solutioninthedynamicenvironmentofaboat.
SohowdowemountourChristmastree?Wehavenopriorarttodrawupon.Wehavenoguidance
onwhatthetriedandprovensolutionis.Weareforcedintounknownterritory,equippedonlywith
ourbasictoolsandourwits,andwearefreetoinventourownsolution.
4.2 Exploringadesignspace
Insimilarfashion,inthecaseofAMVdesignitisrarethatwehaveasystematicseriesofpriorartto
drawfrom.Sojustliketheproblemof'howtomountaChristmastreeonasailboat'wearefreeto
inventnewsolutions,insteadofdoingitthesamewaythelastfelladidit.
Ofcourse,withthearroganceoftheAMVdesigner,weliketorespondthatthisgivesusournew
mantra:"Don'tdoitthewaythelastfelladid,doitrightinstead."
AtthispointIneedtohastentorepeatacounterbalancingmaxim:Despiteourfreedomtodothingsa
newway,itissimultaneouslyimportanttoavoidgratuitousinnovationinnovateonlywhenneeded.
Mr.BobColwellofINTELsaiditwell:Creativityisapoorsubstituteforknowingwhatyouaredoing.
Giventhisfocusonexploringnewterritory,letmealsoacknowledgethattherewillbesome
simplificationsmadetocomplexproblems,andsomeshortcutstakeninordertomoreclearly
demonstrateapoint.Thepurposeofthisclassistoteachthefundamentalprinciplesandrelationships,
nottogetboggeddownonthethirddecimalplacewhichdoesntmeanthatitsnotimportant.Ishall
attempttomakeclearthosecaseswhenIampurposelysimplifyingacomplexissue,butIinvitethe
readertobealerttothisanduseherownwitstodeterminewhethersuchasimplificationwouldbe
justifiedinanyparticularrealworlddesignproblem.
37
Whenweareexploringunknownterritoryweoftenneedtoacquireanewskillatamomentsnotice:
HowshallIfordthisstream?HowquicklycanIteachmyselftheartofbridgebuilding?Inthislight
theAMVdesignermustbeconstantlyinalearningmode,constantlyacquiringnewskillsagainsttheday
whentheymaybeneeded.
And,sinceweareinterritorynotoccupiedbyourconventionalshipbrethren,weshouldexpectto
acquireskillsandtoolsthatarenotintheirtoolboxes.ThusIsayKeepyoureyesopen:Lookleft,right,
lookoutsideyourcommunity.Theideayouneedmaybebehindyou.
IhopeinthiscoursetointroducethestudenttotheskillsneededforAMVdesign.Ihopetointroduce
youtothesourceswheresomeofthoseskillsandtoolsarefound.But,asIsaytotheundergraduate
students,ithastakenfouryearstoteachyousteelmonohullsIcantteachyoufiberglasstitaniumand
aluminumcatamaranstrimaransSESSWATHandhovercraftinasinglebook.
38
5 TheSearchForSpeed
Thetimelineofeveryshipdesignprojectproceedssomethinglikethis:
IDEAINQUIRYCONCEPTDESIGNPRELIMINARYDESIGN1CONTRACTDESIGNDETAIL
DESIGNCONSTRUCTIONTHROUGHLIFESUPPORTBREAKING
Thefirsttwoofthesestepsoccuratthecustomer'sfacility(orinhismind).Thefirstthreearewherethe
greatestwholeshipcreativitytakesplace,andareoftenwheretheAMVsolutionfirstmakesits
appearance.Thesethreearealso,inthecommercialworld,calledbythedirtyword'sales'.
InthisworkIshalltreatprimarilyoftheConceptDesignstageoftheprocess,butIholdasaxiomaticthat
goodconceptdesignisimpossiblewithoutknowledgeofdetaildesign&construction,andship
operation/throughlifesupport.
ThetermAdvancedMarineVehiclesorAMVsembracesabroadrangeofcrafttypes.Inmostcases
thesevehicletypeswereinventedinanattempttoattainhigherspeedsatseathanarepossiblewith
conventionalshiptypes.TwoexceptionstothisrulearetheSWATHinventedtogainexceptionalride
qualityandtheHovercraftinventedtogainamphibiouscapability.
Asanoverview,letustakeaCooksTouroftheworldofAMVs.Thistourwillprovidetheabrief
introductiontotherangeofhighspeedhullformsthatarecurrentlyinanavalarchitectstoolbox.I
haveassumedthattheaudienceiscomposedofpersonswhoareconsideringbecominginvolvedwith
highspeedshipsinonemanneroranothereitherasfutureowners,builders,ordesignersandare
tryingtobecomefamiliarwiththerelativestrengthsofweaknessesofthevariousconcepts.
Duringthismodulewearegoingtodiscussa'toolbox'fullofshiptypes.Atthebeginningwearejust
goingtopassthetoolsoutandtouchthem.Imaginepassingaboxoftoolstoabunchoflittlekids:
"Johnny,thisiscalleda'hammer'..."Andjustlikehandtools,yesit'struethatyoucandriveanailby
hittingitwithascrewdriver,orthatyoucanuseaclawhammertoturnanutonabolt,butthatisnot
whateachofthosetoolsisoptimizedfor.Sowespendthefirstfewpagesjusthandlingthetoolsinthe
toolbox,twistingandturningandlookingatthemfromanumberofdifferentpointsofview,tolearn
whateachofthesetoolsofthetradewhateachoftheseAdvancedHullFormsisgoodfor,optimized
for,intendedfor,etc.Whydowedothis?Becausetothemanwhoonlyhasahammer,everything
lookslikeanail.ThesuiteofAMVsrepresentstools(hullformchoices)inthenavalarchitectstoolbox,
andthesetoolsallowhimtoundertakeprojectsthatmaybeimpossibletotheonetooldesigner.
Inbrief,themessagebehindthispresentationisthatthereareavarietyofhullformsavailable,andthat
eachhasitsownstrengthsandweaknesses,eachhasitsownniche.Thereisnoonehullformthatis
bestforallapplications,butinsteaditishelpfultounderstandwhateachconceptbringstothetable,
andwhateachconceptslimitationsare.
1
ThisassumesthattheAMVdesignspiralisbasicallythesameasthatusedforconventionalships.Thismaynot
beoptimal,butitisoftentrue.)
39
Thenavalarchitecturalchallengeistobalancecompetingrequirementsordesires.Iwillusethe
followingfiveparameterstodescribeandcharacterizethevariousAMVhullconcepts:
Speed&Power
Seakindliness
Comfort&Space
LoadCarryingAbility
Economics
Thereisanoldcanardinshipdesign,thatgoessomethinglikeFast,Comfortable,andCheap,Pickany
two.ThisisanaptandcolorfulwayofcapturingthebalancingactinvolvedinAMVdesign.
5.1 WhatisFast?WhatisSpeed?
Sincethispresentationisabouthighspeedships,letmestartwithanintroductoryremarkaboutspeed
andpower.
WhatisFast?Unfortunately,theanswerdependsuponsize.Afast100footboatmayrequirequitea
differenthullformsolutionfroma1000footboatofthesamespeed.Itisimportanttobeginby
understandingtherelationshipbetweenspeedandsize.
Figure3Thissmall20knotJetSkiisclearly"fast." Figure4This2knotkayakisclearly"slow."
ConsiderthevesselillustratedinFigure3.ClearlythissmallJetSkiisFast.Equallyclearlythekayakin
Figure4isslow.ButwhatabouttheshipshowninFigure5?Isthisvesselslow?Inabsolutetermsthis
WashingtonStateFerryisfasterthanthekayak.AnditsprobablyfasterthansomeJetSkisand
Bayliners,nomatterwhattheirownersmayclaiminthemarinabar.Andyetdespiteits20knotspeed,
itisstillinsomesenseslowandhasmoreakintothekayakthanitdoestotheJetSki.Howcanwe
resolvethisconceptualdifficulty?Howcanwerecognizethatspeedseemstotakeondifferent
meaningsforbigshipsversuslittleones?
40
TheanswerliesinthenavalarchitectstoolofFroudeNumber.TheFroudeNumbercombinesspeed
andsize.IntermsofFroudeNumberthekayakandtheferryarejustaboutequal,whiletheJetSkis
equalisfoundinthemotoryachtDestriero,depictedinFigure6.
FroudeNumberis,crudelyput,speeddividedbysize.Thesizecanbelength,displacement,or
manyotherthings.TwoparticularformulationsofFroudeNumberarethemostcommoninnaval
architecture:LengthBasedandVolumetricFroudeNumber.
TheLengthBasedFroudenumberis:FnL=V/(gL)0.5andisthemostcommoninnavalarchitecture
VolumetricFroudeNumberisusefulinsomehighspeedshipproblems,andisalsousedforregulatory
purposesbyIMO.TheVolumetricFroudeNumberis:Fnvol=V/[g(Vol)0.333)0.5].

Figure5IsthisWashingtonStateFerry"Slow"or"Fast"?InnumericaltermsitisnearlythesamespeedastheJetSki,and
yetinhydrodynamictermsitisas"slow"asthekayak.Thistruthiscapturedthroughthenavalarchitect'sFroudeNumber.
41

Figure6MotoryachtDestriero.HerFroudeNumberisapproximatelythesameasthatoftheJetSkiinFigure2.
ThedifferencebetweenthesetwoFroudenumberformulationsmaybecomeimportantinsome
particularanalyses,butthesedifferenceareunimportanttowhatwearetalkingabouthere.Whatwe
aretalkingabouthereisthatFroudeNumberallowsustocombinetheeffectsofspeedandsize,sothat
whenwetalkaboutfastshipswemeaneither20knot60footersor60knotthousandfooters.
5.2 HigherFroudeNumbermeansMorePower
Weallknowthathigherspeedsrequiremorepower,butlookingatthistruismwitheyesofFroude
Numbercanbeparticularlyrevealing.
Figure7presentsaplotofthepowerandspeedofalargenumberofvessels,andthereisnopattern
readilyapparent.Butwecanapplysomesimplelogictobringordertothischaos:
Firstly,weknowthatabigger(heavier)shipwillrequiremorepower(forthesamespeed)thatalighter
ship.SoinFigure8Ipresentthesamedata,butinthiscasethepowerhasbeenreplacedbytheSpecific
Power,orPowerToWeightRatio.ItsnotmuchbetterthanFigure7.
ButinFigure9Ireplacethedimensionalspeedinknots,withanondimensionalspeedinFroude
Number(inthiscasevolumetricFroudeNumber.)Lookathowmuchorderthishasimposeduponthe
datathereisaverycleartrendrevealed.
Wewillreturntothistypeofanalysisinalaterchapter,butatthistimeIwanttodrawonesimple
conclusion:Goingfasttakesmorepower.GoingtoahigherFroudeNumberrequiresmorepowerper
tonneofshipweight.Thegraphshowspowerrequired,pertonneofdisplacement,forarangeof
Froudenumber.Youcanclearlyseethatastheshipsgofasterthepowerdemandrisesdramatically.
Fortherecord,thoseWashingtonStateFerriesthatIcalledslowareatFn=0.90,SpecificPower=
0.00045veryslow,verylowpower.That60knotmotoryachtisatSpecificPower=.035kW/kg,Fn=
42
2.55.TheonlyvesselsoutattheveryhighFroudenumbers,saygreaterthan5.0,areahandfulof
extremecraft.
Bottomline:Goingfasttakesmorepower.
100000
90000
80000
70000
POWER(kilowatts)
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
SPEED(meterspersecond)

Figure7Speedandpowerdataforacollectionofvessels
43
0.3
0.25
SPECIFICPOWER(kilowatts/kilogram)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
SPEED(meterspersecond)

Figure8ThesamevesselsastheprecedingFigure,butnowpresentingSpecificPowerversusSpeed
44
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SPEED(volumetricFroudeNumber)

Figure9ThesamevesselsastheprevioustwoFigures,butnowpresentingSpecificPowerversusNonDimensionalSpeed
(FroudeNumber)
5.3 HullFormvsFroudeNumber
TherearedifferenttypesofcraftthatareappropriatetodifferentnichesofthespeedplaneIhave
presented.LetusconsidertheprimarychoicesofAdvancedMarineVehicletobeasfollows(wewill
furtherdefineanddescribeeachoftheseinfollowingpages):
Monohull
Catamaran
Hydrofoil
SES
ACV
Figure10showsagainthesamedata,buthereinthespotshavebeencoloredtoshowwhichofthose
fivetypeseachcraftis.Ihavealsozoomedinonthelowerlefthandcornerofthegraphtoemphasize
thedomaininwhichlieshipsofpracticaleconomicinterest.Hereyoubegintoseethenichesforeachof
thehulltypes.Thecatamaranswereinventedinordertogetspeedsuphigherthanthemonohullrange,
andyoumayseethattheyappeartotakelesspowerthansimilarspeed(Froudenumber)monohulls.
SurfaceEffectShipsandHydrofoilswerefurtherinventedtoreducethepowerdemandatthehighest
45
speeds.Hovercraft(ACVs)appeartohavethebestspeedperformanceButbeforewegotoofarin
thisanalysis,letsgolookatsomerepresentativeships.
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
MONOHULLS
CATAMARANS
0.01 HYDROFOILS
SURFACEEFFECTSHIPS
ACVs
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
SPEED(volumetricFroudeNumber)
Figure10ThesamedataasFigure9,coloredtoshowhulltype
5.3.1 HighPerformanceMonohulls
Themostcommonhulltypeofcourseisthemonohull.Theyhavebeenaroundformillenia,theyare
extremelyefficientversatilehulls.Someofthehighestperformancemonohullsarepaintedgrey.The
selectionofthemonohullformbythesecustomersisnotduetoalackofmoney,butisduetothe
extremeversatilityandefficiencyofthisform,uptoaFroudeNumberofabout1.
TogettohigherFroudeNumberswestarttryingtogetthehulloutofthewater,andthefirststepisa
planinghull.Thesecraftdeserveacourseoftheirown,asthephysicsofplaningliftcontainssomequite
interestingphenomena.Planingcraftwillonlybelightlytoucheduponinthispresentcourse,butthey
formanimportantbaselineforthehullformsthatfollow.
Thereissomedebateintheliteratureofthefieldastowhatconstitutesplaningwithsomeempirical
definitionsbeingputforwardthatanyvesselabovesomecriticalFroudeNumbermustbeplaningor
thatslenderhullscantplaneandsoforth.Thisisnottrue,however.Thedefinitionofplaningisthat
somefractionofthecraftsweightisbornebydynamiclift,regardlessofanyparticularspeedorhull
feature.
46
TheplaninghullformiscommonlyusedforPatrolBoatsandRecreationalCraft(liketheJetSki.)A
planinghullisusuallyfairlyblunt,withalengthtobeamratioofaround3:1.Planinghullsare
commerciallyemployedonshortseaorcoastalroutes.Planinghullsyieldservicespeedsuptoabout50
knots(althoughsmallerplaninghullsdoindeedexceed100knots.)Planingcraftaregenerallysmall,say
lessthan40meters,orlessthanafewhundredtonnes.(Again,thereareexceptionstothese
generalities,suchasthe60m/1000tonneDestrieroalreadypictured.Butitisherdeviationfromthe
normthatmakesherworthyofpicturing.)
DestrierohasalreadybeenillustratedinFigure6.Sheisaprivateyacht,builttobethefastestshipto
crosstheAtlantic.Sheis67minlengthwithadesigndisplacementof1000tonnes.Sheattainsspeeds
inexcessof60knots,andhasanunrefueledrangeofmorethan3000nauticalmiles,havingcrossedthe
AtlanticOceanunrefueledinabout60hours.Sherepresentspossiblytheapotheosisofplaninghull
design,becauseshewastherecipientofanearlyunlimitedbudget,withaverycleargoaltobethe
best.Herdesignerhadspentacareerinthedesignofmilitarypatrolcraft,andbroughtahuge
knowledgeofplaninghulldesign.HereveledintheDestrieroproject,describingitoncetomeas
finallythechancetodoeverydetailright.
Acommercialplaninghull,builtbythesameshipyardthatbuiltDestriero,isthefastferryJupiter,
depictedinFigure11.(photostakenfromwebsitehttp://pagespersoorange.fr/fcapoulade/juill98.htm.)
DestrierosailsatanambitiousFroudenumberof2.5,butshecarriesverylittlepayload.Areal
commercialpayloadcarryingshipistheItalianJupitermonohull,whichsailsataFroudeNumberof2.0,
or44knots,andcancarry1600passengersand250cars.

Figure11TwopicturesoftheMDV3000FastFerry"Jupiter",builtbyFincantieri
47
5.3.2 StabilizedMonohulls
DestrieroandJupiterarebothplaningmonohulls.Planingisanattempttomaketheshipgofasterby
liftingsomeportionofthehulloutofthewateranditworks.
Anotherwaytomakeahullgofasteristomakeitextremelyslenderusingaverynarrowbeam.But
whentakentoextremesthisresultsinanunstableship,sosomesortofoutriggerhastobeaddedtoget
stability.Theresultisthetrimaran.
TrimaransbelongtoaclassofvesselproperlycalledStabilizedMonohulls.Theyarecharacterizedbythe
extremeslendernessofthemainhull,andthepresenceofsomesuiteofstabilizingoutriggerhulls.Note
thatwhiletrimaranimpliesthattherearethreehullstotal,thereareinfactStabilizedMonohulls
havingone(VerySlenderVessel)two(aProa)three(atrimaran)andfive(theNGAPentamaran)
hulls.AllofthesetypesfallintotheclassofStabilizedMonohull.
Figure12depictsthetrimaranthatheldtherecordforfastestaroundtheworldtrip,havingcompleted
anequatorialcircumnavigationinlessthan80days.ThepictureclearlyshowstheextremeL:Bratioof
themainhull,andthealmostparasiticnatureoftheoutriggers.(Photofrom
http://www.solarnavigator.net/history/cable_and_wireless.htm)

Figure12Cable&WirelessAdventurer,builtforthearoundtheworldrecord.
Figure13depictstheAustalShipyardstrimaranferryBenchijiguaExpress,builtforFredOlsenLinesfor
serviceintheCanaryIslands.Sheis127meterslong,withadisplacementintheneighborhoodof3000
tonnes,aservicespeedof40knots,andapayloadcapacityofabout700tonnes.(Photosfromwebsite
http://www.austal.com)
48

Figure13PhotographsofthetrimaranferryBenchijiguaExpress.
5.3.3 Catamarans
SlendernessallowsdesignerstogetspeedsuptoaboutFroudeNumberof2.Slendernesscanyield
speed,butitintroducesstabilityproblems,andsothetrimaranwasinvented.
Thesamepushtoslendernessgivesrisetothecatamaran.Thecatamaranusesaveryslenderhulltoget
lowdrag,butitovercomesthestabilityproblembyputtingtwoofthesehullssidebyside.Thegap
betweenthetwohullsisspannedbyaraftstructure,whichisusuallywherethepayloadiscarried.
Thisresultsinashipwithlotsofroom,wellsuitedforcarriageofahighvolume/lowdensitycargo.And
oneexampleofsuchacargois:People.Catamaransmakeexcellentferries.
Foradensercargotrade,suchas,oh,say,oiltankers,wedontseeanycatamarans,becausetheir
spaciousnessisnotusefulwithsuchadensepayload,andindeedtheirsomewhatmorecomplex
structurebecomesapenalty,notabenefit.
Butforferriestheyhavefittedverywell,andwehavemanyimpressiveexamples,someofwhichfollow.
Thefirstexample,inFigure14,istheStenaLinesHSS1500,whichis(Ibelieve)stillthelargestcatamaran
intheworld.Thepicturesclearlyshowthetwinhulldesign,andthelargeboxlikeferrydeckthatspans
them.
AsmallercatamaranferryisdepictedinFigure15,theWashingtonStateFerrySnohomish,whichmay
formaninterestingcontrasttotheMonohullWashingtonStateFerrydepictedinFigure5.Ofcourse,
thecarcarryingmonohullandthepassengeronlycatamaranarenotthesamemission,andthushave
verydifferentcharacteristicstheymerelysharethesameowner.Butthishighlightsanimportant
49
point:Thereisntonerighthullforalljobsevenasingleownermayfinditdesirabletohaveastable
ofdifferenthullformsfordifferentniches.AstheEnglishsay:Horsesforcourses.

Figure14Threepicturesofthe122mStenaHSS1500catamaranferry,inserviceontheIrishSea

Figure15TheWashingtonStateFerrycatamaranSnohomish.
5.3.4 WavePiercingCatamarans
Catamaranshaveencounteredsomedifficulties,andparticularlyintheearlydaysthereweresome
issueswithridequality.Inanattempttoimprovetheride,theAustraliannavalarchitectPhilHercus
50
inventedthewavepiercinghullform.Thishullformconceptusesanarrowprotrudingbowtopierceor
knifethroughthewavesratherthanrisingupovereachone.
Figure16illustratessuchaship.Hereyoucanseethewavepiercingbows,oneithersideofacentral
thirdbowthatdoesnotactuallytouchthewater.

Figure16TheJervisBay,amilitaryWavePiercingcatamaran,afterthepatterninventedbyPhilHercus.
AllofthecatamaransdescribeduptothispointareoperatinginthespeedrangeofFroudeNumber2.0.
Therearecatsthatgofaster,suchastheoneillustratedinFigure17.ThisvesseloperatesinArgentina
ataFroudeNumberofabout3.5.Buttogetuptothesespeedswehavetomakesomehullform
changes.Inparticular,thisboat,atabout50knots,hasnowbeguntomarrytheplaninghullformwith
thecatamaran.

Figure17TheArgentineferryPatriciaOliviaII
51
5.3.5 HydrofoilAssistedCatamarans
TofurtherincreasethespeedofacatamaranaboveaFroudenumberof2,to,say,3.0,somehavetried
tomarrythemtohydrofoils.AsfarasIcantellthiswasfirstproposedbyDaleCalkinsandDr.Peter
Payne(independently)inapproximately1977.Manyyearslater,prototypecraftwerebuiltinSouth
AfricabyE.G.HoppeandNigelGee(againindependently,inapproximately1990.)SouthAfricanwork
continuestodayunderDr.VolkerBertram.
Whilethisprincipledoeswork,therestillarentmanyrealexamplesofHydrofoilCatamaransonthe
water.Figure18showsonefoilassistedcatthatwasbuiltinSwedenadecadeortwoago,andisno
longerinservice.

Figure18Ahydrofoilassistedcatamaran.Photofromwww.foils.org
5.3.6 Hydrofoils
Thatbringsustotraditionalhydrofoils,whichistosaymonohullhydrofoils.Theseshipsare,without
doubt,themostcomfortable,smoothestride,ofanyofthefastshipconcepts.Unfortunatelytheyare
alsothemostexpensivebyfar.AfullysubmergedhydrofoilwillpermitspeedsuptoFroudenumberof
4orhigher.
Hydrofoildevelopmentwas,likesomuchelse,originallymilitarydriven.Figure19showstheUSN
hydrofoilpatrolcraftofwhichsixwerebuilt(notethatthefoilsarevisibleunderwaterinthisphoto.)
Theyhaveallbeenretiredbynow.
52
ThesepatrolcraftwerebuiltbyBoeing,whothendevelopedtheferryproductlineknownastheBoeing
JetFoil,depictedinFigure20.TheJetFoilhadaspeedof45knotsandcarried250passengersin
unparalleledridequality.
Acquisitionofahydrofoilistwotothreetimesthepriceofacatamaran.ThelastdataIhadonBoeing
JetFoilsin1995wastheywererunning13to17Milliondollarsatthattime.

Figure19USNavy"PHM"hydrofoilpatrolcraft.Photofromwww.foils.org
53

Figure20AcommercialBoeingJetFoil.Photofromwww.foils.org
5.3.7 SurfaceEffectShips
ThenextclassofvesselaretheaircushioncatamaransorSurfaceEffectShips.Theseshipsarealsoin
theFroudenumber3to4category.Inthistypeofvesselacushionofpressurizedairbetweenthe
catamaranlikesidehullsisusedtolifttheboatabovethewater.Theresultisareductionindrag,and
thusafastandefficienthullform.Thedrawbackisthemechanicalcomplexityofthesystemsrequiredto
createandcontaintheaircushion.Hereagainweseeatradeoffbetweenspeedpowerperformance,
versusotherconcernssuchassimplicityandlowcost.TwoalternativetermsforanSESareSidewall
HovercraftorAirCushionCatamaran.Thesetwonamesarenice,becausetheycapturethe
relationshipbetweenanSESandanACV,andtheyalsoillustratethecatamaranlikenatureoftheSES
sidehulls.
Figure21isoneofthebetterlooking(inmyopinion)SESoftheworld,builtinNorway.About400
passengerswitha42knotservicespeed.Figure22showsaNorwegianNavypatrolcraftwhichis
evolvedfromtheearlierCirruswork.
54

Figure21NorwegianCirrus120PclassSurfaceEffectShip,circa1995

Figure22NorwegianNavy"Skjold"SESpatrolcraft,circa2000
Ofcourse,thelandmarkSESprojectwastheUSNavyprograminthe1970s,andIcantresistshowing
justoneortwopicturesfromthoseexcitingdays.TheprojectwasanR&Deffort,andbuilttwo80foot
testcraft.ThevesselshowninFigure23exceeded100mph.
55
5.3.8 ACVsorHovercraft
Continuingonwiththeaircushionthemewecometothehovercraft.TheACVorAirCushionVehicleisa
fullyskirtedcraft,whichdoesnothavethecatamaransidehullsoftheSES,butisinfactmorelikean
AirHockeypuck.Asaresultofitstotalaircushion,itisanamphibiouscraft.Italsohasverylowdrag,
permittingspeedshigherthanFroudeNumber=4.
ACVstendtobenoisy,thereforeabituncomfortable,andmechanicallycomplex,buttheydohave
unmistakablyuniquecapabilities,suchastheabilitytoflyupoverthebeach.Largehovercraft
successfullyservedontheEnglishChannelforover25years.Theyhavesincebeenreplacedby
catamarans,sincetheroutereallydidntneedtheiramphibiouscapability.
Ihaveseensomewrittenmaterialswhichproposeamphibioushovercraftforairporttoairportservice
acrossSanFranciscoBay.
56

Figure23TheenglishSR.N4commercialhovercraft,whichservedacrosstheEnglishChannelforover30years.
5.3.9 WinginGroundEffectorWIGs
Well,aslongaswereflyingabovetheground,letsaddtheWinginGroundEffectmachine.There
arentanyoftheseincommercialservice,buttheymayhaveaniche,andtheyareanicefuturisticpoint
toendon.Figure24depictsoneoftheonesthatstarteditall,flyinginthelate1970s.WIGsmayhave
servicespeedsashighasFroudeNumber=14,ormore.

Figure24TheCaspianSeaMonsteraWinginGroundEffect(WIG)

57
6 TheSustentionSpace
Havingnowmetthevarioustypesofadvancedvehicles,itiseasytofeeloverwhelmedbytheirvariety
ordiversity.SoIliketobeginourstudybyintroducingasystematictaxonomyofvehicletypes.
Taxonomyisthescienceandpracticeofclassification.Weusetaxonomiesasameansofimposingorder
onwhatmightotherwiseappeartobeaninfinitecloudofchoicesandpossibilities.Byapplyingamore
orlessrigoroustaxonomicsystemwewillfindthatthe'cloud'fallsnaturallyintoclustersofrelated
conceptsandtypes,andthattheseclusterscanbemanipulated,studied,orunderstood,asfamilies
Whydoweuseasystematictaxonomy?Myreasonsare:
SoyoucanidentifyanygivenAMVconcept.
Soyoucanguesswhatwillbethestrengths&weakness,orotherspecialfeatures,ofagiven
AMVconcept
Becauseit'susedinthecommunity.
Inthisclassweintroducetwodifferenttaxonomiesthetriangleandthecube
6.1 TheSustentionTriangle
The"sustentiontriangle"isacommonlyuseddeviceforcharacterizingshiptypes.Thistriangleis
illustratedbelow.Itisaconceptualdeviceforunderstandingwhatmakestheboatfloat.Traditional
shipsfloatbecausetheyareimmersedinwaterandbuoyedupbyArchimedes'force.Thisiscalled
"buoyantlift"andoccupiesthelowerleftcornerofthetriangle.

Figure25TheSustentionTriangle,includingillustrationsofsomeoftheshiptypesatvariouspointstherein
Thereareotherwaystoholdshipsup.Thereadermaybefamiliarwithhovercraft,forexample,where
theshipisliftedonabubbleofair.HovercrafthaveoperatedbetweenEnglandandFranceforthirty
58
yearsnow.Hovercraftareexamplesof"poweredlift"craft,asdepictedonthelowerrightcornerofthe
triangle.
Anotherlifttypeonemaybefamiliarwithis"dynamiclift".Awaterskiworksbydynamiclift.Itdoesnot
float,butwhenpulledfastenoughthroughthewateritgeneratesagoodliftforceandraisestheentire
payloadupoutofthewater.Hydrofoilsandhydroplanesarebothdynamicliftcraftthetopmost
cornerofthetriangle.
Somecraftoccupyintermediatepositionsononeormoreedgesofthetriangle.Forexample,anSES
(Section5.6)ispartcatamaranandparthovercraft.InfacttheFrenchSESAGNESispartSWATH/part
hovercraft.
6.1.1 TheProblemWithTheSustentionTriangle
ThesustentionspaceconceptattemptstoprovideataxonomyofAMVsaccordingtotheoriginoftheir
liftforces.Forcesaregeneratedbythefluidthatavehicleispassingthrough.Lift,bydefinition,isthe
componentofforceperpendiculartothedirectionoftravel.Forusdesignersofsurfacevehicles,our
pathbeingmostlyhorizontal,thatalmostalwaysmeansthatthenetverticalforceislift.
Liftisdevelopedbythefluidpressuresactingoverthesurfaceofthevehicle,inthewaterprimarily,but
also(forhighspeedvehicles)intheairaswell.Thus,atzerospeed,incalmwater,thesumofallforces
actingonthebodyhadbetterbevertical;otherwiseyoucouldjustsetthevehicledownanditwould
takeoffinonedirectionoranother.Moreover,themagnitudeofthatverticalforcehastobeequalto
theweight,andtheforcehastoactthroughthecenterofgravity,forequilibrium.
Withspeed,ofcourse,thesumoffluidforcesonthebodysurfacecanhavehorizontalcomponents,
whichthenbecomeapartofdrag(andingeneral,also,lateralforcesthatmaybeimportantin
maneuvering).Itistruethatthereareotherforces,viscousforces,thatacttangentialratherthan
normaltothebody.Butunlessthereisaverticalcomponentofthevelocity,itisdifficulttoseehow
viscousforcescancontributemuchtosupportingtheweightofavehicle.Sowelookprimarilyto
pressures,andtheintegralofnormalforcesonthebody,ifwe'reinterestedinseeingwhereliftmight
comefrom
Wheredoesfluidpressurecomefrom?Ithaspartthatinvolvesrhogh,whichweidentifyasbuoyancy,
andpartthatinvolvesrhov^2,whichisthesocalled"dynamicpressure."PartinvolvesPcushion,if
thereisanaircushion,andthisisoftenreferredtoas"powered"lift.Aspoweredlift,onecanalso
imagineavehiclebeingsupportedbythethrustofarocketorjetengine,butthisdoessoundlikefollyin
thecaseofasurfacecraft.
PlaningcraftandhydrofoilsareoutsidethescopeofNAME4177,butthatisonlybecausetheyrewell
coveredelsewhere.Butweshouldntletanyoneconcludethatdynamicliftdoesnthappen(oreven
thatitssmallenoughtoconsiderunimportant)exceptonsocalleddynamicallyliftedcraft,thatis,
planingbottomsandhydrofoils.Dynamicliftispresenttosomedegreeonallhighspeedcraft.
Thusalltypesofcrafthavevaryingquantitiesofbuoyant,powered,anddynamiclift.Soitisperhaps
besttothinkof"sustentionspace"intermsofpartsofthetotalpressuresthateitherdoordontinvolve
v^2,ratherthanintermsofdistinctbreedsofcraft(floatinglogvs.skippingstone).
59
Inthisconceptualization,aircushionsupportisawrinkleonbuoyantliftatverylowspeedandachange
intheboundaryconditiononthebottom(ofthecushion,ascomparedwithahullbottom)atanyspeed.
Butdynamicpressureisthere,andaccordinglyifitactsonanydAthathasanormalwithvertical
component,thenthatsdynamiclift.Evenifitchangesonlytrimorcushionshapeofacushion
supportedcraft,thataffectswherethevehiclesits,whichaffectsthepressuresandareasofthewetted
surfaces.Thatthoughtreallyhastobekeptinmind.
Thepointisthatthepartoftheliftarisingfromdynamicpressureduetoforwardspeedhasamajor
influenceonallhighspeedmarinevehicles,butespeciallythosethataresupportedmainlybyforces
thatinvolverhov^2,suchasplaninghullsand,toanevengreaterdegree,hydrofoils.
Thesustentiontriangleisagoodconcept,hasbeeninusefordecades,andhasdonegoodservice.It
does,however,havesomeflaws.Ingeneraltheseflawsmaybecharacterizedbyonetypicalexample:
ThesustentiontriangleisunabletodistinguishbetweenhydrofoilsandWIGs:bothareclassedas
dynamicliftcraft.Wherethencanwelookforasustentionmodelthatdoesnotsufferinthismanner?
6.2 TheSustentionCube
Itistheauthorsconvictionthatadesignspaceshouldconsistofmutuallyorthogonalaxes.Consider
thereforewhattheaxesofthesustentionspaceare.Theresultofthisconsiderationleadsdirectlytothe
sustentioncube,asfollows:

Figure26TheSustentionCube,theauthor'salternativemodeloftheAMVdesignspace.Thismodeloffersbroader
applicabilitybycoveringmoreofthedesignspacethantheSustentionTriangle.
60
6.2.1 FirstAxis:StaticLiftorDynamicLift
Doestheliftofthecraftrequirethatthecraftbemoving?Thetestforthisiswhetherthecraftslift
balancechangeswhenforwardspeedisapplied.Obviouslyplaningcraftchangetheirliftbalanceasthey
comeuptospeed,thusclearlymakingthemdynamicliftcraft.Barges,ontheotherhand,maybethe
epitomeofpassiveliftcraft
6.2.2 SecondAxis:AeroLiftorHydroLift
Istheliftcreatedbythedisplacementofairorofwater?Bargesarehydrostaticallysupported.Airships
(blimps)areaerostaticallysupported.Hydrofoilsandplaningcraftarehydrodynamicallysupported.
AirplanesandWIGSareaerodynamicallysupported.
6.2.3 ThirdAxis:PoweredorPassive
Alternativelythesetermsmaybeactiveormechanicalversuspassive.Thetestforthisiswhether
theliftisduetotheactivemotionofsomecomponentofthecraft,orontheotherhandistheliftdueto
thebasicshape(geometry)ofthecraft?Mostshipsgettheir(static)supportfromtheirhullform,thus
makingthempassivehydrostaticcraft.Notethatplaningcraftandairplanesshouldbelabeledaspassive
craft.Theyrequirepowertogeneratethespeedthatactivatestheirlift,buttheliftitselfistheresultof
theshapeofthebottom,ortheshapeofthewing.
ThisdefinitionisthehardesttograspofallthosepresentintheSustentionCubetaxonomy.Inparticular
itseemsdifficultforsomepeopletograspthedistinctionbetween"Passive/Active"and
"Static/Dynamic".Asoneattempttoclarifythis,Iofferthefollowing:
DynamicversusStaticmaybedefinedas"gh"versus"SV2"Thephysicalmechanismisdifferent.
Briefly,anythingthatrequiresawingshapetogenerateliftisDynamic,suchasanairplane,ora
helicopter,orahydrofoil.
Ifitsliftiscreatedbydisplacementaswithacanoe,ablimp,orahovercraftthenitsliftisStatic.
ThequestionthenbecomeswhetherthisStaticorDynamicliftisPoweredorPassivei.e.Activeor
Passive.ToanswerthisIsubmitthesimpletestof"canitbeswitchedoff,independentofthepropulsion
ofthevehicle?"
TheclearestexampleIhaveisaHovercraft:Ahovercraftfloatsonabubbleofdisplacedwater.Itis
perfectlyhappytofloatoncushionatzerospeed.Inthiscasethereisavolumeofwater(equaltothe
weightofthevehicle)whichisdisplacedbythepressureoftheair.
And,clearly,ifthefanisswitchedoffandtheairpressureescapes,theHovercraftwillceasetofloat.
Bycontrastaplaningboatdefinitelyrequiresaheadspeedtoplane,butitdoesnotcarehowthis
speedisproduced:Itmaybeselfpropelled,itmaybeblownforwardbyahurricanestrengthwind,orit
maybetowedonarope.
Iacknowledgetheconceptualdifficultyindistinguishingbetweenthese,andIdonotmeantobelittle
thosewhohavethisdifficulty.Instead,Ihopethattheabovediscussionofferssomesmallimprovement
inthecomprehension.
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6.3 TheContentsoftheSustentionCube
Thelastdescriptionabovenowleadsusintodiscussionsofthetotalshapeofthesustentioncube,which
maybedefinedbylabelingthecorners.Thecornersaredefinedbycombingthefollowingpairs,to
produceeightpoints:
PassiveorActive
HydroorAero
StaticorDynamic
Thustheeightcornersare:
PassiveHydrostatics
PassiveHydrodynamics
PassiveAerostatics
PassiveAerodynamics
ActiveHydrostatics
ActiveHydrodynamics
ActiveAerostatics
ActiveAerodynamics
Letusnowconsiderthepopulationofeachofthesecornersinturn:
6.3.1 PassiveHydrostatics
Conventionalshipsandbarges.20+/coursesinthestudyofnavalarchitecture,andyetit'sonlyoneof
theeightverticesofthesustentioncube.Nowinonecoursewearegoingtoaddressnotonlythisone
corner,butalsothesevenothers.
6.3.2 PassiveHydrodynamics
Planingcraft(theirshapedeterminestheirefficiency.)Hydrofoils.
6.3.3 PassiveAerostatics
Blimps
6.3.4 PassiveAerodynamics
AirplanesandWIGstheyrequireaheadspeedtofly(dynamics)andtheirliftisgeneratedbyair,not
water.
6.3.5 ActiveHydrostatics
AHovercraft:ItissupportedbyArchimedesprincipleinwater,butthedisplacementiscreatedbyfans.
Bycontrastadrinkingglassupsidedowninthebathtubispassivehydrostatics.Adrinkingglasswitha
holeinit,andafantokeeptheairfromgettingout,isActiveHydrostatics.
6.3.6 ActiveHydrodynamics
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Continuingtheexcursionintotheunknownanattempthasbeenmadetoconceiveacraftusingactive
hydrodynamics.Considerwhatthismeans:Itgeneratesliftthroughtherelativemotionofwater
(hydrodynamics)butitgeneratesthisforcenotthroughitsinherentshape(e.g.planingorfoiling)but
viasomeactivecomponentontheship.Itrequiresaheadspeedtomakelift,itusesmovingparts,andit
doesthisinthewater.TheonlyconceptsIcanimagineincludesomesortofhydrofoilusingFletner
rotorsinsteadoffoils,orperhapssomesortofvesselusinganunderwaterrotarywingcallita
hydrocopter.Thiswouldbeanactive(ithasmovingparts)hydro(obviously)dynamiccraft.
6.3.7 ActiveAerostatics
AnothercornerinwhichIknowofnosuchvehicle.Thiswouldbeanaerostaticvehicle(e.g.ablimp)but
insteadofrelyingonalighterthanairgas,itmightuseavacuumpumptoevacuateitshullsuchthatit
isbuoyedbyitsdisplacementinair.Withoutitsfan(theactivecomponent)itceasestofly.
6.3.8 ActiveAerodynamics
Ahelicopter:Itisobviouslygeneratingliftthroughaerodynamics,butthisliftistheresultofamoving
partofthevehicle,notthemovementofthewholevehicle.Indeed,itisinterestingtonotethatitall
fourcasestheactivevehiclesareabletohover,whereastheonlypassivevehiclesthatcanhoverare
thestaticones.
6.4 FinalRemarksonSustentionSpaceModels
TheSustentionTrianglehasdonegoodservicefordecadesasamentalmodeloftheadvancedvehicle
designspace.Thisauthorhasproposedalogicalexpansionofthevenerabletrianglewhichincludesall
existingvehicletypes.Italso,likeagoodmentalmodel,canbeusedtoprovokethoughtaboutnew
vehicletypes.
63
7 TheDomainoftheAMVs
7.1 PerformanceSpaceFast,Comfortable,andCheap:Pickanytwo.
Section6provideduswithataxonomicsystemfordifferentiatingtheAMVsaccordingtofeaturesof
theirsustention.Whatwewillfindthroughoutthiscourseisthattheirsustentionalsodictatessome
featuresoftheirperformancethat,forexample,allaerodynamicvehicleshavegenerallysimilar
performance,ascontrastedwiththeir,say,hydrostaticcousins.
Inordertoseethismoreclearly,itishelpfultodefinePerformanceSpacewhichallowsustotrackthe
performanceofthesevehicles.WhileinmytitleIsuggestedathreeparameterperformancespace,I
actuallyprefertouseafiveparameterspaceasfollows:
Seakindliness
Speed/Power
Comfort&Space
LoadCarryingAbility
Economics(Acquisition&Operation)
Agooddiscussionofthequestforspeedatsea,andthevarioustypesofAMVsthathaveresulted,is
presentedbyClarketal,Reference2,availableonline.Theauthorsalsopresentusefulcomparisonsof
thecapabilitiesoftheAMVsintheotherperformanceareassuchasseakindliness,etc.
NotealsothatSpeedisaddressedintermsofspeedinaseaway,andnotmerelyspeedincalmwater.
Thedegreetowhichwaveconditionsareexpectedwillchangethedegreetowhichonehulltypeis
preferredoveranother...astheauthorsdiscuss.
Permitmetonowmarrythesustentiontaxonomywiththefiveparameterperformancespace,andlets
seeifwecantbegintorecognizesomepatternsintheuniverseofAMVs.
7.2 TheAdvancedMarineVehicles?
Intheprevioussectionswediscoveredthattherearearangeofvehicletypes,eachbeinggenerally
suitedtoaparticularspeedniche.Wethenintroducedataxonomicschemeforcharacterizingthese
vehicles.LetusnowemploythattaxonomicschemefortakingasecondwalkthroughtheAMVdesign
space,focusingthistimeonunderstandingwhywemightchooseoneofthesetypesoveranother,and
whatdesignchallengesourchoicewillengender.
NotethatthistourwillfollowtheeightverticesoftheSustentionCube,videlicet:
PassiveHydrostatics
PassiveHydrodynamics
PassiveAerostatics
PassiveAerodynamics
ActiveHydrostatics
64
ActiveHydrodynamics
ActiveAerostatics
ActiveAerodynamics
Foreachoftheoccupantsofthesecorners,Iwillattempttocharacterizetheirperformance,inbroad
terms,inthefiveperformanceparametersof:
Seakindliness
Speed/Power
Comfort&Space
LoadCarryingAbility
Economics(Acquisition&Operation)
Ileaveitasanexercisetothereadertoseeiftheremightnotbesomegraphicalrepresentationofthis
mapping.
7.2.1 PassiveHydroStatic(Buoyant)AMVs
Buoyantcraftincludeofcoursethemajorityoftheshipsintheworld.Butinthecontextof"Advanced
MarineVehicles"themostimportantbuoyantlysupportedcraftaretheMultihullsandSWATHS.
7.2.1.1 Multihulls
"Multihull"ofcoursemeansashipwithmorethanonehull.Inconventionalparlancethisgenerally
meansdisplacementcatamaransandtrimaranswedon'tusuallyrefertoSWATHsandSESas
'multihulls',althoughtheyare.
MultihullsowetheirorigintocertainobservedfactsaboutbuoyanthulldesignbythisImeanthat
multihullsareinfactderivedfrommonohulls.
Monohulldesignisclassicinnavalarchitecture,andisverywellunderstood.Monohullsrepresentthe
mostversatilehullformchoice.However,asiswellknown,themonohullformgetsintoabindwhen
youtrytomakeitgofast.Inordertoreducedragforhighspeed,thedesignerispushedtomakethe
hullasslenderaspossible,thusreducingbothpressureandformdrag.Theproblemisthataslender
monohullisdifficulttomakestable.Howtomakeaskinnyhullstable?Answer:Tietwoormoreof
themtogether.
7.2.1.1.1 Catamarans
TheWikipediahasagoodgeneralarticleoncatamaransat:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catamaran
ThewordcatamaranisderivedfromaPolynesianwordmeaningmultiplelogstiedtogetherorin
otherwordsamultihull.Incurrentusageacatamaranhasspecificallytwohulls,generallyidentical.
Thedefiningfeatureofthecatamaranisbothitstwohullednatureandtheslenderness(~20:1L:B)of
thosehulls.CatamaransweredepictedinFigure14throughFigure17previously.
ThesustentionofacatamaranisBuoyantorPassiveHydrostatic.
65
ApioneerofcommercialcatamaranswastheAustralianfirm"INCAT"shortforInternational
Catamarans.INCATdevelopedthevariantofthecatamarancalledawavepiercingcatamaran,depicted
inFigure27.INCATtheshipbuilderisstillinoperation,andtheirwebsiteishttp://www.incat.com.au/
Ofcourse,justtokeepyouonyourtoestherearetwofirmsnamedINCAT:Ashipbuildingfirmanda
designfirm.INCATthedesignfirmisnolongerinbusinessunderthatname:Theintellectualpropertyof
INCATDesignsSydney,PtyLtdwassoldtotwofirms.Datarelevanttovesselsover60minlengthwas
soldtoAlionScienceandTechnologyoftheUSA.Datarelevanttovessels60minlengthandunderwas
soldtoCrowtherMultihulls,whorebrandedunderthename"INCATCrowther."
Seakindliness:Neitherastrengthnoraweakness.Theshipisbuoyantlysupported,soherseakeepingis
buoyancydominatedandsubjecttothesamephysicsasamonohull.Thereisadesignchallengeinthat
GMtandGMltendtobesimilar,leadingtocorkscrewmotions.GMtishighleadingtosnaproll.Cross
structurecanslam.Bowdivingcanoccurinfollowingseas.
Speed/Power:Astrengthofthecatamaran:Slenderhullsgivegoodspeedpowercharacteristicsby
reducingthewavemakingresistance.
Comfort&Space:Catsarealsosoughtinlowspeedapplicationswherealotofarrangeableareais
neededatverylowdensity.Arrangeableareaislargepertonneofdisplacement.(Amentalmodelthat
Iusewhenunderstandingthisistoimagineabowviewofacatamaranandrealizethattheresnothing
supportingthemiddleoftheship.)Asaconsequencethisshiptypeissuitedtolowdensitypayloadsor
missions,suchasthecarriageofpeople.
LoadCarryingAbility:Seeabove.Alsonotethatlargearrangeableareacanbeaweaknessinsome
applications(e.g.warships.)
Economics(Acquisition&Operation):Generallygood.Lightweightconstructionisneededwhichcauses
someincreasedcost(comparedtoasteelmonohull)butreducedpowerplantsizeoffsetsthis.Other
shipsystemsaregenerallyconventionalsocostsarealsoconventional.
AlternateConfigurations:SWATH,SemiSWATH,WavePiercing,andFoilAssisted
Nomenclatureandterminology:
Hulls(NOTpontoons)
WetDeck(termderivedfromSESparlance)
Tunnel
ZBoworWavePiercinghull
ThirdBow(option,usuallyonlyfoundonwavepiercers)
Scalability:Unlimited(cube/cube)
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Figure27ThefirstoftheINCAT74mWavePiercingCatamaransHoverspeedGresatBritain,whothen
heldtherecordfortheTransAtlanticCorssing.
7.2.1.1.2 Trimarans
Acatamaranisanattempttomakeaveryslenderhull,andgiveitstabilitybyusingtwoidenticalhulls
sidebyside.Thetrimaranproperlycalledastabilizedmonohullisasimilarattempttomakeahull
veryslenderbutgiveitstabilitybyusingoneormoreverysmalloutriggerhulls.Theseoutriggerhulls
areusuallymadetobeassmallaspossible,soastominimizetheirresistanceandstructuralpenalties,
whilestillbeingbigenoughtoyieldtherequiredstabilityforthemainhull.
AratherexoticlookingtrimaranisdepictedinFigure30.
DefiningFeature:Bydefinition,threehulls.Butactuallythistermmaybeappliedtoanyoutrigger
stabilizedmonohull.Themainhullisslender,say20:1L:B.
Sustention:PassiveHydroStatic(Buoyant)
History:Trimaransareofancientorigin,datingatleasttonativecraftofprehistory.Moderninterestin
trimaranshasgrownslowlyfromearlyworkinrecreationalcraft,reachingthecurrentpeakinactivity
leadbyAustralianshipyardAustal,whohavedevelopedthe127mtrimaranferryBenchijiguaExpress
andtherelatedUSNavywarshiptheLCS.SeeFigure28&Figure29
Seakindliness:Longforitsdisplacementyieldsgoodseakeeping.Buoyancydominatedphysics,aswith
anyhydrostaticcraft.
Speed/Power:Veryhighslendernessyieldsgoodspeed/powercharacteristics.Optimizationoftheamas
istricky.
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Comfort&Space:Generallysomewherebetweenmonohullandcatamaraninarrangeability.Slender
hullsandamasmaybedifficulttofitmachinery.
LoadCarryingAbility:Generallysomewherebetweenmonohullandcatamaran.(Thereissomething
holdingupmostoftheship,exceptunderthewingswhichreachouttotheamas.)
Economics(Acquisition&Operation):Generallygood.Lightweightconstructionisneededwhichcauses
someincreasedcost(comparedtoasteelmonohull)butreducedpowerplantsizeoffsetsthis.Other
shipsystemsaregenerallyconventionalsocostsarealsoconventional.
AlternativeConfigurations:Pentamaran,Proa.
NomenclatureandTerminology:Theoutriggerhullsarecalledamasalthoughthistermisnotwell
knownoutsidethetrimarancommunity.Thereisnoacceptedtermforthecrossstructurewhich
connectstheamastothemainhull.Ipreferthetermwingforthis.
Otherimportanttermsaretheseparationreferringtothedistancethattheamasareathwartships
fromthemainhull,andthestagger,whichreferstotherelativeforeandaftlocationoftheamas
comparedtothemainhull.
Scalability:Unlimited(cube/cube)

Figure28TheAustaltrimaranferry"BenchijiguaExpress".Photosfrom
http://www.austal.com/index.cfm?objectID=6955E09CA0CC3C8CD9FD2E4C71CE8F0E
68

Figure29Austal'sUSNavyLittoralCombatShip("LCS")indrydock
69

Figure30TheEarthRacetrimaran,themostexoticlookingtrimaranIhavecomeacross.
7.2.1.1.3 SWATHSmallWaterplaneAreaTwinHull
TheSWATHisatypeofcatamarandesignedspecificallyforminimummotionsormaximum
Seakindliness.SWATHisanacronymforSmallWaterplaneAreaTwinHull.Itwascoined,Ibelieve,by
Dr.ColenKennellinthe1970s.
DefiningFeature:ThedefiningfeatureoftheSWATHisthesmallwaterplaneareaitpossesses.Thisis
usuallymanifestinapairoftorpedolikelowerhullswhicharepositionedsomedepthbelowthefree
surfacebyasetofsurfacepiercingstruts.ASWATHmayhaveoneortwostrutsperside,anditisnot
clearhowthickthestrutscanbebeforetheSWATHceasestobesmallwaterplaneareaandbecomes
simplyacatamaran.Indeed,somecatamaransattempttoimprovetheirridequalitybyadoptingsmall
waterplaneareaintheforebodyandcallingthemselvessemiSWATHdesigns.
ThebestsinglevolumetreatmentofSWATHsistheSNAMET&RBulletinSWATHShipsT&RBulletin4
75(Reference3.)AnexcellentdiscussionofthepurposeandmajorconcernsofaSWATHisfoundat:
http://www.swath.com/concept.htm
SWATHsmadeatransitioninto'mainstream'navalarchitecturewhentheUSNavybuilttwoclassesof
SWATHOceanSurveillanceships,theTAGOS19&TAGOS23class.Figure33throughFigure35depict
the
TAGOS19.
AnothernotableUSNSWATHwasthestealthship"SeaShadow."
70
SincetheseNavyprojects,SWATHShaveshownupinmanyotherconventionalnavalarchitecture
portfolios,suchastheGermanpilotvesselmarketedbyAbeking&RasmussenshipyardSeeFigure32.
WikipediahasanimpressivecollectionofSWATHpicturesat
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:SWATH_boats.
ThesustentionofaSWATHisBuoyantorPassiveHydrostatic.
History:AbriefhistoryofSWATHdevelopment,includingsomeimportantprogenitorsthatdidnotuse
theSWATHname,isfoundat:http://www.swath.com/history.htm
Severalphotosarefoundat:http://www.geocities.com/dthigdon/dynamics/images.htmDonHigdon
(theownerofthatwebsite)wasinstrumentalinthedesignoftheridecontrolsystemsforseveralof
thosevessels.
Seakindliness:TheadvantageofaSWATHisthatitisrelativelydecoupledfromtheexcitationforces
causedbysurfacewaveaction.ThisisaccomplishedasadirectresultoftheSmallWaterplaneArea.
Speed/Power:Lowwavemakingresistancepossible(notassured)
Comfort&Space:Catamaranlike
LoadCarryingAbilityGenerallycatamaranlike,exceptthatthelowwaterplaneareameansalarge
changeindraftortrimwithloadcondition.Usuallyaballastsystemisfittedtoaidinmaintaining
desiredattitude.
Economics(Acquisition&Operation):GoodConventionalshiptechnology.
NomenclatureandTerminology:TheSWATHgeometryhasitsownnomenclature,asfollows:
HullsorLowerHulls(butNOTPontoons)
Struts
WetDeck
Haunch
ControlsFins,consistingofCanardsforwardandStabilizersaft
SWATHsalsopresentsomedefinitionquestions,themostimportantonebeingwhatisthelength?In
ordertobeunambiguous,weearlydecidedthatthedefinitivelengthshouldbethelengthofthe
submergedhull.Thiswayitwouldn'tdependonwhetherweweretalkingaboutasinglestrut(perside)
oratwostrutdesign.
OfcoursethenalongcameSLICE...(Figure36)
71

Figure31ThepartsandnomenclatureofaSWATH.Picturetakenfromwww.swath.com
ScalabilityUnlimited(cube/cube.)Buttheadvantagesvanishwhenshipsizebecomesverylarge.
Challenges:Highwettedsurfacemeansgenerallynotahighspeedhullform.Maneuverability
challenges.Largebeamanddraft(mayhaveshiphandling/dockingchallenges.)Submerged
protuberances.Smallwaterplaneareamakesitweight/trimsensitive.
AlternateConfigurations:
SLICEafourleggedvariant.(seeFigure36,andalso:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Arial_view_of_the_experimental_SWATH_ship_Sea
_SLICE.jpg)
LiftingBodyShipsVariantsinwhichthesubmergedbuoyancy(thelowerhullsina
conventionalSWATH)aremergedintovariousblendedshapes.
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Figure32SWATHPilotVesselfromGermanshipyardAbeking&Rasmussen.Illustrationfromhttp://www.hamburger
bildungsserver.de/nwz/ph/schiffe/swath.html
73

Figure33USNavyTAGOS19
74


75

Figure36TheSWATHvariant"SLICE"underconstruction
7.2.2 PassiveAeroStatic(AirBuoyant)AMVs
ThesecraftexisttheyareBlimps(orZeppelins,etc.)Asairshipstheydohaveimportantrolestoplayin
maritimeaffairs.Andhistoricallyitisinterestingtonotethatattheturnofthe19/20centurytheyfell
withinthedomainofthenavalarchitect,sincetheywereArchimedeaninsupportanddominatedbyso
manyofthesameengineeringconcernsaswetships.
However,notwithstandingthatinterestinghistoricalnote,theylieoutsidethedomaindeterminedfor
thiscourse.
7.2.3 PassiveHydroDynamic(DynamicLift)AMVs
Dynamicliftcraftgettheirliftfromspeed.Whentheystop,theysink.(Ortheytransformintosome
otherkindofcraft.)
Amanonawaterskiisperhapsthe'classic'exampleofaDynamicallySupportedCraft.Atrestheisfully
immersed,butabovesomecriticaltakeoffspeedhebecomesaflyingmachine.
IntherealmofAdvancedMarineVehiclesthetwothat'reallymatter'arethehydrofoilsandplaning
hulls:
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7.2.3.1 PlaningCraft
Planingcraftaredeservingofacourseuntothemselves,andindeedinmostinstitutions(includingUNO)
theyreceiveone.AssuchIhavenotattemptedtoincludethemintheAMVcourse.
Itcanbearguedthatthisisbecausethiscoursedealswithnovelorunusualcraft,craftforwhomthere
isnotalargebodyofexperienceandthusforwhomtheskillsofLewis&Clarkareneeded.Thereforeit
maybethatthisisnotthecasewithplaningcraft,whohavebeenstudiedindetailforatleasthalfa
century.
Thusmychoicetoexcludingthemfromthiscourseisnotastatementoftheirunimportance,butrather
astatementoftheirrelativematurityandthoroughnessoftreatmentelsewhere.
7.2.3.2 Hydrofoils
Onceclassofdynamicallysupportedvehiclesishowevernotincludedinplaningcraftdesigncourses,
andthatisthehydrofoil.
Ahydrofoilisavehiclesupportedonwinglikestructuresimmersedinthewater.Theliftgeneratedby
thesewaterwingsliftsthehulloftheship,thusreducingthedragofthathull.
DefiningFeature:ThedefiningfeatureofthehydrofoilIsthepresenceofthefoilsthemselveswing
shapedliftingsurfaces.Ifthesewingsarepresent,andtheyliftasubstantialfractionofthecrafts
weightunderthedesigncondition,thenthecraftisahydrofoil.
Excellentresourcesonhydrofoilsmaybegleanedbyperusingthewebsiteandarchivesofthe
InternationalHydrofoilSociety,www.foils.org
Sustention:PassiveHydroDynamics.Theliftiscausedbyhydrodynamics(movingwaterforces),butthis
liftisgeneratedpassively,requiringonlytheforwardmotionofthecraft.
History:Hydrofoilshavearemarkablylonghistoryindeed,AlexanderGrahamBellexperimentedwith
hydrofoilcraftasearlyas1911.Foranenchantinghistoriesofhydrofoils,seethefollowingwebsites:
http://www.histarmar.com.ar/InfGral/Hidroalasbase.htm
http://www.lesliefield.com/other_history/alexander_graham_bell_and_the_hydrofoils.htm
http://www.foils.org/popmags.htm
http://www.foils.org/pioneers.htm
Seakindliness:HydrofoilcraftoftheFullySubmergedtype(seebelow)areverywellisolatedfromsea
surfaceexcitationsandthusmayhaveexcellentseakindliness.Inferryservicehydrofoilsarewellknow
tobethesmoothestrideavailable.
Speed/Power:Thehydrofoilitselfproducesadragduetolift,andadragduetothewettedsurfaceof
thefoil.Buttheseforcesaremuchsmallerthanwouldbethedragofthehulliffullyimmersedand
travelingatthesamespeed.Asaconsequence,ahydrofoilcanattainsubstantiallyhigherspeedsfora
giventhrustthancanacompetingbuoyanttypecraft.
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Thechallengewiththisisthatthefoilliftdependsuponspeedsquared,(unlessthefoilCLismodified),
thismeansthattheweightbornebythefoillikewisevariesasspeedsquared.Inotherwordsafairly
smallvariationinspeedcancauseasubstantialchangeintheamountofreliancethatisplaceduponhull
buoyancy,andthustheamountofhulldragintroduced.Inconsequenceahydrofoilisusuallyoptimal
onlyacrossaquitenarrowbandofoperatingspeeds.
Comfort&Space:Hydrofoilsaregenerallymonohullbased,andthushavemonohulllikearrangeability
andspace.Therearesomeinstancesofcatamaranbasedhydrofoils.Also,inthecaseoftheBoeing
JetFoilonemaynotethatthedesignerstookholdofthevestigialorsecondaryroleofthebuoyanthull
andmadeaquiteunusualmonohull,havingmorespacethanmightotherwisehavebeengiven.Thus
thereisconsiderableflexibilityavailable.
LoadCarryingAbility:Theloadcarryingabilityofthehydrofoilisagaingenerallymonohulllike,always
consideringthefactthattheliftvariesasspeedsquared.
Economics(Acquisition&Operation):Hydrofoilsarequiteexpensive.Notonlyarethefoilschallenging
tomanufacture,demandingclosetolerancesandexpensivematerials,butthecraftalsoneedcomplex
drivetrains,andatleastsomesortofflightcontrolsuite(usuallycalledRideControl.)
AlternativeConfigurations:ConfigurationalternativescommonlyencounteredinHydrofoilsareas
follows:
Hulltype:Monohullorcatamaran
FoilSubmergence:ASurfacePiercinghydrofoilhasfoilsthatpenetratetheseasurface,see
Figure37.Thisconfigurationmeansthatastheyencounterwavestheywillgenerateadditional
liftandhelpraisethecraftabovethewaves.Theywillalsoriseasspeedincreases,meaning
thatthefoilliftcoefficientcanbemaintainedmoreorlessconstantasthecraftaccelerates.
Bycontrast,thefullysubmergedhydrofoilhaswingsthatarebelowtheseasurfacesee
Figure38.Thisresultsinaverysmoothride,butitrequiresaflightcontrolsystemtobalance
thecraftandtomanagewaveencounters.
Athirdcategorymightbeargued,whichisfoilassistedcraftwhereinthefoilsdonotlift100%
ofthecraftweight,butonlysomelesserfraction.Properlythesemightbeconsideredtobe
hybridcraftwhositalonganedgeofthesustentioncube,ratherthanatoneofitscorners.
CanardversusAirplaneconfiguration:Thesecondmajorconfigurationchoiceconcerns
whichofthecraftsfoilscarriesmostoftheweight.IntheCanardconfigurationtheforward
foilcarriesmostoftheweight.Figure37isacanardconfiguredcraft.IntheAirplane
configurationmostoftheweightiscarriedontheaftfoil,asinthecaseofthecraftinFigure38.
(Donotbemisledbythechoiceofthesetwofigurestoillustratethispointthereisno
necessaryrelationshipbetweenthechoiceofsurfacepiercingversusfullysubmerged,andthe
choiceofcanardversusairplane.)
Scalability:Limited,perhapsto~1000tonnesduetocube/squarerelationship.
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Thestrengthofthehydrofoilisitsexcellentspeed/powercharacteristics,andexcellentseakeepingfor
fullysubmergedtypes.Theirweaknessesarethenarroweconomicspeedrange,andtheexpense.

Figure37ASurfacePiercinghydrofoilproducedbyRodriquez.

Figure38Ahydrofoilcrafthavingfullysubmergedfoils.(Thefoilsarevisiblebelowtheseasurfaceinthisphoto.)
79
7.2.4 PassiveAeroDynamic(DynamicLift)AMVs
PassiveAeroDynamicCraftincludeairplanes,whichareclearlyoutsidethedomainofthiscourse.Butit
hasbeendecidedthatWinginGroundEffect(WIG)vehiclesareships,andthustheywillbetouched
uponhere.
7.2.4.1 WIGs
AWIGisawingwhichfliesveryclosetothesurface(eitherseaorground)inordertobenefitfromthe
imagesystemthatappearsinsuchcase.(Afulldiscussionoftheimagesystemisoutsidethescopeof
thiscourse.)Byexploitingtheimagesystemthelifttodragefficiencyofthewingismuchimproved,
resultinginveryimpressivecraftperformance.
AWIGattainsthisefficiencybyoperatingwithinaboutonewingchordofthesurface.Abovethisheight
thebenefitduetotheimagesystemfallsoffrapidly.
WIGswereinvented,well,theywereinventedbyGodseeFigure39.Buttheyhavebeen
commerciallydevelopedinbothGermanyandRussia.Figure40showsoneofthemostimpressiveof
theRussianmilitaryWIGs,theCaspianSeaMonster.

Figure39ThePrototypicalWingInGroundEffect
80

Figure40TheCaspianSeaMonster.Photofromhttp://www.vincelewis.net/ekranoplan.html
DefiningFeature:ThedefiningfeatureofaWingInGroundEffectisthewing,anditsproximitytothe
ground.Thekeyfeatureistodeterminethatthiscraftisaerodynamicallysupported.Onedoes
sometimesencounterWIGswhichalsoincorporateaircushionsorotherfeatures(usuallyastakeoff
andlandingaids.)
Sustention:Aerodynamic,passivelygeneratedbytheshapeofthewing.
History:WIGs,asmarinevehicles,areoffairlyrecentgeneration,saywithinthepast50years.Pioneers
inthisfieldincludeJrg,Lippisch,andunnamedscientistsintheSovietUnion.
Seakindliness:AWIGfliesapproximatelyonewingchordabovethemeanseasurface.Ifthischord
lengthislargeenough,thenthiscanmeanaheightsubstantiallyabovethewavesinthatsurface.This
meansthataWIGcanbenicelyisolatedfromtheroughnessofthesea,yieldingaverygoodridequality.
Speed/Power:WIGsarefastlikeairplanes.WIGspeedsmaybeontheorderofseveralhundred
knots.
Comfort&Space:WIGssufferfrombeingairplanelikeinconfiguration,withthatmailingtubeshape
whichimpairstheirabilitytotransportbulkycargo.WIGshavebeenusedaspersonneltransports.I
knowofnoinstancesofWIGscarryinginanimatecargoes.
LoadCarryingAbility:Idontknow.AsanaerodynamicvehicleIassumethattheyhaveacarrying
capacitygenerallylikethatofanairplaneandIhaveseenairplanesofquitelargecapacity.Whatthe
limitsareinthisregard,andhowtheseratioscomparetothoseofhydrosupportedcraftIdontknow.
Economics(Acquisition&Operation):Theyhavecontrolsystemsandcomponentslikeairplanes,andI
suspectthattheycostlikeairplanes.HoweveritisworthnotingthattheSovietWIGs(suchasthe
CaspianSeaMonster)werebuiltinshipyards,notinairplanefactories.InviewofthisIhazardaguess
thatWIGsaresomewhereintermediateincostbetweenshipsandaircraft.
81
AlternativeConfigurations:TherearemanyvariantsofWIG,includingsomeofthemoreextremeof
TunnelBoatstoday.Figure41depictsatunnelboatthatis,infact,aWIG.
LippischbuiltWIGsofreversedeltaconfiguration,seeFigure42.Jrgontheotherhandpreferreda
tandemwingconfigurationasFigure43.
NomenclatureandTerminology:WIGsflybyoperatinginastrongaerodynamicimagesystem.This
givesrisetotheimportantRussianwordEkranoplanorScreenPlane.ThewordScreenrefersto
themirrorimagethatyieldstheWIGsefficiency.
NotealsoinFigure40theverylargetailsurface.Thistailfliesoutofgroundeffectitself,andisessential
toprovidingpitchstabilityforWIGs.Infact,thefrequentblowoveraccidentsoftunnelboatsaredueto
thefactthattheydonthavethesetailsurfaces(becausetheirdesignersdontknowthattheyare
actuallydesigningWIGs.)
TheWIGcansometimesbehardtotakeoff,sincethewingsliftdevelopsasspeedsquaredittakes
somesubstantialspeedbeforethewingisliftingthecraft.Toovercomethisdesignersincorporate
varioustakeoffaids.InthecaseoftheCaspianSeaMonsternotetheeightlargeturbofans,ofwhich
onlytwoareneedforcruiseflight.Theothersixarefireduponlyfortakeoff.
Scalability:TheWIGisadynamiccraftandthussubjecttocube/squarelimits.Theupperlimitin
practicalWIGsizemaybeintheneighborhoodof1000tonnesalthoughIamguessingatthatfigure.
TheWIGhasthelowestresistanceofanyAMV,andexcellenttoleranceforwaves.Itsweaknessisthat
itisalittletoomuchlikeanairplane,andmanyregulatorsdontquiteknowhowtohandleit:Doesit
requireapilotslicenseoraCaptainslicense?Therearealsochallengesassociatedwithmaneuvering
WIGs(theycantbankveryfar,sotheturnsmustbeflatslides).Therearecertainlychallengesin
dockinganddrydockingcraftofthisshape.

Figure41Thisillustrationoftheforcesonatunnelboat(fromwww.screamandfly.com)highlightsthefactthatthesecraft
tooareWIGs
82

Figure42TheReverseDeltaconfigurationpreferredbyAntonLippisch

Figure43AWIGcraftfromGuntherJrg
7.2.5 ActiveHydroStatic(PoweredLift)AMVs
Hydrostaticdisplacementmeansthatthecraftdisplacesavolumeofwaterequaltoitsweight.Thisis
usuallyaccomplishedbypushingthatwateroutofthewaywithsomesortofimpermeablestructure,
whetheritbesteelplatesorrubbermembranes.
83
Butanyonewhohaswasheddishesinasinkknowsthatthissamedisplacementcanbeaccomplishedby
usinganairbubble,suchasinabowlordrinkglassturnedupsidedown.Thebowlwilldisplacea
volumeofwaterandmayfloatalthoughitisprobablyunstable.
Itmaybemoresurprisingtorealizethattheglassneednotretaintheairbubblepassivelytheair
bubblemaybecreatedactively.WecanimaginesomeRubeGoldbergcontraptioninvolvingaShopVac
andacolander,whichwouldendupfloatingjustaswellasthebowlfirstreferredto.
Indeed,theprincipalofthissortofsustentiongivesrisetoaveryimportantclassofmarinevehicles,
whichweknowashovercraft.TheyoccupytheActiveHydrostaticnicheofthesustentionspace.
7.2.5.1 ACVAirCushionVehicle(hovercraft)
Anotherwaytomakeashipfastistouseanaircushiontoeliminatefriction.Craftthatemploythis
meansstillfloatbydisplacingwater,itsjustthattheydisplacewaterduetotheuseofamachine(a
fan):ActiveHydrostatics.
Themostwellknowntypeofactiveaerostaticvehicleisahovercraft.Typicallyhovercraftareroughly
rectangularinplanformshape,andfittedwithfabricskirtsaroundtheirperimeter.Theskirtservesto
retaintheairbubblebutstillpermitthevehicletotraverseobstacles,bydeflectingtheskirtratherthan
impactingthehardstructure.
Hovercraftpossesstheuniquecapabilityofamphibiousoperation,whichisveryusefulinmilitary
application,andmaybeusefulinsomecommercialservicessuchasferryservice.
DefiningFeature:Theairbubble.
Sustention:ActiveHydroStatic(DuringoverwateroperationanACVdoesinfactdisplaceitsweightof
water,intheformofanairbubbledepressedintotheseasurface.ItisNOTaDynamicsustention
vehicle.)
History:InventedbySirChristopherCockerellinapproximately1953.WikipediahasagoodarticleonSir
Christopher,athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Sydney_Cockerell
Seakindliness:Hovercraftonlyhaveamodestresponsetotheseasurfaceupuntileitherthewetdeck
slams,orawavetroughcausesthecushiontovent.Ineitherofthesesituationsthecraftexperiences
anunpleasantimpulsiveevent.Otherseakindlinessissuesincludethesocalledcobblestonevibration
thatisinducedbypressurepulsescomingfromtheliftfans.
Speed/Power:Becausehovercrafthavezerowettedsurface,theyhavethelowestdragofanyofthe
AMVs.However,inordertomaintaintheirlibertyfromtheseatheyareusuallypropelledbyairscrews,
whichareverylowefficiencycomparedtomarinepropulsors,especiallyatlowspeeds.Thismitigates
someofthegainsinresistanceandmakesthehovercraftrareforservicebelowabout50knots.
Airpropulsorsbecomemoreefficientathighspeed,andsomeMilitaryhovercraftdoexceed80knots.
Comfort&Space:Thehovercraftsnearlyrectangularplanformcanmakeiteasytoarrange.The
comfortfactorishoweveroftenreducedbynoiseandvibrationassociatedwiththeairpropulsion.
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LoadCarryingAbility:TheACVsloadcarryingabilityislimitedbythemaximumaircushionpressurethat
canbesustainedbytheskirts.Thispressureisexactlyequivalenttothedraftofarectangularbargeof
conventionalsustention.Currentfanandskirttechnologylimitsthispressuretoonetotwometersof
waterequivalent.
Economics(Acquisition&Operation):Hovercraftcanbeeconomicallybuilt,althoughtheytendto
employlightweight(andthusexpensive)structuraltechniques.Theirmajorcostimpactisduetothelift
machineryanditsassociatedcontrolsystems.Inaddition,thefabricskirtsdowear(somethinglikeone
millimeterperhour)whichnecessitatesperiodicinspection,refurbishment,andreplacement.
AlternateConfigurations:Whilemostofthisdiscussionhasbeenregardingfasthovercraft,sometimes
thereareimportantreasonstoemploythehovercraftinlowspeedservice.Anexampleistheuseof
hoverbargesiniceladenorotherwisedifficulttonavigateareas.Insuchcasesthebargesareoften
eithertowedbywinchesmountedonland,oreventowedbyhelicopters.
NomenclatureandTerminology:Figure44takenfromtheenglishWikipediaat:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hovercraftillustratestherelationshipofsomeofthemostimportant
componentsofanACV,towit:
Propellers
Air
Fan
Flexibleskirt
Scalability:Probablyunlimited(cube/cube)
Thetwomainstrengthsofthehovercraftaretheiramphibiouscapability,andthefactthattheabsence
offrictionalresistancemayyieldverygoodspeed/powercharacteristics.Thekeyweaknessesarethat
aerodynamicpropulsionisinefficientandnoisy,thecraftmayexperiencecobblestones,theskirtswear
andgeneratespray,andthecraftisdifficulttocontrol(havingnoresistancetosway.)
Afewhovercraftpicturesfollow.Anoutstandingcollectionofsuchpicturesmaybefoundat:
http://www.arsp.sojou.ac.jp/acv/acv/worldacv/eworldacv.html
85

Figure44Asimpleschematicsectionillustratingthedefiningpartsofahovercraft.

Figure45SirChristopherCockerel
86

Figure46Oneofthefirsthovercraft,theSaundersRoeN1(SR.N1)Notetheabsenceoffabricskirtsasareusedtoday.

Figure47TheSR.N1inoverwateroperation.Notethelargeamountofspraycreated.
87

Figure48TheSaundersRoeN4(SR.N4)commercialferry.NotethegreatlyreducedspraycomparedtotheSR.N1,due
largelytotheuseoffabricskirtsofadesignwhichstillcurrent.
88

Figure49ARussian"AIST"classamphibiousmilitaryhovercraft,generallyequivalenttotheUSNLCAC

Figure50ARussian"LEBED"ClassACV
89

Figure51Thelargesthovercraftintheworld,theRussian"POMORNIK"Classat555tonnes

Figure52Acommercialhovercraft,exploitingthehovercraft'samphibiouscapabilityinordertooperateinice.
90

Figure53TheUSNLCAChovercraft
91

Figure54ThispictureofanLCACclearlyshowstheroleahovercraftcanhaveinshallowwateroperation

Figure55Thispictureshowstheultimateinshallowwater:AnLCAConthebeach,withtheaircushionturnedoff.(Note
thedeflatedskirtvisiblearoundtheperimeterofthecraft.)
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7.2.5.2 SidewallHovercraft/SurfaceEffectShip/SES
ThefullyskirtedACVorHovercraftsuffersfromafewimpediments,suchastheairlossalltheway
aroundtheperimeterofthecraftwhichdrivesuptheliftpowerneeded.Itisalsohardtosteer,sinceit
hasnogriponthewater,wantinginsteadtoskidsidewayslikeanairhockeypuck.Further,theuseof
airscrewsforpropulsionhasahugedecrementinnetthrustperunitpower,ascomparedwithusing
marinepropulsion,suchasmarinescrewsorwaterjets.
Toovercometheseandsimilardefects,Mr.AlanFordinventedin1965whatisnowknownastheSESor
SurfaceEffectShip,thencallingitaCapturedAirBubbleorCABcraft.TheBritishtermforanSESis
SidewallHovercraftandtomethistermnicelycapturesthedefiningfeatureofanSES:Ithasrigid
sidewalls,andnotskirtsallroundlikeanACV.
TheSESisacatamaranlikestructurewithanairbubblebetweenthehulls.Fabricskirtsbridgethegap
betweenthehullsforwardandaft,retainingtheairbubble.Thehullsmaybefittedwithmarine
propulsionunits.Thehullsalsoprovidesomerollandpitchrestoringforcefrombuoyancy.
Sustention:IhavelistedtheSESinthedomainofActiveHydrostaticsjustlikeanACV.Inrealitythey
areactuallyhybridcraft,wherein80%(orso)oftheliftcomesfromactivehydrostatics(theairbubble)
whiletheremaining20%comesfromthedisplacementofthesidehulls(passivehydrostatics.)
DefiningFeature:AcombinationofCatamaranandACVtechnologies,intendingtoreduceairleakage,
reduceskirtwearandcomplexity,permithydrodynamicpropulsion,andaddhydrostaticstability.
Ofnecessity,anSESisnotamphibiouslikeanACV.
History:Asmentioned,theSESwasinventedin1965byAlanFordoftheDavidTaylorModelBasin(US
Navy.)ThegreatpushinSEStechnologydevelopmentcameinthe1970swhentheUSNavyembarked
onanambitiousprogramtotransformthefleetintoa100knotNavybyrelyingextensivelyonSES
ships.Theleadshipofthiseffortwastobethe3000tondestroyerknownthenasthe3KSES.The
3KSESprogramexpendedabout$500Million(thenyear)onresearchandtechnology,beforefinally
beingcancelledjustafterthekeellayingofthefirstship,in1979.
Manyexcellenttechnicalstudiesandreportswereproducedduringthe3Kheyday,fartoomanyto
attempttolisthere.AgoodoverviewoftheSES,fromthoseresearches,wasthepaperbyKobitz&
Eggington,"TheDomainoftheSES"SNAMETransactions1975(Reference4.)
Enroutetothe3K,theSESprogrambuiltaseriesofsmalltestcraftdesignatedXR1throughXR5,and
thentwolarge(80foot)100tontestcraftcalledtheSES100A&SES100B.
TheSESwasnotadoptedformilitaryuse,duetoconsiderationsoftheutilityofspeedandtheevolution
ofthenavalmission,buttherehavebeenvariousresurgencesofinterestinSESinthedecadessincethe
demiseofthe3Kprogram.
Seakindliness:Beingan80/20mixofhovercraftandcatamaran,theSESmaybeconsideredtobean
80/20mixoftheirperformanceattributesaswell.Thecatamaranhullsrespondtowavesasdoany
displacementhulls.Theaircushionrespondsasdiscussedabove.Theresultisanacceptableride,that
maybebetterthanthatofacatamaranprovidingthatthecobblestoneeffecthasbeendealtwith.
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Speed/Power:TheSEShassomewhathigherdragthanafullyskirtedACV,butthisisgreatlyoffsetby
thereducedliftpowerrequirementandtheabilitytousemoreefficientmarinepropulsiondevices.
Comfort&Space:Generallycatamaranlike.
LoadCarryingAbility:Alittlebetterthancatamaranlike,becausethereissomethingholdingupthe
middleoftheship.Thelimitisthatthissomething(theaircushion)hasapracticalupperlimitofabout
12metersofdraft,andthismaybelessthanthesustentionforcethatonemightexpectfrom,say,a
bargeofthesedimensions.ThustheSESdoesnothavetheloadcarryingabilityofabargeofsimilar
dimensions,butitisprobablysuperiortoacatamaranofsimilardimension.
Economics(Acquisition&Operation):TheeconomicsoftheSESareburdenedbythecomplexityofthe
liftsystem.ItisdifficulttodesignanSESwithlessthansixengines,forexample.(Twopropulsion
engines,twoliftengines(forredundancy)andtwogeneratorengines(forredundancy.))THeskirt
systemsalsoaddcost,forbothacquisitionandmaintenance.
AlternativeConfigurations:NearlyallSESareofcatamaranconfigurationwithstraightacrossbowand
sternskirts.Therewereexperimentsinearlydayswithwhatwerecalledpartiallengthsidehulls
whereinthesidehullswereonly5075%ofthelengthoftheraft,andasemicircularbowskirtwasfitted
lookingratherlikethefronthalfofanACV.
ThereisalsoavariantcalledtheSECATforSESCatamaranwhichwastwoslenderSESsidebysideina
catamaranconfiguration.EachofthetwoSEShadaveryslendercushion,andtheSECATconsistedof
foursidehullstotal,withtwocushions.
AvariantontheSECAThasbeenproposedbyseveraldesigners,whichattemptstoreplacethefabric
skirtswithrigidstructuresatbowandsterntocontaintheairbubble.Thenearesttosuccessinthisvein
thatIhaveseenaretheairlubricatedcraftdevelopedinRussia.(Theinterestedreaderisinvitedto
Googleairlubricatedshiptopursuethissubjectfurther.)
NomenclatureandTerminology
Sidehull
Cushion
Haunch
WetDeck
Skirts
Scalability:Noobviouslimit(cube/cube)
Strengths&weaknessoftheSES:ExcellentSpeed/powercharacteristics,paidforbyconcernsover
Sealwear,possiblecobblestoning,andmechanicalcomplexity.
AvarietyofphotosofSESaregiveninFigure56throughFigure60.Manyofthesearetakenfromthe
unofficialSESMuseum:http://www.islandengineering.com/ses_museum.htm
94

Figure56Thetwo100tontestcraftSES100AandSES100B

Figure57TheSES100A,thewaterjetdriventestcraft
95

Figure58TheSES100B,thepropellerdriventestcraft

Figure59AcommercialSESferryfromNorway
96

Figure60TheNorwegianNavySESPatrolBoat"Skjold"
7.2.6 ActiveAeroStaticAMVs
NoneKnown.
Whatmightsuchacraftbe?Thiswouldbesomeschemewherebythecraftfloatsbydisplacingair(like
ablimp),butthisdisplacementisinducedactively,i.e.byfansorpumps.Indeed,earlyinthedesignof
flyingmachinesomeinventorsdidtrytoimaginebronzeglobesfromwhichtheairwouldbeevacuated
bypumps,resultinginadisplacementofairandthuslighterthanairflight.Ofcourse,therealityisthat
themetalglobescannotbemadelightenoughtoflyinthismanner.Willmodernmaterialsmakesucha
thingpossibleinthiscentury?ThisspeculationliesinthedomainofScienceFictionandoutsidethis
alreadyfarreachingcourse.
7.2.7 ActiveHydroDynamicAMVs
NoneKnown.
Whatmightsuchacraftbe?Thiswouldbesomeschemewherebythecraftfloatsbyhydrodynamics,
nothydrostatics,butthedynamiceffectisproducedactively.ThenearestthatIcanimaginethat
wouldsatisfythiswouldbeahydrocopterinwhichawinglikerotorkeepsthecraftup.Thiswouldbe
sortofahydrofoil,inwhichthefoilsarekeptmovingsothattheshipfliesevenwhenatrest.
Avariantwoulduseskisinsteadoffoils,lookingperhapslikesomesortoffantasticeggbeater.
Note,duringthisexcursionintofantasy,howthetaxonomyoftheSustentionspaceishelpingusto
organizeourthoughtsandindeedhelpingustoimaginenewvehicletypes,suchasthishydrocopter.
7.2.8 ActiveAeroDynamicAMVs
97
FollowingonfromtheActiveHydroDynamicAMV,Ithinkthatthiscornerofthesustentioncubeis
occupiedbytheHelicopter.Assuch,IamcomfortablestatingthatitisanairvehicleandnotanAMV,
andthusoutsidethedomainofthiscourse.
98
8 WhataboutHybrids?
WehaveconcludedawhirlwindtourofAllTheWorldsAMVs.Ourfocushasbeenuponrelatively
pureorsimpleversionsofthedescribedcraft.Sonow,letslightenthesubjectatadbyconsidering
FruitcakesandCrossbreeds.
Manypeoplehavesuggestedthatabenefitisgainedbyhybridizing,say,halfhydrofoil/halfSWATH,or
acombinationbetweenSESandTrimaran,orothersimilarcombinations.Everysooftensomebody
suggestsahybrid:
ACV/Cat
Foil/Cat
SES/Foil
PlaningHydrofoil
Sometimesitworksbutrarely.
Thecriticalquestiontoaskwhenconsideringahybridis:
Isitsolvingsomeparticularproblem?
Inadequatestability
Inabilitytobuildacontrolsystem
Inefficientpropulsion
Canyousolveitmorefundamentally?
ItismycontentionthatinthevastmajorityofcaseshybridsrepresentnottheBESTofbothworldsbut
theWORSTofbothworlds.Inbrief,ifthelift/dragratioofconcept"A"is10:1,andforconcept"B"is
20:1,thenwhywouldImarryAandB?ShouldInotputallmyeggsinthebestbasket?Thefollowing
discussionofthispointwasoriginallypresentedinReference5.
"Hybridlift"vehicleconceptsarethoseinwhichtwoormoreprimaryliftelements(dynamic,static,or
powered)arecombined,witheachelementcarryingamajorfractionofthetotallift,notmerelytrim,
stabilizing,orcontrolforces.Inconnectionwithanumberofrecentvehicleconcepts,ithasbeen
conjecturedthathybridliftvehiclesderiveeconomicorperformancebenefitsfromtheconcurrentuse
ofdifferenttypesofprimarylift,ineffectcombiningtheadvantagesofeach.Unfortunately,exceptfor
certainspecializedmissions,itisfareasiertodefendthecontraryassertion:hybridliftvehiclesare
inherentlynonoptimalforlinehaulvehicles,andtendtocombinethedisadvantagesofallliftsources.
8.1 TheChallenge
Pleasepermitustobeginourpaperwithadramaticchallenge.Thischallengeisnotintendedtooffend,
butisinsteadofferedasanunequivocallyclearstatementofourhypothesis:THEONELIFT
OBSERVATION:
99
Showmeavehiclethatmakesmoneyreliablyinlinehaul,andIllshowyouanonhybrid.
ShowmeahybridthatlooksbetterthanitscompetitorconceptsandIllshowyoustrawmen
competitors.
8.2 MissionsAndSpeeds
Muchoftherecentinterestinhighspeedmarinevehicleshasbeenmotivatedbypotentialapplications
inlinehaultransportation,thatis,carryingpassengersorcargooveramoreorlessfixedstagelength.
Attheendofthespectrumtypifiedbyrelativelyshortstagelengths,itisbynomeansunusualfor
passengerandevenpassenger/automobile/truckferriestooperateinthe4550knotregime.Fortrans
oceanicstagelengths,commercialcontainercarriersandmilitarysealiftshipsoperatinginthisspeed
regimearenowcontemplated,withtheexpectationofeconomicviabilityoratleastmilitaryutility
inspiteofhighunitfuelcostscomparedwithconventionalships20knotsslower.
Thishasnotalwaysbeenthecase.Notsolongago,veryhighspeedswereconsideredtheprovinceonly
ofcombatantsdestroyersandpatrolcraftofvarioustypes.Reasonsforthechangemaybefoundin
variousareas:economic,geopolitical,andtechnological.Attherisk(nay,thecertainty)of
oversimplification,itseemspossiblethatfuturecommercialorstrategicsealiftshipswithuseful
payloadsinthethousandsoftons,willbedesignedtotransitatunprecedentedseaspeeds,say,inthe
50knotregimeorevenhigher;whilefuturesurfacecombatantsmaybedesignedasmuchforsensitive
characteristics(suchaslowsignatures)attacticalspeedssignificantlylowerthanthatofpresent
destroyers.Thenatureofmissionsingeneral,andtheroleofspeedinparticular,haschanged
dramaticallyevenwithinthelasttenyears.Itisstillchanging.
Nonetheless,itisimportanttokeeponethinginmind.Manymilitarymissions(especiallycombat
missions)involvedeliberateandsustainedoperationinmorethanonespeedregime.Evenincivilian
life,oceanographicresearchoftenimposestwoormorespeedregimesofimportance,asdoes
commercialfishing.Bycontrast,however,linehaultransit,whetherforprofitorforsealift,issupposed
tobeconductedat(orascloseaspossibleto)oneeconomicalspeed.Thisspeedmayormaynotalways
betheoriginaldesignspeedoftheship,asthefuelpricedislocationsofthepasthaveshownuswell
enough,butthepointisthatlinehaulisbasicallyaonespeedmission,barringspecialgeographic
constraints,suchaswashrestrictions,orenvironmentalforcemajeure.
Twospeedmissionsmaybeviewedasoneofthefactsoflifethatdrivedesignersofadvancedmarine
vehicles,intheirdespair,toconsiderhybridsourcesoflift.Forexample,anASWorinstridemine
warfaremissionmightrequiresprint(foilborne,cushionborne,oronplane,asthecasemightbe),and
search(hullborne,offcushion,oroffplane).Insomecasesthepracticaldifficultiesofapplyinghybrid
liftaresoseverethatatwovehiclesystememergesasabetterchoiceforatwospeedmission.
Bycontrast,ifamissionistrulyaonespeedmission,whichiswhatlinehaultransitshouldbe,then
argumentsforandagainsthybridliftvehiclesshouldbesimpler.Buttheyarent.
8.3 SpeedAndLift
Inthefollowingdiscussion,thewordliftisusednotintheaerodynamicsense,buttheeconomicone:
liftistheforcethatopposesweight.Forvehiclesasageneralconcept,liftmaybegeneratedinvarious
ways.Forthevehiclesofconcernhere,however,liftisgeneratedentirelybypressuresinafluid,or
100
possibly,twofluidsatthesametime.Landvehicles(freighttrains,forexample)areexcludedfromthis
class.
Itisacustomamonghighperformancevehicleaficionadostoplotmeasuresofvehicleperformance
versusspeed,oftenwithafamilyofcontoursforvariouspayloadsand/orstagelengths,forawide
varietyofvehicletypes,inthemannerofVonKarmanandGabrielli(seeSection10),forexample,as
showninFigure68.Theordinatemaybeanengineeringquantitysuchaspowertoweightratio,
drag/liftratio,somevariantoftransportationefficiency(forexample,hp.hr/ton.mile);oralternativelyit
maybeanexplicitlyeconomicquantitysuchasoperatingcostpertonmile,requiredfreightrate(RFR),
oreconomiccostoftransport,(basicallyRFRplusatimevaluecostonthecargowhileintransit.)
Generally,vehiclesmaybeclassifiedmeaningfullybywhichtypesofliftareinvolved(forexample,static,
dynamic,andpowered),andwhichfluid(water,air,orboth)provideshowmuchofthelift.Typically,the
classificationoftypesofliftandthefluidssupportingtheloadsaretakenatcruisespeed.Thisisan
importantdistinction,becausefortakeoffsandlandings,ifany,adifferentmixoftypesofliftand
fluids(evenrubberandconcrete)maybeinvolved.Formanytypesofadvancedmarinevehicles,
processesanalogoustotakeoffandlandingareobvious.Arepresentativeoutlineofvehicletypeswas
presentedintheforegoingsections.
Theterminologyofstatic,dynamic,andpoweredliftiswellentrenched,andseemslogicalenoughfor
starters.Itisthebasisofsuchconceptsasthesustensiontriangle.
Staticlift,wemayallagree,comesfromdifferencesinstaticpressureoffluid,actingatdifferentpoints
onabodyssurface.Spatialvariationsinstaticpressurearetheresultsolelyoftheweightofacolumnof
fluid.Therefore,althoughitsalittleoddtoputitthisway,giventhefluiddensity,staticlift(buoyancy
wedcallit)comesfromgravity!Dynamiclift,ontheotherhand,doesnot.
Bydynamiclift,generally,werefertoliftproducedbythepressurefieldcreatedbyabodysmotion
throughafluid.Itisasemanticdifficultywhetherthebodyinquestionmovesalongwiththevehicle,
asisthecaseofthefoilofafixedwingaircraftorhydrofoil,oralongsomeotherpathdifferentfrom
thatofthevehiclescenterofgravity,say,suchastherotorofahelicopter.Thisdifficultyhasbeen
solved,semantically,byrestrictingthetermdynamiclifttomeanliftfromasurfacemovingalongwith
thevehicle,inthesenseofafixedwingaircraft,andcoiningthetermpoweredlifttocoverother
cases,i.e.liftcausedbythemotionofotherparts,ratherthanthewholevehicle.
Poweredliftcontainsitsownmysteries,however.Ithasbeenarguedthatseveraldifferentformsof
poweredliftmaybedistinguished.Tonameafew:
(1)Theuseofenginedrivenmovingpartstogeneratedynamicliftbyvirtueoftheirvelocity,e.g.,
helicopterrotorblades.
(2)Theuseofmechanicalorchemicalprocessestogeneratewhatisbasicallyastaticpressurefield,e.g.,
afanincreasingthepressureinanairplenum.
(3)Theuseofajet(evenarocket)enginetodevelopthrustwhichsupportsthevehiclesweight,e.g.,an
AV8athover.
101
Nowitmaybeaskedwhyanyoftheseformsofpoweredliftshouldberegardedasmorepowered
thanthedynamicliftofthewingofanaircraftbeingdriventhroughafluidbyanengine,andwhether
eachformperhapsdeservesadistinctnametoprovideaconvenientreferencetoitsparticular
characteristicsandbehavior.Forexample,onemightusethetermsdynamicpowered,orpseudo
staticpowered,orverticalthrust,torefer,broadly,torotors,cushions,orfluidjets,respectively,
whenusedasliftproducers.Eventhen,theremaybesubtletiesthatdefyconcisedefinitions.For
example,whatcanbesaidofthetranslationalliftofahelicopterrotorsystem?
Butregardlessofterminology,thereislittledoubtthatstatic,dynamic,andpoweredliftvehiclesmust
operateverydifferently.Statedglibly,avehiclesupportedbydynamicliftwillexperiencestalloran
induceddragcrisisasitslowsdownfromcruise.Avehiclesupportedbystaticliftdoesnt.However,
purelystaticliftisgenerallyassociatedwithmoreorlessirreduciblewettedsurface,leadingtohighdrag
athighspeeds.
Because,typically,allcommercialvoyagesbeginandendwithavehicleessentiallyatrest,dynamiclift
mustbesupplemented,andultimatelysupplanted,atsomesufficientlylowspeedbysomeotherform
oflift.Stalloritsequivalentmaynotbesuddenorcatastrophic,butthelossofdynamicliftmust
ultimatelyoccur,andwebetterbereadyforit.Thissadfactcanbeviewed,inasense,astheneedfor
landinggear.
Poweredlift,specificallyoftheaircushionvariety,requiresaslightlydifferentperspective.Whilethe
vehiclemaybesupportedlargely,orentirely,byaircushionpressureatallspeeds,thequestion
becomes,Whatissupportingthecushion?Atlowspeeds,ofcourse,aircushionpressureisbalanced
bystaticpressureofawatercolumn.Atveryhighspeeds,thecushionisnotstaticallysupportedatall:
thewaterinfluencedbytheaircushionislocallynotinequilibrium.Ineffect,thisisdynamiclift,too.
Soleavingpoweredliftasideforthemoment,andassumingthatavehicleisflyingorfloatingata
constantaltitude,totalliftcanbewritteninaslightlyoffbeatformas:
L=rhogAh+rhoACLV**2 [1]
L=rhoA[gh+CLV**2]
Where:
rhoisthefluiddensity(forsimplicityweassumeincompressibility,andthatthevehicleissmall
enoughtojustifyrhoasaconstant)
Aisafixedreferenceplanformareaofthebody
hisareferenceheightofthebody(whichmayvarywithspeed)
Thusthefirsttermrepresentsliftduetodisplacement.Thesecondtermrepresentsdynamiclift.CLisa
familiarcoefficientwhichwillremainnamelesshere,inordertoavoidconfusion,butwhichisrelatedto
thegeometryandattitudeofthebody,andVisthevelocity.
Obviously,iftwodifferentfluidsareinvolvedinliftproduction,Eq(1)shouldbegivenanaddedpairof
terms,forexample:
102
L=rho1A1[gh1+CL1V1**2]+rho2A2[gh2+CL2V2**2]
Formally,thisequationiscompleteenoughtocoversuchrarebirdsasanairship,noseupfor
aerodynamicassistance,butwithitsgondolainthewaterattemptingtoplane.Interestingasthis
conceptmaybe,wewillrestrictthefollowingdevelopmenttoasinglefluid,forsimplicity.Themassof
thevehicle(includingeverythinginsideit,evenifitsonlyairoralighterthanairgas)isM.Thenby
virtueoftheassumptionoflevelflight:
[h+1/2CLV**2/g]Arho=M [2]
Ineffect,thisequationcanbeaguidetotherequiredareadensityofavehicle.Togiveaperspectivein
practicalterms,Amaybeconsideredastheareaofaslip,orofahangar.Thedrafthmustbe
sufficientlysmallcomparedtotheavailablewaterdepthortheverticalclearheightinanairshiphangar.
Moretothepoint,conceptually,h,beingalsorelatedtoaphysicaldimensionofthevehicle,hasadirect
effectonwettedsurface,whilethesecondterminbracketsdoesnot.Oneofthereasonswhyvehicles
operatingatthewaterairinterfaceareeconomicallyinterestingisthattheyprovideanopportunityto
exchangeh(andwettedsurface)forCLV**2asthespeedchanges,withbeneficialeffectsondrag.This
opportunitydoesnotexistinthesamewayforsubmarinesorblimps.
Tooversimplifyonlyalittle,onavonKarmanGabrielliplot(refFigure68),thehighspeedendisthe
provinceofsuccessfuldynamicliftvehicles,andthelowspeedendistheprovinceofsuccessfulstaticlift
vehicles.Naively,then,shouldntthemiddleoftheplotbefullofnumeroussuccessfulspeciesof
vehiclesthatderivetheirlift,atcruisespeed,frombothsourcesatonce?Andifnot,whynot?
8.4 Drag
Theforegoingdiscussiondealtwithlift.Whataboutdrag?Iftheproductofliftandspeedisassociated
withpayingcargo,oratleastvalueadded,thentheproductofdragandspeedisassociatedwithfuel
expenditure,thatis,cashflowout.Ifenginesandfuelweretheonlythingswehadtopayfor,thenthe
goalwouldobviouslybetominimizedragforagivenliftandspeed.Obviously,economicsarenotquite
thatsimple:wedohavetopayforahull,orwings,aswell,andafewotherdetails,butletsacceptthe
simplificationforamomentintheinterestsoftheargument.
Thechallengeisthatdragvarieswithspeed,andwiththetypeoflift.Atlowspeedthelowestdragform
ofliftisinevitablybuoyancy.Athigherspeeds,forreasonsnotedabove,thesituationchanges.Butwhat
doesthisimplyabouthybrids?Foranygivencruisespeed,inprinciple,thereareonlytwopossible
situations:
Forpracticalvehicleconfigurations,oneformofliftwillhaveasignificantlybetterlifttodrag
ratiothantheother
Thelift/dragratioswillbeaboutthesame
Insituation(1),obviously,weshouldrelyontheformofliftwiththebestL/Dtoholduptheentire
vehicleweightbecausethatwillresultinthelowesttotaldrag.Insituation(2),whichtendstobethe
caseinthespeedrangeforwhichhybridsareatemptation,wemightstillwanttochooseoneformof
lift,forreasonsthataredescribedbelow.
103
Asjustoneexample,considerahighspeedsurfaceship:a3,000nauticalmilestagelengthwithasmall
payload.Considerahighspeeddisplacementmonohull(basicallysimilartoaWorldWarIIdestroyerin
geometry),oralargehydrofoil,eachwithafirstcutestimatedweightofabout7000tons.TheL/Dratios
turnouttodifferonlyslightly,andtherelativeadvantageofthetwoformsofliftdependontheselected
speed.Thedestroyerformisaclearwinnerat35knotsandthehydrofoilat50knots.Thedisplacement
hullformhasavolumetriccoefficient(displacedvolumedividedbylengthcubed)ofabout1.6x103
andawaterlinelengthof540feet.Suchahullcouldreach50knotsonapproximately278,000shp.
Estimatingtypicalweightsofhull,machinery,andfuel(calculatingfuelconsumptionathalfload)allows
for588tonsofpayload.(Theweightsareproportionedfromrecentdestroyerdataforstructures,and
assumeaconstantweightperSHPformachinerysimilartothatofcurrentUSNavydestroyergas
turbineplants.)
Now,wedesigna5050hybridforthesamespeed.Becausethehullissupportingonly3500tonsat
cruise(withtherestoftheweightonthefoils),a540foothullisnowtoolong,withexcessivewetted
surface.Consequently,wereducethelengthto450feet,withthestructuralweightreduced
accordingly.However,wenowhavefoils,andtheirassociatedinduced,interference,andparasiticdrag.
Hydrofoildragiscalculatedusingliftinglinetheory,withfrictionalandpressuredragfromHoerner.
Assumingaconservativeliftcoefficientof0.3toallowfortakeoff,andusingtwosubmergedfoils,each
carryinghalfof3500tons,andaddingtheirdragtothatofa3500tonhull,wefindthatthehybrids
powerisreducedto242,000SHP.Thehybridisalsolighterat6325LT.Onemightsupposethatthe
hybridmayhavesomeadvantageoveraclassicalpurehydrofoilbecausetherearenostrutsitis
assumedthatthehullwouldbealowblockformwiththefoilsattachednearthekeel.
Withpayloadheldconstant,theactualpowerforthishybridcouldbereducedsomewhat,andthe
displacementcorrespondinglyreduced,inprinciple,forthereductioninfuelandengineweights.
However,evenforthe5050hybridthefoilsareenormous,thewingspanofaBoeing727.
Transferringtheentireloadtothefoils,evenincludingestimatedstrutdrags,resultsinafurther
decreaseto191,000SHP.Thefoils,ofcourse,becomenearlytwiceasbig!Ifwelookatthecurveof
requiredpoweragainstpercentofweightdynamicallysupported,Figure61,weseethatitisnota
straighttrendbetween0and100%,butthatthecurveisconvexup.Thisrepresentsaninherent
penaltyforhavingbothformsoflift,includinginterferencedrag.
Totalweighthasasimilarbehaviorwhenplottedagainstpercentofweightdynamicallysupported,
Figure62.Thehullrequiredtosupportthevehicleatrestandtocontainthepayloadandenginesis
considerablysmallerandlighterthanthe7000tondestroyeroreventhe3500tonhybrid.(The
buoyancyofthefoilsandstrutsisconsiderableandwasincludedintheanalysis.)
104
300000
250000
PowerRequired(SHP)
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
PercentDynamicSupport

Figure61Powerversusdynamicliftfractionfortheexamplegivenintext
8000
7000
PowerRequired(SHP)
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
PercentDynamicSupport

Figure62Vehicleweightversusdynamicliftfractionfortheexamplegiveninthetext
Similarcalculationsperformedforaspeedof35knotsresultedinanotherpairofcurves,butfavoring
themonohull.Forintermediatespeeds,theshapeofthecurveremainsconvexupward.Thehybridis
alwaysnonoptimalatcruise,becauseasthecruisespeedisvaried,oneformoflifthasthebetter
marginalperformance,andthentheotheronedoes.Andbecauseoftheupwardconvexity,hybridismis
penalizedevenwhenthepureformsareequalinperformance.Ifcruiseweretheonlycondition,then
wewoulduseonetypeoflift,appropriateforthespeed,andhybridliftvehicleswouldntevenbea
temptation.
105
8.5 DragCrises
However,evenforalinehaulmission,wemustgetthevehicleuptoitscruisespeed,andbackdown
again.Inmanycaseswhattemptsdesignerstowardhybridsistheneedtodealwithadragcrisis.The
simplestexampleofthisistheplaningboatresistancehump:veryhighdragisexperiencedatacritical
Froudenumber.Asimilardragcrisisisexperiencedbydynamicallysupportedvehiclesflyingatlow
speeds,justabovestall.Thismaybecomethepointwhichdeterminesthevehiclesinstalledpower.The
enginepowerrequiredtogetoverhumpmaydictatethetopspeed,ratherthantheotherwayaround.
Thecleanestexampletheauthorscanthinkofisthecommercialjetliner.Itdoesmakeprovisionfor
passingthroughalowspeedregimeinflight(flapsandslats),butnotasahybridliftvehicle.Itdoeshave
asecondaryliftproducingsystem(wheelsandtires),whichareusedforanevenlowerspeedregime,
butnotinflight.Atypicalweightfractionforlandinggearonanairlinerisabout3percent.
Alternativestohybridliftexistfordealingwithhumps:additionalpowerisone.JATO,catapults,and
stagedvehiclesareotherexamplesofsystemsusedtoassistsingleliftcrafttoflyingspeeds.While
alternativessuchasthesehavenotbeenwidelyusedinthemarinevehiclesetting,theprecedentexists:
earlyhumanpoweredhydrofoilswerelaunchedbyaslingshot.Thecruiseplant(thehumanrider)had
thenmerelythetaskofmaintainingflight,asopposedtoworkinghiswaythroughtakeoffanddrag
hump.Thedesignquestionthatdominatesallsuchtradeoffsisweightfraction:Howmuchweight(lift
capacity)mustbededicatedtodealingwithdragcrises?Whatistheacceptableweightpenaltytopay
foralandinggear?Acomprehensiveanswertothisisoutsidethescopeofthispaper,asitwilldiffer
accordingtothemissionofthevehicle,andtherequirementsofsupportinginfrastructure(thereare,as
yet,nocatapultequippedquaysorpavedrunwaysonharborbottomsforthebenefitofhydrofoil
takeoffsandlandings).
However,someobservationsmaybemadewhichmaybeseentobeobviouslyaxiomatic:theweightof
thelandinggearissubtractedfromthepayloadcarryingabilityofthecraft.Withoutwheelsthe
airlinercouldcarryafewmorepassengersorabitmorefuel,orbeequippedwithabitlesspower.
This,ofcourse,immediatelyleadsintothedesignspiral:eliminatingthelandinggearwillreducethe
weightofthecraftwhichwillreducedragwhichwillpermitreductionsinpowerwhichthemselves
reduceweightandsoforth,untilanewdesignconvergenceisfoundatasmallerlighterairplane.
Inthemaritimeexamplewemayconsiderthelandinggearofthehydrofoil.Thisistheshipshaped
mainhull,whichsupportsthecraftduringtakeoffandlanding.Itisinterestingtocomparetheshiplike
hullsofsomehydrofoilswiththeunusualhullsofthecommercialJetFoilsespeciallywhenweconsider
thattheJetFoilsweredevelopedbyanairplanecompany.Doesthischoiceofhullshaperepresentan
attempttomakethehullformfunctionmorevestigial,moreofmerelyalandinggear,whereother
hydrofoildesignershavechosentomakehullswhicharegoodshipsintheirownright?(Thinkhowgood
ashipafoildeprivedhydrofoilmightbe.Comparethistohowterribleamotorcoachawinglessjetliner
wouldbe.)
106

Figure63Abadplaningboatbutagoodhydrofoil?
8.6 WhenHybridsWork
Therearehybridsthatwork.Afewexamplesare:
FoilassistedvesselsEliminatetheneedforafoilcontrolsystem
Taildraggers
Foilcats
SES(HybridCatandACV)Reducesairleakageandprovidesforuseofmarinepropulsors
SemiSWATHCatamaransReducesshipexcitationbywaves,withoutdemandingactivecontrol
Ourcontentionisthatthesearecaseswherethepresenceoftheotherliftsystembringstothetable
somecapabilityorsolvessomeproblemthatiscausedbythegoodliftsystem.Forexample,afully
submergedhydrofoilisoptimalfromalift/dragpointofview,butitdemandsanactiveridecontrol
system.Ataildraggingconfiguration(withsurfacepiercingbowfoil)caneliminatethisneed.AnACVis
superiortoanSESfromconsiderationonlyofdrag,butbyaddingabout20%ofpassivehydrostatic
supporttheshipcangreatlyreduceairleakageandliftpower,andcanbetteraccommodatemarine
propulsors(whicharesubstantiallymoreeffectivethanairpropulsors.)
8.7 TheVKGap:PhysicsOrJustLackOfImagination?
WhenatypicalvonKarmanGabrielliplotismadeusingaperformancevariableastheordinate,suchas
Kennelstransportfactor(seeSection10.3),itisdifficulttopointoutthesocalledvonKarmangap.
Thetransportfactorofthebesttypesineachspeedregimeseemsfairlywellbehaved,andthecurve
proceedsrelativelysmoothlyfromonetypeofliftacrosstothenext.Wheneconomicperformanceis
plotted,however,theVKgaptendstoshowupasaregionwheretheeconomicsofthebestexamples
107
failtofollowtheprogressionfromlowspeedandlowcostpertonmiletohighspeedandhighcostper
tonmile.Theyareallworse.
Butifthegapisreal,wheredoesitcomefrom?Itisourcontentionthatitcomesfromthenatureoflift
production.TheVKgapisanunavoidableconsequenceofoneformofliftthatexperiencesstalloran
induceddragcrisis,andanotherformthatexperiencesnoinduceddragcrisisbutwhichhasadrag
penaltyathighspeedduetoexcessivewettedsurface.Thereareclassesofvehiclethatdonotseemto
haveagap(atleastwithinpracticalspeeds).Freighttrainsdonot.Further,itseemspossiblethaton
otherplanets,withdifferentvaluesofg,orwithfluiddensitiesandviscositieswidelydifferentfrom
thoseofwaterandair,theVKgapmightnotbesoprominent.Butwehavetodealwiththeplanet
wevegot.
ItisourcontentionthatattemptstodiscovervehicleswhichoperateintheheartoftheVKgap,andstill
makemoney,arelongshots.Itseemstousthatthereismoretobegainedbyconcentratingonplacing
thevehiclewhollyinoneregimeorintheother,andthenminimizingtheweightfractionexpendedon
landinggear.
8.8 Conclusion
Wehavetakenanunusualandconversationaltoneinthispaper,becauseourgoalistoprovoke
cogitation.Weanticipatewehopethatwewillreceivesomevigorousdiscussionandrebuttal.We
askouraudiencetoforgiveusourstyleandconsiderthismessage.Putmostsimply,ourbeliefsare:
Ahybridvehiclecombines,notthebestofbothworlds,buttypicallytheworstofbothworlds
Somehybridizationisrequiredforanydynamicallysupportedvehicle(landinggeararea
necessity)
Thesecondaryformofliftshouldbemadeasvestigialaspossible.Thebesthybridwillbethe
leastbalanced,i.e.,a90/10vehicleissuperiortoa50/50vehicle
Applicationofthisthoughttomodernmarinecraftmayleadtoradicallynewtypesofvehicles
(Whatdoesahydrofoillooklikewhenallothermodesofsupporthavebeenminimized?)
108
9 WhataboutWeinblums?
InSection9weconsideredthequestionofwhyshipsshouldrelyprincipallyononeformoflift.Nowlet
ustackleanotherinterestingquestion:Whyareshipslaterallysymmetric?Aretherecaseswherean
asymmetricalshipwouldhavesomeadvantageoverasymmetricalone?
AWeinblumisanasymmetricalship.ThenamewascoinedbyH.Sdingin1997(Reference4)asa
combinedtributetoDr.Weinblumandareferencetotheasymmetryofagrapevinecalleda
'weinblum'inGerman.

Figure64Asketchofagrapevine,or"weinblum."Note
howtheleavesarestaggeredportstarboardport
starboardetc.
Figure65HerrDr.GeorgWeinblum
HerrSdingstudiedtheeffectthatwouldresultifthetwohullsofacatamaranwerestaggered
longitudinally.Hefoundthatatsomestaggerratiostherecouldbequitedramaticwavecancellation,as
illustratedinFigure66.

Figure66AplotofthewavepatternfromaWeinblumhull,consistingoftwoidenticalhullsstaggeredlongitudinally
NavalArchitectPaulKamenetalinReference7wrote:"Anotherpossiblebenefitofasymmetrical
multihullsismanipulationofthewakewaves.Itmaybepossibletobuildavesselthatleaveswaveson
109
onlyoneside.(Reference16).(Thisviolatestheanswertotheclassictrickquestion,"whathappensif
youtowahalfmodeldownthemiddleofthetank?")
Applicationsforsuchaconfigurationareofcourselimited,butintriguing:Consideralargelakelined
withwaterfrontproperties,subjecttowakedamage.Acircularferryservice,alwayscirclingthelakein
thesamedirection,couldbenefitfromanasymmetricalmultihullthatonlymakessignificantwake
wavesontheoffshoreside.(Theremighthavetobeoneboatfortheclockwiserouteandonefor
counterclockwise.)
110
10 PerformanceMetrics
Asdesignersofadvancedmarinevehicles,weareinpositionsofexplorers.Andasexplorersweneed
skillsinmapmakingandpathfinding.Howshallwedeterminethatweareonthetrackofagoodidea?
Howdoweestimatewhichdirectiontotaketoimproveourdesign?Howdoesourdesigncompareto
others?
ThevonKarman,Kennell,andMcKessontechniquespresentedhereinrepresentexactlythattypeof
skill,andweshallspendafewlecturesacquiringthem.
IfImaybepermittedametaphor,Iwouldlikenthistolearningtodriveacar:Designersofconventional
shipshavethebenefitofawellestablishednetworkofroads,streets,andhighways,andmapsand
othernavigationalaids,andinthewordsofCaptainRon"Ifwegetlostwecanjustpullinsomwheres
andaskdirections."
AsdesignersofAMVswearenotsofortunate.OurDriversTrainingcoursebeginswithinstructionon
howtouseahatchettoclearapaththroughthebrush,howtotestastreamtoseeifit'sshallow
enoughtocross,andmaybeevenhowtofindourpositionusingthestars.Imagineifmotorvehicle
traininginAmericahadtobeginwiththosesubjects!
AsAMVdesignersweareintheshoesofLewisandClark.Thetoolspresentedinthisnextunitarethe
toolsforexploringafrontier.
Thesetoolsareinterestingfortwoseparatepurposes:DesignandAnalysis:
Duringdesignthesetechniquescanserveas'smallscalecharts'ofthedesignspace,totellyou
whereyoumightprofitablylookforasolutionandwhereyoushouldnotbothertolook.
DuringanalysisIcallthem"liedetectors."Thereareplentyofpoorsolutionsfloatingaroundin
themarket,usuallyjustdesignproposals.Howeversometimespoorsolutionsgetpickedup
becauseofstrongmarketingefforts.Criticalthinkingisneeded,andtoolsforcritiqueare
essential.
Onethingyouwillnoteisthatthesetoolsarenotnecessarilyspecifictomarinevehicles.Learntovalue
thewayotherpeoplethinkaboutsimilarproblems,e.g.aerospaceengineers,landvehicledesigners,
etc.
Andfinally,notethatthesetoolsarenotdefinitive:AMVsareexcitingbecausethereisnosingleright
answermanygoodsolutionsexist.Thereforepleasearguewithme.
111
10.1 VonKarman/Gabriellicurve
TheclassictreatmentoftransportefficiencywasaseminalpaperbyTheodorevonKarmanin1950
entitledWhatPriceSpeed?(Reference8)Ihaveneverbeenabletofindacopyofthispaper,butI
haveuseditsprinciplesmanytimes.2
ThevonKarmanmethodologythatIwillsummarizebelowpresentsamapofthecostofspeed,
providingatechniqueforunderstandingwhatisreallyinvolvedinmakingavehiclefaster.Itisnota
completepictureItisalsovitaltounderstandthetradeoffbetweentheVALUEofspeedandtheCOST
ofspeed.Aconceptualmodelforthis,basedontheprinciplesofeconomicscience,wasdevelopedby
Mr.VictorNormaninNorway,seeReference9,andpresentedbyMcKessonbelow.
Dr.TheodorevonKarman(Figure67)was,simply,agenius.Hiscontributionstoengineeringaretoo
numeroustolist.In1950hepublishedaconceptualrelationshipforcomparingtheeffectivenesswhat
hascometobecalledtransportefficiencyofcompetingvehicles.HisgraphisreproducedinFigure
68.
VonKarmansgraphpresentsthespecificpowerrequiredforpropulsionofvehicles.Thisisanon
dimensionalquantity,ofpowerperunittransport.VonKarmansspecificpoweristheinverseofthe
modernTransportEfficiency.
Anyefficiencymetricisalwaysdesignedafractionwiththegoalinthenumeratorandthecostinthe
denominator.Thequestiontheniswhatarethegoalandcostoftransport?Theansweristhatthe
goalistomovesomeweightatsomespeed,andthecostisthepowerrequiredtoaccomplishthis.
Thus:
TransportEfficiency: T=WeightxSpeed/Power
VonKarmancollectedadatabaseofexamplesandplottedthebestofeachclassofvehicle..Hisgraph
isreproducedinFigure68.Hethenobservedthatthereappearstobealine,diagonalonhislog/log
axes,thatdefinesanapparentfrontierorlimitingvalue.Healsoobservedthattherewerenovehiclesin
therangeof100200mphthatlayalongthislinethattherewasanapparentgapinourabilityto
accomplishtheideallevelofperformance.ThisregioniscalledthevonKarmanGap.
IhaverepeatedthevonKarmanexerciseseveraltimes,askingclassesofundergraduatestocollectdata
onthespeed,weight,andpowerofavarietyofvehicles.Ihavecollectedallofthisdata,withoutmuch
scrubbing,andplotteditinvonKarmansstyleseeFigure69.
2
AnexcellentpaperonusingexploitinginapracticaldesignthevonKarman'TransportEfficiency'
concept,isgivenbyDeanSchleicherhere:http://www.dlbainc.com/photos/pubs/19.pdf
112

Figure67TheodorevonKarman

Figure68VonKarmansgraphofTransportEfficiency
113
von Karman - Gabrielli Diagram
1.000
1 10 100 1000
0.100
Specific Power (W/kg*m/s)
0.010
0.001
SPEED (m/s)

Figure69vonKarmandatacollectedbyaclassofundergraduates
ComparethecloudofdatainFigure69withvonKarmansoriginalcurves.Weseeremarkablysimilar
characteristics:ThereisalobeofspotswherevonKarmanhasnotedmerchantships.Thereisalobe
ofdataathighspeedsneartheaircraft.Thereisanarguablefrontierthatcouldbedrawnasadiagonal
onthelowerright.
Andthereisagaparound100knots.
10.2 TheValueofSpeed
ThevonKarmanmethodologythatIsummarizedabovepresentsamapofthecostofspeed,providinga
techniqueforunderstandingwhatisreallyinvolvedinmakingavehiclefaster.Itisnotacomplete
pictureItisalsovitaltounderstandthetradeoffbetweentheVALUEofspeedandtheCOSTofspeed.
Aconceptualmodelforthis,basedontheprinciplesofeconomicscience,wasdevelopedbyMr.Victor
NormaninNorwayinReference9.
Theeconomicsoffastshippingisthebalancebetweenthecostofshipmentandthevalueofshipment.
Inthiscase,thecostofspeedcomparedtothevalueofspeed.Thisdoesntmatterwhetherwe're
talkingabout40knotshipmentsor10knotshipments,thebalance,theprincipleisthesame.
114
10.2.1 TheCostofSpeed
Speakingfirstofthecostofspeed,weknowthatitobeysthelawsofphysics.Wecansayafewthingsin
generalaboutthecostofspeed.Weknowthatitdoesnotgothroughzero.Thereissomecost
associatedmerelywithbuildingametalboxaroundacargo.Weknowthatitriseswithspeed.(These
thingsareobvioustousbutinfact,frequentlyweseepeoplewhowillignoreafewofthesetruths.)
Figure70presentsaconceptualgraphofthesetruths.

Figure70TheunarguabletruthsoftheCostofSpeed
10.2.2 TheValueofSpeed
Inthesamewayofthecostofspeed,weknowacoupleofkeypointsaboutthevalueofspeed.Thereis
someminimumusefulspeedbelowwhichIneednotbothertoshipthegoods.Ifyoucantmovethem
atleastthisspeed,itsnousetome.Andevenifyoucanmovethemabovesomeotherspeedthat'sof
nousetome,perhapsbecauseanotherlinkinthetransportationchainbecomessaturated,perhapsthe
marketcannotabsorbthegoodsthatfastwhateverthelimitmaybe.Thiscanbesketchedasagraph
asinFigure71.AndbetweenthesetwocornersthereisaregionwhichIhavedepictedasastraight
line.
115

Figure71TheconceptualsketchoftheValueofSpeed
And,ofcourse,intheperfectworldthevalueofspeedandthecostofspeedmeetatsomeuniquepoint
andthisisthepointatwhichIshipthegoods.Itsusuallynotquitethisclean.
Inallofthesediscussions,IhavemadetheimplicitassumptionthatshipspeedisthespeedthatI'm
talkingabout.This,ofcourse,isbecauseI'mashipdesigner.NaturallyIthinkthatmypartofthe
transportchainisthemostimportantpart.Butinfact,shipspeedisonlyonepartoftotalthroughput
Thereisnopointinhurryingtheshiptoarriveattheportjustatthetimethatdockworkersquitforthe
day.Thereisnopointinhurrying10,000TEUtoaportthatcanonlyoffloadthemslowly,limited,letus
say,bylandspaceavailable.InmyportionoftheUnitedStates,oneoftheattractivetypesofspeedis
frequencyofservice.IfyourcargoarrivesatcertainterminalsinSeattle,wecanputitonabargeleaving
forAlaskatoday.WehaveanotherbargeleavingforAlaskatomorrowmorning,anotheronetomorrow
afternoonandsoon.Thefrequencyofserviceissuchthata10knotshiptechnologysailingdailyresults
infasterservicethanaonceaweekservicebya30knotship.
10.2.3 TechnologyAffectsCost
Shiptechnologyaffectsthecostofspeed,that'swhyIdweltsolongonthesustentiontriangle.The
curveofcostofspeedthatIshowedafewmomentsagois,infact,thebottomofafamilyofcurves
seeFigure72.IfIreallywantonlytohousethecargoandmoveitvery,veryslowly,clearlyabargeisthe
righthullform.IfIwantedtomoveatconventionalshipspeeds,thenaconventionalshipistheright
toolforthejob.Iflwanttomoveatspeedsof50or100knots,anSESorotherformmightbetheright
hullforthejob.Infact,thecostofspeedgraphbeginstolookalotlikevonKarmansgraph.
116

Figure72Thecostofspeeddependsuponthetechnologyselected
10.2.4 CargoAffectsValue
Wellifthesustentiontechnologyaffectsthecostofthespeed,thensurelythenatureofthecargo
affectsthevalueofthespeed.Thereareafewclassesofcargothatareimmediatelyobvious:Time
insensitivegoods.Thelasttimeamajortechnologychangedthespeedofshippingwaswhensteam
replacedsail.Thelastcargotomoveinsailingwasnitrate:birdguano.Itwasn'tatalltimesensitive.In
fact,itdidn'tmuchmatterhowlongittooktogetittothemarketaslongasyougotitthereeventually,
andnitratewaslastshippedinsailingships.
Ontheotherhandperishablecargohasanobvioustimesensitivity.Kiwifruitandstarfruitwere
mentionedatoneconferenceasexamplesofhighlyperishablecargoes.Insomeofthesecaseswetake
othertechnologicaltoolsandwetrytochangewhatIwillcallthe"perishableness"ofthecargo,butI
believethatthehandsofnaturecanonlybepushedsofar,andthattherecomesapointatwhichspeed
isstilltheonlytoolforgettingthecargotomarket.
Therearetimesensitivecargoeswhosesensitivityispurelyeconomicinnature.Computers,ifdelayed
longenoughinshipment,mightinfactreachobsolescenceoratleastlosemarketvaluesubstantiallyen
route.Andifthatexampleisalittletooextreme,IknowofonecaseofanAmericanautomobile
manufacturerwhobuiltautomobilebodiesinItalyandflewthemtotheUnitedStatesforfinal
assembly.Notbecauseautomobilebodiescan'tbeshippedincontainersbutbecausethecustomers
can'twait.Theywanttoorderthecarnowandhaveittoday.Wecan'tquitegettotoday.
117
10.2.5 EconomicsAffectsBoth
Nowiftechnologyaffectsthecostofspeedandthenatureofthecargoaffectsthevalueofspeed,then
obviouslytheworld'seconomyaffectsthemboth.Thecostofspeedwaspresentedasbeingacurve
whichobeysthelawsofphysics.Whatthecurvetrulyis,isacurveoftheenergyconsumedvs.speed.In
thesamewaythevaluecurve(orthelinearregionofit)isacurveofthecostoftime.Thisslopecouldbe
expressedintermsofdollarsperhour.Dollarsperhourisalsoofcoursethemeasureoflaborrates,
whichmeasurethepriceoftimeforpeople.Howmuchmustyoupayamantowaitortodoanythinghe
doesntwanttodo?Inthesamewayhowmuchmustyoupaytotiemoneyup?Thatsinterestrates.
Thatisthepriceoftimeasitaffectscargo.Laborratesarethetoolformeasuringthevalueoftimetoa
person,interestratesareatoolformeasuringthevalueoftimetoacargo.
NowIneedtoquicklysaythatI'manavalarchitectandnotaneconomist.I'vetakenthisargumentfrom
Reference9.ButIthinkitsveryimportanttounderstandtheeconomicprinciplessothatwecanapply
themtoourownsituation.WhatIhopethatyouleavewith,isnotaforecastoftomorrow,butthe
abilitytomakeyourownforecastbasedontheeconomicrealitiesofyourownstate.

Figure73Nearlyacenturyof"valueoftime"dataforpeople,correctedforinflation
Laborratesarethemeasureofthecostoftimeforaman.Figure73showsthelaborrateofthe20th
century.Wehaveseenaneightfoldriseinthevalueoftimeinthislast100years.Thisiscorrectedfor
inflation.
Atthesametimeoilpricesmaybetakenasthecostofenergyinotherwords,thecostofspeed.Over
themajorityofthiscentury,wesawanetdecreaseinthepriceofenergy.
118

Figure74Nearlyacenturyof"CostofEnergy"data,addedtothepreviousgraph
Theresultwasthatupuntilthe1970s,wesawa16foldincreaseintheimportanceoftimecomparedto
thepriceofenergy.Thatistosayintheratioofthosetwocurveslaborratedividedbyoilprice.When
oilpricesarelowcomparedtolaborrates,speedisvaluable,speedismarketable.Acrossthefirst70
yearsofthiscentury,speedwasimportant,itwasmarketable.Acrossthefirst70yearsofthiscentury,
wesawtremendousimprovementsinthespeedoftransportingpeople.
RememberthatthiscurveappliestopeoplebecausethefigureforthevalueoftimethatIhaveusedis
laborrates.Thinkofthetechnologiesthatweredevelopedinthe1960's,inthepostwarperiod,inthe
betweenwarperiods,tremendouslyimportanttechnologiesinthetransportofmen.Thinkofthelackof
suchdevelopmentsthatoccurredduringthe80's,duringtheoilshockperiods.Therewereno
supersonictransportsconceivedandpromulgatedthewaytheConcordewasjustadecadeearlier.
Figure73wasbasedonthevalueoftimeformen.Letslookatthevalueoftimeforcargo.Themeasure
againisinterestrates,plottedinFigure75.Thewindowhereissmaller.Thisisstrictlythepostwar
window.ThisisUSdata,butinfacttheworldfollowedthesametrend.Arisinginterestrateperiod,a
lowerinterestrateintheearly1970s,asharprisetothe80's,andI'msorrythisdatadoesn'tgoupto
today.ButIcanstillcompareittotheoilpricesforthesameperiod.Again,inthe1960s,thevalueof
timetocargowashighcomparedtothepriceofenergy.
119

Figure75Thevalueoftimeforgoods(interestrates)for50yearsofUShistory(Source:DollarDaze.org)
Inthe1960s,speedpaid.Speedwasmarketable.SL7sweredeveloped.Alotofhighspeedfreight
developmentstookplace.Alotofportsintheworldsawtheirairportsbecomemoreimportantthan
theirseaportsduringthistime.Duringtheoilshockperiod,andintothe80's,anoppositetrendexisted.
Therewaslessdevelopmentofnewspeedtechnologies,butthetwocurveswerestillprettymuch
paralleltoeachother.
Whathashappenedinthe90s,andwillhappeninthefuture?Itsagoodquestion.Arethesecurves
crossing?Isspeedbecomingmoreimportantthantimeonceagain?Somepeoplethinkso,somepeople
thinknot.
10.2.6 WhatDoestheFutureHold?
WhatIwanttodoistogiveyouatoolsothatyoucanusedatafromyourownsituationtomakeyour
ownforecastsandunderstandthepressuresaffectingyourdesigndecisions.Ican't,however,resistthe
temptationtodoalittleforecastingandalittlecrystalballreading.
Worldwageratesareprobablystable.Interestratesarelow.Oilprices,however,seemtoberisingafter
takingadipayearorsoago.Ifthevalueoftimeisstableandthecostofspeedisrising,thenthevalue
ofspeedisdeclining.Iamafastshiptechnologistwhobelievesthatcargoesaregettingslower.
120
Whythenarepeopledevelopingfastships?ItsbecausethepointthatonFigure72ismarkedwith
questionmarksisactuallyanairplane.AndIbelievethattherearecargoesthatmaymoveoutofair
freightandintoseafreightifthereisaseafreighttechnologyjustonestepontheladderbelowthem.In
thesameway,Iwillnotbesurprisedtoseecargoesmovefrom,say,conventionalshipstobargelines,
fromthesamepressures.Iunderstandthatinthe1960salotofportssawtheirairportbecomemore
importantthantheirseaport.Ifthepredictionisright,wemayseeacorrectingtrendinthecoming
decades.Reducingthevalueofspeedmaydropcertaincargoesoutofairfreight.
Againmyanalogyissteppingdowntheladder.Theremaybeaneconomicpressuretosteptoonerung
lower.Thatonlyworksifthereis,infact,arungonerunglower.Thatswhysomanyshippersare
developinghighspeedships,toputaviablealternativejustbelowtheairfreightalternative.And,asI
said,Ibelievethissameeffectwillshowupinothercargoesaswell.
ThehighspeedshiptechnologythatImentionedappliestotheseotherareasaswell.Wecanimagine
SWATHbargesmakingitpossibletoshipbargecargointoroughseas,seasthatcannowonlybeserved
byconventionalships.Wecanimaginecatamaranbargesmakingpossibletohavebargetrafficata
speedofsay18knots.Wemightevenimagineroutesthatarenotbeingservednowseeingtraffic
because,iftheeconomicpressureforspeeddeclines,aroutethatis"tooslow"becomes"fastenough."
Ifthecostofspeedislow,andthevalueoftimeishigh,thenspeedsells.
Butyouvegottoknowwhatyouremovingpeopleormerchandise
PayattentiontoglobaleconomicsitdirectlyaffectsYOURbusiness
YounowhaveatooltoknowWHICHDIRECTIONtheeffectwillbe
Thereareothercompetingtechnologiesthanjustyourclassmates
Fastshipsmaybebetterthanslowairplanes
Areweshipdesigners,orarewetransportationproviders?
10.3 KennellTransportFactor
In1998ColenKennellintroducedavariationonthevonKarman/GabriellimetricandnameditTransport
Factor(seeReference10.)AdditionalbackgroundonthisapproachisgiveninDr.Kennell's2003
presentation,availableonlineathttp://www.sname.org/committees/design/SD5/HSSA.pdf
ThemotivationforthestudyofTransportFactoristhatsamemotivationthatwehaveencountereda
fewtimepreviously,andthatwewillencounteragain:Totrytomakesenseoutoftoomanyoptions.
Dr.KennellquotesKennethS.M.Davidson(Reference11):
"Inthesedaysofrapidchangeandexpandingpossibilities,theneedforaclearoverallviewhas
alreadymadeitselffeltandseemslikelytogrowgreater.Notlongagotheproblemaroseof
assessingasfaraspossibleinadvancethepotentialitiesofaproposednoveltypeoftransport
craftthatwouldhavecharacteristicslyinginthevastregionbetweenmerchantshipsand
commercialairplanes."
Toputitmorecolloquially:Thechallengeisinmakingsenseofitall!Butthroughthelensof
TransportFactor(orothersimilardevices,asweshallsee)welearnseveralimportantconclusions:
Thereisstructuretotheuniverse
Highspeedshipsaredifferent,butfitinwithconventionalships
121
Yardsticks/metricsareusefulforestablishingfamiliarityatthehighestlevel
Parametricassessmentscanprovideusefulinsights
LetusnowdelveintothedetailsoftheTransportFactor,andseehowtheseconclusionemerge.
10.3.1 TransportFactorDefined
KennellsTransportFactorisdefinedas:
TF=K(W/(SHP/Vk))
Or
TF=W(lbs)xV(fps)/(550xSHP(hp))
InthiscasetheconstantKbecomes(1/550)andhastheeffectofconvertingthepower(SHP)intoa
pseudoresistance.Kis(1/326)whenVisinknots,asinKennellsoriginaldefinition.
Letslookatthisrelationshipalittlefurther.Considerthecaseofaship.UsingEnglishunits,we
recognizethefollowingrelationships:
EHP=Rt(lbs)*V(knots)/326
SHP=EHP/OPC

ThustheTFcomponentSHP/VKisfoundtobe:
SHP/VK=EHP/OPC/VK=Rt/(326*OPC)
TF=K(W/(SHP/Vk))
=(1/326)(W/RT)(326*OPC)
=OPC*W/RT
Inotherwords,foranOPC=1.0,theTFissimplytheshipLift/Dragratio.Thishasimportant
implicationsinlaterdiscussions.
AkeyelementoftheTransportFactorformulationwasDr.KennellsinsightthattheTFofthetotal
systemcanbedecomposedbydecomposingthe"weight"terminthenumerator.Thus,asKennell
proposes:
Since:
W=W(ship)+W(cargo)+W(fuel)
Inthesamemanner:
TF=TF(ship)+TF(cargo)+TF(fuel)
122
Breakingthesystemdownintothesethreepartscangiveusefulinsightsinto"wheretheworkisgoing"
intheship.Thatistosay,ashipthathasaverylargefractionofit'sTFdevotedtoTF(fuel)isexpending
itsenergycarryingitsownfuelaround,leavingverylittleforthecarriageofcargo.
10.3.2 StudyofSize&SlendernessEffects
LetsbeginbygettingfamiliarwithTransportFactorinitsgeneralbehavior.Kennellprovidesa
collectionofdataverysimilartovonKarmans,reproducedinFigure76.Dr.JulioVergarapresentsa
verysimilartrendline,reproducedinFigure77(privatecommunication.)

Figure76Kennell'sTFtrendline,fromDesignTrendsinHighSpeedTransport,CKennell,MarineTechnology,vol35,no3,
July1998
123

Figure77TFTrendlineproposedbyDr.JulioVergara(Chile)
Wewillpresentanddiscussmanysuchtrendlines,bothforTF,orforvonKarmansTransportEfficiency,
orforMcKessonsL/Ddrag.Itisvitaltounderstandthattheseareobservedtrends,notlawsofphysics.
Thatistosaythatwe,theauthorsofthesecurves,noticethatthereappearstobeafrontierwhich
nobodyhasyetcrossed.Thisdoesnotmeanthatthisfrontierisreal,itdoesnotmeanthatitwillnever
becrossed,indeeditdoesnotevenmeanthatitcannecessarilybeapproachedorarrivedat.Itis
merelyanobservedtrend.
Thefirstthingtonoteinthesetrendlinesisthetendencywithspeed:Itisonlypossibletoattainahigh
TFatalowspeed.Ifspeedincreases,thenthetotalTFappearstonecessarilyfall.Butspeedisntthe
onlydeterminantofpossibleTFsizeisapparentlyimportantaswell.Kennellprovidessomedataon
smallfastships(Figure78),andasweseenotallofthemareabletoapproachtheTFfrontier.So
speedaloneisnotenough,todeterminethestateofthepossible.
124

Figure78Kennell'sexperiencedataforsmallfastships.Notethatnotallofthemareabletoarriveat"StateoftheArt"
performance
Next,Kennellconsiderstheeffectofslenderness.In1998heconductedastudyof10,000ton
monohulls,ofdifferentslendernessratios.TheresultsareplottedinFigure79.Itisclearlyevidentthat
increasingtheslendernessofthehullhelpsthehulltoapproachtheTFstateoftheart.Infact,as
mentionedintheearlierchaptersofthisbook,thedesireforslendernessistheveryraisondtrefor
severaloftheadvancedmarinevehicles,mostnotablythecatamaranandtrimaran.TheCatamaranand
Trimaranformsareshiptypesthatmakehighslendernessfeasible,byfindinganothersolutiontothe
stabilityproblem.

Figure79Kennell'sdataontheeffectofslenderness,from"TheEffectofShipSizeonTransportFactorProperties"1998
125
Kennells1998paperfullyrecognizesthis,andwentontostudycatandtrihulls,bothhaving
slendernessofabout10,butofdifferentsize.Theyfoundthatthelargertheship,thehighertheTF
seeFigure80.

Figure80Kennell'sgraphoftheeffectofsizeuponattainedTF
10.3.3 FuelConsumptionTFfuel
KennellsnextstepwastoexplorewhatwecanlearnfromtheweightbreakdownoftheTF,andin
particularwhatTFmighthavetosayaboutrelativefuelconsumptionofvariouscraft.RecallthatTF=
TF(ship)+TF(fuel)+TF(cargo).Kennellreports(Figure81)historicaldatathatshowsalineartrend
betweenrangeandhowmuchTFisspentonfuel,whichdoesnotappeartodependonshipsize.(The
readermaynotknowit,butthemonohullshipsplottedinKennellsdatarangeacrossabouttwoorders
ofmagnitudeofdisplacement,fromtheARStotheSL7.)
126

Figure81Kennell'shistoricaldataonTFfueltrends
Whywouldthisbetrue?LetslookathowfuelloadsarecalculatedforUSNavyships,andallofa
suddenthissurprisingtrendwillbecomeclear.
USNavyfuelloadsarecalculatedbytheproceduregiveninDDS2001.Inbrief,theprocedureand
assumptionsareasfollows:
Assumptions:
constantdisplacement
highinstalledpower
endurancespeed=servicespeed~fullpower
hotelloadfuelisnegligible(~5%)
noburnablefuelatendofvoyage
Fuelweight= (SFC*avg.endurancepower*Range/endurancespeed)
*(1.0+fuelratecorrectionfact.)(1.0+plantdeteriorationfact.)/(1.0tailpipeallowance)
Since:
TF(fuel)=K*Fuelweight*VK/SHP
WecanseethatacalculationofTF(fuel)accordingtoDDS200willresultintheSHPandVKcancelling
outofthetwoformulae,leaving:
127
TF(fuel)=K*(SFC*Range)*
(1.0+fuelratecorrectionfact.)(1.0+plantdeteriorationfact.)/(1.0tailpipeallowance)
Orapproximately:
TF(fuel)=.003622*SFC*Range
Whichisexactlythelinearrelationshiprevealedinthedata.
10.3.4 SFCeffects
TheinsightabovetellsusthatnotonlyisTF(fuel)(i.e.TheamountoftheavailableTFthatmustbe
spentoncarryingfuelaround)dependentlinearlyuponrange,butitisdependentlinearlyuponSFCas
well.Ifwecouldcutinhalf,say,thefuelburnedperkilowattofpowerproduced,thenwewould
similarlycutinhalftheamountofTFthatwehavetoexpendonfuelcarriage,asopposedtocarriageof
cargo.
A1997sealifttechnologyworkshoppublishedacollectionofstateoftheartvaluesforSFCofvarious
machines.KennelltookthatdataandappliedittotheTF(fuel)=f(range,SFC)formulatoproducethe
trendlinesinFigure82.
TFfuel CARDEROCK
SURFACE WARFARE CENTER DIVISION
Constant Displacement
Steam SS Gas Turbine
CC Gas Turbine
Diesel
Fuel Cell
Machinery SFCs from 1997 HSS Technology Workshop

Figure82Kennell'splotoftherelationshipbetweenpropulsiontechnologyandTFfuel
10.3.5 FuelWeightFraction
IftheTFoftheentiresystemcanbepredictedfromtheStateoftheArtline,andtheTFexpendedon
fuelisalinearfunctionofrangeandSFC,thenhowmuchofthetotalTFisusuallyexpendedasTF(fuel)?
ThiswasKennellsnextinquiry.
128
Hisdata(Figure83)showsthatthisisdependentupontwothings:Rangeandspeed.Highspeed
vehiclesconsumemoreoftheirTFbudgetcarryingfuel,thandolowspeedvehicles.Notethatthisis
notthenumericalamountofTF,butratherthefractionoftotalTFthatisspentonTF(fuel).

Figure83Kennell'sfindingontheproportionofTFdevotedtofuel,asafunctionofspeedandrange
10.3.6 EmptyshipWeightTfship
HavingnowestablishedsometrendsfortotalTF,andsomerelationshipsfortheamountofTFthatis
spentonfuel,howmuchoftheTFisspentjustupontheemptyship?Recallonceagain:
TF=TFship+TFfuel+TFcargo
TFship=TFTFfuelTFcargo
TFship+TFcargo=TFTFfuel
TFTFfuel=K*(1+Wship/Wcargo)*(Wcargo/SHP)*VK
InhispaperOntheNatureoftheTransportFactorComponentTFship,(Reference12)Kennellusedthe
abovederivationtostudythetrendsforbothW(ship)/W(cargo)andW(cargo)/SHPthetwokeyterms
inthefinalTF(ship+cargo)relationship.ThekeyresultisgiveninFigure84.Thisshowsthatthereisa
directrelationshipbetweenthesetwoparameters,whereonetradesagainsttheother.
129

Figure84Kennell'sfindingoftherelationshipbetweenshipweight,cargoweight,andSHP
ThenextrelationshipregardingemptyshipweightthatKennellidentifiesistherelationshipbetween
thisweightandthedensityofthedeadweight.
Deadweightdensityisdefinedas:
DeadweightDensity=(cargowt+fuelwt)/(cargovol+fuelvol)
InFigure85KennellhasaverycleargraphicwhichshowsthetrendofDeadweightDensityasafunction
ofshiptypeorshipmission.Hedoesntincludethem,butIsuspectthatOreCarriersmayhavethe
highestDeadweightDensityofanycommonmerchantship.
WhatKennellhasfoundisthatDeadweightDensityisausefulpredictorofthetotalship/lightship
weightrelationship.ShipswithlowDeadweightDensity(e.g.Ferries)willtendtohavehighEmptyship
WeightFractionsasdepictedinKennellsFigure86.Thisistrueevenforhighspeedships(almostallof
whicharelowdeadweightdensitytodate)seethefewaddeddataspotsinFigure87andforaircraft
(Figure88.)
130
Deadweight Density CARDEROCK

SURFACE WARFARE CENTER DIVISION
Deadweight Density = (cargo wt + fuel wt)/(cargo vol + fuel vol)
High Speed Ferry
Conventional Sealift
Tanker

Figure85Kennell'sgraphicdepictionofthenatureofDeadweightDensityfordifferentshiptypes

Figure86Lowdensitypayloadstendtodemandhighervaluesoflightshipweightfraction
131

Figure87Highspeedshipsfollowthesametrend
132

Figure88Evenaircraftfollowthesametrend!
10.3.7 ConclusionsonKennellsTransportFactor
TheKennellTFformulationisanotherinaseriesofattemptstogaininsightintothevariousnichesof
marinevehicledesignchoices.ItobviouslybuildsonthefoundationlaidbyvonKarmanin1950.Inmy
opinionthesinglegreatestinsightattributabledirectlytoTFistherealizationthattheliftweightmaybe
decomposedintothevariouscomponentweightsoftheship,andthatwemaythinkoftheTF
equationasgivingusacertainamountofTFtospendandthenencouragingustospenditwisely,to
maximizethatamountavailableforcargo,whilerecognizingtheneedsforTF(ship)andTF(fuel),andthe
itemsthatdrivethem.
InKennellsterms,theTFshowsus:
Thereisstructuretotheuniverse
Highspeedshipsaredifferent,butfitinwithconventionalships
Yardsticks/metricsareusefulforestablishingexpectations
Parametricassessmentscanprovideusefulinsights
10.4 McKessonParametrics
VonKarmaninventedtheideaoftransportefficiency,anditsusetocharacterizetherelative
performanceofvariousmachines.Dr.KennelldevelopedtheideafurtherwithhisTransportFactor.
McKessonhasaddedtothisbodyofdiscussion,withafiveparametersolutionthatcansometimesyield
surprisinginsightsintothedomainofvariousshiptypes.Thisworkwasoriginallypresentedin
Reference13.
133
Theobjectiveofthiseffortwastoexplorethemajorparametersthatdrivehighspeedmilitarysealift
vehicledesign,andtousetheseparametersinadesignmodetosizethepotentialsolutionspaceforany
givensetofmissionrequirements.
Despitethefocusuponthedesignnatureofthetask,thismethodisnotadesigntool.Thesolution
spacewillincludemanydifferentkindsofsolutions,suchasmonohulls,SES,catamarans,etc,andthe
solutiondoesntnecessarilyknowwhichtypeofvehicleisbeingmodeled.Neitherdoesthistechnique
telltheuserthecharacteristics(length,forexample)ofthesolutionbeingmodeled.Itmerelyindicates
thatasolutionispossible,ofcertaingrossparameters.
Giventhisverytopleveluseforthetool,itismostemphaticallynotatoolfordisputingfinescale
variationsfromonedesigntoanother.Itmay,however,beaveryeffectiveliedetectoratthetop
level.
10.4.1 TheSampleQuestion
In20052006theUSNavysOfficeofNavalResearch(ONR)contractedwithAlionScience&Technology
toassistinexploringthefeasibilityofhighspeedmilitarysealift,underaprogramdesignatedHSSL.
Thequestionwasintentionallyleftsomewhatvague,sothatresearcherswouldenjoythefreedomto
followthemostfruitfulpathways.Therequirementswerealsomadedeliberatelydemanding,inorder
toprovokeinnovation.
Therequirementswereasfollows:
3600LTpayload
43knotspeed
5000nauticalmilerange
ONRsstatedgoalwastoaccomplishtheabovemissionwithashipoflessthan560feetlengthand
12,000tonsdisplacement.Thisparametricmethodwasdevelopedinordertofindoutifitwaspossible
toperformthismissionatthe12,000tondisplacement,oratleastmeasuringhowclosetoitonecan
get.
Thereisnoshortageofconceptsforhighspeedcargoships.Instead,whatisneededisameansfor
sortingthroughthemyriadpossibilities,anddeterminingwherethemostfruitfulavenuesofexploration
lie.
Inthisvein,thisparametricmethodologyisalsoaimedspecificallyathelpingtoanswerthequestion
WheremustImakeabreakthrough,inordertoattaintheHSSLdesiredlevelofperformance?
Thissectionwillintroducethemethod,andwillexploresomebutnotallofthepossibleramifications
andapplicationsofthemethod.Someoftheseusesinclude:
Useasaliedetectortodetectclaimsthatarewellabovethecurrentstateoftheart
Useasapredictivetool,totellonewheretheywillendupiftheysimplystickwiththecurrent
stateoftheart
134
Useasathoughtprovokingtool,tonudgeonetowardtheexplorationofconceptsnotnormally
entertainedinnavalarchitecture.
10.4.2 MajorParameters
McKessonfindsthatfivemajorvehicleparametersgovernhighspeedcargocarriage:
Amountofpowerrequired,whichdependsupon:
o VehicleLift/Dragratio(topredictDrag)
Shipweight:FuelWeight,whichdependsupon
o OverallPropulsiveCoefficient(toconvertDragtoPower)
o SpecificFuelConsumption(toconvertpowertofuelweight)
Shipweight:Lightshipweight,whichdependsupon:
o Weightofpower
Weightofcargocarriage
Inpractice,theprocedureflowsasfollows:
UseL/D,OPC,andSFCtogetfuelconsumption
Assumeashipweightbreakdown:
WeightofPower
+ WeightofCargo
+ WeightofCargoCarriage
+ WeightofFuel
= FULLLOAD
WeightofFuel/FuelConsumption=Range
Letusthereforebeginbyconsideringtheamountofpowerrequired.
10.4.3 Lift/DragRatios
LetusrecallDr.KennellsTF,andthefactthatitisreducibletosimplyLift/Dragforthevehicles
considered.InFigure89KennellpresentedacurveofTF(orL/D)versusspeed,fordifferentshipsizes,
andhe(correctly)concludedthattheL/Dperformanceforagivenspeedvariedwithshipsize.
ButinChapter5ofthisbook,McKessonhasremindedusthatwecancombineshipsizeandshipspeed
intooneparametertheFroudeNumber.Whathappensif,insteadofusingdimensionalspeed,
KennellhadcombinedspeedandsizeandplottedTFvsFroudeNumber?
SeeKennellscurve,reproducedagainasFigure89.Notethatheprovidestrendlinesforfourtrimarans
at100,1,000,10,000,and50,000LT.Letsconsiderjustthelasttwoofthese,the10,000and50,000LT
ships.
Boththe10,000and50,000LTshipsattainTFvaluesof40,butatdifferentspeeds.Forthe10,000LT
shipaTFof40isattainednear30knots,whereasforthe50,000LTshipthisoccursnear40knots.This
givesrisetoKennellsconclusionthatTFdependsonsize.
135
But note what happens if we look at the Froude Number. The volumetric Froude number for a 10,000
LT ship at 30 knots is 1.06. The Froude number for a 50,000 LT ship at 40 knots is 1.08 virtually the
same! Indeed, if Kennells data is replotted against Froude Number instead of against dimensional
speed we find that all of his lines collapse to a single curve.
Figure 89 - Kennell's curve showing the effect of size up

upon TF
10.4.4 McKesson Best Practices L/D Curve

McKesson performed the same type of analysis using his own data set, and produced a single curve of
apparent best practice L/D ratio for real marine vehicles. Further, he produced an intentionally-
intentionally
simplistic curve fit to this observed frontier. The curve and a few key data points are shown in Figure
90. What this yields is a very simple equation that may be used as a parametricmetric predictor of best
practices ship drag. I have intentionally kept the equation simple, both so that it can be easily
remembered (the parameters are five four three) but also so that its very simplicity will serve as a
cognitive reminder of the top-level
level nature of the analysis. Certainly one could generate a more precise
fit of some sort, having values with five significant digits, but that is not the point of this technique, as
will be demonstrated in subsequent paragraphs.
The point to be taken at this step is that we have a very simple equation, dependent only upon ship size
and speed, that can yield an estimate of what drag value it should be possible to attain, if one does a
good job of designing the right ship for that point.
The Best Practices

ractices Curve is not a model of physics. It is, instead, an approximate description of the
observed frontier or apparent state of the art. It does not state that a ship of Fn=X must have L/D as
136

given,butratherthatitcouldhavethatL/D,providedthattherightchoiceismadeforotherparameters
suchashulltype,length,etc.
Further,L/Disnotametricofshipgoodness.Instead,itismoreaccuratetothinkofitasanextremely
simpleshipresistancepredictionformula.(FortheHSSLprojectabettermeasureofshipgoodnessis
shipdisplacement.)
Also,notethattheBestPracticesequationusesargumentsthataresurprisinglyroundnumbers:5,4,
and3.Thisisintentionalandservestwopurposes:Itresultsinanequationthatiseasytoremember,
whileatthesametimetheveryroundnessofthenumbersremindstheuserthatthisisnotintendedto
beahighfidelitymodel,justausefulone.
OnevalueofthisL/Dcurveisthatitintroducesthefactthatresistancedependsuponsize.In1997inan
earlierlookatsealiftIproposeda40knotL/Dof20,butasFigure90shows,itiseasytoexceedthat
valuesubstantiallybymakingthevessellargeenough.Indeed,accordingtotheBestPracticesCurve
anL/Dof100isattainableat43knots,ifthevesseldisplacementisapproximately700,000tons.
Unfortunatelyatthissize,evenwithL/D=100therequiredpowerwouldbeover3.5Millionhorsepower.
Clearlythislatterisanabsurdexample,oratleastonethatliesoutsidetheboundariesoftheONRHSSL
project.HoweverinaparagraphtofollowIwillreturntomorerealisticexplorationsoftheimpactsof
thisdependency.
Finally,notethattheBestPracticesCurveisnotaperfectfitofthedata:Therearesomeshipsthat
exceedthecurve.Inotethis,andwillreturntothisinthelaterexampleswhereinIexploitthesepoints.
ThisgivesusatoolforthefirstofthefivemajorparametersL/DasaDragPredictor.

Figure90McKesson's"ObservedFrontier"ofshipLift/Dragratio,includingselectednameddatapoints
137
10.4.5 FuelWeight
InadditiontotheL/Dcurve,thenextkeyparameteristheweightoffuel.Thisisreducedtotwo
componentparts:thepropulsiveefficiencyoftheshipandthefuelefficiencyofthepowerplant.
IbeginwiththeoverallpropulsivecoefficientOPC.AsusedhereinthisisdefinedastheratioofEffective
Power(EHP)dividedbytotalinstalledShaftHorsepower(SHP.)Further,bytotalinstalledIrefertothe
installedMaximumContinuousRating,andnotmerelytothatfractionofMCRaboutwhichtheplantis
balanced.ThusinaNavypowerplantIwouldcalculateOPCbasedontheMCR,eventhoughtheMCR
hasbeenpickedsothatspeedisattainedon80%MCR.
ThislumpingoftheMCRmarginintotheOPCresultsinOPCvalueswhicharelowerthanexpected,by
theamountoftheMCRmargin.However,acounterbalancingeffectisthatwillalsotendtoresultinSFC
(SpecificFuelConsumption)rateswhicharebetterthanexpected,bythesamefraction(becauseIwill
calculatetheObservedSFCasiftheshipwasusing100%power.)Thetwoeffectsbalanceeachother
out,butitisimportanttoknowthatthismarginisburiedinthesoup,andthatinlatermoredetailed
analysesonemaywanttostrainitout.
AsetofvaluesforOPCthatareheldtobeStateoftheArtaredepictedinFigure91providedbynaval
architectDonaldBlount.Asmaybeseenthiscurveusesdimensionalspeedastheordinate,whichis
appropriateforapropulsor.Withoutdelvingfurtherintothissubjectwemaysimplystatethatforhigh
speedships,suchastheONRHSSLproject,therangeofOPCtoconsiderappearstolieintherange0.65
0.75.
Thesecondhalfoftheweightoffuelistheoverallfuelconsumptionofthemachinery,onaspecificor
perhorsepowerhourbasis.Forthisthestartingpointistoagaindescribethestateoftheartby
collectingSFC(SpecificFuelConsumption)datafromcommercialsourcessuchasenginecatalogs.
BecauseofthepowerlevelsthatwillberequiredforHSSL,Ilookedonlyatgasturbineengines.Figure
92showstheSFCreportedforavarietyofmodernturbinesinNavyservice,plottedagainsttheiroutput
power(Navyrating).AlsoincludedisaprojectionrepresentingmyestimateofwhatlevelofSFC
performancemightbeattainedbyfuturelargerenginesviaasimpleavisualextensionoftheline.
138

Figure91DonaldL.Blount'sdataforexperiencedvaluesofOPCforthreedifferentclassesofpropulsor.
However,whenIplottedFigure92Iwasalsoawarethattheenginesplottedrepresentedseveral
differentgenerations,andthatthelargerenginesweregenerallynewer.Thesamedataisplottedin
Figure93exceptheretheordinateistheyearofintroduction.Hereagainapinktriangleisadded
guessingatwhatSFCsmightbeattainedinthefuture.
0.46
0.44
0.42
(lbs/Bhp-hr)
0.4
SFC
0.38
0.36
0.34
0.32
0.3
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
Power, BkW

Figure92PropulsionGasTurbineEngines,SFCversusPower,CurrentandFutureEngines
139
0.46
0.44
0.42
(lbs/Bhp-hr)
0.4
SFC
0.38
0.36
0.34
0.32
0.3
1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015 2025
Year of Introduction

Figure93PropulsionGasTurbineEngines,SFCversusYearofIntroduction,CurrentandFutureEngines
Inconsiderationofthisdata,whereasthefirstinvestigationconductedbelowwilluseanSFCvalueof
0.40lbs/hp,itappearsreasonablethatSFCmightbeaslowas0.36to0.33.
10.4.6 LightShipWeight
ThefinaltwoparametersneededtouseMcKessonsparametricmethodarethosethatcontrollightship
weight.LightShipweightdividedintotwoparts:
WeightofPower
WeightofCargoCarriage
ByWeightofPowerImeantheweightofthepropulsionplantincludingenginesandpropulsors,but
excludingfuel.ForUSNprojectsIusetheweightofSWBSGroup200forthisitem.Detailed
investigationofthiswilltakeplaceduringalatersectionofthischapter,butasastartingpointletme
assumeavalueof10poundsperhorsepower.Thatistosaythata100,000hppropulsionplant,
includingallofitscomponentsincludingpropulsorsmaybeexpectedtoweighaboutonemillion
pounds,or~450tons.
BelowIwillpresentanalysisofanexistingshipdesignwhichyieldsrealworldvaluesofthisparameter
neartherangeof8to10lbs/hp.Iwillalsoexploretheimpactsofsomevariationsofthisparameter
uponthetotalshipfeasibilitypicture.
Theweightofcargocarriageis,ifyoupermit,theweightoftheshoppingbagintowhichthecargois
put.AgaininUSNtermsthisisthesumofSWBSGroups100,300,400,500,600,(&700ifany.)Datafor
theseweredevelopedbyanalysisofrealships,butacomprehensiveanalysisremainstobedone.
(Indeed,IamenthusiasticaboutthepotentialforcombiningtheweightofcargocarriagewithKennells
TFemptyshipparameter.)
Theinitialvaluesthatweshallassume,inordertoproceedwithintroducingthemethod,are:
AssumedinitialvalueforWeightofPower=10lbs/hp
AssumedinitialvalueforCargoCarriageMultiplier=2lbs/lb
140
10.4.7 PuttingitalltogetherNotionalExample
ConsidernowanexampleapplicationofthesesimpleparameterstotheHSSLrequirements.Recallthat
thesewere:
12000LTFullLoad
43knots
5000milerange
3600LTCargo
Table1showsthefollowingresults:Assumeaweightof12,000LTandaspeedof43knots.Thisyieldsa
Froudenumberof1.482.TheBestPracticescurvesuggeststhatweshouldbeabletodesignaship
which,atthisspeed,willhaveanL/Dof17.28.AnL/Dof17.28withadisplacementof12,000LTmeans
adragof1,555,000lbs.IfweassumeanOPCof0.6thisgivesusatotalof341,876shprequired.At
10lbs/hpthismachinerysuitewillweigh1,526LT.IfweassumeanSFCof0.4lbs/hphr,then5000miles
at43knotswillrequire7,099LToffuel.Thisfuelweight,plusthemachineryweight,totals8625LT.
Giventhe12,000LTtotalweight,thismeansthatthereare3375LTavailablefortheweightoftheCargo
plustheWeightofCargoCarriage.IftheCargoCarriageMultiplieris2lbs/lb,thenthismeansthatthe
3375LTyields2250LTofshipplus1125LTofCargofarshortofthegoal.
Table1AnexampleoftheapplicationoftheFiveParametermethodtogenerateanoverviewsetoffeasibleship
characteristics
(1) Full Load Displacement 12,000 LT

(2) Vk 43 knots
(3) Fnvol 1.482
(4) L/D 17.28
(5) Rt 1,555,138 lbs
(6) EHP 205,126 hp
(7) OPC 0.6
(8) SHP 341,876 hp
(9) SFC 0.4 lbs/hp-hr
(10) Range 5,000 miles
(11) Fuel Weight 15,901,204 lbs
(12) Fuel Weight 7,099 LT
(13) Displacement minus Fuel 4,901 LT
(14) Wt of Power 10 lbs/hp
(15) Machinery Weight 1,526 LT
(16) Weight available for Cargo & Cargo Carriage 3,375 LT
(17) Cargo Carriage Multiplier 2 lbs/lb

(18) Cargo Carriage Weight 2,250 LT
(19) Cargo Load 1,125 LT
SUMMARY
Machinery Weight 1,526 LT
Cargo Carriage Weight 2,250 LT
Light Ship Weight 3,776 LT
Fuel Weight 7,099 LT
Cargo Load 1,125 LT
Full Load Displacement 12,000 LT
141
AtthispointwehavequicklyconcludedthatONRsgoalisnotattainable,giventheassumptionswe
havemade.Wecouldquitnow,orwecouldusethisinsighttostepusforwardandseewhichofthose
assumptionsmostneedstochange,orwhereONRmostneedstomakeanR&Dinvestment,inorderto
attainthedesiredperformance.
10.4.8 ArangeofExamples
First,wesaytoourselvesthedisplacementlimitof12000tonswasarbitrary.Letsseewhathappensif
weincreasethelimit.Table2presentsparametersforfourships,wherethedisplacementvariesfrom
theinitial12000tons,allthewayto25,000tons.
Weinitiallyexpectthat,sincethe12000tonsshipcarried1125tonsofpayload,itwilltakeashipof
about12,000x(3600/1125)=38,000tonstocarrythedesired4300tonsofcargo.Butwefindthatthis
isnotthecase,andthatthegoalvalueofcargoisattainedatamuchlowerdisplacementinKennells
words:SizeMatters.
142
Table2Afiveparameterinvestigationextendedacrossarangeofshipsizes.
FLD 12000 15000 20000 25000 tons

OPC 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
SFC 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 lbs/hp-hr
Wt of Power 10 10 10 10 lbs/hp
Cargo Carriage Multiplier 2 2 2 2 lbs/lb
Vk 43 43 43 43 knots
Range 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 nautical miles
L/D 17.28 18.73 20.86 22.72
Fnvol 1.482 1.428 1.361 1.312
Rt 1,555,138 1,793,615 2,148,129 2,464,263 lbs
EHP 205,126 236,581 283,342 325,041 hp
SHP 341,876 394,302 472,237 541,735 hp
Fuel Weight 15,901,204 18,339,624 21,964,513 25,196,963 lbs
Fuel Weight 7,099 8,187 9,806 11,249 tons
Cargo Load 1,125 1,684 2,695 3,778 tons
Weight of Cargo Carriage 2,250 3,368 5,391 7,555 tons
Weight of Power 1,526 1,760 2,108 2,418 tons
Light Ship 4,901 6,813 10,194 13,751 tons
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
Cargo Load (LT)
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
-
8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 22000 24000 26000
Full Load Displacement (LT)

Figure94ThepredictedcargocapacityfortheshipslistedinTable2
143
10.4.9 TheDesignSpace
WhatiftheCargoCarriageMultiplierisotherthan2?Thisparameterisprobablytheleastdefensibleof
myassumptions,soitmakessensetoconsiderafairlywiderangeofpossiblevalues.
Similarly,Imightalsoconsiderarangeofpossiblevaluesforspecificfuelconsumption,saybetween0
and0.5lbs/hphr.
Figure95depictsasurfacewhereintheCargoCarriageMultipliervariesfrom1to11,andSFCvaries
from0to0.5.Inthisfiguretheplottedvalueofdisplacementcorrespondstoacargoweightof3600LT.
ThesamedesignspaceisplottedinFigure96,butthistimeinsteadofFullLoadDisplacementIdepict
therequiredinstalledhorsepower.Finally,Figure97showsagainthesamespace,butdepictsthe
requiredfuelload.
80000
70000
60000
Displacement
50000
40000
30000
20000
0.45
10000
r)
0.3
p -h
s/h
0 0.15
(l b
1 2 3
C
4 5
SF
Cargo C 6 7 0
arriage M 8 9 10
ultiplier (l 11
bs / lb)

Figure95MapoffirstlookHSSLShipSize,(Correspondsto3600LTcargo,43kts,5000nmirange,OPC=60%,L/DperBest
PracticesCurve,WeightofPower=10lbs/shp.CargoCarriageMultiplierfrom1to11lbs/lb,SFCfrom0to0.5lbs/hphr)
144
5000
4500
4000
3500
Installed SHP
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000 0.45
r)
500 0.3
p-h
s/h
0 0.15
(lb
1 2 3
C
4 5
SF
Cargo C 6 7 0
arriage M 8 9
ultiplier (l 10 11
bs / lb )

Figure96HSSLInstalledPower(SamefamilyofshipsasFigure95.)
30000
25000
Required Fuel Load
20000
(Long Tons)
15000
10000
5000 0.45
)
-hr
0.3
/hp
0
s
0.15
(lb
1 2 3
C
4 5
SF
Cargo C 6 7 0
arriage M 8
ultiplier (lb 9 10 11
s / lb )

Figure97HSSLRequiredFuelLoadfor5000milerange(SamefamilyofshipsasFigure95)
Frommapsofthistypewecangainenoughinsighttodirectourfurtherresearchefforts.Forexample,
specifictotheHSSLprogram,ifthegoalisfindashipof12,000LTdisplacementthatcancarry3600LT
ofcargoacross5000milesat43knots,thenthefollowingstatementscanbemadewithsome
confidence:
Thesolutionmustlie(subjecttotheassumptionsmadeuptothispoint)alongalinedemarkedbythe
followingtwoendpoints:
SFC=0.39;CargoCarriageMultiplier=0.0(Whichisthelimitbecauseitallowsnoweightfor
structureandshipsystems)
SFC=0;CargoCarriageMultiplier=1.9(Whichisthelimitbecauseitallowsnoweightforfuel)
ThemidpointofthislineliesatSFC=~0.20;CargoCarriageMultiplier=1.0
145
SoweneedabreakthroughinSFCtocutfuelconsumptiontoabouthalfofourinitialestimate,atthe
sametimethatweneedabreakthroughinlightweightstructuretoreducetheCargoCarriageMultiplier
byhalf.
Alternatively,weneedtomakeabreakthroughintheL/Dvalue,orintheWeightofPower.Aseparate
calculation(notdetailedinthispaper,butusingthesamemethodology)investigatedthiseffect.Ifthe
BestPracticesCurvemapsthestateoftheart,thenonecancarryabout1500tonsofcargoona12,000
LTship.Toreach3600LTofcargowouldrequirea6ximprovementinthestateoftheartforL/D.
TheeffectoftheseinsightsupontheHSSLresearchprogramisclear:
InvestigatewaystoreducetheCargoCarriageMultiplier
InvestigatewaystoreducetheWeightofPower
InvestigatewaystomakesubstantialimprovementsintheL/Dstateoftheart
InvestigatewaystomakesubstantialimprovementsinSFC
Ishallnowcontinuetodemonstratetheuseofthisparametricmethod,byshowinghowIuseitto
explorethesequestions.
10.4.10 AnalysisOfExistingShips
IntheparagraphsbelowIhavecollectedactualdataonarealworldvessel,andsubjectedthisshipto
analysisbytheparametricrelationshipsabove.Ofcourse,intheactualHSSLprogramIwouldexpand
thistoincludeseveraldifferentparentshipsthepresentanalysisisonlyillustrative.
ViathisanalysisIobservewhatsortofvaluesforL/D,SFC,Power/Weightratio,andCargoCarriage
Multiplierareobservedintherealworld.Then,withthoserealworldparameters,Iestimatewhatan
ONRHSSLSealiftShipwouldlooklikeifitwerederivedfromthegivenrealworldparent.
Theinputdatafortheparentshipsconsistsofweight,power,anddimensionaldatatakenfrompublic
sources.Thisiscollectedintotheformoftheparametersdiscussedabove.
NotethattheObservedSFCiscalculatedbasedontheassumptionthatallofthereportedfuelisusedto
coverthereportedrangeatthereportedspeed.Similarly,theL/DObservedassumesthatallofthe
reportedpowerisusedtoattainthereportedspeed.Thusifthedesigneroftheparentshiphas
includedpowermargins,rangeallowances,andsoforth,thesehavebeenrolledupintothederived
parameters.
Oncethefiveparametershavebeencalculated,onethencomparestheobservedperformancewiththe
performancethatwouldbepredictedbythebestPracticesCurve.ThisyieldsanL/Dcorrectionfactor
thatIwillassumerepresentssomeintrinsiccharacteristicoftheparentship.
ArmedwiththesenowsixparametersIcanintroduceanewsetofassumedrange,speed,andcargo
weight,andcanfromtheparametersderivethecharacteristicsofsuchascaleupoftheparentship.
Allowmetoillustratethiswithafastcarferry.
146
10.4.11 AnalysisOfPacificat
ThePacificatisanINCATDesigned122mcatamaranferry,ofwhichthreesistershipswerebuiltby
CatamaranFerriesInternational.ThePacificatdatasetrepresentsahighlycrediblebestcommercial
practicemultihull.Thekeyinputvaluesareasfollows:
Table3PacificatInputParameters
Parent: PacifiCat

Length 400 feet
WeightofPower 136 LT
TotalLightShip 1,331 LT
Fuel 57 LT
"Cargo" 466 LT
FullLoad 1,855 LT
InstalledPower 34,866 SHP
FullSpeed 32.00 knots
Fnvol 1.50
OPC 0.65
Range 260 nauticalmiles
SpeedatRange 32.0 knots
Thesemaybeanalyzedaccordingtotheparametricmethodologyandyieldthefollowingderivedvalues:
Table4PacificatDerivedData
Parent: PacifiCat

WeightofPower 8.72 lbs/hp
CargoCarriageMultiplier 2.56 lbs/lb
147
SFC 0.451 lbs/hphr

OPC 0.650
ObservedL/D 17.99
PredictedL/D 16.73
L/Dmultiplier 1.08 (obs/pred)
Thus,foronerealworldcommercialcraft,theweightofCargoCarriageisabout2.5,theweightof
powerislessthan9lbs/hp,andtheL/DratioexceedstheBestPracticesCurvespredictionby8%.
Thenextstep,then,istoestimatewhatthecharacteristicswouldbeforaHSSLshipbasedonthis
parent,butsizedtocarry3600LTofcargoacross5,000nauticalmilesat43knots.Notethatinthis
derivationIassumethattheL/Dmultipliermaybeappliedequally.Inotherwords,iftheshipwas8%
betterthanBestPracticesCurveattheinputpoint,thenitwillbethesameamountbetterat43knots.
Theweightparameters(CargoCarriageMultiplier,WeightofPowerMultiplier,SFC,(andOPC)are
similarlyassumednottochangebetweentheparentandtheoffspring.
TheresultingHSSLparametersaregiveninTable4.Here,aswesee,theresultisa26,000LTship,
requiringhalfamillionhorsepower.Thisrepresentsabouta2.5xlinearscaleupofthePacificat,and
thusashipof960feetlength.
Table4ParametersofaHSSLbaseduponPacificat
Parent: PacifiCat

Cargo 3,600 LT
WeightofCargoCarriage 9,228 LT
WeightofPower 1,813 LT
Fuel 11,080 LT
FullLoadDisplacement 25,721 LT

Length 960 feet

Range 5,000 nmi
Speed 43 knots
Fnvol 1.31
L/Draw 22.99
L/Dadjusted 24.72
Resist 2,331,051 lbs
EHP 307,470 hp
SHP 473,031 hp
Notethatthisresultisquiteconsistentwiththeresultgeneratedparametricallyearlier.Earlierwesaw
thatashipcarrying3600LTtonsofcargomightbeexpectedtobeabout24,000tonsatbestpractice.
Thatconclusionwasbasedonarbitrarilyassumedvaluesforpowertoweightratioandcargocarriage
multiplier.Here,usingtherealworldPacifiCatasaparent,wefindthatwecanattainaslightlyhigher
148
powertoweightratio,butasomewhatinferiorcargocarriagemultiplier.TheL/Dvalueliesjustabout
onthecurve,andtheSFCandOPCarealsoaboutasexpected.Thustheneteffectbalancesthechange
inCargoCarriageMultiplierandWeightofPowertoyieldashipveryneartheoriginallyexpected
displacement.
Notethatintermsofthedesignplane,thismeansthatthePacifiCatliesonthepredictedplane.Figure
8isanillustrationshowingwherethisPacificatderivativeliesontheHSSLdesignplane.Becausethe
observedL/DisclosetoBestPracticesCurvesprediction,butthePowertoWeightratioislessthan10,
theresultingspotisbelowthedesignplane.
80000
70000
60000
Displacement (LT)
50000
40000
PacifiCat Derivative lies
slightly below the Plane
30000
20000
0.5
0.4
)
10000
-hr
0.3
hp
s/
0 0.2
(lb
1 0.1
C
2 3
SF
4 5
Light Sh 6 7 0
ip Multip 8 9
lier (lbs / 10 11
lb cargo)

Figure98PacifiCatDerivedHSSLplottedondesignspacefromFigure95
10.4.12 AnalysisOfLimits
IntheprecedingsectionIpresentedananalysisofoneparentcraft,andIusedtheparametricmethod
toextrapolatethisparenttotheHSSLmissionrequirements.NowIwishtousethemethodina
differentway,todeterminewhatvaluesourparentwouldhavetopossess,togiveustheHSSLthatwe
desire.
LetusassumethatthedesireistocompletetheHSSLmissionwithashipofnomorethan12000LT.
Howmuchtechnologicalimprovementwouldittaketoaccomplishthis?
Figure99showsthepercentimprovementovertheBestPracticesL/Dthatwouldberequiredtoattain
3600LTofcargo(allotherparametersbeingheldconstant)forlimitingdisplacementsof12000and
18000tons.Thisshowsthatitwouldtakea450%increaseinperformance(unlikely)fora12000ton
limit,butonlya150%increase(possible?)ifthedisplacementlimitisraisedto18000tons.
149
Percent of Best Practice L/D required to carry given amount of cargo

12,000 LT and 18,000 LT ships
(SFC = 0.40 lbs/hp-hr, Cargo Multiplier 2:1, OPC=0.60, Weight of Power = 10 lbs/hp)
1000%
900%
800%
Percent of Best Practice L/D required
700% 12,000 LT FLD

18,000 LT FLD
600%
500%
400%
300%
200%
100%
0%
- 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Cargo Weight (long tons)

Figure99PercentofBestPracticeL/Drequiredtocarrygivenamountofcargo
SimilargraphscanbedrawntoshowwhattheeffectofvariouschangesinSFCwouldbe,orwhat
changesinstructuralmaterialandweightsavingpractices(i.e.changesintheCargoCarriageMultiplier)
wouldhave.Manyotherconclusionscouldbedrawn,butIreturntomythemethatmypurposeisnot
totalkabouttheHSSLmission,butratherabouttheparametricmethod.IbelievethatIhaveshown
thatthismethodcanbeausefultoolforbreakingacomplexproblemintoverysimpleparts,givingus
insightsintotheshapeofthedesignspaceasaresultofthat,andthusfinallypermittingustomanage
andfocusourfurtherengineeringefforts,formaximumprogrammaticeffectiveness.
Inconclusion,thisparametricsystemofperformancemetrics:
providesinsightintothefeasibilityofasetofmissionrequirements
allowsustoquantifythebenefitofanimprovementinanyonetechnologyarea,sothatwecan
prioritizeourR&Dinvestment
allowsanalysisofaproposedParentShiptoseeifitoffersbreakthroughperformance.
150
11 HydrostaticBalance
Foralltheothercoursesinnavalarchitecture,thehydrostaticbalancerelationshipisverysimple:
Weight=Buoyancy.Mathematicallythisiswritten:
W=gVol

FortheAMVswehavetoaddthedynamicterm,thus:
W=gVol+CL(1/2)SV2

PluswehavetoredefinetheVolumeinthestaticcase,toaccountforthepresenceofanyaircushion.
TheCushionisnothingmorethanadisplacement,andPressurecanbesubstitutedfordraft,asfollows:
Vol=Volume(hulls)+Area(cushion)*Pressure(cushion)/(air)g

Thisapproachtreatstheaircushionasadisplacedvolume,exactlylikeaboxbargewithnobottoma
bargewhosebottomisformedonlybytheconstantpressureboundarycondition.
Analternativeapproachistowritethepressureasitsownterm,thus:
W=gVol+CL(1/2)SV2+PcAc
WherePcisthecushionpressureandAcisthecushionarea.
Notethatthecushionareamaymasksomeofthehullvolume.Itisimportanttomodelthiscarefully
sothatonedoesnotdoublecountanyfractionofthelift.
Formostaircushioncraftthecushionisrectangularinplanformshape,sothecushionareamaybe
writtenasAc=Lc*Bc.Continuingtoplaywiththecushionvolumerelationshipweseethatthe
cushionborneweight,Wc,isWc=Pc*Lc*Bc.Thisdescribesafloatingrectangle,blockcoefficientof
1.0,withadraftofPc.
Wealso,inACVandSESdesign,encounterametricofPc/L(pronouncedPcuponL)whichisa
measureofcushionpressureorcushiondensity.YoumayalsothinkofitasbeingsimilartoaDraftto
Lengthratio.SinceanSEShasarectangularplanform,ithasaverybluntentryinthewaterplane,butits
entryinthebuttockdirectionisPc/L,andthusIencouragethinkingofPc/LastheACVequivalenttoa
waterplaneentranceangle.
InanSESwehave,inadditiontotheaircushion,someperhaps20%ofthesustentionbornebysidehull
hydrostatics.Thesehullsareofcoursegovernedbyallthesameconcernsasanycatamaranhull.We
shouldalsonotethat,giventhehighspeedofSES,thesesidehullsmaygenerateimportant
hydrodynamicforces,includingsomedynamiclift.
Finally,letusnotethatthedynamicliftcomponent,theCL,variesatleastwithtrimangleandthatthe
totaldynamicliftvarieswithspeedsquared.Theweightofthecraftprobablydoesntchangewith
speed,sointhecaseofdynamicliftcrafttherewillclearlybeachangeinthehydrostaticvolumeasa
151
functionofspeed.Andinfactthisiswhyplaningcraftgofast:Becausetheyunloadthehydrostatic
componentoflift,andinsodoingtheyreducethehullwettedsurfaceandotherfactorswhich
contributetodrag.
Andthatleadsusintoourlecturesonresistance.
152
12 SWBS051Resistance
12.1 TheResistanceComponents
ForthefirstestimateatresistanceIliketocomeupwitha"Target"Rt,ratherthananestimateofmy
ship'sRt.ForthispurposeIusetheStateoftheArtcurvegivenbyKennell,orMcKesson'scurvefitof:
L/D=5+40*Fn(vol)**3(seeChapter11.)Thisyieldsagoalvalue,adragvalueIhopetoattainor
beat.
Thecomponentsofresistanceforalowspeedmonohull,accordingtoFroudesformulation,canbe
writtenaswavemakingandfriction.Someauthorswilladdasmallamountforappendagesand
windage.Thus,inthe'traditional'method:
Rt=Rf+Rr+Rair+Rcorrelation
Where:
RfFrictionalresistanceisfoundfromflatplatemethods
RrResiduaryresistanceisfoundfrommodeltests
RairAerodynamicresistanceisestimatedbyapplicationofanairdragcoefficienttothefrontal
area.Forlargeslowshipsthistermissuchasmallpartofthetotaldragthatitisofteneven
ignored.Obviously,however,itincreasesrapidlywithspeed.Further,forshipswithlow
hydrodynamicresistancethisaerodynamicresistancecomestoformanevenlargerpartofthe
whole.Itisimportantthereforenottoignoreit.Thatsaid,however,itissubjectedtonormal
treatmentanddoesnotgetalectureinthiscourse.SeeHoernerandothersimilarsourcesto
comeupwithreasonableairdragcoefficientsforthevesselofinterest.
Rcorrelationisacorrelationfactorwhichisintendedtoaccountforscaleeffects,particularly
thoseonthefrictionaldrag(alsoknownas"deltaCf".)
TheAdvancedMarineVehiclehasresistancecomponentsasfollows:
Rt=Rf+NxRr+Rinter+nxRcushion+Rskirt+Rspray+Rappendage+Rair+Rwaves
Thatistosay:
Friction
TheresiduaryorwavemakingresistanceofNhulls
Resistancecausedbyinterferencebetweenthehulls
Resistancecausedbynaircushions(ifpresent)
Resistancecausedbyaircushionskirtsystems(whichmayitselfbebrokendownintofrictional
andresiduarycomponents)
Resistanceduetospraygeneratedbythehull
Resistanceduetoappendages(whichisnolongersmall,duetothehighspeedoftheship)
153
Resistanceduetowindage(whichisnolongersmall,duetothehighspeedoftheship)
Resistanceduetoencounteringoceanwaves
Canweestimateallofthese?Letstakeasecondlookatthem:
Rf=Frictionaldragasnormalexceptthatwettedsurfacemayvarytremendouslydependingon
parameterssuchascushionpressureandspeed.
Rr=Residuaryresistance.Usuallywetreatthisastheresiduaryresistanceofthehulls,although
inamodeltestprogramitwillpickupbitsandpiecesnotaccountedforelsewhere,whichcan
causeproblems.
Rair=aerodynamicresistance.Whilethisissmallforconventionalships,atthespeedsthat
AMVsworkatthiscanbecomeasubstantialfactor.
Rcorrelation=Thecorrelationallowance"Ca"israrelydiscussedinfastshipliterature,but
thereisageneralagreementthatittakesonalargeimportanceinthisarena.Thisisbecause
thetraditionallyimportantfactorssuchasRrhavebeenreducedsomuchthatthemagnitudeof
Cabecomesrelativelylarge.Unfortunatelythereisreallynoagreementastowhattodoabout
this,andwewon'tteachonitinthiscourse.Actualpracticeseemstovaryfromonetowtankto
another.InmyexperienceIhavemostlyseenCavaluesofzero.
Rinterference=InterferenceeffectsbetweenmultiplehullscanbeincludedintoResiduary
Resistance
Rcushion=Wavemakingdragofaircushionshouldbecalculatedindependently
Rmomentum=LiftSystemAirMomentumDragshouldbecalculatedindependently
Rspray=SprayandSprayRailDragAccordingtoFaltinsencanbe12%ofthetotalresistanceof
thecraft,butneverthelesswillnotbetreatedinthiscourse.GetslumpedintoRr.
SkirtDragnotclearifthisisaresiduarycomponentorafrictionalcomponent,bothterms
shouldbeused.SeeReference14.
AppendagedragAnothercomponentthatwillnotbetreatedinthiscourse.Ingeneralthe
mosteffectiveAMVsrecognizetheimportanceofappendagedragbysimplyavoiding
appendagesaltogether,asfaraspossible.Thistakestheformofusingwaterjetsinsteadof
rudders,etc.Thisphilosophynotwithstandingwedocommonlyencounterridecontroldevices,
whichmayincludeFoils,Interceptors,andWedgesorTabs.These,ofcourse,havedrag.Wemay
alsoencountervariousancillarydevicessuchashighspeedrudders,oreventherather
astonishingsuiteofappendagesusedontheSES100Aforstabilityenhancement.Nevertheless,
wewillassumethattheresistanceofthesedevicesisunderstoodandderivablefrom
'conventional'navalarchitecturalpractice,andwedonottreatofithere.Notethatunderthis
headingwewouldincludeHydrofoilDrag(Dragduetolift,incltipeffects)
154
Faltinsen(2005)givessomeinterestingfiguresinhisFigures4.1&4.2showingtherelativeimportance
ofthevariousdragcomponents,asafunctionofspeed,foracatamaranandanSES.Thesefiguresare
reproducedasFigure100andFigure101here.

Figure100Dragcomponentsofa70mcatamaran,fromFaltinsen

Figure101Dragcomponentsofa40mSES,fromFaltinsen
155
Also,DoctorshasshownthatthevariousinnovationsoftheAMVhulltypes,whetherthisbetheir
slenderness,ortheiruseofaircushions,orwhatever,hastheeffectofreducingthewavemakingdragto
suchadegreethatthefrictionaldragattainsgreatimportanceintheoverallcraftdesignbalance.This
remarkisaninterestingcounterpointtothe'ruleofthumb'usedbysomewarshipdesignersthatthe
frictionalandresiduarydragcomponentsofawelldesignedhullshouldbein1:1balance,i.e.
approximatelyequal.Faltinsen'scurveswouldseemtosupportthisprinciple.
Finally,sinceitdoesntseemtofitneatlyanywhereelse,IinsertanobservationbyDr.LarryDoctors
(2008verbal)thattheDoctors&McKessonFAST05(Reference15)resultsclearlyshowthatfromthe
perspectiveofwavedragitdoesn'tmatterwhetheryouhaveacushionornot.Theeffectofthecushion
isnottoreducethewavedragoftheship,butrathertoreducethefrictionaldrag.Thisisalsothe
reasonthattheKeckSeaTrainworkssowell,becauseitpermitsasidehullformthatistheminimum
requiredtocontainthebubble,andthushastheminimumpossiblewettedsurface.
Intheunitswhichfollow,wewillconsidereachofthesedragcomponents,andIwillprovideadviceon
howtheymaybeestimatedinpractically.
12.2 FrictionalResistance
PauseandconsidertheimplicationsoftheFroudemethodofextrapolatingresistance:Wemeasurethe
totalresistanceofamodel.Weknowthatthefrictionalandresiduarycomponentsdonotscaleinthe
sameway,sowemustseparatethem.Weassumethatthefrictionofthemodelisthesameasthe
frictionaldragonaflatplankofthesamearea.
IneffectwearesayingOurknowledgeoffrictionissogoodthatwecanaccuratelycalculateit.In
modeltestswecalculateRf,andwecanaccuratelysubtractitfromRtotal,withconfidencethatthe
remainderisRwavemaking.
Inpracticewedothisbyapplyingthefamiliarequation:
Rf=rhoSV^2Cf
Where:Cf=f(Rn),andwetakethisfromoneofseveralCfcurves.
ButwhichCfcurveshallweuse?ConsiderFaltinsenscomparisonoffivedifferentCfformulae,
reproducedinTable5.(ThethreenumberedequationsheusesareITTC:Cf=.075/(log10Rn2)2;Eq
2.66:Cf=0.0303Rn1/7;Eq2.67:Cf=0.066/(log10Rn2.03)2)WhatFaltinsenshowsisthatCfmaybein
errorby1015%.Andthisisthecomponentofresistancethatweclaimtoknowsowell!
156
Table5CfCurveComparison,fromFaltinsen(2005)
Further,whataboutroughness?TheCfcurvesareforsmoothflatplates.Inregularshipdesignwe
worryabouttheflatnessassumption,hencetheuseofaFormFactor(Rf=(1+k)Rfflat).Itmaybeargued
thatinAMVdesignwereclosertoflatbecauseofourslenderness.Butarewesmooth?Faltinsensays
no,andrecommendsuseofafrictionformulationwithexplicitmodelingofroughnesseffects.
Andfinally,evensosimpleameasureastheReynoldsnumberisfraughtwithunexpecteduncertainty.
Reynoldsnumberdependsuponviscosity.Viscosityvarieswithwaterpropertiesandtemperature.
Thismeansthat,inprinciple,Lakeserviceshouldbedifferentthanoceanservice,andTropicalservice
shouldbedifferentthantemperateservice.
Wefindthat,onceagain,theAMVdesigneristryingtoperformapreciseoptimizationwithimprecise
tools.ContinuingmyLewis&Clarkmetaphor,itisliketryingtonavigatetheareaaroundLouisiana
usingmapsliketheonereproducedinFigure102.Itcanbedone,butonewouldbeprudenttobenot
tootrusting.
157

Figure102AMVdesignoftenfeelslikenavigatingusingmapslikethis:
ButLewis&Clarkhaduncertaintiestooandplentyofthem!Mygoalisnottomakeusthrowupour
handsindespair,nortooverdramatizethesituation:TheITTCcurveandStandardSeawaterhave
workedasusefulfictionsformorethanmylifetime.Idonotproposeoverthrowingthem,Imerelywish
tohighlighttheuncertaintiesthatwelivewith.
InthiscourseweshallusetheITTC1957Cfline,withnoroughnessallowance,andstandard15C
seawater.
12.2.1 WettedSurfaceVariation
Havingchosenourflatplatefrictionline,thenextdatathatweneedistheshipswettedsurface.In
conventionalshippracticewedetermineasinglevalueofwettedsurfaceateachdisplacement.InAMV
designwehavetheaddedcomplicationthatwettedsurfaceisafunctionofspeed.
Thisisbecausenotonlydoesthecraftriseuponvariousplaneswithspeed,butalsoherowngenerated
waveswillaffectherwettedsurface.Thiswilloccurnotonlyoutsidethehullsbutalsoinbetweenthe
hullsofamultihull.
Howlargeisthiseffect?Howmuchdoesthewettedsurfacevaryfromatspeedtoatrestconditions?
Letsdiscussit,andlookatsomepicturesanddata:
Weshallignoretheformeffectuponviscousdrag,andweshallpretendthatalloftheviscousresistance
canbeadequatelymodeledbytheapplicationofafrictionalresistancecoefficientsuchasCf=.075/(log
158
Rn2)**2.AspracticalAMVdesigners,thekeynoveltyhereisthatthewettedsurfaceoftheAMVcan
varytremendouslywithspeed.Thereforeitisnecessarytouseafrictionformulawhereinwetted
surfaceisafunctionofspeedWS=f(Vk).
Inmostcasesthisisaccomplishedbymodeltesting.Duringmodeltestingthemodelmustbeequipped
withmeansofdeterminingthedynamicwettedsurface,andthisdynamicWSisusedduringtheFroude
extrapolationofthetestresults.
IfyouhaverelevantparentdatayoumaybeabletousetheparentdataWSdynamic/WSstatic
relationshiptoestimatethedynamicwettedsurfaceoftheoffspringcraft.InthecaseofanSESthe
wettedsurfacewillalsodependuponthecushionpressure.
Beforemodeltestsitwouldbenicetohaveapredictivemethodforestimatingthedynamicwetted
surface.Firstly,letusnotethatwedonthaveanycookbookwaystopredictthisfordisplacementhulls.
Modeltestsworkok,buthowaboutbeforemodeltests?
Someofthevariationinwettedsurfaceisduetodynamicsinkageandtrim,sowecanattempttosee
howbigthesevaluesareandderivewettedsurfaceimplicationsfromthem.Figure103showsoneset
ofsinkagedata,andonemightlogicallycreatearelationshipbetweensinkageandwettedsurfacefrom
thisresult.Someofthevariationisduetoownshipwaves,andwecanuseCFDtopredictthese.

Figure103AreproductionofFaltinsen'sreferenceonRunningSinkageofacatamaran,fromMollandetal1996
ForSESonecanuseKolazaevsmethod,givenbyYun&Bliaultas:
Sf(Fn)=Kf(Fn)xSf0
where:
Sf0=Calmwaterwettedsurface
Fn=FroudenumberonCushionLength
Kf(Fn)givenbyFigure104:
159

Figure104Kolazaev'sfigureforKf(Fn)
Oncemodeltestsareengagedthesituationbecomesalittleeasier.Modeltestswithphotographsare
oneaccuratewaytomeasurewettedsurface.Ihavealsohadacceptableresultsusinggirthmeasuring
tapesfittedtoamodelattwoorthreestationslongitudinally.Figure105depictstheAlionHSSLmodel
withwettingtapesfitted.ThiscraftisanextremelyhighL/BSES,andassuchmayhaveverylittle
dynamicchangeinwettedsurface,butitistheonlysuchphotographintheauthorslibrary.Figure106
showsthespeedvariationinwettedsurfacemeasuredbythismethod.

Figure105Thewettingtapes(thetwogoldstrips)fittedtotheHSSLmodeltomeasurewettedgirth.Threesuchsetsof
tapeswereinstalledatdifferentstationsalongthelengthofthemodel.
160
Dynamic Wetted Surface
1.2
1
WS-dyn / WS-stat
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
FROUDE NUMBER (cushion length)

Figure106ThedynamicwettedsurfacevariationwithspeedasmeasuredontheHSSLmodel
McKesson'spreferredtechniqueforSESisasfollows:
(1)Assumeoutsidewettingbasedonnormalhydrostaticcalculations.
(2)Assumeinsidestaticwettingbasedonthecushiondepressionbeingflat
(3)Measureinsideandoutsidewettingviaresistancetapesinmodeltests.
(4)DevelopSEPARATEcurvesofSdyn/Sstatforinsideandoutsidecases.Curvesshoulddependon
Froudenumber,butitwillbeFNlwlfortheoutsidecase,andFncushionfortheinsidecase.
12.3 Wavemaking(Hull,notCushion)
HavingestablishedtechniquesforestimatingthefrictionaldragofourAMV,letusnowturnourhandto
estimatingthewavemakingorresiduarycomponentofdrag.
EnpassantletmementionthatIunderstand,fordynamicallysupportedcraft,thatthewavemakingdrag
toweightratio(inverseL/Dratio)isuniquelyrelatedtotheshipsdynamictrim,asRw/W=tan(trim).
Perhapsitisinappropriatetoadmitthisinatextbook,butIdonotfullyunderstandthistruismandlook
forwardtolearningmoreaboutit.Idoknowhoweverthatverypracticalusecanbemadeofthis
relationship.Ihavemeasuredthedynamictrim(dynamictrimisthechangeintrimwithspeed,the
differencebetweentheatspeedtrimangleandthestatictrimangle)usinglongpendulumsonahigh
speedferry,andbyplottingtheTan(trim)dataobtainedaverycleardepictionofwherethehumpsand
hollowsintheshipswavemakingdragcurvelay.Alternatively,oneshouldbeabletotakepredicted
wavemakingdragdataandinverttherelationshipsoastopredictthedynamictrim.
161
12.3.1 EstimatingwavemakingdragofaSingleSlenderHull
Fortunately,thehullsofthevastmajorityofAMVsaretrulyslender,andallthehydrodynamic
simplificationsthatgounderthenameofslendershiptheorycanbeappliedwithexcellentresultsin
verypracticalcases.
Iwillpresenttechniquesthatrelyonthefollowingmethodologies:
Computationalpredictivemethods
SeriesSerieshullpredictions
OneOffparents(WormCurves)
Modelextrapolations
12.3.1.1 Computationalpredictivemethods
Ofthecomputationalmethodstherearetwothatrisetothefore.Thefirst,andmosteasily
dispatchedinthistextbookistheuseofCFD.ThereareavarietyofCFDtoolsthatarequitemature,
andimprovingalmostdaily.ForthatcomponentoftheAMVresistancetaskthatissimplythe
wavemakingresistanceofasingleslenderhull,theseCFDtoolsworkquitewell.
InafewparagraphsIwilltellacautionarytaleofaCFDpredictionofinterferencedragthatdidnotgo
verywell,butthatisadifferentelementoftheresistanceproblemthanwearetreatingatthistime.
CFDis,ofcourse,theattempttosolvesomeversionoftheNavierStokesequationsexplicitly.In
consequence,CFDhasitsrootsasfarbackastheverydevelopmentofthoseequations(whichwas
around1800.)Thechallengeisthatthedeceptivelysimpleequationsareextremelydifficulttosolve.
AmoresimpleequationwasdevelopedbyJ.H.Michellin1898,andiscalledMichellsIntegral.
Michellsintegralis:
FortunatelyforthejourneymanpracticalAMVdesigner,thereexistsfreewaresoftwarewhichuses
Michellsintegraltoestimatethewaveresistanceofaslenderhull.Thissoftware,developedin
AustraliabyLeoLazauskas,iscalledmichlet.Itisavailableasafreedownloadontheinternetfrom
www.cyberiad.net.
LeoLazausakasandhiscolleagueErnieTuckhavepublishedmanyveryinterestingpapersbasedonthe
exploitationofMichellsintegral(e.g.References17&18.)Afewsampleoutputsarepresentedin
Figure107,whichdepictboththewavepatternandtheresultingwaveresistanceforasinglehullin
deepwater,atdifferentFroudenumbers.
162

Figure107WavepatternanddistributionofwavepatternresistanceasestimatedbyMichell'sintegral,fromLazauskasand
Tuck
12.3.1.2 Serieshullpredictions
ThereareseveralusefulsystematicseriesresultswithslendernessratiosofinteresttotheAMV
designer.Ifindthefollowingtobeparticularlyuseful,althoughIamsurethereareothers:
TheTaylorStandardSeries(Reference19)isnotridiculousforsomeapplications.
Series64(Reference20)isusefulforTrimaranAmas.
Lundgren&Williams'SSPAseries(Reference21)isusefulandeasytouse.
VWS89CatamaranSeries(Reference22)
163
MostoftheseseriesarecommonlyavailableinmainstreamnavalarchitecturetextsandIshallnot
repeatthoseexplanationshere.AlsonotethatmanyofthemarecodifiedinsoftwaresuchasNAVCAD.
In1996Mollandetal(Reference23)presentedresultsofsystematicseriestestsofslenderhulls,i.e.
catamarandemihullsortrimarancenterhulls.Theyfoundamongotherconclusionsthatthe
displacementlengthratio(DELTA/L^3)wasthemostimportanthullparameter,dominatingtheeffect
ofsecondaryparameterssuchasblockcoefficientorB/Tratio,etc.Thisisquiteausefulresult,asittells
uswhichparameterismostimportanttogetrightwhenselectingasystematicseries(oraparenthull,
forthatmatter.)
IparticularlyliketheLundgrenSSPAseries.IfindthatmanyAMVhullsliewithinitsrange.Iam
surprisedtofinditabsentfromtoolssuchasNAVCAD,soIwillmentionitfurtherhere.
Table6fromtheLundgrenpaperpresentstherangeofapplicabilityofthepresentseriesascompared
tootherwellknownseries.NotethatthetwocolumnsFnLandB/Thavetheirlabelsswitched.
Table6LundgrenSSPAseriesparameterscomparedtootherseries
TheLundgrenseriesprovideseasytousecurvesofCrversusFroudeNumber,fordiscretevaluesofB/T
andSlenderness.OnesuchdatasetispresentedinFigure108.Theuserofthisdataneedonlyperform
interpolationstoarriveathistargetvaluesofB/TandSlenderness,andgenerateaCrvsFncurve
threrefrom.Thiscurvecanthenbeusedasthepredictorofwavemakingdragforthehullinquestion,
andtheothercomponents(interferenceofmultihulls,etc.)canbeaddedposthoc.
164

Figure108ContoursofResiduaryResistanceCoefficientforB/T=3CB=0.40fromtheLundgrenseries.
12.3.1.3 Modelextrapolations
Ofcourse,modeltestsareexcellenttoolsforpredictingtheresistanceofslenderhulls,andofAMVsin
toto.Thereare,however,afewnotesandquirkswhichapply.
Firstly,letusrecallthefundamentalrelationshipthatweusewhenextrapolatingmodeltestdata:Cr=
Rr/[SV2].Rememberthediscussionaboveabouttheuncertaintiesinestimatingthewetted
surface,andthefactthatthewettedsurfacechangeswithspeedandotherparameters?Thismeans
thatourderivedvalueofCrwillsufferfromuncertaintyinthesamedegree.
Onecanworkaroundthis,bybeingextremelypreciseandmakingsurethatthedefinitionofSis
managedcarefullyi.e.thatthesamedynamiccorrectionfactorisusedforthemodelandfortheship.
ButIthinkthatthereisasimplerandinfactbettersolution:
165
IclaimthatweknowmuchbetterthanweknowSsinceweightdoesntvarywithspeed.I
thereforerecommendthatsuchextrapolationsshouldbeperformedonthebasisofRr/,e.g:
Rrs(V)=Rrm(V)x[s/m]
Or:
Kr(V)=Rrm(V)/m
Rrs(V)=sKr(V)=Rrm(V)x[s/m]
12.3.1.4 OneOffparents(WormCurves)
Frequentlywehaveacasewherewearedevelopingashipthatissimilartosomepreviousship,butnot
anexactgeosim.Inthiscaseitisveryhelpfultoperformaresistanceestimateusingthepreviousship
asasinglecaseparent,developingwhatiscalledawormcurveagainstsomeothersystematicseries.
ThisisnotanAMVspecifictechnique,butsinceitmaynotbewellknownitisworthexplaininghere.
TheWormCurvemethodisatechniqueforusingsystematicseriesdatatomodelthevariationofahull
formthatisntamemberofthatseries.Itiscommonlyusedwithwarships,whereinparentshipdatais
extrapolatedusingTaylorStandardSeries.IneffectoneissayingNewShipwilldifferfromTaylorSeries
thesameamountthatOldShipdiffersfromTaylorSeries.Thisisalittleclearerwhenwritten
mathematically:
WCF(Fn)=Rr(Fn)parent/Rr(Fn)TSSparent
Rr(Fn)newship=WCF(Fn)xRr(Fn)TSSnewship
12.3.1.5 OnthewavemakingresistanceofSESsidehulls
Theprecedingdiscussionshaveallfocusedonroundbilgedtypehulls,asmaybefoundoncatamarans
ortrimarans.ThesetechniquescanandhavebeenusedforSESaswell,butSESalsoadmitofsome
additionaltechniquesthatareworthyofmentionhere.
SESsidehullslendthemselvestotwoseparatemethodsoftreatment.Itendtousethefirstoneinearly
designstages,andthenshifttothesecondmethodasthedesignmatures.
Inthefirstmethod(refYun&Bliault2000page111)wesimplyenlargethebeamofthecushiontoan
'equivalentbeam'toaccountforthesidehulls,andthenweassumethatthethusaugmentedcushion
wavemakingaccountsforthesidehullwavemaking.
Whenusingthismethod,thekeyistoaddanamountofcushionbeamsuchthattheaddedcushionlift
accountsforthebuoyancyofthesidehullsinotherwordsabeamsufficienttoraisetheCushionLift
Fractionto100%.
Inpracticeonecanoftengetareasonableresultbysimplyaddingthephysicalbeamofthesidehullsto
thebeamofthecushion.Thisapproximatestheresultdescribedabovebecausethesidehullshavea
blockcoefficientlessthanone,butadraftgreaterthancushiondepression.
166
Thesecondmethodistoaccountforthesidehullwavemaking(residuary)dragasifitisacatamaranin
it'sownright.Thechallengewiththisisthattheinterferencefactorbetweenthehullsisonlythatofthe
lowerwettingofthesidehull,notthefulldisplacement.Inpractice,sinceSESsidehullsusuallyhave
completelystraightinboardedges,wesimplyignoresidehullinterference.
Wedostillneedthesidehullwavemaking,andwecalculatethis,inthissecondmethod,bymodelingthe
sidehullsasiftheyareacatamaranintheirownright.Ofcourse,weonlymodelthesidehullsaccording
totheimmersiontheywillseewhenoperatingcushionborne.Andfurtherofcourse,thisimmersion
mayvarywithspeed,makingthecalculationofsidehullwavemakingmoretedious.
12.3.1.6 CokeBottlingofSWATHhulls
Finally,AcommentregardingthewavemakingresistanceofSWATHhulls.SWATHhullsarevery
amenabletobeingmodeledasaseriesofsingularitieslongitudinallydistributed.Thisinturnmeansthat
onemightconsidervaryingthosesingularitystrengthssuchthatthewavemakingforcescancelout,and
thereisnonetwavemakingatleastatsomecriticalspeed.
Thiseffectisequivalenttotheapplicationofthearearuletoaircraftwingdesign,whichgaveriseto
theCokebottleshapeofjetfighters,andisreferredtoasCokebottlingofaSWATHhull.
ThereisnosimplifiedorsystematicseriesmethodforestimatingtheresistanceofaCokebottled
SWATHhulltheonlyrecourseisnumericalmethods,andIpersonallywouldstartwithMichlet.
12.3.1.7 Conclusionregardingthewavemakingresistanceofasinglehullalone
Inconclusion,Ihavepresentedfourmethodsforestimatingtheresiduaryorwvaemakingcomponentof
asinglehullelementofanAMV.Thesefourmethodswere:
CFD
Seriesdata
SeriesdatawithaWormCurveFactor
Modeltests
Inthefollowingsectionsweshallestimatetheothercomponentsofresistance,startingwiththe
challengeofaccountingfortwoormorewavemakinghulls.
12.4 MultihullInterferenceDrag
Itwouldseem,tothecasualmind,thattheresistanceofacatamaranshouldbesimplytwicethe
resistanceofoneofitshulls.Unfortunately,suchisnotthecase.Thereexistsaninterferenceeffect
betweenthemultiplehullsofcatamaran,SES,trimaran,etc.Thisinterferencemayacttoeitherincrease
ordecreasethedragascomparedtothesimplesumthatseemsintuitive.InterferenceDragreferstoan
augmentofdragcausedbymultiplehulls'talkingtoeachother'hydrodynamically.Practically,itis
foundthatformostmultihullsthewavemakingorresiduaryresistanceofthewholeshipisslightly
greaterthanthesumoftheresistanceoftheseveralhullsmeasuredseparately.
Therearetwosolutionspossible:Awavesuperpositiontechnique,andamorecompletetechniquethat
accountsforthefullinteractionbetweenhulls.Frequentlyandpracticallyweaddresswave
resistanceofamultihullbysuperimposingthewavepatternofonehulloperatingaloneuponthe
167
wavepatternoftheotherhulloperatingalone.Thistechnique,however,missesthefactthatthewaves
generatedbyonehullwillbeincidenttotheotherhull,andhencediffracted(scattered)bythathull.
Thepresenceoftheincidentwavesalsochangestheinflowconditionsuponthe'target'hull,sothatthe
wavesgeneratedbythathullaredifferentthantheywouldbeabsentsuchincidence.
Theresultofthisisthatthetotalwavesystemofamultihullvesselmaybeverydifferentthanasimple
superpositionofthewavesgeneratedbyeachhullseparately.
Letusdelveintotherangeofpracticaljourneymantechniquesforaddressingthisproblem.Following
this,Iwilldiscussmodeltestingtechniques,andfinallyIwilltouchuponthetheoreticallimitsof
interference.
12.4.1 Methodsforpredictinginterferencedrag
Thesimplestpracticaltechniqueistoignoreinterferenceandassumethatmultihullwavemakingdrag
(residuaryresistanceIwillusethetermsinterchangeably)canindeedbecalculatedbysimplysumming
theseparatehulls:WeassumeRrSHIP=RrHULLS.Weknowthisiswrong,buthowwrongisit?
Theinterferencedragforamultihulliswellknowntodependtremendouslyonthespacingofthehulls,
andtheFroudenumber.SomedataontrimaransbyLazauskasandTuck(Reference18)isreproducedin
Figure109,anditshowsthatthetotalresistancemayvaryby20%acrossarangeofspacings.Allofthe
shipsplottedinthisfigurehavethesamelengthanddisplacement,justdifferentconfigurationsor
positionsoftheamarelativetothemainhull.
168

Figure109TotalResistanceCoefficientforsixArrowTrimaranconfigurations,fromLazauskasandTuck
Theinterferencedragarisesfromtwoprimarysources:wavepatterninterference,andflowinteraction.
Thefirstofthesecanbecalculatedbysuperimposingthewavetrainsoftheseveralhulls,andcalculating
theenergyoftheresultingcompositesystem.
Thesecondofthesecomponents,theflowinteraction,requiresamodelthatisexplicitlymultihull.In
therealsituation,thewavesarebothreflectedandrefractedbytheotherhulls.Inaddition,local
velocitiescanbeaffected.ThereisevenaneffectuponFrictionalResistance(seeArmstrongReference
24.)
Inconsequence,therearetwotechniquesforpredictingtheinterferencedrag,dependinguponwhether
onepredictssimplysuperpositionorfullinteraction.ForsuperpositiononecanuseMichellsIntegral,
andtheveryhandymichletcomputerprogram.Forfullinteractiononemustusea3DCFDprogram,
ormodeltests.
12.4.2 ModelTestingTechniques
ModeltestsdoofcoursecompletelycapturetheinterferencedraginRrmodelifthespacingiscorrectly
modeled,andthisisobviouslythemostaccuratesolution.Butalltoooften,afterthecompletionofthe
modeltests,wedecidetochangethechoiceofbuildingyard,andthedimensionsofthenewdrydock
forceachangeinbeam,orweightgrowthforcesachangeinamaimmersion,ortheowners
requirementchangesinsomesubtlety,suchthatthemodeltestedconfigurationisnolongeran
accuraterepresentationofthefinalshipconfiguration.Insuchcaseitishelpfultohavetheabilityto
169
combineanalyticalmethodswithmodelteststoextendmodeltestresultstountestedspacings.Inthis
casewehavetorelyonsomeassumptionsofsimilitude.Generallywewillproceedasfollows,ina
techniquereminiscentoftheWormCurvemethod:
Useapredictivemethod(e.g.Michlet)toestimatetheinterferenceFACTOR(notdrag)oftested
condition:Kint(Fn)=Rrmultihullmichlet/(Rrhullsmichlet)
CalculateinterferencefactorofNewConfiguration:Kint(Fn)new
Applyratiototestedcondition:Rrnew=Rrtestedx(Knew/Ktested)
12.4.3 Limitations
IntheparagraphsaboveIhaveimpliedthatCFDisthemostaccuratewaytopredictinterferencedrag,
andthismaybetrue.ButthereisatendencytodaytosimplythroweverythingintoaCFDtoolandhope
thatthetoolworkscorrectly.IwouldliketocautionthatinterferencedragisoneareawhereIhave
seenCFDfailtopredictthedragcorrectly.
Figure110presentsresiduarydragcurvesfortwoconfigurationsofatrimaranproject.Thesolidlines
representCFDpredictions,thediscretespotsrepresentmodeltestresults.Thedifferencebetweenthe
twoconfigurationswasonlythelongitudinalpositionofthesidehullsinconfiguration9thesidehulls
areslightlyfurtheraftthaninconfiguration5.
Ascanbeseen,theCFDpredictedthatconfiguration5wouldbeconsistentlylowerinCrovertherange
ofspeeds.Themodeltestsdoagreethatitislower,butlookatthehugedeviationofthemodeltest
trianglesfromtheCFDsdashedline.
Photographsofthemodeltests(reproducedinFigure111)givesomeinsightintowhytheCFDresults
maybesowrong.Itcanbeseenthatinconfiguration9thereissomewavebreakingtakingplaceinthe
mainhullssternwake,thatisnotcapturedintheCFD.Howwerewetoknowthiswouldhappen?
WhatifwehadreliedontheCFDandnotconductedthemodeltest?At35knotsthereisa50%errorin
theCr.

Figure110CFDandmodeltestresults,forarecentstudyoftheeffectoflongitudinalpositionofsidehullsontrimaran
residuaryresistance
170

Figure111Comparisonofthefreesurfacebehindtrimaran5651inExperiment5(left)andExperiment9(right)atFroude
Number=0.34
12.4.4 TheoreticalInterferenceLimits
Tuck&Lazauskas(Reference18)havewrittenaveryinterestingpaperexploringthetheoreticallimitsof
interferencedragformultihulls.Theirworkisavailableonlinefromcyberiad.net.
Theworkcontainsseveralinnovationsthatareworthyofdiscussion.Thefirstoftheseistheinvention
ofasingleparameterwhichcanbeusedtomapaspaceincludingmonohulls,catamarans,andall
possibletrimarans.
Lazauskasisdefinedastheratioofthedisplacementofalltheoutriggersdividedbythe
displacementofthetotalship.Thus,inthecaseofamonohull,thedisplacementoftheoutriggersis
zero,andiszero.Inthecaseoftrimaran,wherethemaincarries80%oftheshipweight,andthe
outriggerseachcarry10%,thevalueofwillbe0.2.Andinthecaseofacatamarantheoutriggerscarry
alloftheweightthereisnocenterhullandthusis1.0.
LazauskasandTuckusedMichellsIntegraltoestimatethedragofmultihullsofastandardonecubic
meterdisplacement.(ThesemaythenbeFroudescaledtoanydesiredsize.)Theystudiedvesselsofall
valuesfrom0to1.Their1996paperUNCONSTRAINEDSHIPSOFMINIMUMTOTALDRAG
(Reference18)(onlineat:http://www.cyberiad.net/library/multihulls/multipep/multipep.htm)presents
manyinterestingresults,afewofwhicharereproducedhere.
InFigure112weseetheresultsoftotaldrag(Ct)forall,forthreeFroudenumbers.Afewresultsleap
out,whichIfeelarefittingobservationstoendon:
Atallspeedstheunconstrained3monohull(=0)issuperiortoanyofthemultihulls.
Thecatamaran(=1)isbetterthananytrimaranhaving>~0.2
Wordedintheimperativetense:
3
Byunconstrainedtheymeanthattheseshipshavebeenallowedtohaveslendernessratiosthatareextreme,
andareprobablyinfeasibleduetostabilityorlongitudinalbendingconcerns.
171
Ifyoucan,designamonohull
Ifthemonohullisout,thendesignacatamaran
Ifyoumustdesignatrimaran,keeptheoutriggerssmall,saybelow10%ofthedisplacement
each

Figure112TotalResistanceofOptimizedonetonneGeneralizedTrimarans,fromLazauskas&Tuck
12.5 LiftSystemAirMomentumDrag
Forthepoweredliftcraftthereisavolumeofairthatistakenfromtheatmosphereandstuffedintothe
cushion.(Itthenleaksoutofthecushionandisreplacedwithmoreair.)Butintheprocessofbeing
takenfromtheatmosphere(whichisnominallyatrest)andplacedintothecushion(whichismoving
withtheship)itmustbeacceleratedfromresttoshipspeed.Thisrequirespower,andthispoweris
expressedasadragduetoliftairmomentum.Ofcourse,itonlyappliestoaircushionvehicles.
Notethattheactofacceleratingtheairfromresttovehiclespeedisdoneatthefan.Soifthefanisnot
locatedontheship,thenthisdragisalsonotpresentontheship.Thisconsiderationonlyappliesto
models,butitisanimportantoneinthosecaseswhere,duetothesizeandweightconstraintsofthe
model,theliftfansaremountedonthetankcarriage,andtheliftisthenductedtothemodelusing
dryerhose.Inthiscasethemodeldragwillnotincludetheliftairmomentumdrag,andwillthustend
tounderpredicttheshipdrag.
172
Theliftairmomentumdragisaninertialproblem,soitFroudescalesorlambdacubesfrommodelto
ship.Howeveritdependsupontheliftairflowrate,andtheliftairflowrateatthemodelmaybe
differentfromthatattheship(evenapartfromscaleconsiderations.)Thismaybebecausethemodel
scalefanshavedifferentcharacteristics,orbecauseitishardtosetthemodelsternsealtotheperfect
inflationcondition,orduetodifferencesinmyriadotherparameters.
Ithereforefeelthattheliftairmomentumdragshouldbescaledindependently:Itshouldbesubtracted
fromthemodeldrag(bycalculatingitbasedonmodelflowrates)andthenreaddedtotheshipdrag
aftercalculatingitbasedonshipflowrates.Ofcourse,inthesimplestcasewewillassumethattheship
flowrateis3timesthemodelrate,sotheeffectisnil.Butitisagoodhabittogetintoeveninthis
simplecase,becauseofthevariationsinflowthatwillundoubtedlyenterastheprojectcontinues.
Liftairmomentumdragisfullypredictableifyouknowtheliftairflow.Thedragiscorrectlyhandledby
calculation,asfollows:
Rmomentum=MassairxdeltaVair=airQV
WhereQ=Flow(m^3/sec)andViscraftvelocity(m/s)
12.6 SkirtDrag
Aircushionvehicles,suchasSESorACV,alsohavefabricskirtsincontactwiththewater,andthese
causedrag.Thedragofskirtsoverwaterisnotwellunderstood.VeryrecentworkbyLarryDoctors
(Reference25)(whichwillbedescribedbelow)ismakingbreakthroughunderstandingofthisdrag
component,whichisturningouttobemorecomplexthanpreviouslyunderstood.AsaresultIam
inclinedtosaywatchthisspaceforfurtherdevelopmentsinpredictionofthisitem.
Theearliestandsimplestmethodformodelingskirtdragwastoassumethatthatdragoftheskirtwas
simplyfriction:Someamountoffabricisbeingdraggedacrossthesurfaceofthewater.Thecalculation
thatensuesisthenfairlysimple:EstimateawettedlengthandcalculatethecorrespondingReynolds
number.DetermineaCfforthisReynoldsnumber.Estimatethewettedsurface,andusetheCfandthe
wettedsurfacetodetermineaskirtdrag.
Now,becauseaswewellknowthefrictionalcomponentcantbescaleddirectlyfrommodeltest,what
wehavetodoisperformtheaboveestimationatmodelscale,determineapredictedmodelscaleskirt
drag,andsubtractthatfromthemeasuredmodeldragbeforeproceedingwiththerestofthemodel
testextrapolation.Wethendetermineanestimatedfullscaleskirtdragwhichwereaddtothe
estimateduringtherecompositionphase.
Theproblemisthatskirtdragisnotpurelyfrictionalthereisatleastsomecomponentthatmightbe
consideredresiduary.Inthismodeltheextrapolationprocedurewouldbetoleavetheskirtdrag
alone,ineffectlumpingitinwithotherresiduarycomponentsofthemodeltest.
Inmyownearlywork(Reference14)Isuggestedusingbothmethodsandthusboundingtheproblem.
InotherwordsIwouldextrapolateamodeltestbothways(skirtasfrictionandskirtasresiduary)and
wouldthengettwodifferentfullscaledraglines.Iwouldthenbelievethatthetruthlaysomewhere
betweenthem.
173
Ofcourse,theabovemethodworksformodeltestextrapolation,butwhataboutfordragestimates
performedduringearlystages?Certainlytheskirtasfrictionmodelcanbeusedtoestimateaskirtdrag,
andthisisbetterthannothing.
InrecentyearsDoctors(Reference25)hasdevelopedanewmodelofskirtresistancethatismuchmore
comprehensiveandisalsoprovidingresultsthattrackverywellagainstmodeltestmeasurements.
Doctorssolutionisdescribedasfollows.First,considerthegeometryofthebowandsternskirtsofan
SES.DoctorsproposesthegeneralizedgeometriesdepictedinFigure113.

Figure113Doctors'geometrydefinitionsketchesforasternseal(left)andabowseal(right)
Thesternsealismodeledassimplefriction,asdiscussedabove.Doctorsprovidesequationsforsolving
forthecontactlengthbasedonstaticconsiderationsofthepressures.Hethenmodifiesthegeometry
byaddingtheeffectofthesternsealdragthedragforceonthebottomofthebagwillpullthebag
slightlyaft,increasingthefrontradiusandchangingthebalanceofforces.
Thisisagoodmodel,butitisdifficulttocaptureoneoftheotherrealitiesofsternseals:Whenideally
tuned,theydontinfacttouchtheseasurface.Theyglidewithatinydaylightgapvisibleabovethe
waterandhencehavenofriction.
174

Figure114AnSESsternsealexactlycorrespondingtoDoctors'definitionsketch
Thebowsealismuchdifferentorasweliketosay,thebowsealiswherethefunis.ByDoctors
newtheorythedragduetothebowsealhastwocomponents,aviscous(frictional)componentanda
wavePileUpcomponent.ThisisequivalenttosayingthatRtskirt=Rfskirt+Rrskirt.Where,ofcourse,
Rrskirtwillproperlyscalefrommodeltests,butRfskirtmustbesubtractedandextrapolated
independently.
Thisisanewtheoryandisnotembeddedincurrentmodelteststandardprocedures(suchastheITTC
guidelines.)CurrentstandardprocedureisnottoseparatelyidentifySkirtDrag.Ahalfwaymeasure
wouldbetoestimateaskirtwettedareaandaddittothehullfrictionalextrapolation.Buta
journeymanpractitionerwhofindshimselfsupervisinganSESmodeltestprogramwoulddowellto
imposesomespecialproceduresforextrapolatingskirtdrag.
12.7 AirCushionWavemaking
Inthequestforspeedweintroducedaircushionsustention.Theaircushionreplacestherigidhullof
theshipwithabubbleofair,andthisbubblehasdemonstrablynofriction.Butthisbubbledoesstill
pushthewateroutofthewayasitpasses,andinsodoingitgenerateswaves.Remember,itallboils
downtoF=MA.Theairbubblepushessomewateroutoftheway.Todothisitmustacceleratethe
littlewaterparticles.Theyhavemass,sothistakesforce.Theresultisadragforce,themanifestation
ofwhichiswaves.
Hydrodynamically,thebubbleofairreplacesaknowngeometry/unknownpressureboundary
condition(atypicalshiphull)withonewherethepressureisknown(equaltothebubblepressure)but
thegeometryisunknown.Itcanbeinterestingtostudythewavepatternsgeneratedbyaircushions,
butthisisbeyondtheundergraduatejourneymanlevel.Atthepracticallevel,whatwecareaboutisa
meansfordeterminingthewavemakingresistanceduetotheaircushion.
175

Figure115Thewavepatterncausedbyarectangularconstantpressurepatch
NewmanandPoole(Reference26)werethefirsttosolvethemathematicsofthisforpracticaluse,and
theyproducedcurvesofcushionwavemakingdragversusspeed,asreproducedinFigure116.
Severalfeaturesarenoteworthy.First,letsfamiliarizeourselveswiththeaxesused:Thespeedaxisis
Froudenumber,butthisisaFroudenumberbasedonthesquarerootofthecushionarea(area=length
xbeam.)
TheforceparameterisDragoverLifttheLinthenumeratoroftheyaxisisthecushionlift,whichis
equaltopressuretimesarea.InthedenominatorisatermofPressureoversquarerootofArea.Thisof
coursebecomesadensitypoundspercubicfoot,sayandisreferredtoasthecushiondensity.Given
allotherthingsbeingequal,cushionwavemakingdragincreaseslinearlywithcushiondensity.
Nowletslookatthedatacurvesthemselves.Therearesevenfullcurvesplotted,correspondingto
differentcushionlengthtobeamratiosfrom2to8.Atlowspeed,sayFn=0.8,thetrendisaswemight
expectaslendercushion(l/b=8)hasalowerdrag.Butathighspeeds,aboveFn=2.0,itistheshortfat
cushionthathasthelowerwavemakingdragparameter.
176

Figure116NewmanandPoolecushionwavedragparameter
NotethattheNewmanandPooledataiscutoffataspeedofaboutFn=0.6.Thisisbecausebelowthat
speedthemathematicsshowsgreatinstability.Figure117presentsablowupoftheverylowspeed
region.(Notethexaxisinthisfigure,whichisaninverseFroudenumbersuchthathighspeedoccursat
x=0.)Doctorsseminalworkintheearly1970s(Reference27)wastointroducesmoothingparameters
intothesolution,recognizingthatthecushionpressurecantinstantaneouslyrisefromzerotofull,but
theremustbesomerampupofpressurewithdistance.ThisisdepictedinFigure118.
177

Figure117Doctors'figureshowingtheNewmanandPooleinstability,andthesmoothingaccomplishedbyintroducing
parametersalphaandbeta

Figure118Doctors'pressuresmoothingparameters
178
AsaresultofthesmoothingparametersDoctorsproducedanewsetofequationsforpredictingthe
wavedragofthecushion.Numericalresultsofthese,similartothegraphinFigure116,arepresented
inthegraphinFigure119,Tabulardatatosupportthisgraphisavailableuponrequest.Note
importantlythattheaxesaredifferentinthisfigurethanthoseusedontheNewman&Poolefigure.In
thiscasetheFroudeNumberisbasedonthecushionlength.Intheearlierfigureitwasbasedon
cushionarea,soanycraftofagivencushionareaandspeedwouldhavethesameFn,despitehaving
differingL/Bratios.InFigure119thedifferingL/BratioswillimplydifferingLifareaisthesame,and
thusdifferingFneventhoughthedimensionalspeedisthesame.Thishasimplicationswhenmakinga
L/Boptimizationselection,asthecrossoverpointisnottheobviousonevisibleonthegraph.
Figure120presentsanenlargedscaledetailofthelowspeedportionofthegraph.
3.5
3
= Drag x rho x g / (Pressure^2 x Beam)
2.5
L/B=10
WAVE DRAG COEFFICIENT
L/B=9
L/B=8
2 L/B=7
L/B=6
L/B=5
1.5 L/B=4
L/B=3
L/B=2
L/B=1
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
FROUDE NUMBER (length)

Figure119Doctors'resultsforcushionwavemakingdrag
179
3
L/B=10
L/B=9
L/B=8
2.5 L/B=7
L/B=6
L/B=5
= Drag x rho x g / (Pressure^2 x Beam)
2 L/B=4
WAVE DRAG COEFFICIENT
L/B=3
L/B=2
L/B=1
1.5
0.5
0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
FROUDE NUMBER (length)

Figure120AnenlargedscaledetailofthelowspeedportionofFigure119.
LetusconsideragaintheimportanceoftheL/Bsensitivityintheseresults.Asmentionedearlier,for
highspeedsthedatashowsthatlowL/Bcushionshavelowerwavemakingresistance.Atlowspeedthe
higherL/Bformsareindicated.
Figure121reproducesaNavystudyoffourdifferentL/Bchoicesforan8,000tonSES,fromReference
28.Thecurvesareoftotalresistance,notcushionwavemakingonly,butthisdoesnotchangethe
picture.Itisclearthatfromthepointofviewofresistance,inspeedrangeAthelongslender
cushionsaredesirable,withL/Bof6or8beingnearlyequalinperformance,whileatveryhighspeeds
speedrangeBthemoreboxlikeL/B=2formisgreatlysuperior.
180

Figure121AUSNavyresultfortotaldragofan8,000tonSESasaFunctionofSpeedandL/Bratio
Finally,notethatthedraginDoctorsgraphisnondimensionalizedonPressureSquared.Becauseof
thisPc^2effect,theL/BforminimumRwisrarelythesameastheL/BforminimumCw.Thatistosay,
thatnotonlydoesL/Bvaryinagivenshipoptimization,butusuallythepressuredoestoo.Eveniftwo
configurationshavethesameareatheymaynothavethesameweight,andthustheymaynothavethe
samecushionpressure.SothentochoosebetweenthemweglanceattheDoctorscurveandseewhich
configurationhasthelowerCw.Butahha!MaybethelowerCwistheshipwithahigherpressure,and
maybethedifferenceinpressuresquaredisbiggerthanthedifferenceinCw!Inthiscasetheshipwith
higherCwmighthavelowertotalRw.
181
Thepointofthisisthatoptimizationstudiesmustbecarriedforwardallthewaytodimensionaldrags
andpowers,andnotbeperformedatthelevelofnondimensionalcoefficients.
12.8 SprayandSprayRailDrag
Highspeedcraftmaygeneratesignificantamountsofspray.AccordingtoFaltinsenthiscanbe12%of
thetotalresistanceofthecraft.TheinterestedstudentisdirectedtoFaltinsen(Reference29)page36.
Spraydragconsistsoftwocomponents,aPressureDragf(Fn)andaFrictionalDragf(Rn,Wn).(Where
Fn=Froudenumber,Rn=Reynoldsnumber,Wn=Webernumber=Vspray2dsr/Ts,d=spraythickness,T
=surfacetension)
Theproblemlies,onceagain,inourinabilitytoscalesuchparametersassurfacetensionofthewater.If
wetrytoapplyReynoldsscaling,wedontknowwhatvelocitytheflowhasitiscertainlynotthesame
astheshipspeed!IfwetrysomedevelopmentbasedontheWebernumber,wedontknowthe
thicknessofthespraysheet.Evenearlierinthedesignprocess,therearenogoodandsimplepredictive
methods.
Oursolutionistotrytoavoidthisentirechallenge.ToreturntomyLewis&Clarkmetaphor:When
facedwithariverwecantcross,becausewecantbuildabridgeoutoftheknowledgethatwehave,we
willhavetotrytofindaroutethattakesusaroundtowherethereisnoriver.
Inourcase,thismeansthatwetrytominimizespraygenerationbyusingsprayrailsonthehull.
ThebestguidanceIhaveseenonpracticaldesignofsprayrailsisgiveninFaltinsen,derivedfromwork
byMllerGrafin1994.Hisguidanceboilsdowntothefollowing:
Sprayrailsstart3%ofLWLaboveLWLatFP
TapertoLWLatmidships
Sprayrailwidthabout0.6%LWLforslenderhulls
12.9 Appendagedrag
Advancedmarinevehiclesmayhaveappendages,andtheseappendagesdohavedrag.Thereisnothing
particularlyAMVuniqueaboutthese,sothischapterisquitebrief:TreatAMVappendagesbyusingthe
sametoolsasareusedforappendageresistanceestimatesonconventionalships.
ThekeypointtobemadehereisthatthemodeltestingofAMVappendagesmaybeevenmore
unreliablethanthealreadydifficultchallengeoftheconventionalship.Thisisbecausethehighspeeds
oftheAMVmeanthatforcegeneratorssuchasrudderscanbemadequitesmall.Thissmallness
exacerbatesthescalingchallengesthatarealreadywellknown(aswellasexacerbatingthedifficultyof
themodelmaking,itself.)
Irecommendthatitisbettertohaveabaremodelandhandleappendagesbycalculation.The
uncertaintiesintroducedbythismethodarenotlikelytobeanygreaterthantheuncertaintiesinherent
inscalingtinyhighspeedappendages.
182
13 SWBS070HullFormDesign
Howdowepickthehullformparametersforthefollowingtypesofvessels?
Catamaran
Trimaran
SES
SWATH
Ineachcase,Iwilluseapurposedrivenapproachtohullformdevelopment.Oncewediscussthe
purposeofeachofthehullformelements,thenwecanseekparentformsforthosehulls,andthenwe
candevelopadesignprocedure.
13.1 Catamaranhulls
13.1.1 Catamaranhullformteleology
Whatisthepurposeofacatamaranhull?Forallbuoyantlysupportedcraftthefirstrequirementisthat
thehullsdisplaceavolumeofwaterequaltothecraftsweight.Butbeyondthis,letsreturntothe
purposeofthecatamaran:Acatamaranisawayofgettingextremehullslendernesswhilestillhaving
acceptablestability.Andtheextremeslendernesswassoughtinordertoreduceresistance.Sothe
primarypurposeofacatamaranhullistohavelowdrag.
Butthereareveryimportantsecondarypurposesthatmustbeworkedinaswell.Thehullformmust
minimizetheoccurrenceofslammingonthecrossstructure.Thehullmustalsobewideenoughtofit
thepropulsionmachinery.
Isubmitthatthesethreearethetoplevelcatamaranhullformteleology:
MinimumDrag
MinimizeSlamming
FittheMachinery

13.1.2 Catamaranhullformparents
Therearefewpublishedhullformseriesintendedforuseascatamarans.Theonlypubliclyavailable
CatamaransystematicseriesIknowofistheGermanVWS89,Reference22.
Usually,designerscollecttheirownparentdata,especiallycollectingandsystematizingthedatafrom
eachcatamaranoftheirowndesign.
FortunatelyhoweveralloftheMonohullsystematicseriescanbeusedwithproperaccountingfor
interferenceeffects.Thesameistrueofthemonohullextrapolation/offspringtechniques,againas
longasthereisproperaccountingforinterferenceeffects.
183
Thisthenopensupawidefield,whereinwecanwritedownacatamaranhullformdevelopment
procedurethatusesastandardnavalarchitecturaldatabase.
13.1.3 Catamaranhullformdevelopmentprocedure
Thereadercanalreadysee,fromtheforegoing,thatcatamaranhullformdesignprocedureisgoingto
followthesamerulesasdisplacementmonohulldesign.Theoneearlydeviationisthatmachinerysize
willprobablydefinethehullbeam.Ifwaterjetdriven,thenthewaterjetmountingdiameterwill
establishthetransombeam.Themainenginewidth(andspacing,ifmultipleenginesperhull)will
definethebeamslightlyfurtherforward.Oncethesebeamsareestablished,andofcoursetherequired
displacedvolumeisknown,thenthedesignproceeds:TheSectionalAreaCurveisyourkeydesigntool.
TraditionaltargetsforPrismaticCoefficientandFatnessRatioareveryuseful(seeSaundersguidance,
reproducedasFigure122(fromReference30.))
Thedesignofimmersedtransomsisaninterestingareathatisnotwelltreatedinmainstreamliterature.
Mypersonaltechniquesarederivedfromreviewingtextsfromthe1940sonthedesignofhighspeed
displacementmotorboats.Thegistofthemethodisthis:
Developasectionalareacurveforafictionalhullthatoperatesatyourtargetspeed,buthasaTaylor
Quotientof~1.5(i.e.itoperatesjustabovehullspeed.)Settheparametersofthissectionalareacurve
inaccordancewithSaundersguidance,etc.Thensimplytruncatethecurveatthedesiredlengthof
yourship.UsetheresultingforwardportionasyourshipsS.A.curve.
Asafinalcheck,designyourshipstransomsuchthatithasadraftthatensuresthetransomisdryatthe
designspeed.AsatransomdryingcriterionIusetherequirementthattheFroudenumberbasedon
transomdraftmustbe5orgreateratdesignspeed.(FroudenumberontransomdraftissimplyFnt=V
/SQRT(gx[transomdraft])).
184

Figure122Saunders'guidancefortheselectionofdesiredCpandFatnessRatio
13.2 TrimaranAmas
Themainhullofthetrimaranmaybedesignedbythesameprocedureasthehullsofacatamaran.But
whatoftheamas,oroutriggers?Letusfollowoursamepathwaythroughdevelopmentoftheformof
thesehulls.
13.2.1 TrimaranAmahullformteleology
Pauseandconsider:Whatisthepurposeofthetrimaran?Whatistheguidingconcept?Atrimaranisa
veryslendership,soslenderthatshewouldbeunstableunlesssidehulls(amas)wereadded.
Sothepurposeofatrimaranamaisstability,andverylittleelse.Ifwedidntneedthestabilityofthe
amas,wewouldnthaveamasatall.
185
Sonext,letsrememberourSophomoreyearlecturesonstability:Stabilityisallaboutwaterplanearea
andwaterplaneinertia.
Fromthisargumentweseethattherealpurposeofanamaistoaddwaterplaneinertiatotheship,by
addingwaterplanearea.Displacementperseisnotneededintheama.
Atthesametime,wewanttominimizethedragoftheama.Whatisthehullformwithminimumdrag?
Clearlyitisahullofminimumvolumeandminimumwettedsurface.
Combiningthesethoughts,weseethatanoptimalamawould:
HAVEwaterplanearea
NOTHAVEdisplacement
NOTHAVEwettedsurface
Obviouslythefirstandlastoftheseareinconflicttheminimumshapethatsatisfiesthistargetwould
beaflatplate,havingnodraft,andhavingtheminimumpossiblewettedsurfaceforthegivenamount
ofwaterplanearea.
Now,inarealshipwealsoneedtheamastoworkacrosssomerangeofloadingconditions,andsome
rangeofshipmotions,sowedoneedthemtohavedraft.Butclearlywecanseethetrend:Wewant
amasthatareshallow,amasthathavehighB/Tratios.
13.2.2 TrimaranAmahullformparents
Theargumentabove,basedonteleology,ismyown.Ishouldhastentostatethatthereisnoconsensus
onAmaform:ItendtoprefermoderateL/Broundbilgesemiplaningforms,Dr.TonyArmstrong
(Austal)whohasextremelygoodcredentialsinthisareaprefersveryslenderhighL/Bforms.Dr.Igor
Mizine(CSC)whoisalsoarecognizedexpertprefersSWATHforms.
Iwillbeginwithmyownlogic,andwillthenattempttodojusticetotheseotherpointsofview.
Frommyteleologicalargumentthesuitableparentformsfortrimaranamasareshallowhulls
maximizingtheamountofwaterplaneareaforeachtonofdisplacedvolume.Theamaswillalsobekept
assmallaspossible,whichmeansthattheywilloperateatahigherFroudenumberthanthemainhull.
Finally,rememberLazauskasresultsonoptimummultihullswhichsuggestthattheamasshouldnotbe
morethan10%ofthetotalshipdisplacement(e.g<0.2).
Thisleadstotheselectionofroundbilgedplaninghullsasparentsfortheamas.
IliketouseSeries64forthispurpose.Series64hasanicehighB/Tvalue,operatesattherightFroude
numbers,andiswidelyavailableinstandardnavalarchitecturesoftwareandreferencematerials
(Reference20.)
Dr.Armstrongattainsthesamegoal,butratherthanusingaplaninglikeformhecontinuesthetrendof
slendernessandusesasharpveedlongnarrowformseeFigure123.Thisisapparentlybecauseofhis
experiencewiththeneedtoaccommodatearangeofdraftsatwhichtheamaprovidesitswaterplane
area(arangeofdraftsisneededbecauseoftheloadinganddamagedcasesfortheshipstability.My
186
argumentofteleologymaybeclaimedtobesimplistic,becauseittreatstheshipasifstabilityisonly
neededatthedesigncondition.)
Dr.MizinetakesaverydifferentapproachseeFigure124.Hisamasarenarrowanddeep,andmay
includeSWATHlikebulgesatthebottom.Partofhismotivationisbecausehelikestofitmachineryinto
theamas,andtheSWATHlikeformprovidesverygoodinflowtoasubmergedpropeller,providinggood
propellerefficiency.
Hehasfurtherfoundthatbycarefullypositioningtheamas,dependingupontheirvolumeandtheship
speed,hecancausefavorableinterferenceeffectsthatcompletelyoffsettheirdrag:Thatistosaythat
theresistanceofthewholeshipisnogreaterthantheresistanceofthecenterhullalonetheamasare
free.
Unfortunatelythetoolsneededforthisoptimizationarebeyondtheundergraduatelevelofthispresent
work,buttheconceptisveryinterestingandisbeingincreasinglydocumentedinDr.Miziniesgrowing
bodyofpublishedworks.(Formanyofthese,searchthewebsiteoftheCenterforCommercial
DeploymentofTransportationTechnology,www.ccdott.org)
13.2.3 TrimaranAmahullformdevelopmentprocedure
BasedonMcKessonsphilosophyofamadesign,thefollowingprocedureobtains:
Givenmainhull:
EstimateKG>GMrequired>BMrequired>ITrequired
ITrequireddefinesa2Drelationship(ITAwpd2)between:
Spacing(d)
WaterplaneArea(Awp)
ForeachselectedWaterplaneArea,nowmustdecidewhatL&Btoattainit
Havearealisticdraft=deltaTMAIN
WhatcombinationofL,B,ThasthedesiredAwpandminimumdrag?SeeSaundersdesign
lanesandothertraditionaltools
187

Figure123GivessomedepictionoftheformofAmapreferredbyDr.TonyArmstrong

Figure124AdepictionoftheSWATHlikeAmaspreferredbyDr.IgorMizine
13.3 SESSidehulls
Nowweturntoadifferenttypeofcraft.TheCatamaranandTrimaranarebothBuoyantLiftcraft,and
theirhullformdevelopmentisalotlikethedesignofconventionalshiphulls.InthecaseoftheSESthis
isnolongertruethepresenceofthepoweredliftcushiondominatesthedesignofthehulls.
13.3.1 SESSidehullhullformteleology
TheprimarypurposeoftheSESsidehullistoretainthecushion.Thesidehullmustextenddownbelow
thebottomofthebubbleatallspeeds,cushionpressures,craftattitudes,seaconditions,etc.
WealsofittedsidehullstotheSES(asopposedtobeingafullyskirtedACV)becausewewantedtofit
marinepropulsion.Thereforethesidehullsneedtoaccommodatethepropellingmachineryoftheship.
188
Thesidehullsshapeisconstrainedbytheirneedtoavoidinterferencewiththefabricskirtsystemsof
thecraft.Theseskirtswillbediscussedinalaterunitofthiscourse,butthepointtotakehereisthat
theskirtsrequirethatthesidehullsbecompletelywallsidedverticallyandcompletelystraight
longitudinallyintheregionoftheskirts.Transitioningintoandoutofthesestraightlinesectionscanbe
achallengeifaradicalsidehullshapeischosen.(ThestandardSESsidehullshapeiswallsidedand
straightlinedonthecushionsideoveritsentirelength.)
Whenoffcushion(normallyatzerospeed,butsometimesoffcushionoperationisconductedwithsome
smallaheadspeed)theSESbecomesacatamaran.Itmustinthatcasefloatonitssidehulls,sothey
musthaveadeepdraftvolumeequaltotheshipsweight.Further,theirLCBintheoffcushion
conditionmustbealignedwiththeshipsLCGatsomeacceptabletrim.(Normally,SESoffcushionfloat
withasubstantialtrimbythebow.Butevenattainingthisdegreeoftrimrequiresattentiontothe
locationofthesecenters.)
Thereisadifferentsetofcenterswhenthecraftisoncushion.IntheoncushionmodethesidehullLCB
isthatcorrespondingtoamuchlowerdraft,butthereisalsoalongitudinalcenterofpressure
designatedLCPwhichrepresentstheeffectivelocationofthecushionlift.Intheoncushioncasethe
crafttrimwillbetheresultoftheconfluenceofthesethreecenters:LCGversusLCB+LCP.Thedesignof
thesidehullneedstoaccommodatethis.
Finally,thesidehullsoftheSESarethesolesourceoftheshipstransversestability.Thistooisthe
subjectofalaterunit,butwewillforeshadowitherebysayingthattherearetwocomponentstothis
stability:Staticstabilityoftheconventionalmetacentrictype,anddynamicstabilityduetoplaning
forcesonthehullbottom,inhighspeedturns.
Andofcourse,wewantthesidehulltoperformalloftheabovetaskswithminimumdragthus
minimumwettedsurface.
SESsidehullteleologymaybesummarizedas:
RetaintheCushion(e.g.Draft)
Accommodatetheskirts
Fitthemachinery
LCB/LCP/LCGalignment
PlaningStability
MinimizeWettedSurface
13.3.2 SESSidehullhullformparents
TherearearguablytwoclassesofSESparenthull,althoughonlyoneofthemisseentoday.
Therareoneisthesocalledlenticularhull.Thisisahullhavingcurvedwaterlinesontheoutside,
resultinginahullalmostidenticaltothatofanearlyHobieCatpleasureboat.Lenticularhullswere
developedinthe1980sassolutionsforSEShavingrelativelymodestspeeds(e.g.thousandfootcraftof
50knots).TherearenolenticularhulledSESthatIknowofafloattoday.
189
Themoretraditionalhullisprismatic.Thismeansthatithasasimplegeometricshapethatis
continuedovernearlytheentirelengthofthehull(exceptforatransitionatthebow.)Thekeyhull
formparametersfortheprismatichullareSidehullbeam,Sidehulldraft,andDeadriseangle.
13.3.3 SESSidehullhullformdevelopmentprocedure
ThesimplifiedstatementofthedesignprocedureforaprismaticSEShullis:
FindDrafttoretaincushion,incl.waveeffects
Findmaximumacceptabledeadriseangleforplaningstability
FindBeamtoyielddesiredmetacentricstability
Includemachineryhaunchifneeded
Includewaterjetorpropellerfairingifneeded
Howdoyoudecidethesidehulldimensions?Let'sstartwithsidehullbeam:
RetainingthecushionisofcourseJobNo.1forthesidehull.AndthatmeansDraft,bothOuterand
Inner.Forastartingpoint,youwantaninnerdraftthatis3050%ofthebubbledepressionthatisto
saythatat1meterofcushionpressure,thesidewallwouldbe1.31.5mdeep,soastohavethat0.3
0.5mfenceforthecushion.
Butthatofcourseisoneofthoserulesofthumb,withnophysicalbasis.
Therealphysicalbasiswouldbetomodelthewaveshapeofthecushiongeneratedwave.Youneedthe
sidewalldeepenoughsothatthetroughofthatwavedoesntvent.Thattroughisdeepestrightathump
itswherethehumpcomesfrom,physically.
Butifitdoesvent,youcansimplydialdownthecushionpressure,reducingthebubbledepressionand
settlingthesidehullsalittlelower.Infact,thishastheeffectofreducingcushiondragsodramatically
thatmostSESdothisasameansofeasingtheirwaythroughthehumpregime,ratherthansimply
'blastingthrough'onpower.
Sothenthenextlimitistothinkaboutwhatoceanwaveswilldotothebubbledepression,athigh
speeds.AtFn=infinitythereisnowave.AndindeedifyoulookatvideosofSEScushions,theresreally
notmuchcushionwaveatabout40knotsthebubbleisflat.Sonowthequestionishowmuchocean
waveswillchangethat,andIdontknowtheanswertothis.
Sothatdefinesdraft.Thencomessidehullbeam.Twoconcernsaretempting:(1)keepingsidehull
displacementatatargetvalueand(2)classicalnavalarchitectureissues,likeL/Bratios,slenderness,
waterlineentranceangles,etc.
Regarding(1)Ithinkfranklythatitsaredherring.Afterall,anSES(probably)haslessresistancethe
higherthecushionfractionwedgoto100%ifwecoulddothatwithoutlosingtheaireverywhere.
(ACVshavelessdragthanSESs,buttheytaketoomuchliftpowerbecausetheyventalltheway
around.)SoIthinkthatreallywhatyouwantissidehullswithminimumdragandthiswillmean
minimumwettedsurface.Inthelimit,ifdraftisfixed,thentheminimumwettedsurfaceisaflatplate
190
thatsticksverticallydowntothatdraft.Anyamountofdeadriseorthicknesswillsimplyincreasethe
girth,andhenceincreasethewettedsurface,forthefixeddraft.
Now,aflatplatesidehullwouldalsobeniceforLCB/LCP/LCGalignment,becausetheLCBwouldbe
amidships,rightwheretheLCPis.Themoreshapethesidehullshave,themorethearegoingtobe
triangular,resultinginaftshiftoftheLCB.
Ofcourse,aflatplateishardtofitthemachineryinto!
Soinrealitywehavesomethickness,generallybasedonsomedeadriseangle.Aswewilldiscussunder
theheadingofSWBS079Stability,thedeadriseangleneedstosupportplaningstability:Youwantthe
vector,normaltothedeadrisesurface,topassabovetheVCGoftheship.Thissetsanupperlimiton
deadrise.
Now,thatlastpointbecomescritical,becauseitmeansthatsidehullbeamwillneedtochangeifcushion
beamchangesconsider:
Asthecushionbeamcomesdown,drawamidshipsection,anddrawavectorfromthekeeltotheVCG
atcenterline.Asthebeamcomesdown,thisvectorgetsmoreandmorevertical.
Thatvectorrepresentsthehydrodynamicliftontheplaningsurfaceofthesidehull.IfitpassesBELOW
theVCGtheboattripsandrollsoverinahighspeedturn(flipaheadtoFigure160toseethis
illustrated.)
Now,forminimumwettedsurface,youwanttheplaningsurfacetobeastraightlinethatextendsfrom
thekeeltothewaterline.Butifyoudrawthatatsomeangle,say45degrees,thenatsomebeamthe
45*deadrisewillsendthatvectortoolow,andyoudneedalowerdeadrise,say30*orsomething.Well,
forthisdeadrisetoreachfromthekeeltothewaterline,theonlypossibilityisthatthesidehullbeam
hastobegreater.
Thusascushionbeamcomesdown,thevectorneedstobemorevertical,thusthedeadriseneedstobe
lower,thusthebeamneedstobegreater.Butgreaterbeamandlowerdeadrisewillyieldhigherwetted
surface,andwillmanifestthemselvesasexcessivesidehullbuoyancy.
Sointhisunitweneedtoalsoconsiderhowtopickthecushionbeam.Forthis,wereturntotheold
ACVparametercalledPc/L(pronouncedPCuponL).Ifyouimagineaprofileofthebubble,youll
seethatthisiskindofadrafttolengthratio.
Now,imagineacontainershiphull:Theprofileispracticallyrectangular,withaverticalstemleadingtoa
radiusedforefoot.Butthegoodnavalarchitectpaidalotofattentiontohiswaterplaneshape,and
maintainedhiswaterlineentranceangletoanicefinepoint,say510degrees.
AnSESontheotherhand,hasabloodyrectangularwaterplane,butwedliketoputapointonour
profileitsthetankerturnedonitsside.AndtheonlywaytoputapointonthebubbleisviaPc/L.
(Ignoringideaslikesegmentedcushions!).
191
AsabenchmarkconsideralimitofPc/L=100Pa/m.ThisresultsinaLengthtoDraftratioof100:1.So
forashipwithacushionlengthlike70m,thiswouldsuggestacushionpressurelike7kPa,or0.7m
bubbledepression.
Onecancertainlygohigherthanthat.Howmuchhigher?Sowhat?Theeffect,afterall,isonlydrag,lust
likeputtingtoobluntabowonthattanker.Whatsthewaterlineentranceangleofa1000footLaker?
Darnnear90*itlookslike!Sometimesyoujustbitethebulletanddowhatyouhaveto.ButImsurethe
lakerdesignerswouldliketohavepointyerbows,justlikewedliketoholdourPc/Ldownto100Pa/m.
In1975Mantle(Reference31)suggestedlimitsof12.5to20ft/ton^(1/3),whichworksoutto43(low
densitycraft)to177(highdensitycraft)N/m^3(orPa/mthey'rethesameunit.)
13.4 SWATHHulls
SWATHshipsaredesignedtominimizeshipmotions.ThepurposeofaSWATHistoprovideashipthat
isdecoupledfromthewavesontheseasurface.Wedothis,conceptually,byputtingtheships
buoyancywellbelowthosewaves,andthensupportingthehumanoccupiedpartwellabovethewaves,
attachedtothesubmergedbuoyancybystruts.
ThatdescriptionworksaswellforasemisubmergeddrillplatformasitdoesforaSWATH.Andindeed,
asemisubofthattypeisinfactaSWATH,butoneoptimizedforzerospeed.
InthiscoursewewillconcernourselveswithSWATHsoptimizedforsomenonzerospeed,which
introducestheneedforhydrodynamicshapingofthehullsandthesurfacepiercingstruts.Thistakes
twoformsprimarily:Thatofselectingtheoptimumprismaticcoefficientforthespeedofinterest,and
thenthemoreadvancedmethodofcokebottlingthehullstominimizedragatonespeed.
InordertounderstandthedesignofSWTHhullsforminimummotions,weneedtohaveacoupleof
additionaltermsinourlexicon:PlatformingandContouring.Contouringmotionisthemotion
whentheshipfollowsthecontouroftheseasurfaceupanddownalongthewaves,moreorless
maintainingaconstantheighttothewater,likeacork.Platforming,ontheotherhand,correspondsto
theshipmaintainingitsheightrelativetotheearth,andlettingthewavespassbeneathitwithout
respondingtothemitislikeaplatformontheseabed.
ASWATHwilloperateinbothofthesemodesnaturally.IfwethinkofaSWATHasasimplespringmass
system,wecanimaginethatataverylowexcitationfrequencytheshipwillsimplymovein1:1
correspondencewiththeexcitationcontouring.Ontheotherhand,ataveryhighexcitation
frequencytheheavemassoftheshipcantrespondfastenoughandvirtuallyignorestheexcitation
platforming.Asthisexplanationshows,thetransitionbetweenthesemodesisgovernedbythe
relationshipofExcitationFrequencyandNaturalFrequency,calledTuningFactor.Thisrelationshipis
depictedinFigure125.
192

Figure125TypicalvariationinSWATHshipheaveresponseatlowspeedsasafunctionoftuningfactor.(SNAME)
13.4.1 SWATHhullformteleology
ThedesignofSWATHhullsislargelydominatedbytheneedtodesignforthetransitionbetween
platformingandcontouringmodes.Contouringnaturallytakesoverwhenwaveperiodsarelarge,and
largewaveperiodscorrespondtotallerwaves.ThismeansthataSWATHwillplatforminsmallerwaves,
andthenwhenthewavesbecometallenoughtothreatentheabovewaterportionoftheshipshewill
automaticallybegincontouringthosewaves.
Designingthehullsforthisbehaviorrequiresaconsiderationofthewaveheights,waveperiods,ship
dynamics,andtheheightofwaveatwhichwewantthechangeovertooccur.Thisisclearenough
conceptually,andunderprocedureIwillrecapsomepracticaltechniquesforcausingthisdesired
effect.
Asbackground,letmecompletethefundamentalfrequencyrelationshipbyremindingthereaderofa
fewpointsregardingshipmotions.MostimportantistorecallthattheExcitationFrequencyisWave
EncounterFrequency.ItdependsuponSeaState,ShipSpeed,andShipHeading.Table7depicts
standardwaveheight/periodrelationshipsasestablishedbyNATO.
193
Table7NATOStandardseastatedefinitions
Sea State N Wave Height Wave period

most
min mean max min probable max
1 0 0.05 0.1 [-] [-] [-]
2 0.1 0.3 0.5 3.3 7.5 12.8
3 0.5 0.88 1.25 5 7.5 14.8
4 1.25 1.88 2.5 6.1 8.8 15.2
5 2.5 3.25 4 8.3 9.7 15.5
6 4 5 6 9.8 12.4 16.2
7 6 7.5 9 11.8 15 18.5
8 9 11.5 14 14.2 16.4 18.6
Theeffectofshipspeeddependsupontheshipsheadingwithrespecttotheseas.Inpureheadseas,
theeffectofshipspeedistocausetheshiptoencountermorewavesinagivenamountoftime,thusto
reducetheencounterperiod,foragivenwaveperiod.ThisisdepictedinFigure126.Theoppositeis,of
course,trueinfollowingseas.Therelationshipforanygivenheadingcanbeeasilysolvedusing
trigonometry.

Figure126Effectofshipspeedonwaveencounterperiodinheadseas
194
13.4.2 SWATHhullformparents
Withthesefundamentalscovered,wenowturntolookatthechoiceofparentgeometriesforSWATH
ships.Thereareseveralimportantvariationsfromwhichwechoose:
Strutconfiguration:SingleStrutv.TwinStrut
Rudderconfiguration:OverhangingStrutsv.SpadeRudders
Forresistancetherearethreeparenthullsavailable:
TwohighCp/LowSpeedTAGOSparents
OneLowCp/HighSpeedparent
Figure127illustratesacircularhulllowspeed/highCphull,inasinglestrutconfiguration,withspade
rudders.Figure128illustratesanalternativelowspeedhull,againhavingcircularhullsandasingle
strut,butthistimewithoverhangingstruts,andadifferenthullvolumedistribution.
Figure129depictsahighspeedSWATHhull,havingspaderudders.

Figure127HighCp/LowSpeedparentSWATHTAGOS
195

Figure128HighCp/LowSpeedParent:SWATHTAGOSB

Figure129LowCp/HighSpeedParent:SWATH5972
196
13.4.3 SWATHhullformdevelopmentprocedure
HavingnowestablishedthefundamentalconsiderationsandlexiconofSWATHhulldesign,whatisa
practicalproceduretofollowtodevelopsuchahull?Hopefullythefollowingparagraphswillgetone
startedthroughthefirstfewturnsofthedesignspiral.
Forresistance,theonlyreasonableprocedureisanumericaltechniquesuchasthepreviously
introducedMichletcode,theNavyChapmancode,orcommercialCFDcodes.Buthowdoweselect
thegrosshullparameterstofeedintothesecodes,withsomeassurancethatwewillhaveSWATHlike
seakeeping?
Thekeytoseakeepingdesignistoselectlength,volume,anddiametertoyieldspecifictargetnatural
frequenciesofshipmotion.Thetargetfrequencies(targetperiods,actually)areselectedbydesigning
forthetuningfactormentionedabove.Weselectthedesignseastate,andtheseastateatwhichwe
wanttheshiptotransitionfromPlatformingtoContouring.Wecalculatetheencounterperiods(taking
accountofshipspeedandheading)intheseseastates.Wethendesignthehullssuchthatthenatural
periodsareabout0.5oftheencounterperiodinthedesignseastate,andabout1.5oftheencounter
periodintheContouringseastate.
Toaccomplishthis,weusethefollowingrelationshipsforestimatingthenaturalperiodsoftheship:
Where:
V=DisplacedVolume(m^3)
Awp=WaterplaneArea(m^2)
A33=Heaveaddedmass:Forellipticalhulls,A33=~0.70
Where:
L=ShipLength
Kp=pitchgyradiusdividedbyL
GML=Longitudinalmetacentricheight
A55=Pitchaddedinertiafactor:Forellipticalhulls,A55=~0.060
Gyradius=SQRT(I/M)
197
Where:
B=WaterlineBeam(overall)
Kr=rollgyradiusdividedbyB
GMT=Transversemetacentricheight
A44=Rolladdedinertiafactor:Forellipticalhulls,A44=~0.20

Finally,thereareacoupleofSWATHnuancesthatbearmentioning:
PanamaCanalLimitsartificiallyconstrainbeam.Itmayrapidlybecomeimpossibletoattainthedesired
beamofaSWATHaboveafewthousandtons.Ofcourse,thislimitwillchangewhenthewideningof
thecanaliscompleted.
FollowingSeas:Infollowingseastheencounterperiodmaybeinfinite,orverylong.Insuchcasesone
maygeneratelowfrequencyresponsesthatareverylarge,pullingthewetdeckallthewaydowntothe
water.Fortunately,theforcesinvolvedaremodestandareeasilyovercomewithactivecontrol
surfaces.
Lowerhullsubmergence:SWATHmodeltestshaveshownsomeinterestingtrendsrelatedtothe
submergenceofthelowerhull,thatitmaybepossibletoexploitinpracticaldesign.Considerthetwo
anglesAlphaandBetadefinedinFigure130andFigure131.IthasbeenobservedthatPeakRoll/wave
slope=~0.35xAlpha.Also,PeakRoll=~Beta.(Thislattermeansthattheshiprollsuntilthelowerhull
hasrisenjusttothesurface,atwhichpointtherollstops.Thisseemsintuitivelylogical.)
Foramoredetailedtreatmentofthisentiresubject,seeLamb(Reference32.)
198

Figure130Lamb'sdefinitionsketchforangleBeta

Figure131Lamb'sdefinitionsketchforangleAlpha
199
14 SWBS070ShipArrangement
14.1 GeneralArrangement
ThinkINSIDEtheboxandoutsidethecigar.
Catamarans,SES,SWATH,andACVhullformsallresultinshipsthatareveryrectangularinplanformas
comparedtothetraditionaldisplacementmonohull.Eventhetrimaranformresultsinarelativelylarge
crossstructure,whichdoesn'thavethe'mailingtube'shapeoftheconventionalship.
ForcenturiesNavalArchitectshavehadtofitallofaship'scargocarryingandlivingfunctionsintoalong
narrowrailroadcargeometry.Nolonger!ThedesignerofAMVsgetstothink'outsidethecigar'and
insidethebox.
Ofcourse,theboxlikeshapedoesposesomechallenges.Someofthesechallengesarebecauseour
rulesandourclients'expectationsareallshapedbytheassumptionof"mailingtube"geometry.
Consider:
CorridorsInaconventionalshipitisconventionaltohaveacenterlinecorridor,withcabins
givingoffthecorridorportandstarboard,andverticalaccessesatvariousnodesalongthe
length.Themonohullpassagewaynetworklookssomethinglikeafishes'backbone.By
contrast,theboxlikeshapeoftheSES,SWATH,andCat,maysuggestthatcorridorsshouldbein
aloop,concentrictothecenteroftheshipitself.
OutsideCabinsIbelievethatMSClaborrulesrequirethatcrewmembercabinsbeequipped
withaportlight.Thismeansthattheymustbeontheoutsideorperimeteroftheship.Outside
cabinsarealsodesireableinpassengervessels.Andtheyarealsoprominentinthedesignof
luxuryhotels,andindeedisonereasonthatsomanybigblockhotelsarebasedoninternal
atrium.
DistributiveSystemLoopsAgain,likethepassageways,monohulldistributivesystemsoften
havea'spinal'architecture.Inthecaseofthe'square'shipsitmaymakemoresensetobased
thedistributivesystemsonahorizontalloopconcept.
AccessintohullsTheverticalaccessintothehullscanbeachallenge,becauseitmaytakemost
oftheavailablewidthofthehulls.
HorizontalaccessesbelowwaterlineForeandaftpassageinsidethelowerhullsmaybe
impossibleordifficult,duetothenarrownessofthehulls.Alsonotethatnavalrulesprohibit
theinstallationofdoorsevenwatertightonesinbulkheadsbelowthewaterline.Sovertical
accessesmustbeprovided,twoineverysubdivision.ThiscaneatupaLOTofarrangeablearea
inthehulls.
VisibilityfromBridgethebridgeofanyshipmusthavevisibility,includingforward,aft,and
down(overside).FormanyAMVsthisrequirementresultsinaverywidebridgecomparedto
thelengthoftheship.Butthen,thebridgeona30mwideSWATHisnowiderthanthatona
30mwidecontainership,itsjustthata30mwideSWATHisonly,say,10,000tons,whilethe
containershipmaybe50,000tons.
Itisdifficulttobescientificandmathematicalaboutshiparrangement.Somemayclaimthatthisisan
areawherenavalarchitecturebecomesanart.Asaresult,IthinkthatthebestIcandoistotakea
200
walkingtourofsomeAMVdesignsandpointoutfeaturesthatareuniqueabouttheirarrangements,
andinwhichthepioneeringnavalarchitectwillhavetothinkoutsidehismailingtubeparadigm,and
insidethebox.
Thefirstillustrationism/vANAHI,aGalapagosIslandscatamarantourboatFigure132.Youmaybe
abletoseeinherconfigurationthatshehasdevotedthemainlevelofthedeckhousewhichisinfact
themainleveloftheshiptopassengeraccommodation.Crewandservantsareaccommodatedinthe
hullsseethesmallportholesvisibleinthetopsides.Thebridgespansthefullwidthofthedeckhouse,
includingopenbridgewingswhicharepresumablyfittedwithcontrolstations.Itsnotclear,butIthink
shealsohasaflyingbridgeontop,althoughIdontknowwhetherthisisanoperationalbridgeora
passengerarea.

Figure132GalapagosIslandstourboatANAHI,showingthestandardarrangementofanAMV
ANAHIdescribeswhatmaybeconsideredthegenericAMVconfiguration,witharectangularpayload
compartmentsittingatophulls.
TheearlyUSNSWATHKAIMALINO(Figure133)notonlypioneeredtheSWATHform,butpioneered
thearrangementofaSWATHaswell.Iamdisappointedthatwedontseemorevesselstakingsomeof
KAIMALINOsinnovativeideas.
ThefeatureIammostinterestedinonKAIMALINOisherforwardbridge.Notehowthisforward
compartmentgivesthebridgeteamunobstructedviewsforwardanddown.Notealsothatthebridgeis
raisedahalflevel,sothatrearwardvisionisalsoprovided.
201
Iamalsointriguedatthechallengesthisraised,andhowtheysolvedthem:Notethetwoanchors.The
anchorchainsrunuptothetopofthebridge,wherethewindlassesareinstalled,andthechainlockers
arethenbelowdeckssomewhere.NotealsothatKAIMALINOshowsthattheanchorsonamultihull
donthavetogointhesidesofthebowsliketheyareinatanker.Itmakesmoresensetoputthem
betweenthetwohulls.

Figure133KAIMALINO,pioneeringanunusualarrangementapproach
TheCanadianPacifiCatclassfastferryhasaninnovativebridgesolutiontoo.SheisdepictedinFigure
134andFigure135.Firstly,notethatthebridgeisnotonthetopmostdeckoftheship.Thetopmost
deckisapassengerloungethebridgeisonedeckbelow.Thismeansthatthebridgeteamhaveno
aftwardvisibilityandhavetorelyofCCTVcircuitsforthis,whichrequiredaspecialwaiverfrom
TransportCanada.
Alsonotethattheownersinsistedonfullwidthnclosedbridgewings,thatoverhungthesideoftheship.
Themasterwantstobeabletostandjustpastthefullwidthofhisshipandbeabletoseethemooring
linesbeingattached,lookdownonthefendersandcamels,etc.Theresultingbridgewingsareclearly
visibleinbothpictures,butwhatisnotclearisthattheflooroftheoverhangingwingisplateglass.Itis
aeeriefeelingtostandonaglassplateandlookdownatthewatersometenmetersbelowyourfeet.
202

Figure134TheCanadianPacifiCatfastferry.Thebridgeisnotthetopdeck,buttheonerightbelowit.
203

Figure135AdetailofaPacificat,showingtheoverhangingbridgewing
RADISSONDIAMOND(Figure139)maybetheultimateincarnationofaboxontwohulls.Shelookslike
ahotelwhichsheis!RADISSONDIAMONDisactuallyaSWATH,whichmaybeseeninthesmallsketch
reproducedasFigure140.Itseemstomethatinlayingoutashipofthisshape,onewouldinfactturn
toahoteldesignermorethantoashipdesigner.Figure136throughFigure138arepicturesofhotels
thatIgleanedofftheinternet.Iincludetheseasthoughtprovokerstosuggestwaysthatsome
designershavearrangedalargevolumebox.
204

Figure136Aluxuryhotelatrium.GiventhesmoothrideofaSWATHship,whynotuseaconfigurationlikethis?

Figure137Afourstoryatrium,withproportionsthatmightfitmanyAMVs
205

Figure138Ahotelatrium.Couldthisbeusedonasmallcatamaran?
NotealsoFigure141showingthesternofRADDISSONDIAMOND.Thereareacoupleoffeaturesof
interestinthispicture.Notonlyishertwinhullshapemadeobvious,butnotealsotheplatform
betweenthetwohullsupatthedeck.Thisplatformincludesasectionthatcanbehydraulicallylowered
tothewatertoformaswimmingbeachforthepassengers.SinceaSWATHhassuchlowmotions,the
resultisthattheshipisanislandinthesea,andsheevenbringsherownbeachwithher.
206

Figure139RADISSONDIAMOND,aSWATHcruiseship
207

Figure140ALowRessectionthroughRADISSONDIAMOND

Figure141RADDISSONDIAMONDSternView
208
AnotherlargemultihulltosuccessfullyembodythesquareboxapproachistheSTENAHSS1500shown
inFigure142.Aboxiershapeishardtoimagine,althoughIthinkthedesignerhasdonearemarkable
jobofmakingthisasgoodlookingaspossible.Sheisacarferry,withvehiclesonthelowercrossdeck
andpassengersabovethem.Thebridgeisconventional,locatedinanislandsuperstructureonthetop
layer.Thestacksintheredpaintedareaafthavebeenkeptaslowaspracticabletominimize
interferencewithaftwardlinesofsight.

Figure142TheSTENAHSS1500fastferry
Figure143showsashipthatisnotgoodlooking,butiscertainlysquaretheUSNSWATHTAGOS.To
understandthearrangementofthisshipwemustunderstandalittleofherhistory:Shewasintroduced
todirectlyreplacealineonmonohulls.Inordertovalidatethenewhullform,thedesignteamretained
manyfeaturesofthemonohulloneforone.ComparethetwopicturesinFigure144andFigure145and
notehowmanypiecesarenearlyidentical,includingthestacks,thetowedarraywinch,muchofthe
deckhouse,etc.
209

Figure143USNSWATHTAGOS
210

Figure144MonohullTAGOS
211

Figure145SWATHTAGOS
AnotherSWATHistheverysmallFREDERICKCREEDFigure146(sheisabout80feetlong.)Thefeature
Iwishedtohighlightherewasmachineryaccess.CREEDSmainenginesarelocatedinsidethebulgesin
thelowerhulls,visibleinthepicture.Theyareaccessedbyladdersinthestruts.Nowcomparethe
widthofthosestruts,tothewidthofthemenvisibleintheforeground.
212

Figure146ThesmallSWATH"FREDERICKCREED"
Alongthissameline,considerthearrangementdrawingfromINCATswebsite,reproducedinFigure
147.Lookatthelowermostsketchandnotetheengineplacementandarrangement.Eveninthislarge
shiptheengineroomisextremelytight,andprovidingaccessandmaintenanceaccesstoallsidesofit
canbearealchallengerememberthatwewentoutofourwaytomakethehullsslender,nowwe
maketheshipsEngineerpaytheprice.
ButtheINCATsketchalsopointsoutsomeofthebenefitsofourboxlikeshape:Theshipiswide
enoughtoturnacararoundondeck.AmonohullferryofthiscapacitymightnothaveroomforaU
turn.
213

Figure147ArrangementdrawingsoftheINCATK50carferry
Finally,considerAustalssketchreproducedinFigure148.Thisshowsthattheflightdeckontheir~3000
tonneLCSisthesamesizeasthatonamuchlargerLPDmonohull(about50,000tonnes),andismuch
largerthanthatonasimilarsizeFrigate(the4,000tonFFG.)Thepointbeingthatthesquareboxshape
mayleadtomissionutility,inthiscasemuchgreateraviationfacilities,thanispossibleonacomparable
monohull.
214

Figure148Austal'sillustrationtocomparetheflightdecksizeonanAMVversusseveralmonohulls
UptothispointIhavetriedtoshowtheverysimplesquareboxgeometrythatweareabletouseas
AMVdesigners.ButIhavealsoshownthattheremaybesomechallengesitsnotallbeerandskittles.
CREEDsnarrowstrutsillustrateonesetofchallenges.Figure149theUSNSWATHSEASHADOW
mayhintatsomeothers.

Figure149SEASHADOW
215

Figure150SEASHADOWfromabove.Notethelowerhullsthataredimlyvisibleunderthewater,forward.
216
14.2 Aesthetics
Aestheticsisanothertopicthatisdifficulttotreatinanengineeringcourse,butIwishtoatleastventure
afewwordsonthesubject.
Asengineerswebelievethatthedesignoughttobedrivenbypurposethatteleologyoughttodictate
ourdesignsolutions.WhatdoImeanbyTeleologyinthiscase?Imeanthoserequirementssuchas
weightequalsbuoyancyorstructuralintegrityorpowertomatchresistanceetc.ButwhereIgo
furtherisinmybeliefthatAestheticPurposeisasvalidasEngineeringPurpose.
ThinkaboutouruseofthewordGood.Asengineersweagreethatagoodshipisonewiththeright
amountofstrength,orstability.Theseareengineeringgoods.Butwewouldalsosayashipisgood
ifsheisbeautiful,andIcontendthatweoughttostrivetomakethembeautiful.
SoIofferafewguidelinesonwhatmakesagoodlookingship.TherearethreeprimaryrulesthatI
thinkwillhelpadesignertomakeagoodstart.
LinesofForce:Theprofileofashipmaybeseentocontainsomedominantlinesthatarecalledlinesof
force.LookatthepictureoftheFjellstrand40mFlyingCatVICTORIACLIPPERIVinFigure151.She
haspowerfulhorizontallinesofforce,thatsweeptowardthebowandconvergetoapoint.
Convergingstemangles:NoticehowClippersforwardlinesallseemtoconvergenearthebowthe
slopeofthedeckhouse,thelineofthestem,eventherakeofthemastcombinetoputapointonthe
arrowatoneclearlyperceivablelocation.
Parallelstem&transomangles:Finally,notehowClipperssternrakematchesherbowrake(andis
pickedupagainbyherUnionJackpaintjob.)
ThesethreesetsofcurvesareinharmonyonClipper,andmakeheroneofthebestlookingcatamaransI
know.
Withallduerespect,IofferFigure152asacontrast.Shehastheparallelbowandsternprofilesallright,
butherpilothouseinterruptsthisflowwiththeforwardslopedwindows,andlookslikeitcamefroma
differentship.Shethenintroducesotherlinesofforcegoingstraightvertically(notparalleltostemor
stern)viahertallovalwindows,verticalmast,etc.
Toendonapositivenote,Figure153depictsSTARSHIPEXPRESS,whichIagainfindtocombinepowerful
linesofforceandwellharmonizedcurves,toproduceagoodlookingvessel,despiteherbasicsquare
boxconfiguration.
217

Figure151VICTORIACLIPPERIV

Figure152Acounterexample,withtoomanylinesgoingintoomanydifferentdirections
218

Figure153STARSHIPEXPRESS
219
15 SWBS079Stability
WhatisuniqueaboutAMVStability?Verylittleisuniqueaboutthephysics,butwefindtheparticular
resultingstabilitycurvesmaybealittlesurprising,thecriteriamayneedtobespecial,andthe
measurementsmaybedifficult.
15.1 StabilityCurvesforMultihulls
InthissectionIwishtohighlightsomeofthesurprisingfeaturesofthestabilitycurvesofthemost
commonAMVs.Ishalladdress:
Catamarans
Trimaran
SWATH
SES
InmostcasesAMVstabilityisthesameasmonohullstability.Forpoweredliftcraft,theaircushionhas
adestabilizingeffect,whichcanbeimportanttoSESandACV.Butletsbeginwithasortofrefresher
lookatamonohullstabilitycurve.Figure154depictsarightingarmcurveforagenericmonohullwith
circularsections,forthecasewhereGisbelowB.InthissimplifiedcaseitistheleverarmGBthatyields
thevesselsrightingarm,andtherightingarmcurveisasimplesinusoidalshape.
ForthemorecommonshipcasewhereGisaboveB,theshapeoftherightingarmcurvedependsupon
thetransferofthecenterofbuoyancy,asthevesselheelssocalledformstability.Figure155depictsa
genericrightingarmofthissort.Thecurveisstillroughlysinusoidal,butnotmathematicallyso.Itrises
graduallytoapeaksomewhereintherange(usually)4590degrees,andthenhasasecondzero
crossingsomewherebeyondabout100degrees.TheslopeofthecurveattheorigindRA/dat=0
istheGM.
Figure156isagenericsketchofatrimaranrightingarmcurve.Whathappensinthiscaseisthatthe
immersionoftheamascausesagreatershiftincenterofbuoyancythanwouldotherwisebepossible
forsuchanarrowhull.Butdespitetheuniqueshapeofthehull,theshapeofthecurveisstillquite
monohulllike.Thatis,upuntiltheangleatwhichtheamasarefullysubmerged(orfullyemerged)in
whichcaseonlythestabilityofthenarrowmainhullremains.
Nowletsconsideracatamaran.Figure157depictsacatamaranrightingarmcurve.Notethefactthat
thepeakofthecurveoccursataverylowheelangle.Whyisthis?Considertheshiftinthecenterof
buoyancy:Attheinstantthatonehullliftsclearofthewater,theCBisfullylocatedattheotherhull.
Fromthisangleonwardtherightingleverdiminishesintheshapeofacosine.Thusthemaximum
rightingarmisveryearly.Notealsothattheangleofzerocrossingmaybe90degrees,andfinallythat
thestabilityintheinvertedpositionisnearlythesameasthestabilityupright.Allofthesefeaturesare
wellknowntosailorsofrecreationalcatamarans!
Thisboilsdowntosayingthatthetrimaranhasastabilitycurvethatisgenerallylikethatofamonohull
withGaboveB,whilethecatamaranhasastabilitycurvethatisratherdifferent.Thecatamarancurve
220
ismarkedbyaveryhighGM,butthishighGMdoesnotmeanthatthereisalotofstabilitytheactual
areaundertherightingarmcurvemaybemodest,dependingonwherethezerocrossingislocated.

Figure154MonohullStabilityGbelowB
221

Figure155MonohullStabilityGaboveB

Figure156TrimaranStabilityGaboveB
222

Figure157CatamaranStabilityGaboveB
223

Figure158Takenfromaforgottensiteontheinternet,thisgraphicdoesanexcellentjobofcontrastingthestabilityofthree
typesofcraft.
224

Figure159Anotherinternetharvestedgraphic,depictingthesituation.Theconditionofatrimaranislikethatofa
monohullwithGaboveB.
225
15.2 SESStability
SurfaceEffectShips,duetothepresenceoftheaircushion,havetheirownstabilitynoveltiesand
deserveseparatetreatment.
15.2.1 SESStaticStability
First,letusconsiderthestaticcaseofstabilityatrest.ThepioneeringworkinthisareawasdonebyMr.
AndrewBlythandpublishedbyRINA(Reference33.)BlythsillustrationofanSESmidsectionis
reproducedinFigure160.Asmaybeseen,thepressureduetotheaircushionhasadestabilizingeffect
theupwardvectorrepresentingthepoweredliftislocatedontheupsettingsideofcenterline,and
(thinkaboutthetrigonometry)itmovesfurtheroffcenterastheangleincreasesitbecomesmore
upsetting.
Thehydrostaticparttherightingmomentcausedbythewaterplaneareaisgivenbythesame
integrationofwaterplaneinertiaasseenwithallotherships.WhatisspecialintheSEScaseistheneed
toaddthedestabilizingeffectofthecushion.Blythresolvestheseforcesandhaspublishedthe
followingformulaforGMofanSES:
GM=It/Vol+draftSc(Pc2)/VolKG
Where:
It=SidewallWaterplaneInertia(bothsides)
Sc=CushionArea
Pc=Cushionpressurehead(meters)
KG=HeightofCenterofGravity
Vol=Immersedvolume=/g
ThewaterplaneinertiaoftheSESsidehullsconsistsoftheinertiaaboutthesidehullsowncenterline,
plusanAd2termduetotheshiftofparallelaxestotheshipscenterplane.InmostcasestheAd2
contributionislargerthanthesidehullinertiaaboutitsownaxis,suchthatthesmallertermcanbe
completelyneglected.Consideringthisfact,Yun&Bliault(Reference16)havepublishedan
approximationformula,asfollows:
GM=gAs(Bc+As/Ls)2/2WgScPc2/W+[0.5Lstan()+Pc]KG
Where:
As=SidewallWaterplaneArea(oneside)
Bc=CushionBeam
Ls=SidewallLength
W=Craftweight(N)
Sc=CushionArea
Pc=Cushionpressurehead(meters)
=Trimangle
Vol=Immersedvolume=/g
226
Asmaybeseen,thisformulareplacesthewaterplaneinertiawithanapproximation,andmostofthe
othertermsarethesameasBlyths.Iadmittobeingpuzzledastowherethetrimcorrectioncame
from.

Figure160Blyth'sillustrationofthebalanceofrightingforcesforanSESoncushion.
Blythsformulashowsthedestabilizingeffectofthecushion.WithoutanaircushiontheSESwouldhave
astabilitycurvebasedoncatamaranhydrostatics.And,whenitisoncushion,therecomessomeangle
ofheelatwhichthecushionescapesandbecomesineffective.(Whenthehighsidekeelcomesclearof
thesurface,itisnolongerpossibletohaveanysortofcushion.)Abovethisangleofheelofcoursethe
vesselisnolongeranSESandisacatamaran.
BlythillustratesthistransitioninthedrawingreproducedasFigure161.Inthisdrawinghehastwo
curves,representingtheSESoncushionandoffcushion.Abovesomecriticalangletheoncushion
curvegoesawayandonlytheoffcushioncaseexists.
Blythsdrawingisalsohelpfulintwootherareas:Notethatitveryclearlyshowsthereducedrighting
energy(areaunderthecurve)thatisduetothedestabilizingeffectofthecushion.Alsonoticethevery
shallowslopeofthecurveat=0:TheGMoftheshipisverysmall,perhapsevenzero.Thismakes
sensewhenweconsidertheverysmallwaterplane,andtheimportanceofthenegativecushionterm,
finallycoupledwithanormalGaboveBmassproperty.
227

Figure161Blyth'sillustrationoftheeffectofemergenceofthesidehullasanSESheels
15.2.2 SESDynamicStability
TheabovesectionaddressedthestabilityofanSESatrest,bothonandoffcushion.Whenforward
speedisintroducedthereareadditionalforcesthatcomeintoplaythatmayhaveaneffectuponthe
transversestabilityofthecraft.
228
ThefollowinglecturematerialsisderivedfromnotesgiventomebyJohnLewthwaite,whilehewas
workingfortheGermanMinistryofDefensein1986.Someofthismaterialwasthenamplifiedby
AndrewBlyth,workingfortheUKMCGAinthesametimeframe(Reference34.)
Figure162depictsthestabilityrelatedforcesactingonatypicalSESwhilstinahighspeedturn.The
buoyant,cushionpressure,andgravityforcesarethesameasthosewhenatrest.Duetothespeedand
theturnwehavetoaddacentrifugalforcetryingtorolltheshipoutward,arudderforcetryingtoroll
theshipinward,andaplaningforcewhichmaygoeitherway.
Theplaningforceisconsideredtoactnormaltothedeadrisesurfaceofthehull.Inthecaseillustrated
theplaningforcepassesabovetheCGofthecraft,withtheresultthatthisforceactstorollthecraft
inwardintheturn.IftheCGwerehigherthenthisforcewouldpassbelowtheCG,andwouldtendto
capsizethecraftintheturn.Thesamewouldbetrueifthedeadriseangleweremuchhigher.Indeed,
theimportanceofthiswasfoundatgreatcostwhenanearlyverticalsidedSEStestcraftrolledoverina
turn,killingthetestpilot.
Thedesignoftheplaningsurfaceangle,toensurethattheforcevectorpassesabovetheCG,isoneof
themajordesigndriversindecidingtheSESbeamanddeadriseangle,asdiscussedunderhullform
design.
Inmostdesignprojectstheseforcesarenotactuallycalculatedindetail.Insteaditisgenerallysufficient
todesignthecraftforadequatestaticstability,andthentodesignthesidehullstoensurethatthe
planingforceresultantpassesabovetheCG.Thetotalsuccessofthedesignisthenvalidatedinfree
runningmodeltests,inwaves.

Figure162ForcesactingonanSESinahighspeedturn
229

Figure163TherollmomentsassociatedwiththeforcesinFigure162
Thereisafurthersubtletyofthisplaningforcestability,whichisitsowninstabilitywithrespecttoroll
angle:Asthecraftrollsoutward,theplaningforcemomentbecomesincreasinglyadestabilizing
moment.ThisisdepictedinFigure164.Theuppermostillustrationinthatfigureshowstheunheeled
case.Directlybelowisacasewiththecraftheeledinward.Heelinginwardcausesimmersionofthe
insidesidehullsinner(vertical)surface,causingaforceshownindashedlineontheleftside.Combined
withthereducedcontributionfromtheinclinedplaningsurfaceontherightside,theneteffectisa
resultantthatislowerthantheunheeledcase.Asillustrated,itisenoughlowerthatitnowpasses
belowtheCG,producingamomentwhichtriestoreturntheSEStotheunheeledstate.Sofarsogood.
Theproblemoccurswhenthecraftheelsoutward,asshowninthelowerrightillustration.Inthiscase
wettingofthewallsidedportionabovethechineagaincausestheplaningforceresultanttoangle
downwardcomparedtotheinitialcondition.Thisagainresultsinanoutwardrollmoment,whichnow
becomesanexacerbatingmomenttendingtoworsenthecraftsattitude.
230

Figure164Theeffectthatrollanglehasuponthemomentinducedbytheplaningforceresultant

Figure165TheeffectofVCGonRollMoments
ThiseffectobviouslydependsupontheVCGaswellasuponthesidehullshape.Blythpresentsan
interestingfigureinFigure165showingtheeffectofVCGupontheplaningforcerollmoment.The
231
interestingcaseisthelowermostcurve,correspondingtothehighestKG.Notethattherearetwozero
crossingsinthiscase,atAandC.IntheregionbetweenBandCtheslopeisnegative,andtheeffect
ofrollistocausemoreroll.Infact,ifthecraftisinequilibriumatBandisthenperturbedoutward,it
willrollpastCtoanewequilibriumatD.
Blythtookthisanalysisfurtherandpublishedsomequalitativeguidanceshowingtheeffectthatsome
hullformparametershaveuponthecriticalKGofanSES.TheseresultsarereproducedinFigure166
andaregenerallyselfexplanatory.Recallthatinthiscontextahighercriticalvcgcorrespondstoamore
stableship.Thefollowinghullformchangeswillallincreasethestability,increasingtheallowable
maximumvcg:
Reducingtheratioofcushionheight(depth)tocushionbeam
Reducingtheinertialrollgyradiusoftheship
Reducingthesidehullwidthinproportiontotheoverallbeamoftheship
Avoidingdeadriseabovethechine,oneithertheinboardoroutboardsideofthehull

Figure166EffectofHullFormonCriticalKG
15.2.3 SESBeamSeaCapsize
ThefinalSESpeculiarissueisthepossibilityofbeamseacapsize.Figure167depictsatimesequenceof
abeamseacapsizeevent.Asshowntherearetwopointsinthesequence(4and6)wherecapsize
mayoccur.Thephysicsofcapsizeishard,andtheonlygoodpredictionmethodistomodeltest.Mr.
Lewthwaitedidgivemeoneunpublishedcurvewhichmayoffersomeguidanceontheselectionof
formsthatdonotcapsize.ThiscurveisreproducedinFigure168.Afruitfulresearchprogramcouldbe
pursuedtovalidateorrepudiatethiscurve.
232

Figure167TypicalSEScapsizesequenceinBeamSeas
15.3 AMVStabilityCriteria
StabilityCriteriaisoneofthoseareaswheretheAMVNavalArchitectisnavigatingwithoutamap.I
havealreadymadereferencetoonesetofdesignguidancethatisunvalidated.Thisissomewhatlike
sayingWellIdontknow,butanativetoldmethatitmightbepossibletocrosstheriverifyougoabout
threemilesupstream.
Insimilarspirit,IwillinthissectiontouchuponbutonlytouchuponthecriteriaforstabilityofAMVs.
Itis,ofcourse,absolutelyvitalthatthepracticingnavalarchitectearlyfindoutwhatruleshewillbe
requiredtocomplywith,andstudythoseruleswelltounderstandtheirimplications.Ihopethatthe
paragraphsthatfollowwillillustratethetypesofimplicationsthatrulescanhave.
Rulemakersarehuman.Thismeansnotonlythattheycanmakemistakes,butalsothattheyare
approachable.ItissimplywrongtowashyourhandsofresponsibilityandsaybutIdesignedittothe
rules.Itisverymuchtheinnovatorsburdenthathemustthinkaboutthoserules,analyzethem,
critiquethem,improvethem,andthencomplywiththebestresultofthatprocess.
Withthatwarning,herearesomeexamples.
15.3.1 IntactStability
InthedomainofintactstabilityIwillprovidesomedesignrulesofthumbforSES,andthenadiscussion
ofthechallengesofapplyingUSCGrulestoAMVs.
15.3.1.1 SESRulesofThumb
JohnLewthwaiteandAndyBlythhavebothcommunicatedrulesofthumbforSESstability.Theseare:
233
PlaningForceResultanttocrosstheshipcenterplaneabovetheCG
GM:
o Lewthwaite: GM>0.25CushionBeam
o Blyth: GM>0.10BeamOverAll
BeamSeaStability:
o Lewthwaite:KGtobebelowalimitingcurveshowninFigure168.Notethatthe
ordinateofthecurveistheratioMeanSidehullWidthoverOverallBeam.

Figure168Lewthwaites1986guidanceonformparameterstoavoidcapsize.Theblackspotsweretestedcraft.Thelarge
greyspotsweredesignsthatwerethenunderevaluation.Thevalidityofthiscurvehasnotbeenproven.
15.3.1.2 USCGRequirements
IntactstabilitycriteriaforarealAMVdesignprojectwillbepublishedbytheflagstate(e.g.USCG),by
theOwner(e.g.USN),byIMO,bytheClassificationSociety,orbyallofthem.Inmanycasesthecriteria
willhavebeendevelopedbasedonmonohullpractice,andwillnotnecessarilycorrectlyaddressthe
peculiaritiesofyourAMV.Earlydialogwiththereviewauthoritiesisvital.
Andtoreiteratemyearlierstatement,evenwhenyoudontdisagreewiththerules,simplycomplying
withthemisnotethicallysufficient.Youmustsatisfyyourselfthattheyareindeedappropriateand
adequateforyourproject.
234
Withthatsaid,letsconsidersomeofthechallengesthatcanbeencounteredintryingtocomplywith
46CFRforanAMV.Butagainpleasenote:Theexampleswhichfollowarenotintendedtobea
completepresentationoftheUSCGStabilityrules!Theyareintendedtoillustratethetypeof
implicationthattherulemayhaveforyourship.Whenitcomestorules:Neverworkfrommemory
Alwayslookitup.
USCGCriteriaandAssumptions
USCGRules(46CFR)setrequirementsforinitialGM,areaundertherightingarmcurveintact,angleof
equilibriumafterdamage,andsoforth.Therulesincludesomelimitsandassumptionsderivedfrom
monohullpracticethatmayhaveimplicationsforAMVs
Forexample,considerFigure169.Thisfigureillustratesapartoftherulethatsaysthatifmaximum
rightingarmoccursatanangleofheellessthan35degrees,thenyoudonotgettotakeadvantageof
that,andyoumustplateauyourrightingarmcurvetowhatevervalueoccursat35degrees.
Butremembertheshapeofacatamaransrightingarmcurve:Itisverysteepattheorigin,andmay
peakwellbelow35degrees.Infact,itmaypeakatsomelowanglelike15degreesandthendiminish
thereafter.DotheUSCGreallymeanyoutonotbeabletotakeaccountofthetremendousamountof
rightingenergyrepresentedbythatpeak?
235

Figure169AUSCGillustrationbasedontheAssumptionthatMaxRAoccurs>35
OrtheassumptionseeFigure170thatmostrightingarmcurvesarepositiveto90degrees,andif
yoursisnotthenyoumustincludethenegativeareaandreduceyourrightingenergyaccordingly.Ifthis
ismarriedwiththrowingawayabunchoftherightingenergythatoccursbelow35degrees,itiseasyto
imagineacatamaranhavinggreattroublecomplying.IsthistheCoastGuardsintent?Whatdoother
regulatorssayaboutthismatter?
Ishallnotanswerthesequestions.Iamtryingtoopenthereaderseyestowheretheremaybehidden
pitfallswithinsoprosaicafieldasintactstabilityanalysis.
236

Figure170Illustratingtheassumptionthatmostrightingarmcurvesarepositivetoatleast90degrees
15.3.2 DamageStability
HavingusedtheUSCGasanillustrationforintactstability,permitmetouseasetofUSNrequirements
toillustratesomechallengesinthedomainofdamagestability.
237
15.3.2.1 USNRequirements
ThechallengeinUSNDamageStabilityCriteriaforAMVsliesintherequiredlengthofdamagethesize
oftheholethattheshipmustsurvive.USNDDS0791SurfaceShipStability(Reference35)does
explicitlyaddressAMVs.
ForLargeSESDDS0791requiresaLengthofDamageof15%ofthelengthoftheship,withaninboard
penetrationof50%Bi.e.tothecenterplaneoftheship.Thisisintendedtorepresentafairly
traditionaldamagecase,suchasbeinghitbyanothership.
Onecouldhaveinterestingarugmentsaboutthe50%Bcomponentofthatrequirement:SESarelikelyto
bewiderthanothershipsofsimilardisplacement,becauseoftheirboxlikeform.Doesitmakesense
thattheimpalingshipwillpenetratethatfar?WillnotthelowdragformoftheSESbepushedsideways
beforetheimpalingvesselreachescenterline?Orperhaps,duetothelightweightstructureusedon
highspeedships,theshipshouldexpecttobecutfurther?Perhapsahighspeedshipshouldbe
designedsothatitcanbecutintwoandbothhalvesstayafloat?IdonotpracticallysuggestthatI
merelysuggestthatweshouldthinkaboutthesecriteria.
Butthe15%L/50%BcriterioninDDS0791isnotthechallengingone.Thechallengingoneisonethatis
intendedtorepresentahighspeedshipwhichstrikesaglancingblowonarockathighspeed,and
createsatearinthelengthofthehull.DDS0791requiresalargeSEStosurvivealengthofdamageof
50%thelengthoftheshipafullhalf!butwithapenetrationofonly10%ofB.
Personally,Ithinkthisisagoodcriterion,andoughttobeappliedtoanyhighspeedship.(DDS0791
onlyappliesittoSESandifmemoryservesappliesiteventolowspeedSES!)
SWATHarenotimmunefromtrickyrequirements,butinthiscasetheyalmostforceyoutohavedialog
withthewarrantholder:TheDDSrequirementforSWATHlengthofdamageisThesameflooding
lengthasanequivalentmonohull.Butwhatsanequivalentmonohull?Isitamonohullofthesame
length?(ThatonewillprobablybelighterdisplacementthantheSWATH).Isitamonohullofthesame
displacement?(ThatonewillbelongerthantheSWATH,andthushavealongerlengthofdamage.)Isit
amonohulllwiththesamemission?(Thatwouldmakesensetheyarelikelytoseethesamedangers,
arentthey?)
DDS0791doesntmentiontrimarans.Whatisthelengthofdamageforahighspeedtrimaran?Shall
wetakethemantlefromtheSESandrequirethatquitelogicalgrazingcase?Fine,thenwhenwedesign
a100mtrimaranwerequireittosurviveashallowwidthbut50mlongcut.Butwhathappensifthe
amasareonly25mlongcorrespondingtoLazausakasguidanceonwhatistheoptimumvaluefora
trimaran?
15.4 AMVIntactStabilityTests
Finally,letsconsiderthatchallengeoftestingthestabilityofsomeAMVs.USCGregulationsrequirean
incliningtesttoverifytheKGlocationofanewship.Considerthe112mINCATNatchanRera
LOA112m
GMT=~50m,=~3000t,Beam=30.5m
238
USCGIncliningrulesrequirea24opendulumdeflection.Incliningto2oa3000tvesselwith50mofGM,
requires5200tonnemetersofmoment.Sincetheshiphasabeamof~30m,thelongestleverarmwe
willgetfortheincliningweightswillbeabout15m.Togenerate5200tmofmomentonanarmof15m
meansthatweneed~350tonnesofincliningweight!Thisismorethan10%ofthetotalweightofthe
ship.Itisevenquestionablewhetheranyportionoftheshipsdeckwouldbestrongenoughtosupport
suchaconcentratedweight.Clearly,atraditionalincliningtestonthisshipisunreasonable.
Instead,wecouldtakeanotherlogicalapproach:Wecanshowthatherstabilityissohigh,thateven
witharidiculouslocationfortheKGsay,attheheightofthehighestdeck,surelyitsbelowthatthe
shipstillmeetsallrequirements.Ifthiscanbeshownbycalculation,dowestillneedaninclining?
Istronglyencourageyoutohavethisconversationearlyintheprocess,ratherthanhavingsomebody
readarulebookattheeleventhhour,andimposeanunreasonableandunnecessaryrequirementupon
theship.
AMVStability:
Thephysicsisthesame
Cushionsaredestabilizing
Therulesarefraughtwithpitfalls
Themeasurementsarehard
239
16 SWBS079Motions&Seakindliness
Hereagain,thepurposeofthisworkistopresentthosefeaturesofmotionsandmotioncontrolthatare
uniquetoAMVs.Thestudentisassumedtohavealreadycompletedacourseinshipmotionandto
understandthephysicsofshipmotion,andtheterminologythereof.InthissectionIshalldevotemy
attentiontohowtheAMVanalysistaskisdifferentfromthattaskforamonohull.
TheparticularareaswhereAMVmotionsareuniquemaybegroupedas:
ThereareoperationalissuesuniquetoAMVs
ThereareafewmotionsthatarethemselvesuniquetoAMVs
MotionanalysiscriterianeedtobeadjustedforAMVs
ThereareuniquemotioncontroloptionsforAMVs
16.1 WhatisUniqueAboutAMVOperations?
ThebigdifferencehereisthatAMVsaredesignedtospecificlimitingseaconditions.AcommercialAMV
isprovidedwithaplacarddisplayedonthebridgethatshowsthelimitsforspeedandwaveheightin
whichthecraftcanoperate.Itisthemastersresponsibilitytoensurethatthecraftstayswithinthose
limits.
AMVsCANbedrivenoutsidetheirpermittedenvelope,buttheyMUSTnotbe.OperatinganAMVis
muchmorelikeflyinganairplane,orevendrivingacar,thanitislikeoperationofadisplacement
monohull:Itisentirelypossibletogotoofastfortheconditions,andbreaktheship,capsize,or
otherwiseendcatastrophically.
Figure171illustratesanAMVLimitingConditionTable.ThishappenstobethetablefortheUSNX
Craft,describedinFigure172andTable8.Thefigureisquiteclear:ItsaysthatinwavesofheightX,
thecraftmustnotexceedcertainspeedse.g.30knotsin12footseas.
Acommercialspeed/waveheighttablewillstopatthat:Itprovidessimplego/nogolimitsforspeed
andwaveheight.XCraftisanexperimentalshipandhertableprovidesalittlemoreinformation.
Takingagainthe12footseacase,thistablesaysthatbelow10knotsslammingisunlikely.Between10
and25knotsslammingispossible,andabove25knotsslammingisprobable.
Noticethatthespeed/waveheighttableonlyconsidersstructurallimitsi.e.slamming.Slammingis
oneofthemanyreasonstoslowdowninaseaway,butitistheonlyonethatmakesitintothetable.
Thereisresearchunderwayasofthiswritingtoexpandthespeed/waveheighttablesothatitwould
beacompositelimitincludingallrelevantlimitingevents,suchashumanlimits,cargoimposedlimits,
etc.
Alsonotethatthespeed/waveheighttable(a)isforheadseas,(b)issilentaboutthewaveperiods
associatedwiththoseseasand(c)isforaspecificcraftdisplacement.
Itseemsobviousthatcraftmotionswillbedifferentindifferentheadingsrelativetothesea,andthat
thereshouldbedifferentslamprobabilitiesandotherlimitsin,say,beamorfollowingseaconditions.It
240
isalsologicalthattherewillbedifferingslamprobabilitiesatlighterdisplacements,whenthecross
structureisfurtherabovethewater.Finally,thewaveperiodsinshallowwaterareverydifferentthan
thoseindeepwaterperhapsthespeed/waveheighttableshouldbelocationspecific?
Iexpectthatfutureworkwillresultinasortofdynamicspeed/waveheighttablethattakesinto
accountallofthesevariables,perhapsevenreachingthepointofbeinganelectronicaidtonavigation
thatisconstantlymonitoringtheshipslimits,againstacomplexmultiparameteroperatingenvelope.
WhyisitimportanttoanAMVdesignerthatthereexistsaspeed/waveheighttableforhisvessel?For
tworeasons:Becausehemustdesignthevesseltotheseaconditionsinwhichitwilloperate,which
meansthathemustknowwhatthoseconditionsare.Andconversely,becauseitgiveshimanother
designdegreeoffreedominstructuraldesign,inthathemaybeabletosimplifyastructuraldesignor
reduceweightbychangingtheoperationalwaveheightlimit.

Figure171ThelimitingwaveheighttablefortheXCraft,at1400tonnesandbelow,inheadseas.
241

Figure172TheXCraft
Table8TableofcharacteristicsforXCraft
PRIME CONTRACTOR: TITAN CORPORATION

NAVAL ARCHITECT: NIGEL GEE AND ASSOCIATES (BMT)
BUILDING YARD: NICHOLS BROTHERS BOAT BUILDERS
Ship Type Aluminum-hulled, wave-piercing catamaran
Propulsion: COMBINED DIESEL OR GAS TURBINE

(CODOG)
Two GE LM2500 Gas Turbine Engines;
two MTU 16V 595 TE 90 Propulsion Diesels;
four Rolls-Royce 125SII Waterjets
Length 262 feet (79.9 meters) overall
240 feet (73 meters) at waterline
Beam 72 feet (22 meters)

Draft 11.5 feet (3.5 meters)
Displacement 950 tons
Speed 50+ knots
16.2 AMVUniqueMotions
AMVsareuniqueinthattheyaredesignedtoanexplicitwaveheightlimit.Theyarealsouniquein
possessingafewmotionsthatarenotimportantondisplacementmonohulls:
Corkscrewing
BowDiving
SurfaceSuction
Cobblestoning
PlowIn
HeaveResonance
242
16.2.1 Corkscrewing
Corkscrewingreferstoaveryuncomfortablemotioninwhichthecraftpitchesandrollsinacyclical
mannerthatfeelslikeyouastandingonacenterpivoteddisk.Thepathofthebodyisroughlycircular,
anditismostannoying.
Corkscrewingisduetothepitchandrollmotionsbeingofthesamefrequency,andmaintaininga
constantphaserelationship.Inparticular,asadesignproblem,corkscrewingiscausedwhenthepitch
periodTpitchisaboutequaltotherollperiodTroll.Thisconditioniscaused,inturn,bythe
longitudinalandtransversemetacentricradiibeingnearlyequal,i.e.GML~=GMT.
ThesolutiontodesigningtoavoidcorkscrewingistodesignsuchthatthetwoGMsarenotthesame.
16.2.2 BowDiving
Bowdivingisarelativelynewlyrecognizedphenomenon,particularlyproblematicincatamarans.
Allhighspeedcraftaresubjecttosomeundesirablebehavior,especiallywhenoperatinginfollowing
seasataspeednearlyequaltothewavespeed.Intheseconditionsthecraftcansurf,orbroach,orbow
dive.
Monohullcraftwillusuallybroach,ratherthanbowdive,soitismostlycatamaransthatexperiencethe
dive.
Abowdivecanbequitedramatic.Divingthecraftsofarthatthereisgreenwateronthepilothouse
windowsisnotunusual.Itisalsodramaticthatthiscatastrophecomesonsuddenlythereisnogentle
buildup:Onemomentyouraredoingjustfine,andthenwham!
TheUKMCAhasrecentlycompletedastudyofthisphenomenon(Reference36),andIwillshowthe
MCAguidancevideoinclasstoillustratethesituation.TheMCAfoundnooperationalguidancebetter
thantosimplyslowdown,andavoidoperatingatornearwavespeedinwavesofthesamelengthasthe
craft.Figure173providesagraphthatshowsthedeepwaterrelationshipbetweenwavespeedand
wavelength.Fora40mcraftavoidingundesirablebehaviorinwavesof40mlength,youcanseethat
thissuggestsavoidingaspeedof1520knots,whichisjustthespeedthatonemightbetemptedtoseek
asseasgetrough.
TheMCAdidnotstudySEScraftorTrimarans,anditisnotknownwhetherthesetypesaresusceptible
tobowdivinginthesameway.Theydidstudyasmallrangeofdesignparametervariations,andthey
foundunsurprisinglythatincreasingfreeboardforwardisthebestwaytoavoidabowdive.Butthis
conclusionisqualitativeonly,andthereisnoclearguidanceonhowmuchisenough.
Figure174reproducesanMCAphotosequenceofthehistoryofabowdivewithacatamaranmodelina
towingtank.
243
50
45
40
Celerity (knots)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 100 200 300 400
Wave Length (meters)

Figure173Therelationship(indeepwater)betweenwavespeed(Celerity=(gL/2))andwavelength
244

Figure174MCAPhotosequenceofmodeltestsofacatamaranbowdive
16.2.3 SurfaceSuction&theMunkMoment
ThisnextmotionclassisoneIamillqualifiedtolectureon,butwhichImustingoodconscienceatleast
mention.ThesetwoforcesthesurfacesuctionforceandtheMunkmomentcausedestabilizing
behaviorforsubmergedbodies.
SurfaceSuctionisaforcethataffectsasubmergedbodytravelingclosetothesurface,likeashallowly
submergedsubmarineortorpedo.Inthiscondition,despitethebodybeingaimedstraightandtrue,the
forcesarenotsymmetricthereisanetupwardforcecausedbythefreesurfacepressurecondition,
whichcausesthesubmergedbodytobroachtothesurface.Thisiswhytoytorpedoeswillhoptothe
surfacewhentowedonastring(asinlowbudgetmovies.)
TheMunkmomentissimilar,butisaneffectduetoyaworpitch.Itwasdiscoveredduringthestudyof
airships(buoyantaerostaticcraft.)Inthiscasebyintroducingpitchonasubmergedbodythepitch
245
causesapitchingmomentinthesamedirection,i.e.tendingtoexacerbatethepitch.Thisforceagain
willresultinabodyhoppingtothesurface,orplungingtothedepths.
BothoftheseforcesmaybecomeimportantinSWATHdesign.Indeed,inearlydaysofSWATH
developmentIobservedafewmodeltestsspecificallytocharacterizethisbehavior,andthegeneral
conclusionwastheresnothingyoucandoaboutit,betterjustmakesureyouputcontrolfinsonthe
SWATH.
Thatadviceremainssound,atleastasastartingpoint.
16.2.4 Cobblestoning
CobblestoningisamotiontypethatisuniquetoSES.AccordingtoYun&Bliault(Reference16)itisnot
fullyunderstoodtheoretically.Itappearstobeacompressibilityeffectwithintheairmassofthe
cushion.Thismakesthecushionairbubbleintoahighfrequencyspring,andtheresultisahigh
frequencyvibrationthatfeelslikeacaronacobblestonestreethencethename.
Cobblestoningisaddressedonlybyincludingactivepressurecontrolsonthecushion.Thesecontrols
consistoflouveredventvalveswhichmaybeopenedorclosedtoreleaseorretaincushionpressure.
Computercontrolled,theyendupchatteringataveryhighfrequency(~10100Hz)toattenuatethe
pressurespikesfromcobblestoning.
ItisinterestingtonotethatcobblestoningisnotpresentinverysmallSES,suchastowingtankmodels.
Infact,importantworkbySteenandFaltinsen(Reference37)showedthatthemotionsofridecontrol
equippedfullscaleSESwerewellrepresentedbythemotionsofanunequippedmodel.Apparentlythe
modelscalingissuesexactlycompensateforthelackoftheRCSattenuationofthecobblestones.
16.2.5 PlowIn
PlowInisanothermotionthatisuniquetoACVs,andpossiblewithSES.Averylowquality
reproductionofaphotosequenceofaplowinhasbeenincludedasFigure175throughFigure177,
takenfromYun&Bliault(Reference16.)
PlowInarisesduetolackofpitchrestoringforceincushionsupportedcraftItisdrivenbyaddeddrag
ofaddedwettingofthebowskirt.SeethediagrammaticsequenceinFigure178:Theskirtbeginsto
tuckunder,theskirtdragincreases,thedragdownlowcausesabowdownmoment,thebowdown
attitudemeansthatmoreskirtdragarises,theskirttuckincausesthecenterofpressuretomoveaft
whichcausesfurtherbowdowntrim,etc.
AsthephotosequenceinFigure179shows(whichisofatoyhovercraftnobodywasinjured)the
wholesequencecanbeveryfastandcanleadtoresultsincludingcapsizeorpitchpoling.
246

Figure175Apoorlyreproducedsequenceofphotographsshowingaplowinevent.

247

248

Figure178Yun&Bliault'sillustrationofthetypicalplowincapsizeprocess
249

Figure179PlowinofamodelR/Chovercraft,whichresultedincapsize
16.3 AMVMotionsAnalysis&Criteria
IntheprecedingsectionsIhavestatedthatAMVsareexplicitlydesignedforacertainwave
environment,andalsothatAMVsmayexperiencesomeuniquemotions,whichdonottroubletheir
250
displacementmonohullcousins.Inconsiderationofthesefacts,therearealsodifferencesintheway
thatAMVmotionanalysesshouldbeconducted.
Butletusbeginbyreviewingthemannerofmotionpredictionsforconventionalships.
Ingeneral,thebestprocedureforacomprehensiveseakeepingassessmentofashipisthatgivenin
NATOStandardizationAgreementSTANAG4154(Reference38.)Thismethod,greatlysummarized,isas
follows:
1. Establishalistofmissions.
2. Establishmissionbasedcriteriasets=motionlimits.
3. Performmotionpredictions
4. Comparemotionsvs.limitsateachspeed/headingcombination,foreachseastateofinterest
5. CalculateOperabilityIndexforeachSeaStateofinterest
6. CalculateoverallSeakeepingPerformanceIndexbyapplyingprobabilityofeachseastate.
Inadditiontodescribingthismethodology,theSTANAGalsoofferssomepreliminarysuggestionasto
whatmotionlimitstousewhenassessingthepass/failcriteria.AndhereinliesthefirstoftheAMV
uniquechanges:ManySTANAGRoll&Pitchlimitsareactuallysurrogatesforlateralaccelerations.Itis
not,really,truetosaythathumansgetseasickwhenrollexceeds8degrees.Thisisonlytrueifthatroll
isroughlysinusoidal,andhasaperiodofabout1020seconds.Infact,amorereliablemethodfor
predictinghumanperformancedegradationistousetheMotionSicknessIncidence(MSI)andMotion
InducedInterruptions(MII)calculations.
TheMSImethodusesOHanlon&McCauleyfrequencydomaincriteria,fromReference39.Tousethis
methodonecalculatesoverallverticalmotionresponsespectra,andcomparesthesetopublished
thresholdspectra.
251

Figure180O'Hanlon&McCauleycriteriaformotionsickness,aspresentedinISO2631
MIIiscalculationallymuchmorecomplex.Itcalculatesthelikelihoodofjarringapersonwhoistrying
toperformatask,andindoingsoitcapturestheinputfromimpulsiveeventsaswellasregular
sinusoidalmotions.TheMIIanalysiscapturesthehorizontalplanemotionsincludingthosewhicharise
fromverticalplaneshipbehavior.
IsuggestthattheuseofSTANAGlikepass/failmotionlimitsisnotappropriateformostAMVs,andthat
anMSI/MIIanalysisisamorerealisticassessmentofshipoperability.
16.3.1 AddedResistance
Addedresistanceisnotamotion,butitisawaveinducedeffectandsoIhaveincludedithere.
ThebestIcanofferinthisareaistoquoteFaltinsen[2005]:"forasemidisplacementvessel[theadded
resistanceduetowaves]iscausedbydiffractionoftheincidentwavesbytheshipandbyradiationof
wavesduetowaveinducedshipmotions.AdominanteffectforanSESisassociatedwiththeleakage
fromtheaircushioncausedbytherelativeverticalmotionsbetweentheSESandthewaves.Ifthelifting
252
powerofthefansforthecushionisunchanged,theaircushionpressuredropsandtheSESsinkstoa
lowerpositionwithalargerwettedsurface.Thecalmwaterresistanceinthislowerpositionexplainsthe
majorpartofaddedresistanceforanSESinaseaway"
Inotherwords,foranSESmuchoftheaddedresistanceisduetoincreasedairlossleadingtolowerPc
effective,andthusoperationonahigherresistancepartofthedesignspace.
16.4 MotionControlforAMVs
UptothispointIhavefocuseduponwaveinducedmotions.Indoingso,however,Ihavealready
acknowledgetheexistenceofridecontrol(motioncontrol)systems.Letmealsoacknowledgethat
therearemotionswewanttoinduceevenincalmwater,inordertosteerthecraft.
Whatarethemodesofcontrolavailabletous?Whattypesofmotioncontroldevicesareemployedon
AMVs?Howeffectivearethey?
16.4.1 ModesofControl
Therearethreewaysofcontrolamotion.Sometimeswejustclampthemovingobjectinplace,
restrictingitsabilitytomove.Buttheremaybeotherinterventionsearlierinthechainofeventsthat
turnouttobemoreeffective.Whendealingwithanoscillatorymotion,suchasshipmotions,wecan:
Eliminatetheexcitation
Damptheexcitation/transmissionpathway
Countertheforcedirectly
Mostmotioncontroldevicestakethethirdapproach:Countertheforcedirectlybycreatinganequal
andoppositeforce.Butnotethat,withAMVsatleast,therearesomeopportunitiesintheothertwo
areas.Veryfinewaterplanes,asusedonaSWATHorevenonanSESmighteliminatetheexcitation,
meaningthatthereisnomotiontoresist.4
ThesecondapproachdampthetransmissionpathwayIhaveonlyseenusedrarely.Onecraftthat
doesthisisUgoContysspiderboatwhichusesasuspendedgondola,suchthatmotionsinducedon
thecraftshullsnevermaketheirwaytothecrewcabin.ThisuniqueshipispicturedinFigure181.
4
InthecaseofanSESthereisalsoawaterplaneareaduetothecushion,andkeepingthisexcitingforcesmall
requirescushionpressureridecontrol.
253

Figure181UgoConti'sSpiderBoat.PhotofromSFGatewebsitepermissionnotobtained
16.4.2 Effectors
Whatforceproducersareavailableasshipcontroleffectors?Iwilldescribefiveclassesofdevice,and
attempttodescribethecapabilities,attributes,andeffectivenessofeachofthem.
Cushionbasedridecontrol
Foilbasedridecontrol
Interceptorbasedcontroldevices
Propulsorsteering(e.g.waterjets)
Highspeedrudders
AerodynamicSteering&Control
CushionAirThrusters

254
16.4.2.1 Cushionbasedridecontrol
Imentionedcushionbasedridecontrolafewparagraphsabove,whendiscussingcobblestonemotions.
Onanaircushionsupportedcraftthereissome70100%ofthecraftweightthatisborneonthe
cushion.Thismeansthatthecushioncanactasaverticalforcegeneratorabletoproduce0.71.0g
accelerationsonthecraft.Thisisaverypowerfulforce,ifitcanbecontrolledandused.
Incurrentpracticeaircushionridecontrolsystemsinvolvecomputercontrolledcushionventvalves,
drivenbyaheaveminimizationalgorithm.Thealgorithmsareproprietary.ThetwoproducersofSES
RCSthatIknowofareMaritimeDynamicsinLexingtonPark,MD,andIslandEngineering,innearby
PineyPointMaryland.
Theuseofventvalvesforheavecontrolisinefficientitrequiresthatthecraftsliftsystembe
oversized,sothataircapacityisavailableforsometobedumpedinresponsetopressurespikes,and
thenthefanmustrapidlyresupplythatairwhenthevalvesclose.Wewilldiscussthedynamicsoflift
fanoperationinalaterchapter,butthissimpledump/refillmentalmodelwillsufficeatthispoint.
Analternativetodumpingtheairistoactuallythrottlethefansomehow.Now,throttlingthefanengine
isnotpractical,becausearidecontrolsystemneedsaresponsetimeof.01second.Butitispossibleto
throttlethefanaerodynamically,byinstallinglouversorguidevanesontheinletsideofthefan.
Chokingtheflowontheinletsidewillchangethefanspressurevsflowcharacteristic,andcanactasa
ridecontroleffector.InpracticehoweverthereareveryfewinletsideSESRCSsystemsthevast
majorityofSESuseventvalves.
NotethatasimpleSESwillgetonlyheavecontrolfromacushioncontrolsystem.Thereisnosignificant
rollorpitchforcegeneratedbychangingthecushionpressure.Manypeoplehaveexperimentedwith
waystochangethisbyfittingintermediateskirtsorlongitudinaldividerskirts.Thesetechniqueswork,
butitisverydifficulttocreatetheintermediateskirtinamannerthathasacceptabledrag.
16.4.2.2 Foilbasedridecontrol
Manycraftusefoilbasedridecontrolsystems.Ofcourse,mostofthehydrofoilcraftdothis,butavery
largenumberofSWATHs,catamarans,andtrimaransdotoo.
Thefoilsusedaresimplerudderlikestructures,orientedandactuatedtoproducearesultantforcein
thedesireddirection,atthenecessarylocationontheship.Rollcontrolfoils(antirollfins)arecommon
onmonohulls.Pitchcontrolfoils,suchasthosemadebyMaritimeDynamicsanddepictedinFigure182,
arefairlycommononcatamarans.
Thedragofthefoilsiscalculatedbyconventionaltechniques,eventechniquesusedfordisplacement
shiprudders,andmustbeaddedtothedragoftheship.
255

Figure182AMaritimeDynamicsTfoil
16.4.2.3 Interceptorbasedcontroldevices
TFoilsarecommonlyusednearthebowaspitcheffectors.Nearthesternitismorecommontouse
interceptors.
Aninterceptoriseffectivelysimilartoatrimtab,whichmanyreadersarealreadyfamiliarwith.
MaritimeDynamicsprovides,ontheirwebsite,thefourillustrationsreproducedasFigure183though
Figure186whichcompareandcontrastTrimTabswithInterceptors.
Theinterceptorisaguillotinelikebladethatinterceptstheflowofwaterclosealongthehull.This
causesasuddenriseinpressureforwardoftheobstruction,andthispressureresultsinaliftforce
actingonthebottomatthestern.
Interceptorsappeartobehighlyefficient,havinghighlifttodragratiosinmostcases(perhapsL/D=10
ormore.)
256

Figure183AnMDITrimTab,3Dview

Figure184AnMDItrimtab,profileview,showingthepressureeffectonthebottom(red)

Figure185AnMDIInterceptor,3Dview
257

Figure186AnMDIInterceptorprofileview,showingthepressureeffectonthebottom(red)
16.4.2.4 Propulsorsteering(e.g.waterjets)
Alloftheeffectorsdescribedthusfarhavebeenformotioncontrol.Whataboutsteering?
ManyAMVsarefittedwithwaterjetpropulsors,andtheseareusedforsteeringaswell.Notehowever
thatpropulsorsteeringneednotbeuniquetowaterjets:Recreationalcraftwithoutdrivesoroutboards
arealsopropulsorsteered.
Propulsorsteeringishighlyeffective.Thesideforcegeneratedissimplythepropulsorthrusttimesthe
sineofthesteeringangle.IfweassumethatatypicalAMVhasaLifttoDragratioaround10:1,anda
steeringanglearound30degrees,thenthisresultsinasideforceequalto1/20theweightoftheship.
Unlikearudder,thisforceisavailableatanyshipspeed(iftopthrottleisused)whereasaruddersforce
variesasV**2.
Waterjetsteeringisaccomplishedviaasteeringnozzlewhichdeflectsthewaterjetstreamfromsideto
side.Waterjetsalsohaveareversingbucketwhichdeflectsthewaterjetstreamforward,togenerate
reversethrust.Thesetwodevicescompriseasystem,buttheyareusuallytwoseparatecomponentsof
thesystemoneforsteeringandoneforreversing.Notethatthereversingbucketsarethrottleable,
meaningthattheycanbeadjustedfromfullaheadtofullreverse,includinga50%ahead/50%
reverse=ZeroNetThrustposition.
TherearetwotypesofsteeringandreversingassembliesthatIhaveseen.Inoneofthem,typicalof
KaMeWawaterjets,thereversingbucketisattachedtothesteeringnozzle.Thismeansthattheentire
flowisdeflectedthroughthesteeringangle,andthensomefractionoftheflowisdirectedbackwardsas
reverse.ThisresultsinsteeringvectorasshowninFigure187thenetwaterjetresultantisasingle
vectorofsomemagnitude,deflectedatthesteeringangle.
258
Theothertypeofsteering/reversingarrangementusesabifurcatedramshornductforthereversing
bucket.Thisductcapturesthewaterjetoutflowandthenredirectsthecapturedportionforwardintwo
streams,aimedslightlyportandstarboardofcenterline.ThistypeofductisusedonHamiltonJet
waterjets.Thesteeringnozzleisforwardofthereversingduct,anddirectsthewaterjetoutflowfrom
sidetoside.Whensteeringandreversingsimultaneously,thesteeringnozzledeliversmoreflowtoone
hornoftheramshornthantotheother.ThisproducesacomplexmixofvectorsasdepictedinFigure
188.
Oneimpressivefeatureofthisstyleofsteering/reversingsuiteisthatitcanbethrottledtoproducea
resultantvectorthatisperfectlysideways,withnoforeandaftcomponent.Provingthisfactwillbe
assignedtothestudentinahomeworkset.
Finally,andformingthesecondaspectofthementionedhomeworkset,withanytypeofsteerable
propulsor,includingoutboardmotorsandoutdrives,awidelyspacedmultihullcanvectorthethrustand
thesteeringanglessuchthattheresultisapuresidewaysthrustthroughtheshipscenterofgravity.
Thismeansthattheshipcanmovesidewaysfromthepier,withzeroheadreach.
Thiscapabilityisduetothecombinationofthesteerablethrusterandthewidebeamoftheship.Italso
explainswhyveryfewmultihullAMVsarefittedwithbowthrusters.
Thewaterjetsteeringnozzledoesreducethenetthrustofthewaterjet.Thisisduebothtothesteering
itself,whereinthethrustvectorisdiminishedbythecosineofthesteeringangle,butalsodueto
hydrodynamicdragduetofrictionontheinnerwallsofthesteeringnozzle.Thereisalotofveryhigh
speedwatermovingthroughthenozzle,andthedragforces(andthemechanicalloadsonhingepins
andactuators)issubstantial.
Duringearlydayssomewaterjetmanufacturerstriedtoavoidthislossbymakingtheirsteeringbuckets
slightlylargerindiameterthanthewaterjetplume.Asaresult,wheninthedeadaheadpositionthe
nozzledidnttouchtheflow,andthisdragwaseliminated.Thesemanufacturerscouldclaimafew
percentagepointshigherthrustthantheircompetitors.
Unfortunately,thisalsomeantthatthenozzledidntproduceanysteeringeffectuntilithadbeen
deflectedthosefewdegreesneededtobringitintocontactwiththeplume.Thisresultedinadead
bandinthehelmthatwasveryannoyingtooperators.
259

Figure187ThesteeringforcesduetoaKaMeWastylesteeringandreversingsuite

Figure188ThesteeringforcesduetoaRamsHornstylesteeringandreversingsuite
16.4.2.5 Highspeedrudders
Onewaytoavoidthecosinelosseffectduetopropulsorsteeringistoeschewpropulsorsteeringandfit
ruddersinstead.Theproblemofcourseisthatruddersmaybedraggy.Somearchitectshavetherefore
struckaninterestingcompromise,fittingverysmallruddersthatareonlysuitableforcoursekeepingat
highspeed,andswitchingtopropulsorsteeringatlowspeedorwhenlargetrackdeviationsareneeded.
Theswitchoverishandledautomaticallybycomputersinthecontrolsystem.
260
Highspeedruddersofthissortareoftenfittedupstreamofthepropulsor.Thisisobviouswhen
speakingofwaterjetdrivencraft,butlessobviouswithpropellerdrivencraft.However,ifthepropellers
ofchoicearefullyventilatedsurfacepiercingpropellers(whichareveryhighefficiencydeviceswith
manysuperioritiesoverwaterjets)thenupstreamisabouttheonlyreasonableplacetoputarudder
becausedownstreamofsuchapropellertheflowistoomixedwithairandtooenergetictobeused
efficiently.Asaresultitisnotuncommontofindsmallnearlyrectangularplanformruddersprotruding
belowthekeelonhighspeedcraft.
Otherruddersolutionshavebeenexperimentedwith.Oneintriguingonewastheplungingrudder
usedinsomeearlyINCATs.Aconventionalrudderisawingoffixedgeometryandvariableangleof
attack.Aplungingrudderwasaretractablewingwithfixedangleofattack.Twosuchrudderswere
fitted,oneoneitherhullofthecatamaran.Theywereorientedoppositely,saytoedinoneitherside.
Then,toturntostarboardyoulowerthestarboardrudder.Toturntoportyoulowertheportrudder.
Theamountthattherudderislowereddeterminestheamountofsteeringforcegenerated.The
perceivedadvantagewasthatwhennosteeringwasrequired,therewerenoruddersinthewaterand
thusnoappendagedrag.
Aninterestinghomeworkassignmentwillbetocalculatethecomparisonbetweenthedragsofthese
tworudderconcepts.
16.4.2.6 AerodynamicSteering&Control
Alloftheabovesteeringdevicesgenerateforcebyactingonwater.ButsomeAMVsespeciallythe
amphibioushovercraftgeneratetheirsteeringandcontrolforcesaerodynamically.Thisistruefor
boththeirruddersandtheirbowthrusters.
Figure189depictsanLCAC.Figure190showsablowupofthatphoto,focusinguponherpropulsion
nozzlesandtheairplanestyleruddersthatarelocatedintheslipstreambehindthem.Thisdesignis
straightforwardandwithintheskillsofanynavalarchitectwhorememberstochangethedensityofhis
workingfluid.
Figure191showsanotherdetailoftheLCAC,showinghercushionpressurebowthrusters.Theseare
bestdescribedwithreferencetothenextparagraph.
261

Figure189AnLCACClassACV
262

Figure190AblowupoftheLCAC'spropulsionnozzle,withtheruddersmarginallyvisiblebehindthem.
16.4.2.7 CushionAirThrusters
ConsideraSESorhovercrafthavinganaircushionpressurizedto200psf.Ifweopena4x4doorinto
thatcushionwewillexperienceaforceof4x4x200=3200pounds.Thisisaboutequaltothethrustofa
100hpmarinebowthruster.
ThistechniqueisusedquiteeffectivelyonSESandACVs.Figure191showsthesteerablethrusterson
theLCACACV.Thesesnorkelscanberotatedthrough360degreescontinuouslytogivethrustinany
direction.TheyareusedintheLCACtoprovideneededsidethrustforcoursekeepingandclosein
maneuvering,especiallyneededsincetheLCACsdonothavesteerablepropulsors.
SimilarfunctioncanbeattainedonanSESiftheridecontrolventsareplacedinthesidesoftheship.
ManualoverrideoftheRideControlSystemcanopentheseventvalves,andproduceacorresponding
thrustattheirlocation.Thiscanbeusedtosidestepawayfromthepier,ortoholdtheshipontothe
piersolinescanbepassed.
Notethatiftheseventvalvesareabovetheheightofthepier,theywillalsodeliverahurricaneofwind
toanyspectatorsorlinehandlerswhoarepresent!Theirpositionandplacementmayneedtotakethis
intoaccount.(i.e.dontplacethemtooclosetothemooringstations.)
263

Figure191AblowupoftheLCAC'sbowthrusters(thesnorkellikestructuresnearthecenterofthephoto.)
AsafinalcommentonthecontroleffectorsuitesthathavebeenusedonAMVs,Iofferapictureofthe
appendagesuiteonthe1970sexperimentaltestcraftSES100A.Inadditiontotheoneslabeled,note
thecomplexstabilityplanersthatarevisibleforwardonthestarboardside.Eachoneofthose
appendageswastheretosolveaparticularneed,andastudentofAMVdesignwoulddowelltoponder
theresult.
264
265
17 SWBS100AMVStructures
WhatisuniqueaboutAMVstructures?Itisnotthematerial,northeconstructionpractices,butrather
theloadcasesthatareunlikethoseofconventionalmonohulls.
AMVloadshavebeenstudiedbymanyexperts.Ratherthanduplicatethoseresearches,inthissectionI
amgoingtodiscussthestateofthecurrentunderstandingofAMVstructuralloadsthathasemerged
fromthatwork.Thevehicleforthisconsensuswillbethestructuraldesignrulespublishedbythe
leadingclassificationsocietiesintheAMVfield.
Onceloadsareknown,structurecanbedesignedtocarrythoseloads.Thisprocessisnotuniqueto
AMVs.(TheonlyAMVuniqueaspectmightbeagreateremphasisonweightreductionthanisfoundin,
say,tankerdesign.)
17.1 ConventionalShipLoadCases
Letsonceagainbeginbyremindingourselvesofwhatloadcasesareusuallyusedtodeterminethe
requiredstrengthofaconventionalmonohull.
Whenaskedtodescribeamonohullsstructure,thedrawingthatthenavalarchitectfirstproducesisthe
midshipsection.Whyisthis?Itisbecause,atthetopmostlevel,weviewtheshipasaslenderbeam
subjectedtolongitudinalbending.Weapproachshipdesigninthebeliefthatgloballoads,inparticular
longitudinalbending,willdominatetheshipstrengthproblemandwilldrivethedeterminationof
scantlings.
Inthetextbookcase,thelongitudinalbendingmomentisdeterminedbybalancingtheshiponastatic
wave,suchasthe1.1SQRT(L)wave,andcalculatingastillwaterbendingmomentduetotheships
weightdistribution.
WewillseethatthisisnotthecasewithAMVs.Itisnotstillwaterloadsthatdrivedesign,itmaybe
localandnotgloballoadsthatdrivedesign,andthedominantloadingcasemaynotbelongitudinal
bending.
17.2 AMVLoadCases
InAMVstructuraldesignittendsnottobestillwaterbendingthatdrivesdesign,butratherdynamically
inducedloads.Thesedynamicallyinducedloadsarisefromspeeds,speedsyieldpressures,and
pressuresyieldbothGlobalandLocalloads.
AsourpathwaythroughtheloadcasesIwillfollowtheDNVrulesforHighSpeedLightCraft.Thisisnot
becausetheserulesarethebestbutratherbecauseIfindtheirorganizationanddetailsquiteclear,and
Ithinktheywillmakeareasonablepresentationofthesubjectmatter.OtherrulesfromABSorother
societiesmaybeusedinactualprocatice.
Also,thisisnotapresentationontheDNVrules.AsIhavesaidbefore:Nevertrustyourmemoryor
yourclassnotesonamatterofruleslookitup.Usethemostcurrentrulebook,andreadallthe
266
nuancestomakesureyouarecorrectlyapplyingtherules.ThisisnotalectureonDNVrules,butrather
alectureonAMVloads,usingtheDNVbookasaroadmap.
Inthepracticaldesignofadvancedmarinevehiclesitisnormaltorelyontherulebooksintheearly
designstages,andtothenvalidatetherulebookloadswithkeymeasuredloadsfrommodeltests.The
tworulebooksIusemostoftenaretheDNVrulesforHighSpeedLightCraft,andtheABSrulesforHigh
SpeedVessels.
AnadvantageofRuleBookformulasisthatyoucanquitelikelycodethemintosimplespreadsheets,
andtheresultingspreadsheetcanbebuiltintowholeshipdesigntools.Wholeshipdesigntoolscan
convergeandbalanceadesignrapidly,savingyoufromsurpriseslaterinthedesignprocess.
OurwalkthroughtheloadswilldistinguishbetweenGlobalandLocalloadcases.Evenhere,theDNV
rulebookisinteresting:DNVRules,Section3,paragraphA100tellsusthatDNVsexperienceisthatcraft
underabout50marenormallydrivenbylocalloads,whilelargercraftaregenerallydrivenbyglobal
loads.Thistellsyouwheretofocusyoureffortinanearlystagedesign.
Wewillbeginwiththegloballoads.TherearethreeprimarygloballoadcasesofinteresttoAMVs:
LongitudinalBending
TransverseBending
TorsionalLoading
17.2.1 LongitudinalBendingModes
LongitudinalbendingforanAMVisexactlyanalogoustothatforamonohullthecraftissupportedin
eitherahoggingorsaggingcondition,andabendingmomentiscalculated.
InthecaseofAMVshoweverwetreatthesupportasbeingnotduetoastaticwavebutratherdueto
adynamicevent.Figure192andFigure193reproduceDNVillustrationsofthesetwocases.Notethat
theyarecalledlandingconditionsthissuggestthatDNVexpectstheforcestobeduetodynamic
eventsarisingfromoperationinwaves.

Figure192DNV"CrestLanding"condition,equivalenttohogging
267

Figure193DNV"TroughLanding"condition,equivalenttosagging
Indeed,thelongitudinalbendingmodeisadynamicsituation:Thecraftissupportedbyoneortwo
pressurepatches.Itisthensubjectedtosomeverticalacceleration,andabendingmomentresults.The
globalloadthebendingmomentisdrivenbytheMass,theAcceleration,andtheLeverArmbetween
thesupports.
Thepressurepatch:ThesupportsaretheoneortwopressurepatchesdepictedinFigure192or
Figure193.ThispatchhasaReferenceAreagivenbyparagraphA201asfollows:
Notethedetailsofthisformula:Ifacg=0,thenAR=k1/T.ThismeansthattheReferencearea
increaseswithDisplacement,anddecreaseswithDraft.
Further,asacgincreasessodoesARsoclearlythenextquestionis:Whatisacg?
17.2.2 TheDesignVerticalAcceleration
DNVsacgisaDesignVerticalAccelerationforthecraft.Itrepresentsthedynamicloadfactorthat
thecraftgeneratesduetooperationinwaves.ItisdefinedinDNVsSection2,page9,ParagraphB201:
Lisareferencelengthinmeters,Visthespeedinknots.fgisafactorthatdependsupontheService
RestrictionNotation(moreaboutthatbelow.)
ThisformulasaysthatthedesignverticalaccelerationincreaseswithFroudenumber,anddecreases
slowly(the0.76power)withshiplength.IgnoringtheServiceRestrictionFactor,letslookatsome
valuesforthis.Table9showsvaluesofacg,forfg=1,ings,fortwodifferentcraftsizeseachoperatingat
twodifferentspeeds.Thefollowingpointsaresalient:
Doublingthespeeddoublestheacceleration
268
Triplingthelengthlowerstheacceleration.(NotethatitalsolowerstheFroudenumberfora
givendimensionalspeed,whichfurtherlowerstheacceleration.)
Theaccelerationsaregenerallyintheneighborhoodofoneg.Theyareneithertenthsofgs
nortensofgs.
Table9AsimpleparametriclookatthevaluesgivenbyDNV'sformulaforDesignVerticalAcceleration
L 100 100 30 30
V 25 50 25 50
V/L 2.5 5 4.56 9.13
L0.76 33.1 33.1 13.3 13.3
acg/(fgg0) 0.24 0.48 1.10 2.20
ThenextparameteristheaccelerationfactorfgwhichispickedaccordingtoServiceRestriction
NotationperthetablereproducedinTable10.ServiceRestrictionnotationR0istheleastrestrictive,
andimpliesopenoceanservice.RestrictionR5isforlakeandinlandserviceinshelteredwater.Coastal
servicesareusuallyR2orR3.
Asmaybeseen,thelessrestrictivethenotation,thehigherafactormustbeappliedtothedesign
acceleration.AlsonotethatthePatrolvesselhasthehighestfactor,correspondingtotheneedfora
warshiptobedrivenhardevenintoughconditions.Itisalsointerestingtonotethatthecargovessel
hasasubstantiallyhigherfactorthanthepassengervessel:Cargodoesntcomplainuntilmuchlater
thanthepassengersdo.
MultiplyingTable9andTable10,weseethata100m50knotpassengerferrywillhaveadesign
acceleration(acg)ofabouthalfag,whereasa30meter50knotpatrolvesselmighthaveadesign
accelerationashighas15gs.Whatdoesthismean?DNVtellsusclearly:Thedesignvertical
accelerationisanextremevaluewitha1%probabilityofbeingexceeded,intheworstintended
conditionofoperation.
Aswehavealreadyseen,thisvalueisusedtodeterminetheReferenceAreaforthegloballongitudinal
bendingcases.Butitisalsousedmanyotherplacesinthestructuralcalculation.Asgiven,theacgisthe
accelerationatthecenterofgravity.Atotherlocationsalongthelengthoftheshiptheaccelerationwill
bedifferent.Atanygivenstationalongthelength,thelocalverticalaccelerationavisgivenbyav=kacg,
wherekistakenfromFigure194.Thusatthebow,ourhypotheticalPatrolboatmighthavetosurvive
aloadof30gswhichishuge.
269
Table10TheselectionofAccelerationFactorasafunctionofServiceRestrictionNotationandShipType

Figure194Longitudinaldistributionfactorfordesignverticalacceleration
270
17.2.3 WaveHeightLimits
Theloadsdontbecomeashighinpracticeasthepreviousparagraphsuggests,becausethedesigneris
allowedtomodifythespeedasafunctionofthewaveheight.
InmyPatrolvesselexampleIhavethatunfortunatelittleshipmaintaining50knotsinopenocean
conditions.Inrealityshewillonlymake50knotsincalmwater,andshewillhavesomedrastically
reducedspeedinhighseastates.Thedesignercanstipulateaspeed/waveheightrelationshipinorder
tokeeptheverticalaccelerationwithinreasonablebounds.Thesewaveheightlimitsbecomebinding,
anditisthisthatgivesrisetothewaveheightlimittablediscussedinSection[[]].
InDNVswords:
Theallowablespeedcorrespondingtothedesignverticalaccelerationmaybeestimatedfrom
theformulasfortherelationshipbetweeninstantaneousvaluesofacg,VandHsgivenin204
and205.Relationshipsbetweenallowablespeedandsignificantwaveheightwillbestatedin
theAppendixtoClassificationCertificate.
Letusturnourattentiontothespeed/waveheightrelationship.DNVsformula204isshownin
Figure195.

Figure195Therelationshipbetweenaccelerationandspeedandwaveheight,forV/L>3
Considerforexamplethehypotheticalcaseofacatamaranhavingthefollowingdimensions:
Length:105.6m
Beam:11.6m
Displacement:3000t
kh:1
Deadrise:20degrees
Figure196showsaspeed/waveheightrelationshipthathasbeenconstructedspecificallytoyielda
designverticalaccelerationof0.5gatallcases.Figure197showshowapracticallimitingwaveheight
tablemightbemadeoutofthatdata.
271
Table11ThespreadsheetusedtocalculateFigure196
V knots 40 30 20 10 5 0
L m 105.6
BWL m 11.6
DISPL tonnes 3000
Type: Cat
kh 1
Deadrise degrees 20
HS m 3.47 4.70 5.75 7.39 8.62 10.35
V/SQRT(L)>3? OK NO! NO! NO! NO! NO!
acg V>3 g 0.500 0.359 0.189 0.059 0.017 0.000

acg V<3 g 0.436 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500
acg g 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500
Wave heights to yield 0.500g acg value
45
40
35
Maximum Permitted Speed (knots)
30
25
20
15
10
0
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00
Significant Wave Height (meters)

Figure196Aspeed/waveheightrelationshipselectedtoyieldconstantdesignacceleration
272
Wave heights to yield 0.500g acg value
45
40
35
Maximum Permitted Speed (knots)
30
25
20
15
10
0
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00
Significant Wave Height (meters)

Figure197ApracticallimitingwaveheightcurveoverlaidonFigure196
Thereareotherimportantdesignflexibilitiesinherentinthismethod.Forexample,thedesignercould
comeupwithadifferentV/HScurveatdifferentdisplacements.Thustheshipmighthaveanoverload
displacement,butwewantthebendingmomenttostaywithinadesignvalue.SinceBM=xacgthis
meansthatwesimplycomeupwithanewlimitforacgandrevisitequationB204togetanew
correspondingHS/Vlimits.
17.2.4 DesignPressures/LocalLoads
Theaccelerationsdiscussedthusfaryieldpressures,inadditiontothegloballoadsthatwearegoingto
returnto.Thesepressuresare:
Slammingpressureonbottom
Forebodysideandbowimpactpressure
Slammingpressureoncrossstructures
Seapressureonbottom,side,&superstructure
17.2.4.1 Slammingpressureonbottom
273
SlammingpressureonthebottomoftheshipisgivenbyDNVparagraphC202:Itappliestoeverything
belowthechine,notjustbelowthewaterline.Theformulaisasfollows:
Asmaybeseen,thisfunctionsaysthatthepressure:
Isalinearfunctionofacg
Increaseswith
IncreaseswithDraft0.7
Decreaseswithlocaldeadriseangle
ThereisalsoadistributiondiagramreproducedinFigure198thatsaysthattheslammingpressure
onthebottomgetssmallertowardthestern.

Figure198Longitudinalslammingpressuredistributionfactorforhighspeedslamming
17.2.4.2 Forebodysideandbowimpactpressure
Thispressure,forforebodyareasabovethechine,isgiveninDNVparagraphC301as:
274
17.2.4.3 WetDeckSlamPressures
ThewetdeckslampressureisgiveninDNVC400as:
Thisoneincreasesfrom0.5amidshipstoahighervaluetowardthebow,accordingtotherelationshipin
Figure199.Thisfigureisparticularlyinterestinginthedistinctionsitdrawsbetweendifferentvehicle
types.Catamaranshaveadistributionfactorof1.SESandACVgetlowerwetdeckslampressures,
presumablybecausethecushionsoftenstheimpactstosomeextent.Hydrofoilshavethelowest
pressure,whichinfactisconstantoverthelength.Thisispresumablybecausethefoilcontrolsystem
willflytheboattoavoidslams.SWATHshavethehighestpressure.Thisispresumablybecausethe
SWATHhasverylittlerestoringforce(intheformofwaterplanearea)tomitigatethedownward
velocitiesthatleadtowetdeckslams.

Figure199Longitudinalvariationofwetdeckslampressure
17.2.4.4 SeaPressure
Finally,DNVsseapressure,whichisalmostallotherpressures.FromequationC500thesea
pressureisNOTafunctionofacg,anditgetshigherforward.
275

Figure200DNV'sformulaforSeaPressure

Figure201SeaPressurelongitudinaldistributionfactor,afunctionofblockcoefficient
17.2.5 GlobalLoads
Westartedthissectionbytryingtofindsomethingequivalenttoamonohullsmidshipsection.We
foundthattheLongitudinalBendingMomentwasdrivenbyverticalacceleration.Thevertical
accelerationcalculationalsogaveusallourpressuresandsecondary(local)loadingcases.Wenow
return,equippedwiththisverticalacceleration,tothestudyofourthreegloballoadcases:
276
LongitudinalBending
TransverseBending
TorsionalBending
17.2.5.1 LongitudinalBending
ThehoggingbendingmodeiswhatDNVcallsacrestlandingcase,representingtheshipcomingdown
withthedesignverticalacceleration,andbeingsupportedbyasinglecontactpatchamidships.The
longitudinalbendingmomentcreatedbythisisquitestraightforward,andgivenbymasstimes
accelerationtimesleverarm,asfollows:
Theleverarminthiscaseisgivenbythelastterm:
Thistermrepresentstwohalfships:Aforehalfbody,withsomeLCGFH,andanafthalfbody,withsome
LCGAH.ThenewisonehalfthedistancebetweenLCGFHandLCGAH,andls/4isthelengthoftheReference
Area.Sketchthisandyouwillseethatitistheleverarmbetweenthereferenceareaandthehalf
massesoftheship.
Thesaggingmodeiscalled,inDNVparlance,theHollowLandingCase.Thisreferstotheshiplanding
withthedesignverticalaccelerationontwocrests,oneatthebowandoneatthestern,withahollow
amidshipsintowhichtheshipfalls.ItwasillustratedinFigure193.Thebendingmomentinthiscaseis:
WhereeTisthemeandistancefromthecenteroftheAR/2endareasthevesselsLCG,inmeters.
17.2.5.2 TransverseBending
ThesecondmajorgloballoadcaseforamultihullAMVistransversebending.Thiscaseisillustratedin
Figure202,anditisquiteintuitiveonceithasbeenshowntoyou.Notethatinthiscaseweare
concernednotonlywiththebendingmoment,butalsotheshearforceatthecenterplane,asthetwo
hullstrytogotheirseparateways.
Therulebooksgivecleardiscussionsofhowtocalculatethesemomentsandforces,soIshallcontent
myselfwithillustratingthisloadcaseanddirectingthereadertotherulesforfurthercalculational
details.
Thebendingmomentis,inthesimplestcase(V/L>3,L<50m),givenby:
277

Figure202Transversebendingmomentsandshearforce
17.2.5.3 TorsionalBending
Thetorsionalbendingmodeisuniquetothemultihullsandmaybealittlehardertounderstand
intuitively.Imagineacatamaranoperatinginobliqueseas,wherethewavesarrivefrom45degreesoff
thebow.Nowletsimaginethatthewavelengthsandtheshipspeedsarejustright,sothatonebow
hitsacrestwhiletheotherbowhitsatrough.Onebowistryingtopitchupwhiletheotherbowis
tryingtopitchdown.
Ofcourse,thetwobowsarentfreetotakeoppositepathstheyarerigidlyconnectedtoeachother,
henceaPitchConnectingMoment.
Thepitchconnectingmomentmanifestsitselfastwomoments,oneaboutthepitchaxisandone
transverse.ThisdecompositionisillustratedinFigure203.Theformulaeforthetwomomentsare:
278

Figure203Thepitchconnectingmoment,decomposedintoMpandMt
17.3 AMVLoadCasesSummary
CertainlytherearemanymorerulesintheDNVrulebook,butthisisalectureontheAMVloadcases,
notontherules.
Whatwehaveseenistheabsenceofastillwaterwave,butinsteadwefindthatloadsaredrivenby
dynamicevents(acceleration)notstaticstillwaterbendingmoments.Hullgirderbending(i.e.midship
section)maystillbethedefiningconsideration,buttheaccelerationsarehighenoughthattheymake
pressuresthatarehighenoughthatforsmallershipsitislocalloadsthatdominate.Theconventional
shipmidshipsectioncase(longitudinalbending)isinourworldreplacedbythreebendingcases:
Longitudinal
Transverse
Torsional
279
18 SWBS119DesignofAirCushionSkirts
Thisisanothersectionwhereanentiretextbookinitsownrightisneeded.InthissectionIshallbeable
todolittlemorethanacquaintthereaderwiththeissuesinvolvedinthedesignofaskirtsystem,and
educatethestudentonthebasicsofinflatablestructures.
AnACVskirtsystemisacomplexengineeredstructure.Figure204illustratesthecomponentsofone
suchsystem,andIreproduceitheremerelytounderscorethecomplexityofthesystem.

Figure204AnACVskirtsystem
18.1 PurposeandTypesofSkirts
AswithsomuchoftheAMVdesign,webeginwiththeteleologyofaskirt:Whatisthepurposeofthe
skirtonapoweredliftcraft?
280
First,letitbewellunderstoodthatskirtsarenotnecessary.SirChristopherCokerelsfirsthovercraftdid
nothaveaskirt.ButtheskirtwasquicklyinventedandretrofittotheSR.N1,forthefollowingreasons:
Theidealskirtsystemwill:
Retaintheairbubblereduceairleakage
Havenodrag
Conformtowaveswithoutexcitingshipmotionweightless/massless
Assistwithpitchstability
ToaccomplishthefirstoftheseRetaintheairbubbletheskirtmust:
Resistcushionpressure
Retaindesiredgeometry
Beimpermeable
Asifthatisnotenough,considerthegoalofbeingdragless.Toaccomplishthiswewantaperfect
geometryofwatercontact,sothatthereisnowettedsurfaceofskirt.Inastatichoveringconditionthis
mightbepossible,butwhataboutinwaves?Inwaveswewanttheskirttodeflectoutoftheway
instantaneously.Thisrequirestheskirttobeinertialess,ormassless.
Finally,wewanttheskirttoassistinprovidingpitchstabilityforthecraft.Thismeansthatthebowskirt
willhaveaforwardslopetoit,sothatwhenthebowpitchesdownthereissomeforwardshiftinthe
centerofpressure,resultinginapitchrestoringmoment.
Toaddressthesemultiplegoals,manytypesofskirthavebeeninventedandtried.MylistincludesNo
skirt,AirCurtains,WaterCurtain,Pericells,Fingers,Bagandfingers,Stayedbags,andTransversely
stiffenedmembranes.Butdespitethisbroadrange,thesecanbecollapsedintothreemajortypes,
whichIshalladdressinturn
VirtualSkirts
RigidSkirts
InflatableSkirts
18.1.1 VirtualSkirts
IclassbothPeripheralJetsandWaterCurtainsasVirtualskirtsbecausethereisnophysical
structureretainingthecushion,insteaditisretainedbyaninertialbarrierformedbyamassoffluid
eitherairorwater.
18.1.1.1 Peripheraljets
Aperipheraljetsystemconsistsofathinslotaroundtheperimeterofthecraft,andahighpressurejet
ofairblowingthroughthisslottowardtheground.Themomentumoftheairjetissufficienttoretaina
positivepressureinsidetheperimeter,inthecushionareaofthecraft.
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Thegoverningrelationships,thatgiveustherequiredflowandpressurefromthejet,aregivenbyYun&
Bliault(Reference16)inthepagethatIreproduceasFigure209.Notethattheperipheraljetalso
suppliestheairtothecushionthereisnoseparateliftfansysteminadditiontothejetfans.
Figure205Yun&Bliaultpresentationofthegoverningrelationsforaperipheraljet
Ahomeworkassignmentwillbegiveninwhichthestudentwillusetheserelationstofindtheliftpower
forasmallnumberofhypotheticalhovercraft.Aswillbeseen,theproblemwiththeperipheraljet
methodisthatitrequiresalotofpower:Theairjetmustbegivenenoughmomentumtoretainthe
cushion,whichrequiresasubstantialjetpressureandflowrate.
18.1.1.2 WaterCurtain
TheWaterCurtainconceptissimilartothatoftheperipheraljet.Butwhereastheperipheraljet
combinesbothcushionretentionandcushioncreationintoasingleairflowstream,thewatercurtain
doesrequireaseparateaircushionfansystem.Itthenusesthewatercurtainonlytoretainthecushion.
282
Theideaofthewatercurtainistouseamassoffallingwatertoproducethepressurebarrierthat
retainsthecushion.Theinnovationisthatwaterwillhavenodragwhenittouchestheocean,because
itwilldisappearintotheocean.Itwillalsoconformperfectlytowaves.
Theproblemofcourseisthattocreatethewatercurtainwemustliftseawaterupfromthesurfaceand
thenejectitdownwardswithenoughmomentumtosealthecushion.Itturnsoutthattheenergy
requiredtodothisismuchlargerthanthesavingsduetoeliminationofsealdrag.
TherearenowatercurtaincraftinexistencethatIknowof.
18.1.2 RigidSkirts
Theperipheraljetandwatercurtainideasaretwoideasthatseemtogetreinventedonceeach
generation.Rigidskirtsareanothersimilarcase.Manypeoplehavethoughtofusingarigidstructureto
retaintheaircushion,andthenarticulatingthatstructureonasystemofhingesandspringstogiveit
thedesireddynamicperformance.Obviouslyarigidskirtisagoodsolutiontothepermeabilitygoal,and
itrequiresnopowerfortheskirtitself.
EarlyrigidskirtsconsistedofsimplehingedplywoodpanelsfittedatthebowandsternofanSES.The
firstgenerationofthissimplyhingedthepanelatthetopwithadoorhinge.Theproblemisthatthe
cushionpressureactingbehindthispanelresultsinalargeforce,andsimplymakesthepanelintoa
plow,eliminatingtheresistanceadvantagesoftheSES.
Tosolvethis,theinventorsswitchedtoabalancedtypedesign,wherethepanelwashingedabouta
midchord,andnotattheedge.Thisresultsinapanelwithgoodconformancetothe2Dsurface.The
problemnowisthatanyathwartshipsshapetothewaveismetwithasinglemonolithicpanel,whichis
thenplowedthroughthewave.Sothecleverinventorsconceivedofsegmentingthepanelathwartships
intoasystemofseveralrigidfingers,thatlooksomethinglikepianokeys.Thesemustofcoursebeof
balanceddesign,aswell.
Astheindividualkeysmove,theymusthavesomemeansbetweenthemsothatairdoesntescape
betweenadjacentfingers.Thisrequiressomekindofsidepanelstoclosethegap,andthesesidepanels
willruboneachother.Thefrictionthusintroducedwillreducetheconformabilityofthefingers,
reducingtheireffectivenessandincreasingtheirdrag.
Inpractice,nobodyhasyetovercomethesesolutionswithasystemthatissuperiortotheinflatable
fabricskirt.
18.1.3 InflatableFabricSkirts
Iclassifyfabricskirtsintosixbasicfamilies,eachofwhichwillbediscussed
below.Thereare:
Simplecurtain
TransverselyStiffenedMembrane
Bag
Pericell/Jupe
Finger
283
BagandFinger
18.1.3.1 CurtainSkirt
Aflexibleskirthelpsreducetheairflowrequiredtosupportthecraft.Makingthisskirtoffabricwill
helpreducetheweightoftheskirtandmayreduceitstendencytoplowanddrag,becauseofits
flexibility.
Thesimplesttypeofflexiblefabricskirtwouldbeasimplecurtainhangingdownfromthewetdeck.
Thisskirtwouldhavetobetensionedatthebottominordertoholddownoritwillsimplyblowup
undertheinfluenceofthecushionpressure.Someoftheholddowneffectcanbeattainedbymaking
theskirtgoaroundthefullperimeterofthecraftandmakingitsomewhatconicaltaperingdownward.
Theslopedsidesoftheconeandtheinherentgeometryoftheconewillhelptokeeptheskirtinplace.
Unfortunately,thesameforcesthatkeepacurtainskirtinplacealsostiffentheskirtandmakeitmore
likelytodragbyplowing.
18.1.3.2 TransverselyStiffenedMembrane
ImagineamSEScurtainskirtthatisaboutthesizeofthedooronatwocargarage.Imaginethatitis
securedalongtheentiretopedge,andalsoatthetwosides,butnotatthebottom.Nowimagineit
subjectedto1psiofpressureononeside.Obviouslyitisgoingtobulgeoutward,andwillnolongerbe
asimple2Dshape.
Toalleviatethisbulgingsomepractitionershaveexperimentedwithtransverselystiffenedcurtainskirts.
Inthiscaselongthinflexiblebattensareincludedintheskirt,spanningthefullwidthfromsidetoside.
Thesebattenshelpreducethetransversebendingofthefabric.Theymayalsobetetheredtotheship
structureforfurthergeometrycontrol.
VeryfewTSMskirtshavebeenbuilt,andlittleisknownaboutthepotentialofthissystem.
18.1.3.3 BagSkirt
Atsomesortofoppositeextremefromacurtainwouldbetosurroundthefullperimeterwithan
inflatablehorsecollarorinnertubeallthewayaround.Thisskirtwillwork.Therewillbeatradeoff
betweenpitchstabilityandplowing/dragahigherpressureinflationwillmakeitstiffer,yieldmore
pitchstiffness,butalsoresultinhigherdrag.Indeedatthelimitinfiniteinflationpressurethis
becomessimplyananalogofarigidnoncompliantskirt.
Inactualpracticeskirtinflationpressuresarefarbelowinfinity,buttheymuststillbesomewhathigher
thanthecushionpressure.Bagskirtsystemsarecommon(indeed,ubiquitous)assternsealsinSES.In
thisapplicationtheyareusuallyinflatedto5%15%abovethecushionpressure.Thisproducesavery
softbagwhichiseasilydeflectedbyincidentwaves.
18.1.3.4 Pericell/Jupe
Thenexttypeofskirtistouseaseriesofsmallerconicalstructures.Thesearecalledjupeswhichis
simplytheFrenchwordforskirt.Eachpericellorjupelookssomethinglikethegarmentcalledatulip
284
skirt.Aseriesofthesejupessurroundsthecushionsometimesincombinationwithacommonbag
section,asillustratedinFigure206.
Thepericellyieldsgoodverticalstiffnessifthecellsareconicalinshape.Thedrawbacktoapericellis
thattheportionofthehemoftheskirtthatisconcaveforwardisshapedtoscoopwaterwhenin
motion,whichcancausedrag,skirtdamage,orotherundersirablebehavior.Thiscanbemitigatedby
slantingthetipsoftheconessomewhatsothattheforwardfacingedgeisslightlyhigherthantheaft
facingedge.

Figure206APericellandBag(orJupeandBag)skirtsystem
18.1.3.5 Finger
Somewherebetweenacurtainandapericellliestheconceptofthefingerskirt.Afabricfingerisa
halfcylinderoffabric,suspendedfromthewetdeckatanangleofabout45degreesfromthevertical.
Thehalfcylinderhasitsconvexfaceoutward,concavetowardthecushionpressure.
Thefingerskirtmaybeconsideredtobeaderivativecaseofthecurtainskirt,whereasinglelarge
curtainisreplacedbyaseriesofmultiplecurtains.ThisphilosophyisillustratedinFigure207.
Onemayalsoimagineafingerskirtasconsistingofonlytheoutboardhalvesofaseriesofpericells.
285

Figure207Thefingerskirt(right)explainedasaderivativecaseofasinglecurtainskirt.
18.1.3.6 BagandFinger
InafigureaboveIillustratedabagandpericellskirtsystem.Ihavealsosaidthatafingerskirtmaybe
consideredequivalenttohalfapericell.Inthatcaseitisunsurprisingtointroducethebagandfinger
combination,illustratedinFigure208.

Figure208Abagandfingerskirtsystem
18.2 BasicsofInflatableStructures
286
TofurtherunderstandtheskirtsonPoweredLiftAMVswemustlearnafewbasicsaboutinflatable
structures.Therearetwosimplefactsthatareallimportant:
Theforcebalanceonauniformmembranewillalwaysresultinacircle(orsegment)
Thestressinaninflatedsegmentisdirectlyproportionaltotheradius
Thesetwofactscanbeclearlyseenifyouimagineafabrichavingzerostiffness.Ifitissubjectedtoa
uniformloadlikeacantileverbeamitwillofcoursedeflect.Withzerostiffnesstheresultantforcesat
theendpointscanonlybeinthedirectionofthefabricinpuretension.
ConsiderthecaseshowninFigure209.Herethediameterofthecircleisequaltothespacebetween
thesupports.Thetotalforceactingontherestraintsmustbetheintegralofthepressureoverthegirth
ofthebag,resolvedintoXandYcomponents.ItiseasytoseethattheYcomponentswillcancelout
duetosymmetry,andtheXcomponentwillbeequaltoPxD.PDisthusthetotalreaction,whichisthe
sumofthetwoendpointforceR1andR2.ThusR1=R2=PxRadius.Nowwhatisthetensioninthe
fabric?IsitnotsimplythereactionforceR?Thusthetensioninthefabricist=R1=R2=PRadius.

Figure209Basicsofinflatablestructures
18.3 BasicDesignofSESSkirts
ThemostcommonSESskirtsystemtodayconsistsoffulldepthfingersforward,andamultilobedbag
aft.Sincethissystemiscommon,andsinceanAMVacquaintednavalarchitectmightbecalleduponto
developaconceptdesignfairlyquicklywithoutrecoursetoconsultants,Ishallprovideanoverviewof
howtodesignthistypeofskirtsystem.
18.3.1 SESBowFingerSkirts
Beginningwiththebowskirtsystem:Thissystemconsistsoffingersextendingthefulldepth(orheight)
fromthewetdecktothedesignedcushiondepression.Thekeyfeaturesofsuchasystemare:
Semicylindricalfingers
Angledtothewaterline
Restrainedattips
287
Thefingersarehalfcylindersfacingconvexforward.Thediameterofthesecylindersisdeterminedby
thestrengthoftheskirtfabric,sinceaswehaveseen,thetensioninthefabricwilldependsimplyupon
thecushionpressuretimesthefingerradius.
Asadesignparameter,SESinthe4080msizerangehavecushionpressuresof0.751.5metersof
water,andhavefingerdiametersofabout1meter.Thusforastartingpointwemaytakeadesign
valueofhoopstressfromthesevalues,andscaletoanyparticularprojectscushionpressureto
estimatethatprojectsfingerdiameter,assumingthesamehoopstressasthedesignvalue.
Thefingersdonotdescendverticallytheyformsomeanglewiththevertical.Thisangleisamajor
sourceofthepitchstabilityofanSES,andisalsoimportanttothedragoftheskirts.Thecommon
designangleis45degrees.Ihaveseenandtestedanglesfrom30to60degrees,andthereisnothingto
recommendthematthistime.Aflatter,morehorizontal,skirtanglewillincreasethepitchstiffness
becauseityieldsmoreshiftofthecenterofpressure,butitwilllikelyincreasethewettingoftheskirt
andthusskirtfriction.Itprobablyreducesskirtwavemakingdragbecauseitformsamoregentleentry
angleforthecushion,viewedinprofile.Amoreverticalanglereducespitchstiffness,butmayalso
increasedragbecauseitpresentsamorebluntentranceangletothecushionpressure.
Imagineifthefingersweresimplehalfcylinders,attachedatthewetdeck,andangled45degreesfrom
thevertical.Nowsubjectthemtocushionpressureontheaftface.Clearlytheywillbuckleandfold
forwardunlesstheyarerestrainedinsomemanner.Therestraintmustholdthefingertipaftagainst
theforceofthecushionpressure,anditmustnotyieldanyeffectiveforceactingupthelongvertical
axisofthecylinder,asthiswouldsimplycausethefingertocrumpleverticallyinbuckling.Thuswesee
thattherestraintcouldbeassimpleasapairofropesattachedtotheloweraftcornersoftheskirtand
leadtothecraftstructure,providedthattheseropesformanangleofatleast90degreeswiththefinger
axis.
Inpractice,ropesarenotusedforthispurposebecauseofthenextrequiredfeature:Thefingersmust
sealagainsttheirneighbors.Ifthefingersweresimplehalfcylinders,thenforanynonzerodeflection
theywouldopenagapbetweenthemselvesandtheirneighboringfinger,andcushionairwouldleakout
ofthisgap.Thereforethehalfcylinderoffingerhasstraightlineextensionsaftward.Theseflatpanels
offabricbearagainsttheneighboringfingers(orthecraftsidewalls)evenwhenthefingerhasmoved
appreciably.
Inpractice,thefabricextensionsarecarriedallthewayafttoserveastherestraintropesmentioned
previously.Ofcourse,thisfabricexistsateverypointalongtheedgeofthefinger,notmerelyatthe
tips,sotherestraintforceisapplieddistributedoverthelengthofthefinger,whichavoidsload
concentrations.
TheresultingfingergeometryisdepictedinFigure210.
288

Figure210DrawingsofgenericSESbowfingergeometry
18.3.2 SESSternBagSkirts
AnSESsternbagisasimplergeometry.AtwolobedbagisshowninFigure211.Thesternbaggeometry
isdominatedbytheratiosofpressuresinsideandoutsidethechambersofthebags.ConsiderFigure
212,whichshowsasimplesinglelobeconfiguration.Thekeytothisgeometryisthatthetensioninthe
fabricmustbethesameateverypointalongtheperimeterthereisnomechanismforincreasingor
decreasingtensionexceptattheendpoints.Thecontrollingpointsthen,whichareunderthecontrolof
thenavalarchitect,arethetwoendpointsandthepointoftangencywiththeseasurface(labeledt.)I
havesimplifiedthisgeometrysuchthattheaftendpointAisverticallyabovepointt.Thismakesthe
aftlobeofthebagacompletesemicircle.Thestudentcangeneralizethisgeometrytoothercases,and
indeedLarryDoctorshasprovidedacompletegeneralizationinhiswork,seeFigure113earlierinthis
text.
TherearetwodifferentpressuresactingonthebaginFigure212.Theaftfaceofthebagseesa
pressurewhichisPaft=BagPressureminusAtmosphericPressure.Thisishigherthanthepressure
seenonthefrontcurveofthebag,whichisPforward=BagPressureminusCushionPressure.
Now,sincethetensionatpointtmustbethesameontheforwardandaftpartsofthispoint,this
meansthatPafttimesRadiusaftmustequalPforwardtimesRadiusforward.
289
Withtheheightofthecushionknown,andthepressuresknown,thedesignercanthenfindthe
resultingtworadii,andfromthesecancalculatetheamountoffabric(girth)requiredtomakethestern
seal.Typicalsternbagpressuresare5%20%abovecushionpressure,withthephilosophybeingthe
lowerthepressurethebetter.

Figure211AtwolobedSESbagtypesternseal
290

Figure212Definitionsketchforasimplifiedcaseofthegeometricbalanceofasternbagseal
Notethatabagtypesternsealdoesnothaveendcapstheedgesofthefabricsimplyslidealongthe
rigidcraftstructure.Thismeansthat,especiallywhenuninflated,thesternbagcanfillwithseawater.
Todrainthiswateraseriesofsmallholesincluded,lyingalongthelineoftangencyt.Topreventthe
holesfromcatchingthewaterathighspeed,andthustearingthefabricbag,asimpleflapofclothon
theoutside(attachedforwardandlooseattheaftend)coversthem.Thisflapofclothiscalleda
featherdespitenotlookinglikeoneatall!
Itisappropriateheretocommentonthehydrodynamicsofthesternbag.Inanidealsternbagthereis
asmalldaylightgapbetweenthesternbagandtheseasurfaceatpointt.Thisgapisaninteresting
messofstufftoanalyze.First,theinflationofthesealwantstopressthebottomedgeagainstthewater
surfacewhiletheairinthecushionwantstoliftthebottomedgeandgetout.Inaddition,thereisa
venturieffectasthecushionairjetsthroughthegap,andthiscausesasuctionthatpullsthebagdown
tothesurface.
Aninterestingfluttercanbecreated:whentheventuripullsthebagdowntothesurfaceitclosesthe
gap.Whenthegapcloses,theflowstops,andtheventurisuctiongoesaway.Absentthissuctionthe
staticforcesreassertthemselvesandthebagpullsupfromthesurfaceaninch.Thisofcoursecauses
cushionairtoflowoncemore,recreatingtheventuri,andpullingthebagbackdowntoclosethegap.In
practice,theresultofthisisaresonantmodethatisexactlylikeawhoopeecushionorclarinetreed.
Balancingthosetwoforcesplustheventurieffectisindeedthemtierofasealdesignspecialist.In
additiontothesealpressureandcushionpressureaffectingtheshapeoftheinflatedseal,theventuri
underitsgaphastobetweakedwiththecorrectapproachangleandnumberofdrainholesthat'bleed'
airintotheventuriand,sometimes,evenatriporstepalongthatedgetoreducethesuctionordown
forcecreatedbytheventuri.Thissealwaterinterfacepressuredistributionandmagnitudehasbeen
measuredintestsandcorrelatedwitharathercomplexmodelofthesternsealdynamics.FYI..the
pressureatthegapcandropbelowatmosphericpressure.
291
Theissueintheseinvestigationswasnotsealdrag,butinsteadwewantedtounderstandmostorallof
themechanicsaffectingstealstability;somebouncedandsomedidn'tandunstableonescreated
seriousridequalityproblems.However,itstandstoreasonthattheonesthatwereunstablecontributed
adragcomponentsinceeach'bounce'resultedincontactwiththewatersurface.
Incalmwater,acorrectlydesignedlobesealprobablyhaslittleifanydragcontributionsinceitisnot
contactingthewatersurfaceandhasnoperceptibleeffect(visualanyway)onsurfaceelevationforward
of,orunder,theseaitself.
SESSpecialistRickLoheed(privatecommunication)providedsomeinterestingcommentswhichseemto
fitnowhereelse,soIincludethemhereforthereadersbenefit:
Ourtuningtrialsweretypicallyforoptimizingmotioncontrols,butduringourtestingwealwaysdida
SternSealDeltaPVsSpeedsensitivitytestwithoutanyothervariableschanging.Whenventingthe
cushionforcontrolinwavesitwasfoundrunningslightlytighterthandesignallowedahigherventvalve
effectivebiasdynamically,yieldingalittlemorebidirectionalcontrolandkeepingmorecushion
pressurelongerastheseasgotbigger,resultinginhigherspeedswiththesamepower.
Inobservingthesealsduringinitialtrials,IusedtoadjusttheDeltaPuntilitwasobservedtocontact
thewater,andthenbackoffjustenoughsoitdidnttooquicklyarriveatanoperatingpointnearthe
optimum.Iwasseldomwrongbymuch.
Mr.BillMcFann(privatecommunication)added:Ialwaysmadeitapointtomaketheyardinstall
windowsintothecushionforsealobservation.Ialsothoughttheyshouldbetheresothecrewcould
checkthesealsfordamage,buttheclassificationsocietiestypicallymadethemremovethem.Ithink
maybeacoupleputcoversoverthemandmanagedtokeepthem.Othersargueforavideocamera.Itis
neverasgoodandtheycanfailIstillthinkthecrewneedstobeabletoobservethesealsdirectly.
Incalmwater,watchingthesternsealgapisfascinatingbecausethewatersmoothlyflowsbeneathit,
thenrapidlybeginstherisetothesurfacebecausethepressureisoffandtheventuriishelpingturnthe
flow.Everythingisabrightgreenitisseldomasdarkinthereasyouwouldthink.Itlookslikethe
smoothinsidecurlofabreakingwavejustunderandbehindtheaftlobe.Thisofcoursemeansthe
venturiwrapsaroundthelowerlobealsoitdoesnotexitflatasifsheddingfromatransom.
TypicallyIcouldnotseeanysprayfrominsidethecushionthesurfacewasusuallyverysmooth.Itmay
havegonemoreturbulentnearthesurfacewhereatomizationeventslikeligamentsturninginto
dropletscouldoccurmorereadilyastheescapingairtearsatit.
18.4 SkirtForces
Theforcesinaskirtsystemareinthreeclasses:
Internalforces
AttachmentForces
DynamicForces
292
18.4.1 Internalforces
Wehavealreadyseenthatthebasicinternalforceinafabricstructureisduetotheinflationpressure.If
therearenostays,wires,restraints,etc.,thenthestructurewilltakeonacircularshapeandthefabric
willbeloadedtoaHoopStresswhichisequaltoStress=RadiusXPressure/Thickness.Thisstress
drivestheselectionofthenumberoffingersorlobesinaseal,andisdrivenbytheallowablestressof
theskirtfabrics.
18.4.2 Attachmentforces
Attachingafabricskirttoarigidcraftisnotsimple.Thechallengeistotrytocreateanattachment
systemthatiscontinuous,e.g.aboltrope,inordertoavoidstressconcentrations.Thepurposeofthis
attachmentistoprovidetherestraintforcesneededtoholdtheskirtinplaceagainstthethrust
causedbythepressures.Figure214throughFigure216illustrateafewmethodsofaccomplishingthis.
Sometimestheskirtmustincludepointloadrestraints,suchasstaysorwebbingstraps.Inthiscasethe
mannerofattachingtheseitemsrequiresdoublersectionsandgrommets.Indeed,skirtmanufactureis
verylikesailmaking,andmostofthetechniquesforhandlingreinforcementsinasailarealsousedwith
skirts.
Skirtsarenotmadeinsingleelements.Especiallyinthecaseoffingers,itisdesirabletomaketheskirt
insegments.Inthecaseoffingersitisnormaltohaveeachfingerfittedwitharemovablecuffatthe
bottomedge.Thisiswheremostofthefingerweartakesplace,andwiththismethodonecansimply
removeandreplacethecuff,ratherthanthewholefinger.
Similarly,bagsegmentsinamultilobesternsealmaybemaderemovable.Thismakespossibleafloat
maintenance,asseeninFigure220.Segmentedconstructionalsoresultsincontrollingtheweightof
anysinglecomponent,easingmaintenanceandinstallation.
Attachingsegmentstoeachotherisusuallyaccomplishedusingpointloads.Ihaveseenbothbolted
attachmentsandlacingsusedequallysuccessfully.Boltingisstraightforward,andrequireslocal
reinforcement.Inthecaseoflacingsthesystemconsistsofsimplegrommetsthroughwhichacordis
wovenandtied,exactlyliketyingashoelaceorcorset.
293

Figure213Onetypeofboltropestylemethodforattachingtheedgeofafabricskirttoshipstructure

Figure214Anotherboltropestyleattachmentmethod
294

Figure215Apianohingetypeofskirtattachment

Figure216BoltedattachmentoffabricelementsonanACV
295

Figure217AdetailoftheAntiChafering.Thispreventsthenutsandboltsfrombeingdamagedbycontactwiththeground
onanamphibiousACV
296

Figure218Thecomponentsofabagandfingersystem,highlightingsomeoftheattachmentsthattakeplace.
297
18.4.3 Dynamicforces
Therearestaticforcesduetoinflation.Therearelocalissuesduetoattachments.Therearealsosome
veryimportantdynamicforcespresentinevenasimpleskirtsystem.Themostimportantdynamicforce
isflagellation.
Flagellationtakesplaceespeciallyatfingertipsoranyothersimilarunsupportededge.Thetrailingedge
insuchasituationwillflutterandflap,exactlylikeaflaginabreeze.Thetrailingedgeitselfflapsback
andforthseveraltimesasecond,subjectingitselftohighaccelerations.Fingertipaccelerationshave
beenmeasuredtoexceed8000gsWow!Thisgivesrisetoaformoffingertipwearthatlooksexactly
likeabrasionseeFigure219.Italso,however,givesrisetointernalheatbuildupthatcandestroythe
skirtfabricfromtheinside.Therapidflexingofthefabricresultsinenergythatshowsupasheat,and
cancauseburningormeltingofthefibersoroftherubbercoatingsofthefabric.Thisproblemgets
worseasfabricgetsthicker,becausethethickerfabrichasahardertimesheddingthisinternalheat.

Figure219AnSESbowskirt,wherethewearatthetipsofthefingersduetoflagellationisclearlyvisible
298

Figure220Showingtheafloatdetachmentoftwobagsegmentsfromathreelobedsternseal
18.5 SkirtFailures
Skirtsdofail.Mostfailuresaresimplywear,ratherthancatastrophiceventtypefailures.Wrinkling,
delamination,andabrasionoffingertipsiscommonandshouldbeprovidedforbydesigningremovable
cuffs.Bowskirtwearratesareontheorderofonemillimeteroffabriclostperhourofhighspeed(>40
knots)operation.Thisyieldsfingercuffreplacementintervalsofabout1000underwayhours.
Sternbagwearoccursattheedgeofthetube.Manydesignersuseaweardrapeorfeatherinthis
location.Wearcanalsooccuralongthefeatherusedtocoverthedrainholes.Sternsealwearratesare
muchlower,withsternsealrepair/replacementintervalsontheorderof5000shiphours.
Itispossibletotearaseal,saybystrikingalogorotherobstacle.Iftearingisexpectedtobeaproblem
duetothenatureoftheoperationthenitisrecommendedtodesignskirtsthatincluderipstops(similar
tocrackarrestorsinearlysteelshipbuilding.)
Intheextremecase,askirtcanblowout.Blowoutisusuallyassociatedwithsnatchingorsnapback
loadsinawaveencounter.Thisresultsinaforcewhichisbasicallythesameastherestraintforcesand
steadystatepressuresTIMESadynamicloadfactor.
18.6 SkirtMaterials
Thematerialsusedinmodernfullsizeskirtsarevirtuallythesameasusedininflatableboats:Natural
rubberreinforcedwithnylon,etc.Theissuesinselectingaskirtmaterialare:
Strength,towithstandtheskirtforces(includinglocalloads)
Heattolerance,towithstandtheheatgeneratedbyflagellation
299
Flexibility,toyieldthecomformingbehaviossoughtinaskirt
Adhesionbetweenthefiberandthematrix,toensurelongfabriclife
Repairability,includingthefeasibilityofusingadhesivepatches,stitching,etc.
Table12presentssomedataontwoskirtmaterialsproducedinChina,takenfromYun&Bliault
(Reference16.)InthewesternworldtheonlyskirtmakerIknowofisAvonEngineeredFabrications,a
divisionofAvonRubber(themakersofthesuccessfulAvonlineofinflatabledinghies.)
Atmodelscale,somemodelmakersusesailclothtofabricskirtsinthetowingtank.Thereisdebateas
towhetherthisissatisfactory,assailcolthwillnothavethesameweight/stress/strainpropertiesas
scaledfullscalefabric.
300
Table12DatatablefromYun&BliaultdescribingtwoskirtfabricsavailableinChina

Table13DatatablefromYun&BliaultdescribingskirtmaterialsandlifefromsomebuiltSESandACV
301
19 SWBS200Propulsors
ThepropulsionofAMVsisnotdifferentfromthepropulsionofanyothermarinevehicle,exceptperhaps
forthespeedofinterest.Thiscoursewillthereforefocusonintroducingpropulsorscommonforhigh
speedcraft,andtheirselectionandinstallation.
Thepropulsionquestionisstraightforwardgeneratethrustsothediscriminatorquestionstendtobe
Howdoyousteer?andHowdoyoureverse?
Iwillbeginbyintroducingtwoimportanttypesofscrewpropellerforhighspeedcraft,andwillthen
discusswaterjets.Thephysicsofpropellerswillnotbemuchdiscussed,becausethissubjectiswell
treatedelsewhereinthiscurriculum.
19.1 ThePropulsionTaskRequiredThrust
Thetaskofthepropulsoris,obviously,togenerateathrustequaltotheresistanceoftheship.This
requiresustoknowtheresistanceoftheship,andthiswascoveredearlier.Butitisnotenoughto
simplytakethatresistanceandpassittothepropulsordesignerashistaskthereareacoupleof
nuancesthatmustbeaccountedfor.
19.1.1 ResistanceMargin
First,letuserememberalltheuncertaintiesinresistancethatwetoucheduponundertheheadingof
SWBS051.Theresistanceoftheshipisnotperfectlyknown,andthewisedesigneraddsamargintohis
resistanceestimatetoensurethathisshipdoesinfactattainthecontractedspeed.
Thesemarginsvarywithindividualpractice,buttheyaregenerallyabout15%beforemodeltests,and
8%aftermodeltests.
Somecommercialpractitionersdontformulatetheirmargininthatwaybutprefertotakeitasaspeed
margin.InthiscasethepracticeIhaveseenistotaketheresistancebyreadingthecurveoneknottoo
highthatistosay,fora40knotdesigncase,designfortheresistanceestimatedat41knots.
Theresultofthisistotakethebasicresistanceestimateandtranslateitintoanestimateforusein
propulsordesign.
19.2 ThrustRequired
Havinggeneratedaresistanceestimatetobeusedinpropulsordesign,howmuchpropulsorthrustshall
werequire?Thereareacouplemoremarginstobeaccountedforonthissideofthetask.
19.2.1 HumpThrustMargin
Somehighspeedcrafthaveapronouncedhumpintheresistancecurve,ataspeedmuchlowerthanthe
designspeed.Thishumpisparticularlytroublingbecauseitispossibletobestuckonthelowsideofit,
resultinginamaximumspeedlessthanhalfthecraftspotentialspeed.(Iwasinvolvedinonecaseofa
40knotcatamaranwhohadexperiencedenoughweightgrowththatherhumpdraghadrisenandshe
302
couldnolongergetoverhump.This40knotshipwouldlaboralongatfullthrottleatjustunder15
knots.)
Unliketopspeed,weneedtoclearthehumpwithsomesubstantialextrathrust.Thisisbecausewe
wanttoacceleratethroughthehumpwedonotwanttooperatethereinsteadystate.
HumpthrustmarginsthatIhaveseenareoftwostyles:Onegroupimposesapercentagetype,
requiringthatthethrustathumpspeedmustbeatleast25%greaterthantheresistanceatthisspeed.
Anotherapproachistorequireacertainaccelerationrateathump,suchas0.10g.Thisisequivalentto
sayingthatthethrustmustbegreaterthantheresistanceathumpspeedbyanamountequalto1/10th
thecraftsweight.
19.2.2 ThrustDeduction
Thenextcomponentisthethrustdeduction.Forpropellersthisisjustthesameaswithconventional
hullsandthereforeiscoveredelsewhereinthisSchool.Thethrustdeductionisafactorthatfora
conventionalpropellerinthebehindconditionstatesthattheattainedthrustisusuallyafewpercent
lowerthanobtainedinopenwater.
Forwaterjetsthethrustdeductionisusuallynegativemeaningthatawaterjetgeneratesslightlymore
thrustwheninstalledthanwheninanopenwatercondition.
19.3 Propulsortypes
Uptothispointwehavedevelopedaresistanceestimate,andwehavenowtranslatedthatintoacurve
ofrequiredthrust.Nowitstimetopickapropulsor.
19.3.1 Propellers
Ishalladdresstwotypesofunconventionalpropellers,theFullySubmergedCavitatingpropeller,and
theSurfacePiercing(orPartiallySubmerged)type.Mytreatmentwillonceagainbepracticalandnot
theorybased.Iencouragethefurtherstudyofthetheoryofthesepropellers,butIhopetoprovidethe
studentwithaworkingknowledgewhichhecanbringtothosetheoreticalclassesandthusgaineven
morefromthem.
19.3.1.1 FullysubmergedCavitatingpropellers
First,letusremindourselvesofwhatcavitationis.Cavitationisthelimitingvalueofpressureonthe
suctionsideofthebladeonanypropeller.Whenthepressureonthebladedropsbelowthecavity
pressure(approximatelythevaporpressureofwater)thewaterchangesstateandbecomesagas
(steam.)Cavitationisnotnecessarilybad.UNSTEADYCavitationisundesirableformanyreasons,
mostlybecausethecollapseofthecavitationbubblecauseserosionofthemetalpropellerblade.But
STEADYCavitationisanacceptableoperatingregimeforapurposedesignedpropeller.
WhatdefinesthelikelihoodofCavitation?Inordertodetermineifcavitationwilltakeplace,we
calculateaCavitationNumberforthepropeller.Alownumbermeanscavitationislikely.The
cavitationNumbermeasuresthepressureonthesuctionsideofthefoil.
Forapropeller,attheradius=0,thecavitationnumberisgivenby:
303
Where:
pa=atmosphericpressure
g=gravity
h=submergenceofthepointinquestion
pv=watervaporpressureatthetemperatureofinterest
U=localvelocity
ThiscanbeplottedasinFigure221,whichshowstheeffectofshipspeeduponcavitationnumber,for
certainassumedconditionsincludingambientpressurebasedononemetersubmergenceofthe
propellershaft.Whatthisismeanttoillustrateissimplythatcavitationnumberfallsandthus
cavitationbecomesmorelikelyasshipspeedincreases.
304

Figure221Cavitationnumberasafunctionofshipspeed,fromFaltinsen
Then,atanyarbitraryradius:
Where:
n=revolutionsperscond
r=radius
305
SubstitutingthepropellerspeedparameterJintotheRPMterm,atsay,the0.7Radius,weobtain:
ThisshowsthatcavitationnumberwillfurtherreduceasJisreducede.g.asRPMordiameterare
increased.
Figure222showsapproximatedomainsofcavitationasthelocalcavitationnumber,vesselspeedU,and
advanceratioJvary.Again,highspeeds,andlowJ,leadtocavitation.Thebreakpointbetween
cavitationandnocavitationissomewhereintheneighborhoodof=0.10.
306

Figure222Cavitationdomainsasafunctionofvesselspeed,advanceratio,andcavitationnumber.FromFaltinsen
19.3.1.1.1 NewtonRaderPropellers
TheNewtonRaderpropellerseriesisapropellerspecificallydesignedtooperateinafullycavitated
condition.If,duringinitialdesign,thenavalarchitecthasdeterminedthatafullycavitatingpropeller
shouldbeinvestigatedforhisproject,thereisenoughdatainFigure224tocompletetheinitialsizingof
aNewtonRaderpropeller.Ofcourse,subsequentdesignphaseswillwanttousemoredetailed
treatmentsofthesepropellers,butthisisenoughtogetstarted.
307

Figure223NewtonRaderseriesbladesectionshapes
308

Figure224PerformancedataontheNewtonRaderpropellerseries,insufficientdetailtoaccomplishaninitialsizing
investigation
19.3.1.2 SurfacePiercingpropellers
Theotherinterestingclassofpropelleristhesurfacepiercingpropeller.Thesepropshave
demonstratedveryhighefficienciesathighspeed.Indeed,theyareubiquitousintheraceboat
community,wheretheyaretheonlytypeofpropellerused.Figure225illustratesaraceboat
installation.
309

Figure225Twinsurfacepiercingpropellersonaraceboat
Thesurfacepiercingpropeller,asthenameimplies,isnotfullysubmerged.Figure226isanillustration
ofateststand,butitalsoservesasagooddefinitionsketchofanSPinstallation.Thekeyparameters(in
additiontothenormalfactorsofbladenumber,shape,etc.)arethepercentofpropellerimmersionand
theshaftrake.Theimmersionisusuallyexpressedasapercentofpropellerdiameter,suchas50%
immersed(whichwouldmeanimmersedrightuptotheshaftcenterline.)Figure227showstheair
cavitywakebehindanSPPoperatingatabout35%submergence.
310

Figure226ASurfacePiercingPropellertestrig,whichillustratesthemajorparametersoftheSPP
311

Figure227Aphotooftheaircavitybehindasurfacepiercingpropeller
Rose&Kruppa,in1991&1993(References40&41),publisheddesigndataforasystematicseriesof
surfacepiercingpropellers.Datawaspresentedforshaftanglesof4,8,and12degrees,andforP/D
ratiosof0.9to1.6.Figure228isthesummaryofperformanceforthe12degreecase,withP/D=1.75.
ThedatagivenprovidesefficiencyandKTdataforfourvaluesofimmersionratio,andawiderangeofJ.
ThedataisintheformofJvsKT/J**2,asthismaketheplottingeasier.Fromthisdataapractitionercan
easilyextractKQ(fromKTand),andthussolveforadesigncondition.NotethatthefullsetofRose&
KruppadataisavailableintheNavCADpropellerselectionmodule.
312

Figure228Rose&KruppadataforasurfacepiercingpropellerwithP/D=1.75,12*shaftangle
19.3.2 Waterjets
ThebestsinglereferenceIknowofonwaterjetsisAllison,Reference42,whichisdistributedasaclass
handout.TherearealsoexcellentdiscussionsinFaltinsen(Reference29)aswellasinthemarine
propulsioncoursesinthiscurriculum.Myfocusinthiscoursewillbeuponpracticalconsiderationsof
commercialwaterjetunits.
19.3.2.1 WaterjetHydrodynamics
Tounderstandwaterjetsproperlyitishelpfultohaveafewhydrodynamicconceptssolidlyinmind.I
shallintroducetheseherequickly.
TheGrossThrustofawaterjetisderivedentirelyfromtheaftwardmomentumofthedischargedwater:
GrossThrust=TG=mVJ,Where:
m=nozzlemassflowrate
VJ=JetVelocity
Thisisexactlylikethehighschoolphysicsproblemofpropellingaboatbythrowingrocksoverthestern.
Ineffect,thewaterjetdischargesacontinuousstreamofrocks(waterparticles)outthestern.
313
Unliketherowboatfullofrocks,however,thewaterjethastoscoopupthedischargedmassfromthe
waterasitgoesbyjustasifthehypotheticalboyintherowboathadtopicktherocksupfromthe
bottomoftheriverashepassedthem.Thismeansthattherocks(water)mustfirstbebroughtupto
theboatspeed,beforeitisdischargedatjetspeed.Thisrepresentsalossinnetthrust,thatiseasyto
writedown:
NetThrust=TN=m(VJVS)Where:
m=nozzlemassflowrate
VJ=JetVelocity
VS=ShipVelocity
19.3.2.2 WaterjetEfficiency(Theory)
Theequationsaboverelatetothedischargevelocityandmassrateofthejetplume.Theefficiencyof
thisprocessdependsprimarilyupontheratioofthedischargevelocitytotheinletvelocity:Thejet
VelocityRatio(JVR).AtaJVRthetheoreticalefficiencywouldbe1.0,butunfortunatelythethrustwould
bezero.PracticalvaluesofJVRandjetefficiencyareshowninFigure229,takenfromAllison.

Figure229Theoreticalwaterjetjetefficiency,forpracticalvaluesofJVRandwakefraction
314
19.3.2.3 WaterjetsPumpTypes
Tocreateawaterjetofthehighestattainableefficiency,thejetdesignerwillselectfromanappropriate
pumptype.Thethreemajorclassesofpumpare:
Centrifugal
MixedFlow
Axial

Figure230Anearlywaterjetbasedonacentrifugaltypepump

Figure231Anearlywaterjetbasedonanaxialtypepump
Acentrifugalpumpworksbyflingingthewateroutcentrifugally,andthencapturingthatflowina
voluteanddirectingitisthedesireddirection.Figure232depictsthegenericcaseofacentrifugal
pump.Thekeyfactistorecognizethattheflowarrivesalongthecenterlineaxisofthepump(inthe
doughnutholesotospeak)andleavealongtheperimeterofthedoughnut.CompareFigure232with
thephotographinFigure230andfamiliarizeyourselfwiththeshapeofacentrifugalpump.
315

Figure232Atextbookillustrationofacentrifugalpump
Bycontrastinanaxialpumptheflowdoesnotmakethisabruptchangeofdirection,butarrivesand
departsalongthesameline,alongthemainaxisofthepump.Again,seeFigure233andcomparewith
Figure231.
316

Figure233Textbookillustrationofanaxialpump
MidwaybetweenanAxialandaCentrifugalflowpumpliesthemixedflowpump,whichcominesboth
flowtypes.
Eachofthesetypeshasaparticularregimeinwhichitismostefficient.Apumpdesignermayselecta
pumptypebasedonindicationgiveninaCordierDiagramsuchasreproducedinFigure234.Inthis
diagramthefollowingtermsareused:
SpecificSpeed:Ns=nQ0.5/(gH)0.75
SpecificDiameter:DS=D(gH)0.25/Q0.5
n=rps
D=diameter(m)
H=head(m)
Q=flow(m3/s)

317
Figure234ACordierdiagramofpumpregimes
Figure235andFigure236presenttwodepictionsofacommercialmixedflowwaterjet,withFigure235
beingahydrodynamicdepiction,Figure236amechanicaldepiction.

Figure235Amixedflowwaterjet
318

Figure236Amixedflowwaterjet
19.3.2.4 CommercialTypes
Ihavegreatestpersonalfamiliaritywiththreemajormanufacturersofcommercialmixedflowwaterjet
propulsors:KaMeWa/RollsRoyce,WrtsilLIPS,andHamiltonJet.
Commercialmanufacturerssellwaterjetsfromacataloginstandardsizes.Thesizesaregenerally
catalogedbywaterjetdiameter.Thismaybeeithertheimpellerdiameterorthedischargenozzle
diameter,ortheinletdiameter,sobecareful:Onemanufacturers100cmjetmaybeanothermans
125cmunit.
Itisnotfarwrongtoassumethatallwaterjetshavethesamethrustloading(Thrust/D2),sothe
diameterisdeterminedbythethrustrequired.Onecanalsousethisruleofthumbtoguesstimatethe
diameterthatwillbeneeded,duringtheveryearliestdaysofadesignprojectifyouknowthediameter
andthrust(orpower)fromanothersuccessfulinstallation.
Thrustandspeedofcourseyieldpower,sohigherpowerjetsarealsolargerdiameterjets.Figure237
reproducesarecentKaMeWajetrangefortheirSseriesunits.ThedimensionsoftheSseriesare
showninFigure238.TheKaMeWamodelnumberissimplytheinletdiameterincentimeters(not
showninthisfigure.)
319

Figure237KaMeWaSSeriesunits,relatingsize(modelnumber)topower

Figure238GeometryoftheKaMeWaSseries
Figure239illustrateskeypointsoftheWartsilaLIPSseriesjets.Notethatintheircaseaswellthemodel
numbercorrespondstotheinletdiameter,withtheimpellerbeingthesameastheinlet(seriesSR)or
33%largerthantheinlet(SeriesE).TheSeriesSRareaxialflowunits.
320

Figure239KeyfeaturesofaWartsila/LIPSjet
19.3.2.5 DesignConsiderations
WheninstallingthewaterjetstherearethreeconcernsthatIwishtomention.Alotofguidanceis
availablefromthejetmanufacturersasthedesignprogresses,butitishelpfulintheearliestdaysifthe
conceptdesigncantakeaccountofafewfeaturestohelpensuresuccessinlaterstages.
Iconsiderasparamounttheneedto:
Avoidinletsuction
Avoidimpellercavitation
Avoidinletcavitation
19.3.2.5.1 InletSuctiontheWaterjetCaptureArea
Awaterjetdrawsitsinletwaterfromalargevolumeupstream,calledthecaptureareaofthejet.At
rest,asimplethoughtexperimentwillmakeitclearthatthismustbeanearlycircularvolume.Asspeed
321
increasesthisvolumebecomesnarrowerandmorefocusedforward.Figure240illustratesthecapture
areafoundinoneCFDsimulationofwaterjetperformance.
Itisimportanttokeepthisareafreefromair,byensuringthatthejetisdeeplysubmergedfromthefree
surface,fromanyaircushions,andfromanyentrainedairsheetsunderthehullbottom.
Thesizeofthecaptureareacanalsobeimportantinshallowwater,withmanysometimeshumorous
storiesarisingwhenjetsarerunathighthrottleinshallowwater,andsuckawiderangeofunlikely
objectsintotheirinlets.

Figure240Waterjetinletflowupstreamofthejet,illustratingthewaterjetcapturearea.
19.3.2.5.2 InletCavitationInletPressures
Thenextconcernistoavoidcavitationwithintheinlet.Thejetmanufacturerwilldesigntheinletaspart
ofhisscopeofsupply,butitishelpfultounderstandwhathisconcernis.Figure241,fromFaltinsen,
illustratesthesurfacepressuresfoundonthewallsofwaterjetinlet.Figure242illustratesthesame
phenomenonusinga3DCFDrepresentation.
322
LookingatthecolorsinFigure242,wemayseethatthereisalargeregionofnegativepressureonthe
forwardrampareaoftheinlet,andalsoonthetipofthelip.Thesearetwoareaswhererealwaterjets
exhibitcavitationerosionoftheinlet.
Indesigninganinlettoavoidcavitationontheramp,thedesignerwilltrytomaketheinletlonger.This
iseffective,butitincreasestheweightofentrainedwaterintheinlet,thusreducingcraftbuoyancy.
Designingtoavoidlipcavitationismuchharder,andbecomesincreasinglychallengingasspeed
increases.Indeed,inthedaysofthe100knotSESprogramtheattentionwasfocusedonvariable
geometrylips,sothattheshapecouldbeadjustedtothepropercavitationfreedesignasafunctionof
speed.

Figure241FromFaltinsen,aprofileofawaterjetinletillustratingthepressuresexperiencedontheboundary
323

Figure242Surfacepressuresinaflowingwaterjetinlet
19.3.2.5.3 WaterjetImpellerCavitationBoundaries
Finally,inadditiontoinletcavitationwhichisaddressedduringinletdesign,thenavalarchitectmust
avoidimpellercavitationthroughloadingoftheimpeller.
Figure243illustratesacommercialquoteobtainedfromRollsRoyceforaprojectin2005.(Thisisreal
data,butdonotuseitasdesigndata.Itisspecifictotheparticularprojectquoted.)Thecharthasaxes
ofspeedatthebottom,andthrustalongthevertical.Theredlinesarecurvesofthethrustrequiredfor
theparticularshipat2890and3135tonnesdisplacement.
Theseriesofsolidblacklines,roughlyhorizontal,representthethrustproducedbyasuiteoffour
KaMeWajets,atvariouspowerlevelsandallspeeds.Ascanbeseen,forexample,at4x21240kWthe
2890tonneshipwillattainaspeedofabout47.5knots.
Nownotethedashedcurvesandthenotationszone1zone2andzone3.Theserepresent
impellercavitationzones.Inzone1thereisnoimpellercavitationandoperationisunlimited.Inzone2
thereisasmallamountofcavitation,andRollsRoycerecommendthatoperationberestrictedtoless
than500hoursperyear.Inzone3thereisasignificantamountofcavitation,andthiszoneshouldnot
beenteredmorethan50hoursperyear.
Asyoumayimagine,thebackgroundtothisparticularillustrationwasthatnowthattheweighthad
grownto3135tonnes,theshipwastoosolidlyintozone2,andalargersizewaterjetwasrecommended
inordertoreducethethrustloadingbackbelowthecavitationlimits
324

Figure243AKaMeWaquotationforaspecificproject,involvingquadruplesize153waterjets
Manywaterjetcraftdoenterintozone2butthisintendedtobeatransientcondition.Figure244is
Faltinsensillustrationofthis,showingthatonemayenterzone2duringtheshorttimeoftransitinga
resistancehump.
325

Figure244Illustratesthecaseofacraftenteringthecavitationzoneforabriefperiodforaneventsuchashumptransit
19.3.2.6 WaterjetRPMRelationship
AnotherinterestingfeatureofwaterjetsisthethrustvsRPMrelationship.Mostnavalarchitectsare
familiarwiththemodelofascrewpropellerasasolidscrew,boringitswaythroughthewater.This
modelisnotapplicabletoawaterjet.Awaterjetismuchbettertobethoughtofasaconstantpower
device,whereintheamountofpowerconsumeddependsonlyuponRPM,andnotupontheshipsspeed
throughthewater.
ThisisillustratedbyFaltinseninthefigureshownasFigure245.Thisisacleanedupversionofa
KaMeWaquotedocument,anditveryclearlyshowsthatthrustisextremelyflatwithshipspeed,
dependingalmostentirelyonshaftRPM.
Ihaveseenthisrelationshipusedinapracticalmannerduringadisputewithanenginemanufacturer
overwhethertheenginewasinfactdeliveringthepowercontractedfor.Thewaterjetservesasa
powerdynamometer:IfthejetwontreachRPMX,thentheengineisnotputtingoutpowerY.
326

Figure245Relationshipbetweenpower,RPM,andspeedforawaterjet
19.3.2.7 Waterjetoveralleffectiveness
Ihaveshownafewpreviousgraphsofwaterjetthrustversusspeed.Figure246presentsonesuch
graph,whereinIhavetranslatedparticularpointsintovaluesofOverallPropulsiveCoefficient,EHP/BHP.
Asmaybeseen,thewaterjetshavequiterespectableoverallefficiency,intherangeof6070%.
Letmaytakethisopportunitytoreiteratesomecaveats:Awaterjetmanufacturerwillchoosefrom
severalimpellers,severalnozzles,andseveralinlets.Performancepredictioncurvesaredevelopedfor
eachspecificapplication,andwilldifferslightlyfromcasetocase.Anycurvesfromadifferentproject,
orfromabrochure,orfromthesecoursenotes,mustbetakenasindicativeonly.
327
Figure 246 - Attained waterjet performance values for one design project
19.3.2.8 Waterjet Arrangement

The arrangement off waterjets into the hull is quite straightforward (which is one of the reasons they are
so popular.) There are however a few issues that bear to be touched upon.
Waterjets side by side:: Multiple jets can be installed side by side. In such a case the designer
de should
seek consultation with the manufacturer
manufacturer. This is because the capture areas will interact and / or
compete. Also, iff on a sloped hull (deadrise) the pressure gradients at the jet inlet will differ due to the
differing hydrostatic head on one side or the other. This may result in slight differences in the jet
loadings from neighboring jets (probably negligible, in practice.)
Also, when installing multiple Jets,, consider that n

not all jets need to be
e steerable / reversible. Booster
Units are available from most manufacturers, consisting of waterjets without their steering and
reversing components. These units are lighter than the fully steerable units, and cheaper too.
19.3.2.9 Waterjet Weight

Waterjets are
re heavy. The waterjet unit consists of a substantial mechanical component, plus the inlet
assembly. These weights are given by the jet manufacturer in their catalogs.
In addition to the weight of the jet unit, the naval architect must also deal with the weight of the water
entrained within the unit. (One might argue that this should be treated as a loss of buoyancy volume,
but it is more common to treat it as a carried weight.
weight.) The water weight can be obtained from most
manufacturers, or it can be estimated
mated by calculating the volume of a cylinder of water having the length
and diameter of the jet inlet duct.
19.3.2.10 Waterjet Structural Loads

328

Waterjetshaveunusualloadpathsoratleasttheywereunusualtotheirearlyadopters.Consider
wherethethrustofawaterjetisgenerated:Someportionofitisgeneratedbytheimpellerandis
transmitteddownthepropellershaftintheconventionalmanner.Butthereareverysubstantial
pressuresactingonthestatorbladesandonthewallsoftheduct,thataretransmittedintotheship
structure.
Onebrandofwaterjetincludesthethrustbearingwithintheimpellerhub,andthentransmitsthethrust
outthroughthestatorblades.Forajetofthistypethismeansthatallofthejetthrustisdeliveredto
theshipstransomstructure.Makesureyoursternscantlingscantakethisload,andcandosowhile
maintainingtheverysmalldeflectiontolerancesneededforawaterjetinstallation.
Figure247illustratesaWartsilaLIPSjetandshowsthatthisunitusesaconventionalthrustbearingon
theshaftforwardoftheinlet.Thisreduces(butdoesnoteliminate)theamountofforcethatis
transmittedviathetransomstructure,butitalsoaddsthenecessityforincludingathrustfoundationfor
thisbearing.
Thewaterjetsteeringloadsaresubstantialaswell.Theywillgenerallybelocatedaspointloadsacting
onthesteeringaxis,andontheattachmentpointsforthehydraulicactuatorsofthesteering/reversing
assembly.
Chris B. McKesson, PE

Figure247AWartsilajet,clearlyshowingthelocationofthethrustbearing
329
19.3.2.11 WaterjetScopeofSupply
Anotherattractionofthewaterjetisthattheyareusuallysoldasturnkeysuitesofequipment.The
vendorsscopeofsupplynormallyincludes:
WaterjetPump
InletDesign
o IncludingfabricationforHamilton
o DesignOnlyforRollsRoyce&Wartsila
ControlSystem
o Actuators
o HydraulicPack
o BridgeControls
o ProbablyIncludesEngineControls
FMEA
Approvals
330
20 SWBS200PropulsionTransmissions&PrimeMovers
IntheprevioussectionunderthisSWBSwediscussedthepropulsors.Itis,ofcourse,necessarytotwist
thatdevilstailtoactuallygeneratethethrust,soletstalkalittlebitaboutthemechanicalsideofthe
problem.
ThereislittleaboutthemarineengineeringofAMVpropulsionthatisuniqueinprinciple.The
uniquenesscomesfromthefactthatweareoftendealingwithquitehighpowerlevelsforthegivensize
ofcraft,andwetendtohaveaquitehighsensitivitytoweight.Insomecaseswealsohaveachallenge
introducedbecausetothelargespeedrangethatmustbeaccommodated,rangingsayfrom5to50
knots.
20.1 TransmittingPowertothePropulsorAMVUniqueChallenges
Thetransmissionsystemincludesthegearboxes,shafts,bearings,etc.Thechallenges,thetasksthis
systemmustface,includeconcernswiththefollowing:
RPMProvidingtheneededtorqueattheneededRPMtogeneratethedesiredthrust.Thisisofcourse
commontoallmarinetransmissions,notjustthoseonAMVs.
Thrustloss(airingestion)waterjetdrivencraftmayhavesuddenlossesofthrustwhenthewaterjet
ingestsagulpofair.Thiscausesasuddendropinthetorqueontheinputshaft.Thisisalsovery
commononraceboats,wheretheboatsoftenleapoutofawaveandtheirpropellersracetohighRPMs
unlesscontrolled.
ThechallengeisthisdropoftorquemaycauseaspikeofRPMtotheengine,andthenasuddenburstof
loading(torque)whenthepropulsorisrewetted.Theseloadsarepracticallyimpactloadstothe
transmissionsystem.Theycancausedamagetogearboxes,andtheoverspeedpotentialcandestroy
engines.
Inmostcasesneitheroftheseproblemsarise,becausethereisenoughmassinthetransmissionsystem
topreventthesystemfrommakinganinstantaneousresponsetothistransient,andthetransientisof
shortenoughdurationthattheloadhasreturnedbeforethesystemhasgottentoofarfromits
operatingpoint.However,thedesignermustbeawareofthepossibilityofthistypeofproblem,
especiallyifheisworkingonacraftwithahighlikelihoodofairingestion,orwithaverylowinertiato
thedrivetrain(e.g,adirectdrivecraftwhichhasnogearboxmasstohelp.)
ShaftanglesSomeAMVs,particularlythesurfacepiercinghydrofoilsforexample,haveachallengein
gettingalargepropellerfarbelowthehull.Thiscanleadtohighshaftangles.Thesehighanglesresult
innonuniformloadingofthepropeller,becausethebladeangleofattackishigheronthedownward
movingsideofthecirclethanontheupwardmovingside.Highshaftanglesshould,ofcourse,be
avoided.Iftheymustbeusedthenparticularattentionmustbepaidtothepropellerdesign,andthe
propellerperformancewillprobablybelowerthanifaloweranglecouldbeadheredto.
Thisneednotbeasstronglythecasewithsurfacepiercingpropswhicharedesignedforhighshaft
angles,andinsomecasesthismaybeenoughmotivationtoselectthispropulsor.
331
AppendagedragThetransmissioncomponentsthatareinthewater,i.e.shafts,brackets,etc.,do
contributedrag.Thedragofaspinningshaftcanbesurprisinglylarge.Thisisparticularlyaproblem
againinthosecraftthathavelonghighlyangledwettedshafts,suchassomeofthesurfacepiercing
hydrofoils.Suchcraftwillalsoexacerbatetheappendagedragissuebyhavinglong(andthereforelarge
andthick)shaftstruts,usuallywithenclosedbearings.
Steerableshafts(e.g.Arnesondrives)Smallsurfacepiercingpropellerinstallations,suchastheone
illustratedinFigure225earlier,usesteerableshafts.Thereisauniversaljointlocatedattheboats
transom,whichallowstheshafttoswingabout30degreesportandstarboard.Thisjointisofcourse
subjecttowearandofrelativelyshortlife.Theremustalsobesealsandflexiblebootsinthisareawhich
alsobecomemaintenanceitems.
20.2 RPMMatching&TwoSpeedOperations
ThebiggestdesignissueinAMVtransmissionisofcoursetoprovidetherightRPMtothepropulsor.
ThisisnothingAMVunique,exceptforshipswithalargehumpinthedragcurve,whichmaydemanda
twospeedtransmission.AnothercaseisthatofanAMVwithtwodistinctoperationalspeeds,say
CruiseandBoost.InthiscasethecraftprobablysailsatCruisespeedbydrivingonesetof
propulsors,andthenADDINGanothersetforBoostspeed.Forexample,atrimaranmighthavetwo
wingjetsforCruise,andtwomoreMainHulljetsforBoost.
Thisworksfineforwaterjetcraft,sinceaswesawawaterjetspowerabsorptiondoesnotchangewith
shipspeed:Fullpower=FullRPM,nomatterwhatthespeedis.(Ofcourse,fullpoweratlowspeed
mayleadtocavitation,butthatisadifferentissue.)
Forapropellerhoweverthiscanbeaproblem.RecallthatPropellerRPMis(approximately)linearwith
shipspeed,apropellerisatitsdesignpointwhenturningXrpmandYknots,and2Xrpmat2Yknots.So
nowimaginethatwehaveacraftwithaboostspeedof40knotsandacruisespeedof20knots.We
designthecrafttohavepropellersforthecruisecondition.Theyaredrivenbyenginesthatputoutthe
neededcruisepowerat,say,2000rpm.Nowwhenthiscraftrunsatboostspeedanadditionalengine
(withitsownpropeller)isturnedon,whichaddstheextrapowerneededforboostspeed.What
happenstothecruiseengines?Thosepropellerswillnowneedtoturnat4000enginerpminorderto
stayatthesameJ.But4000enginerpmiswellabovetheenginelimit.Whatcanwedo?Letschange
thegearratiosothatthecruiseenginesareonlyat2000rpmatBoostspeed.OK,butnowtheyareonly
at1000rpmatcruisespeed,andthenatureofenginesisthatatthislowerspeedtheyonlyputout
approximatelyhalfasmuchpower(apowermapforadieseltypicaltoanAMVisreproducedinFigure
248.)Now,whilewehavebought1000horsepowerengines,weareonlyrunningthemat500
horsepower.Thisisbadfortheengine,andbackfortheeconomics.
Whatwewouldliketodoistobeabletoshiftgearssothatthepropscanrunat2000enginerpmat
20knotsinboostgear,andthenweShiftintosecondsothatproprpmdoublesforthesameengine
rpm.Inthatcasewewillbeat2000enginerpmat40knots,atdoubletheproprpm.
332
PS.mHP kW
7000
9000 Block. Leistung

6500 Fuel stop power
6500 kW
6000 1250 /min
8000
214
5500 211
V
7000 216
5000
P = f(n)
4500 (Propellerneu-
6000 213 Auslegung)
203 (clean hull
4000 208 conditions)
5000
3500 205 218 IV P = f(n)
4000 3000
215
220
2500 210
3000 230 III
2000 205
250
210
1
2000 1500
215
220
1000 230
1000
250
500
II
0 0
rpm
Chris B.
L584067
300McKesson,
400 PE600 800 1000 1200 1400 1/min

Figure248AtypicalAMVdieselenginepowermap
20.2.1 TwoSpeedGearboxesfromZFMarine
Alimitednumberof2speedgearboxesdoexistonthemarket,madebyZFmarine.Theyareonlyfor
smallengines,andtheydonothavethe2:1rangeofratiosthatIdescribedinmyexample,buttheyare
neverthelessinteresting,andareadevelopmentthatdeservestobewatchedinthefuture.
333

Figure249TwospeedgearboxesavailablefromZFMarine
334

Figure250GearratiosavailableontheZFtwospeedgears
20.2.2 WaterjetsinTwoSpeedApplications
Theothersolutiontothetwospeedproblemistousewaterjetsasthetwospeedpropulsor.Recallthat
WJRPMdoesntchangewithspeed,onlywithpower.Thismeansthatthewaterjetwillabsorbfull
powerat20knotsatoneRPM,andfullpowerat40knotsatalmostthesameRPM.
OneofthemostsuccessfultwospeeddesignsIhavepersonalfamiliaritywithwasonmotoryacht
GENTRYEAGLE.Shecruisedataleisurely47knotsonherdiesels,drivingKaMeWawaterjets,andwhen
boostspeedwasneededanArnesonsurfacepiercingdrivewasloweredintothewater,drivenbyagas
turbine,yieldingatopspeedof61knots.
335
20.3 Primemoversandtheirselection
Wehavediscussedgearandpropulsors.Theprimemoversformtherealsourceofthepower.Thereis
verylittlethatsAMVunique,exceptfortheweightsensitivity.AMVdesignersconcernthemselves
assiduouslywithminimizingtheweightoftheshipcomponents.ThismeansthatanAMVdesignerisfar
morelikelytobefamiliarwiththehighspeed/lightweightenginesthanwith,say,LowSpeedDiesels.
Ofcourse,thelighterweightengines,includinghighspeeddieselsandgasturbines,havehigherfuel
consumptionsthanlowspeedengines.Soatsomepoint,whenrangebecomeslarge,theweightoffuel
becomesthedominantfactorinthetradeoffandthearchitectpicksaheavierengineinordertoreduce
totalshipdisplacement.
Homeworkassignment:Foragivenshipcharacteristic,estimatetheweightoftheengineandthefuel,
assuming(a)anMTUdiesel,and(b)agasturbine,fortwodifferentrangecases.Equationsforfuel
consumptiontobegiven.
336
21 SWBS200Breguet'sRangeEquation
Theconventionalrangecalculationforasurfaceshipisverysimple,and(strippedofvarious
complicatingfactors)itmaybeexpressedas:
Fuelweight=FuelBurnRatextimeenroute
Fuelburnrate=SFCxSHP
Timeenroute=Range/Speed
TheconventionalrangecalculationthusdependsonlyuponSFC,theshipsresistance(SHP),therange,
andthespeed.Wetheninpracticetreatallofthoseparametersasconstant:Speedisconstantacross
themilestravelled,powerisconstant,SFCisconstant.
Thesethreeassumptionsarebasicallytrueonlyifdisplacementisalsoconstant.Certainlyifthe
displacementchanges,thentheresistanceshouldchange,no?Andiftheshipburnsoffherfuelasshe
travels,thenmustnotthedisplacementchange?Thereareonlytwotimeswhenthiswouldnotbe
true:Ifthefuelburnissosmallastobeanegligiblechangeinweight,oriftheshiptakesonballast
continuouslyduringhertransitinordertomaintainweightthesame.
InthecaseoflongrangedAdvancedMarineVehicleswedonotmakethisconstantdisplacement
assumption,andweinvokeadifferentmeansofcalculatingrange:TheBreguetrangeequation.
LetusworkourwaytowardtheBreguetequationbyfirstrewritingtheconventionalrangecalculation
intermsofLift/Dragratio(inverseDrag/Weightratio),PropulsiveCoefficient,andWeight.Theresultis:
Range=198e3(Wfuel/Wtotal)OPC(L/D)/SFC
Where:
Rangeinnauticalmiles
198e3=(grams/tonne)(knots/meterspersecond)/(g=9.8m/s2)
Wfuel=Weightoffuel(tonnes)
Wtotal=Weightofship(tonnes)
OPC=OverallPropulsiveCoefficient
L/D=ShipLifttoDragratio
SFC=SpecificFuelConsumption(grams/kWhour)
TheBreguetRangeequationwasdevelopedinaviationengineeringsinceairplanesdonttakeon
ballast.Thederivationisgivenelsewhere(anicederivationisavailableontheinternetat
http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/thermodynamics/notes/node98.html.)Thefollowing
presentsamarinizedversionofBreguetsformula,comparedtotheconstantdisplacementformula:
ConstantDisplacement:
Range=(Wfuel/Wtotal)198e3OPC(L/D)/SFC
337
VariableDisplacement(Breguet):
Range=ln(1Wfuel/Wtotal)198e3OPC(L/D)/SFC
TheBreguetformula,withtheintroductionofonelogarithmicterm,capturesthefactthattheshipgets
lighterasfuelisburnedoff.Insteadofassumingconstantdisplacement,thisformulainsteadassumes
constantL/D.
Ofcourse,thisissimplythereplacementofoneassumptionbyanother,andisstillsubjecttoverification
onanygivenproject.WhileitstruethatthelargeGMofsomemultihullsmeansthatballastisnot
required,inthecaseofatrimaranperhapsthechangeindisplacementwillcausetheAmastocomeout
ofthewater,requiringballasttokeepthemimmersed?Also,onsomehullstheDrag/Weightratiomay
notinfactbeconstant.
Iftheseassumptionsarevalid,thentheeffectoftheBreguetcalculationcanbedramatic.Table14
presentsacalculationoftheimpactofthiseffect,forvaryingfuelweightfractions.Asmaybeseen,for
verylargefuelfractions(>80%FullLoadwhichisunlikely!)theBregueteffectamountstoadoublingof
therange.Atsmallerfractions,say3040%FullLoad,thisstillyieldsa25%increaseinrangeoverthe
moreconventionaldisplacementshipcalculationmethod.
Finally,notethatthiseffectisonlyrealisticiftheownerusesit:ifhedoesntrefuel,anddoesntballast.
Themilitarypractice,forexample,ofneverallowingtheshiptogetbelowortankwillobviatethe
benefitsofthiscalculation:IneffecttheownerisrunninghisshipinaConstantDisplacementmode,
anditbehovestheNavalArchitecttoperformthecalculationsaccordingly.
Inconclusion,theBreguetrangeformulamaybeanAMVuniquerangeresult,sinceitrequiresahull
formthatdoesntneedballast(e.g.acatamaran.)TheuseoftheBreguetmethodmaypotentially
greatlyincreasetheutilityoftheship,makingpossibletransoceanicpassagesthatwouldbeimpossible
ifthefuelloadswerecalculatedintheconventionalmanner.
NotethatthiseffectisequivalenttoagreatimprovementinSFCorResistancesaving25%infuel
wouldrequireabreakthroughinenginesorhullformsorasimpleemploymentoftheBreguetmethod
forrange.
Butthatemploymentrestsinthehandsoftheshipowner.TheassumptionsembeddedintheBreguet
formulaaresubjecttoviolationbyanuninformedoperator.
338
Table14TheeffectoftheBreguetrangecalculation
Wfuel/ Range(example) Ln(1Wfuel/Wtotal) Breguetrange

Wtotal
0 0 0 0
0.1 100miles 0.105 105miles
0.2 200miles 0.223 223miles
0.3 300miles 0.357 357miles
0.4 400miles 0.511 511miles
0.5 500miles 0.693 693miles
0.6 600miles 0.916 916miles
0.7 700miles 1.204 1204miles
0.8 800miles 1.609 1609miles
0.9 900miles 2.303 2300miles
339
22 SWBS500AirCushions
SWBS500istheaccountinggroupforshipauxiliarysystems.Thisincludesthenormalauxiliarysystems
suchasfirefighting,sewage,airconditioning,aboutwhichIhavenothingtosay.ButSWBS500isalso
whereweincludetheliftfansystemfortheaircushionvehiclesandSES,whichwillformthesubjectof
thisunit.
Therearetwobasicstepstotheliftsystemdesign:Wemustestimatetheamountofflowandpressure
thatarerequiredfortheship,andthenwemustdesignafansuitethatdeliversthatflow,atthat
pressure.
FaltinsenhasahumorouscartoonofanSES,thatIthinkprovidesaniceoverviewoftheessential
featuresofanSESliftsystemseeFigure251.Thiscartooncapturesthepresenceofthelargeair
cushionvolume,thesimpleskirtsystemsateachend,andtheairsupplyliftfans(cartoonedastwo
ceilingfans.)
Ourlecturesonthissubjectwillprovidesomeunderstandingoftheairdemandsofthistypeofcushion,
andthecharacteristicsoffansthatwillsupplythisair.

Figure251Faltinsen'scartoonoftheessentialelementsofanSES
340

Figure252AlesshumorouspictureofanSEScushion
22.1 CushionAirDemandEstimatingP&Q
PandQaretheconventionalsymbolsfortheairflow(Q)andpressure(P)inapoweredsustention
aircushionAMV.
Thepressureis,ofcourse,determinedbythehydrostaticbalanceasdiscussedearlier.Theweightofthe
craftisbornebythecushionpressureactingonthecushionarea,plusanycontributionfromsidehull
buoyancy.Thechallengeistofindthedesignvalueoftheflow.
Ishallcoverthreemethodsforestimatingairflowdemand:Similitudefrompreviousships,the
hovergapmethod,andthewavepumpingmethod.Inpracticeallthreeareusedinvarious
combinations,aswillalsobeshown.
22.1.1 AirFlowSimilitude
Inpractice,designerswillcollectdataonsuccessfulvesselsandwillusethistoformguidance.Tothis
end,thefirstthingthatweneedisascalingrelationshipthatwillallowustotaketheflowfromoneship
anduseittoestimatetheflowonanothership.
Theestimatingrelationshipisasfollows:
Q=QbarxScxSQRT(2xPc/rhoair)
341
Where:
Sc=cushionarea(LcxBc)
Pc=cushionpressure
rhoair=airdensity
NotethatthetermSQRT(2xPc/rhoair)yieldsanairexitvelocity(e.g.m/sec)
Qbarisfoundfromexperiment.Yun&Bliaultofferawideguidanceband,asfollows:
ACV:Qbar=0.0150.050
SES:Qbar=0.0050.010
22.1.2 TheHovergapMethodforAirDemand
ThehovergapmethodisastaticmodeloftheairflowsituationityieldsatimeinvariantvalueforQ.
Thismethodstatesthatthecraftmaybeconsideredtohoverabovetheseasurfacewithsome
measurablehovergap,throughwhichairwillflow.Thevelocityofflowthroughanorificeis:
V=(2Pc/a)
(unitscheck:
Pc=N/m2=kg(m/sec2)/m2
a=kg/m3(1.226kg/m3standard)
Pc/a=(kgm/sec2m2)(m3/kg)
Pc/a=(m4/sec2m2)=m2/sec2
(Pc/a)=(m2/sec2)=m/sec)
(neglectingcompressibility,etc.)
Soifweknowtheheight:
h=hovergap(height)
L=Perimeter(length)
Q=hxLxV
Q=hxLx(2Pc/a)
342

Figure253StylizedillustrationsofthehovergapforanACV(top)andanSES(bottom)
Thechallengethereforeisobviouslytohaveanestimateofthehovergap.Thepracticalsolutionisto
scaleitfromaparentcraft,as:
Q2=Q1(L2/L1)(P2/P1)
OnepractitionerprovidedmewiththetableofdatagiveninTable15.Thisprovidesusefuldataona
numberofACVs(hovercraft).Whatisinterestinginthisdatasetistoplottheflowparameter,asa
functionofPandL.ThishasbeendoneinFigure254,inwhichcasetheFlowParameterissimply
(Perimeterx(Pressure).Asmaybeseen,thedatasuggeststhatthereisstrongdependencyuponthe
servicespeedofthecraft,withhoverbargesandotherlowspeedACVshavingonetrendline,andthe
fastACVshavingaverydifferentone.TheinverseslopeofthetrendlineyieldstheCFSofflowperunit
(Perimeterx(Pressure).
343
Table15DataonavarietyoffullyskirtedACVsofvarioussizeandspeed

Figure254ThedatafromTable15,plottedshowinganapparentsensitivityofFlowtoSpeed
344
22.1.3 WavePumping
Uptothispointwehavetreatedtheairdemandasaquasistaticproblem,dependentonlyonpressure
andsize.Butthelastfewpoints,thedatainTable15hintstousthatthereisadynamicdependenceto
thistoo.Inthisnextunitwewillconsideratotallydynamicapproachtomodelingairflowdemand.
Themethodiscalledwavepumpingandisanattempttomodelthecushionairdemandasifthe
cushionwereavolumethatincontinuouslybeingpumpedbytheoceanwaves.Figure255isacrude
sketchdrawnbymethatshowsanSEScushionprofile,withthebowandsternskirtsvisibleattheends.
Inredareshowntwopositionsforapassingwave,onewhenthecrestisamidships,andonewhenthe
troughisamidships.Thesetwoconditionsgiverisetoachangeincushionvolumethattookplace
betweentimeofthepassageofthecresttothetrough,andthisvolumemustberefilledwithairbythe
liftfans.
Ineffect,thewavesactaspistonsinanairpump,hencethetermwavepumping.

Figure255AcrudesketchofanSESprofile,showingthevolumeofthecushionthatmustberefilledwithairbetweenthe
passageofacrestandatrough.
Thevelocitywithwhichthisvolumechanges,therateofchangeofthevolume,maybethoughtofas:
dVol/dt=f(waveheight,wavelength,encounterspeed)
Forrealisticconditionsthiscanbewrittenas:
dVol/dt=BcHvsin(ar)
Where:
Bc=cushionbeam
H=waveheight
ar=Lc/
v=speedrelativetothewave=Vs+/gT0/2
Lc=cushionlength
=wavelength
To=waveperiod
Thisinturnisequalto:
345
dVol/dt=BcH(Vs+/gT0/2)sin(Lc/)
Now,wedontactuallycareaboutthedVol/dtwearetryingtodecidehowbigthefanshavetobeon
theboat.Sowhatwecareaboutisthemaximumvalue.Thesinetermwillobviouslymaximizeat1.0,
sothatmaximumvalueofdVol/dtbecomes:
dV/dt(max)=BcHv
Inpracticewedontneedtosizethefantotheinstantaneousmaximum,wesizeitforaflowofabout
35%ofthatmaximum.Thisgivesrisetothewavepumpingdesignformula:
Qdesign=0.35BcH(Vs+gT0/2)
22.2 AirDemandAirSupply
Nowthatwehaveestimatedtheairflowrequired,letusseewhatsortoffanwillprovidethatneeded
air.
Wehaveseenthat,duetowavepumping,theairdemandhassomenoisycharacteristic,inwhichit
varieswithtimemoreorlessatwaveperiod.Duringthesevariationsthecraftweightdoesntchange.
Sowestillwantthesamecushionpressureatallpointsinthewavepumpingcycle.Thismeansthatthe
idealliftfanwouldbeonethatdeliversaconstantpressureacrosssomerangeofflow.Itwouldhavea
P/Qcharacteristicthatisflat,assketchedinFigure256.Unfortunately,realfanshaveP/Q
characteristicsthatarehumped,asinFigure257.

Figure256ThedesiredliftfanPressure/Flowcharacteristic
346

Figure257theshapeofarealfan'spressure/flowcharacteristic
Figure258presentstheP/QcharacteristicfortheHowdenBuffaloL25fan.Thedesignpointforthe
SES,markedinpencilonthefax,correspondstoaflowofabout30,000cfmperfan,atapressureof
about55inchesofwater.
ThereisaflatpartontheL25fan,locatedatabout15,000cfm.Whydontweoperatethefanthere,
wherethepressurewontchangemuchwithvariationsinflow?Theanswerisbecauseofwhathappens
totheleftofthisregiononthecurve.Totheleftiswherethefangoesintostall.Considerawalk
alongthefancurvefromrighttoleft.Imaginethatthisfanispoweringashopvacorsimilarblower,and
wearegoingtothrottletheflowbyputtingourhandoverthehose.Aswelowertheflow(aswemove
righttoleftonthecurve)thepressuregoesupandwefeelincreasingresistanceonourhand.Butas
wepassthepeakofthecurveallofasuddenthepressuregoesdownaswechoketheflow.Inareal
shopvacthisdropinpressureatthelastinchisquitenoticeable,andonecanhearthemotorrpm
changeasthefanwheelgoesintostallandthepowerdropswayoff.
IfthishappensinanSESitmeansthatthecushionpressuredropsoff,andthismeansthatthecraftisall
ofasuddennotanSES,butwilldropintocatamaranmode.
Itismuchmorebeneficialtohavesomedegreeofslopetothefancurve,suchthatwhenawavecrest
arises(andflowdropsoff)thisyieldsariseincushionpressurewhichwillhelpliftthecrafthigherinthe
waterandthusacrossthewave.
347

Figure258ArealSESliftfan.ThecurveforFSP"isthefanstaticpressureinincheswatergage,plottedversustheflowin
cfmx10,000.Othercurvesgiveefficiencyandpowerconsumedbythisfan.
22.3 Fans101
Atthispointweseemtohavemovedfromtalkingaboutliftdemandtotalkingaboutfans,soletsstudy
fanaerodynamicsalittlebit.InclassroomlecturesonthisunitIillustratethiswithslidesIobtained
fromacourseinrefrigerantcycleairconditioningfromSyracuseUniversity.Iwishtohighlightthisfact
becauseitunderscoresthatasAMVdesignerswewillfindourselvesdrawingfromfieldsthatarenot
traditionallynavalarchitecturesuchasfandesign.
Inanairconditioningplanttherearetwoprimaryplacesthatfluidmoversarefound:Ontherefrigerant
side,intheformofcompressorsandpumps,andontheairhandlingside,intheformoffans.
348
Fluidmoversonbothsidesoftheproblemmaybeclassedintotwocategories.Again,takingnotesfrom
SyracuseUniversity(seeFigure259)theymaybeclassedas:
Positivedisplacementmachinessuchashydraulicpumpsandmotors
RotoDynamicmachinessuchasgascompressors,turbines,windmills,propellers,andfans
TherotodynamicmachinesinturnareclassedaseitherAxialflow,Centrifugalflow,orMixedflow.
Notethatradialflowisasynonymforcentrifugalflow.TheSyracuseslidesincludeFigure[[]]which
attemptstodepictthedifferencebetweenaxialandcentrifugalflowmachines.Comparethistothe
similarillustrationunderwaterjetsabove.
Whendiscussingaxialdevices,Iparticularlyappreciatetheironyofamechanicalengineershowinghis
classpicturesofshippropellers,(Figure260),whileIshowairconditioningmachinerytoaroomfullof
shipdesigners.Physicsisphysicsitisonlythatwehavechosentoemploythatphysicstoserve
differentaims.Figure261continuestheseries.

Figure259SyracuseUniversityslideonthetypesofFluidMovers
349

Figure260Depictionofthedifferencebetweenaxialandcentrifugalaeromachinery
350

Figure261Amechanicalengineer'sillustrationoftwoaxialflowmachines
351

Figure262Thisturbochargershaftshowstwomixedflowmachines,one(theturbine)toextractenergyfromtheexhaust
gasandtheother(thecompressor)toimpartenergyintotheinletflow.
Whatthisamountstoisthatafandesignerhasarangeoftypesofmachinefromwhichtochoose.To
makehischoicehecharacterizesthedesiredperformanceofthefan.Fanperformanceischaracterized
bythefollowingparameters:
Pressurerise(head)expressedinunitssuchasinchesofwater(1inchw.g.=5.204lb/sq.ft)
Volumetricflowrateexpressedinunitssuchascfm
Rotationalspeedexpressedinunitssuchasrpm
Fanfluidpower(theenergyimpartedtothefluid)expressedinunitssuchashorsepower
Fanshaftpowerexpressedinunitssuchashorsepower
Fanefficiency(fluidpowerdividedbyshaftpower)dimensionless
Fanperformanceispresentedaseithertablesorcharts,showingthepressurerise(P),efficiency(),
andpower(W)asafunctionofthevolumeflowrate(Q)fordifferentspeeds(RPM.)Wehaveseensuch
curvesinthecaseoftheHowdenBuffaloL25,previously.
Thefluidpower(Wf)isveryimportanttounderstand.Itisalsoquitesimpletocalculate.Thefluid
poweristheusefulpowerimpartedtothefluidbythefan.ItisgivenbyWf=PxQ
352
Theshaftpoweristhetotalmechanicalpowerdeliveredtothefanbytheshaft,anditisgreaterthan
thefanpower.Efficienciesforwelldesignedliftfansaregenerallysomewhereintheneighborhoodof
50%.
Vendorshaveawiderangeofchoicesforfans.Figure263illustratestheHowdenBuffalocommercial
fanrange.Notethatthescalesonthisgrapharelogarithmic:Theymakefansthatcoverfourordersof
magnitudeinflow,andfiveordersofmagnitudeinpressure.
Oncethenavalarchitecthasconvergedtheshipairflowdemand,hecanrestfairlyconfidentthata
commercialfancanbefoundtoprovidethisflow.

Figure263HowdenBuffalofanproductranges
22.4 FanScalingLaws
DuringtheearlyparametricstagesofanSESdesignthenavalarchitectfrequentlyneedstoperformher
ownfansizingestimates,usuallybyscalingfromotherexistingfans.
353
Therearetwomostimportantdimensionlesscoefficientswhichdescribeafansperformance.These
aretheFlowParameterandthePressureParameter.Theyaredefinedasfollows:
Pressurecoefficient: =P/(N2D2)
Flowcoefficient: =Q/ND3
Where:
N=fanRPM
D=fandiameter
Fromtheseparameterswecanderivefanscalinglaws.
AfansP/Q/RPMmapcanberedrawnintermsofand.Whenitisredrawninthatmannerit
becomesgenericinthesenseofbeingabletobescaledtoanydesiredsize.
Figure264showsanillustrationoftheP/Qcurvesforagivenfandesign,attwodifferentsizesandrpms.
Whentheyarereplottedintermsofandthetwofanscollapseandarerevealedtobethesame
fanFigure265.(Theerrorsintheillustratedcasearebecausethisisexperimentaldatameasuredin
theclassroominSyracuse.)
354

Figure264Agivenfandesign,intwodifferentsizestoyieldtwodifferentP/Qcurves
355

Figure265ThesametwofansasinFigure265,butwhenplottednondimensionallyrevealedtobethesameturbomachine
Inmanypracticalcaseswedontactuallyreplotthefancurveinnondimensionaltermsandthenre
scaletoanewsize.Ifweknowthescalingthatwewant,thenwecanemploythesenondimensional
relationshipstoyieldasetofscalinglawsasfollows.Ineachcasethesubscripts1and2refertotaking
Fan1andscalingittoanewsizetoyieldFan2.
FanLaws
Q2=Q1x(N2/N1)x(D2/D1)3
H2=H1x(N2/N1)2x(D2/D1)2x(2/1)
HP2=HP1x(N2/N1)3x(D2/D1)5x(2/1)
Fanscalingequations
(D2/D1)=((Q2/Q1)2/(P2/P1))0.25
(N2/N1)=(Q2/Q1)/(D2/D1)3
356
Horsepower
HP=1.340xcmsxkPa/efficiency
kW=cmsxkPa/efficiency
AnexampleofthistypeofscalingisshowninTable16,whereinwetookthreeparentfans,designated
ChineseHLCACandSkjoldandweattemptedtoscalethemtoourdesigncaseof18.63kPaand
200cms.Asmaybeseenthethreedifferentparentsyieldedthreedifferentoffspringfans.
Notefinallythefactthatinthiscasewecalculatedthetipspeedofthefan,beingdefinedasthe
revolutionspersecond,timesthediameter,timespi.Thetipspeedshouldbemaintainedbelowthe
speedofsoundbyagoodmargin,inthiscaseusingalimitof600feetpersecond.
Table16ThreedifferentparentfansallscaledtothesameP&Q
Chinese HLCAC Skjold
Designpoint 200cms 148.7cms 75cms

6.03kPa 7.94kPa 8.34kPa
Basediameter 3.0meters 1.6meters 1.3meters

andspeed 700rpm 1692rpm 1800rpm
Efficiency 84% 68.4% 80%
Scaleddiameter 2.26meters 1.5meter 1.736meter
Scaledrpm 1631rpm 2764rpm 2015rpm
Size Unknown 77.1W,116.6H, Unknown
98L
Scaledtipspeed 634ft/s.Higherthan 711ft/s 601ft/s
recommended360
ft/s.
Comments Hbar=0.14. Tipspeedtoohigh Possibility.Tipspeed
efficiency<65%. (shouldbelessthan highfordesign.
Veryhighrisk 600ft/s) Scalingrisk
357
23 HomeworkProblems
Section10.3
HowmanyunitsofTFdoIneedtogo10,000miles?
Fora10,000t/40knotship,whatisthestateoftheartfortotalTF?
HowmuchdoesthatleavefroTFship+TFcargo?
WhatistheSHPofthisship?
AssumetheshipliesonthetopcurveofFigure84.Whatistheweightoftheemptyshipand
theweightofthecargo?
Section10.4
PlotKennellsFigure89usingExcel.
NowreplotitusingVolumetricFroudeNumberinsteadofSpeedinKnots.
Finddataonaknownship:
o FL
o fuel
o 200
o cargo
o SHP
o Vk
Calculatethisships:
o L/D
o CCM
o WeightofPower
o ApparentSFC
o EstimatedOPC
Assumethatyouusedthesame
o CCM
o WeightofPower
o SFC
o OPC
Forthenewship.Thenewshipistocarry1000tonnesofcargoat30knotswitharangeof3000
nauticalmiles.Find:
o FL
o fuel
o 200
o cargo
o SHP
o SFC
o OPC
o Vk
358
Howbig(length)doyouguessthenewshiptobe?
Section12.3
UseNavCADtodevelopaWormCurve(againstTaylorStandardSeries)forthegivenship.Then
usethisWCFtodevelopanewresistanceestimateforthefollowingship:(Assumethat
interferenceeffectsarefullycapturedbytheRrandWCF.)
Section12.5
ExtrapolatethefollowingSESmodeltestdata,usingtwomethods:(a)Puresimilitude(b)Full
scaleconditionsasfollows:
Pc=
Q=
WSstatic+
Rf Rwcushion Rrsidehull Rmomentum Rseal

| | | | |
Change Change Change Change Assume100%Rf
S Pc Displsh P&Q Assume100%Rr
| | | | /\
| | | | /\
____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
Section13.1
DevelopaSectionalAreaCurveforagivenhull.Thensketchalinesplanthatmatchesit.You
needonlyincludetheDWL,CenterlineProfile,andStations0,10&20.
UseyourhullfromProblem1asthemainhullofatrimaran.Nowdevelopasetofamasto
yield:
o Displ:10002000tonnes
o GM>=1meter
o AssumeKG=[[]]
Again,provideasimplifiedlinesplanwithprofile,DWL,andStations0,10,20.ReportCB,CP,
CX,anddiscuss
Section13.3
Given:
359
o Pc=
o Lc=
o Bc=
o KG=
Whatisthesidehulldraft?
Whatisthedeadriseangle?
Whatisthewaterlinebeam?
AssumingCP=0.8,whatisthedisplacedvolume?
Whatisthecraftweight?
Section13.4
A1000tSWATHistobedesignedforzerospeedinSeaState4.IfwewanttheshiptoPlatform
inSS4,andbefullycontouringinSS6,letsdesignournaturalfrequenciesforSS5.Fothiscase,
determine:
o Awp
o GML
o GMT
o Strutcenterlineseparation
CopyFigure125anddrawlinesonitrepresentingtheboundariesofSeaStates1through8.
Section16.4
SimplifyFigure188byredrawingitintermsoftwoforces(ahead&astern)andonesteering
angle.The%Reverseisdefinedas(Freverse)/(Ftotal).Showthataperfectlysidewaysforce
canbeobtained.Whatisthe%Reverseinthiscondition?Whatisthesteeringangleinthis
condition?Howbigisthesidewaysforce?
Twopropulsors,configuredasshown.Findvaluesofs,p,Fs,Fptoyieldaforcesideways
throughtheshipsCG,withnorotation.from+/30,Ffrom+/1
360
Drawtheresultingvectorsonacopyofthissketch
Assumea30knotvessel.Calculatethedragandsideforce(lift)ofasingleconventionalrudder
of1m**2from0*to30*.UsetheprovidedCLandCDcurve,plusfrictionfromITTC
Calculatethedragandsideforceofaplungingrudder,fixedat30*,asitvariesfrom0to1m**2
immersion
Graphallfourlinesononechart.
Createacrossplotthatcomparesthetwodrags,forconstantsideforce.
Section17.4
UsetheshipinTable11.Calculateanewlimitingwaveheightfora4000tonnedisplacement,
suchthatthebendingmomentisthesameasthecaseinTable11.
Section18.1
CalculatethejetparametersP,Q,,Vj,xrequiredtoliftyourweightaheightof1cmonadisk
of1mdiameter.
Calculatethepowerrepresentedbythisjet.(Power=PtxQ,kW=Pascalsxm**3/sec)
Calculatethepowerrequiredtoflya100tonneLCACataheightof1musingaperipheraljeton
acushionmeasuring12.5mx25m.
Useh=t,=45*inbothcases
Forextracredityoumaywishtocharacterizetheeffectofchangesinh/toruponthepower
required.
Section18.3
Showthatthisistrueforanyarbitraryradius,andnotonlyforthespecialcasewherethebag
makesacompletehalfcircle.
Section19.2
AprevioussuccessfuldesignfromyourbureauusedtwinKaMeWa80waterjets.Youare
startingdevelopmentofalargercraftofthesametype.Youexpectitsresistancewillbedouble
thatoftheearlierboat.WhatmodelKaMeWajetdoyouthinkwillberequired?Howmuch
doesoneofthosejetsweigh,includingthejet,thehydraulicpack,andtheentrainedwater?
Section19.3
361
UsingFigure246,whatistheOPCoftheshownsystematthefollowingspeedsandpowers:
Vk SHP
25 4x9000kW
35 60,000kW
45 84,960kW
Section21
Derivetheequation:Range=198e3(Wfuel/Wtotal)OPC(L/D)/SFC
Section22
Accordingtostandardorificetheory(Section22.1.2)whatisthehovergapofthecraftshownin
Table15?

Section22.1
CalculatethedesignvalueofairdemandbywavepumpingforanLCAC(seetableintext)at40
knotsin4footwaves.Comparetothevaluegiveninthetable.Comparetothevaluegivenby
theQbarsimilitudemethod.Nowcalculatethewaveheight(stillat40knots)thatwouldgive
thelistedQ.

Section22.2

RedrawtheHowdenBuffaloL25fancurveintermsofand.Usingthatnewcurve,
determinethesizeandrpmofafantodeliver150cmsat8kPa.SelecttheRPMsuchthatthe
fantipspeedisbelow600fps.
362

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ThePracticalDesignofAdvanced

von Karman - Gabrielli Diagram

Machinery SFCs from 1997 HSS Technology Workshop

Deadweight Density CARDEROCK

Deadweight Density = (cargo wt + fuel wt)/(cargo vol + fuel vol)

High Speed Ferry

Figure 89 - Kennell's curve showing the effect of size up

10.4.4 McKesson Best Practices L/D Curve

The Best Practices

(1) Full Load Displacement 12,000 LT

(16) Weight available for Cargo & Cargo Carriage 3,375 LT

(17) Cargo Carriage Multiplier 2 lbs/lb

FLD 12000 15000 20000 25000 tons

SFC 0.451 lbs/hphr

Percent of Best Practice L/D required to carry given amount of cargo

700% 12,000 LT FLD

Dynamic Wetted Surface

Sea State N Wave Height Wave period

PRIME CONTRACTOR: TITAN CORPORATION

Propulsion: COMBINED DIESEL OR GAS TURBINE

Length 262 feet (79.9 meters) overall

240 feet (73 meters) at waterline

Beam 72 feet (22 meters)

Displacement 950 tons

Speed 50+ knots

V/L 2.5 5 4.56 9.13

L0.76 33.1 33.1 13.3 13.3

acg/(fgg0) 0.24 0.48 1.10 2.20

acg V>3 g 0.500 0.359 0.189 0.059 0.017 0.000

acg g 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500

Wave heights to yield 0.500g acg value

Wave heights to yield 0.500g acg value

19.3.2.8 Waterjet Arrangement

Also, when installing multiple Jets,, consider that n

19.3.2.9 Waterjet Weight

19.3.2.10 Waterjet Structural Loads

9000 Block. Leistung

Wfuel/ Range(example) Ln(1Wfuel/Wtotal) Breguetrange

Chinese HLCAC Skjold

Designpoint 200cms 148.7cms 75cms

Basediameter 3.0meters 1.6meters 1.3meters

Rf Rwcushion Rrsidehull Rmomentum Rseal

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