Radar Like Nothing

Radar bullet
RADAR BULLET
Dept of ECE 0 seminarsTopics.com

Radar bullet
ABSTRACT
Radar bullet is a special type of bullet the main use of radar bullet is to find
landmines without setting foot into the ground .This consists of firing a special
bullet into ground from a helicopter which could pinpoint buried landmines.
Anti -personal mines claims seventy new victims every day. This weapon is
particularly cruel on children whose bodies being smaller and closer to the blast
are more likely to sustain serious injury. The severe disabilities and
psychological trauma that follow the blast mean these children will have to be
looked after for many years.

Radar bullet
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
ABOUT RADAR BULLET
PRINCIPLES
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
MAGNETIC FLUX COMPRESSION
FIELD TEST
ADVANTAGE
DISADVANTAGE
APPLICATION
FUTURE PROSPECTS
CONCLUSION

Radar bullet
INTRODUCTION
Radar bullet is a relatively new discovery that was invented in mid 99 in
the US. It is used for detecting land mines. And this discovery finds a very
important prospect as about 139 countries singed a treaty in favor of banning
anti-personal mines. This treaty was signed during the second week of March
1999 in Ottawa Canada.
Anti -personal mines claims seventy new victims every day. This weapon
is particularly cruel on children whose bodies being smaller and closer to the
blast. Are more likely to sustain serious injury. The severe disabilities and
psychological trauma that follow the blast mean these children will have to be
looked after for many year.
A child injured at the age of ten will need about 25 artificial limbs during
their life time. The cost is @3000, a huge sum to pay in countries where people
earn as little as $10 a month between 1979 and 19960, the red cross fitted over
70,000 amputees with artificial limbs. And the landmines problem is still
growing. Therefore considering these factors the discovery of radar bullet is
really a big boost to our world as we launches into the 21't century.

Radar bullet
Technologies are used for landmine detection are:
Metal detectors--- capable of finding even low-metal content mines in
mineralized soils.
Nuclear magnetic resonance, fast neutron activation and thermal
neutron activation.
Thermal imaging and electro-optical sensors--- detect evidence of
buried objects.
Biological sensors such as dogs, pigs, bees and birds.
Chemical sensors such as thermal fluorescence--- detect airborne and
waterborne presence of explosive vapors.
In this discussion, we will concentrate on Radar This ultra wide band radar
provides centimeter resolution to locate even small targets. There are two
distinct types of Radar, time-domain and frequency domain. Time domain
or impulse Radar transmits discrete pulses of nanosecond duration and
digitizes the returns at GHz sample rates. Frequency domain radar systems
transmit single frequencies either uniquely, as a series of frequency steps, or
as a chirp. The amplitude and phase of the return signal is measured. The
resulting data is converted to the time domain. Radar operates by detecting
the dielectric contrasts in the soils, which allows it to locate even non
metallic mines.

Radar bullet
ABOUT RADAR BULLET
Radar bullet is a special type of bullet the main use of radar bullet is to find
landmines without setting foot into the ground .This consists of firing a
special bullet into ground from a helicopter which could pinpoint buried
landmines
The bullet emits a radar pulse as it grinds to halt .This pulse strikes the mine
and its image gets available on the computer in the helicopter, offering a
safe and efficient way of finding land mines In this discussion we deal with
buried anti-tank (AT) and anti-personnel (AP) landmines which require
close approach or contact to activate. AT mines range from about 15 to 35
cm in size. They are typically buried up to 40cm deep, but they can also be
deployed on the surface of a road to block a column of machinery. AP mines
range from about 5 to 15cm in size. AT mines which are designed to impede
the progress of destroy vehicles and AP mines which are designed to kill
and maim people.
In this discussion, we will concentrate on Radar This ultra wide band radar
provides centimeter resolution to locate even small targets. There are two
distinct types of radar bullet time-domain and frequency domain. Time
domain or impulse radar bullet transmits discrete pulses of nanosecond

Radar bullet
duration and digitizes the returns at GHz sample rates. Frequency domain
radar systems transmit single frequencies either uniquely, as a series of
frequency steps, or as a chirp. The amplitude and phase of the return signal
is measured. The resulting data is converted to the time domain. Radar
operates by detecting the dielectric contrasts in the soils, which allows it to
locate even non metallic mines.
In this discussion we deal with buried anti-tank (AT) and anti-
personnel (AP) landmines which require close approach or contact to
activate. AT mines range from about 15 to 35 cm in size. They are typically
buried up to 40cm deep, but they can also be deployed on the surface of a
road to block a column of machinery. AP mines range from about 5 to 15cm
in size. AT mines which are designed to impede the progress of destroy
vehicles and AP mines which are designed to kill and maim people.
In this discussion, we will concentrate on Radar bullet This ultra wide
band radar provides centimeter resolution to locate even small targets. There
are two distinct types of Radar bullet time-domain and frequency domain.
Time domain or impulse Radar bullet transmits discrete pulses of
nanosecond duration and digitizes the returns at GHz sample rates.
Frequency domain

Radar bullet
Radar bullet systems transmit single frequencies either uniquely, as a series
of frequency steps, or as a chirp. The amplitude and phase of the return
signal is measured. The resulting data is converted to the time domain
In this discussion we deal with buried anti-tank (AT) and anti-personnel
(AP) landmines which require close approach or contact to activate. AT
mines range from about 15 to 35 cm in size. They are typically buried up to
40cm deep, but they can also be deployed on the surface of a road to block a
column of machinery. AP mines range from about 5 to 15cm in size. AT
mines which are designed to impede the progress of destroy vehicles and
AP mines which are designed to kill and maim people.

Radar bullet
PRINCIPLES
Radar is radio detection and ranging. Radar makes use of radio waves to
detect and locate objects. Radar is a sensor, its purpose is to provide estimates
of certain characteristic if its surroundings, most commonly the presence and
motion of aircrafts, ships or vehicles.
Radar operates by transmitting electromagnetic energy into the
surroundings and detecting energy reflected by objects. If a narrow beam of
this energy is transmitted by the directive antenna, the direction from which
reflections come and hence the bearing of the object may be estimated. The
distance to the reflecting object is estimated by measuring the period between
the transmission of the radar pulse and reception of the echo. In radar bullet
principle, the change of medium by the waves must be taken into
consideration.

Radar bullet
Radar is basically a means of gathering information about distant
objects, or targets, by sending electromagnetic waves at them and analyzing
the echoes. It was evolved during the years just before World War II,
independently and more or less simultaneously in Great Britain, the United
States, Germany and France. At first, it was used as an all-weather method of
detecting approaching aircraft, and later for many other purpose. The word
itself is an acronym, coined in 1942 by the U.S. Navy, from the words radio
detection and ranging.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
In essence, a radar consists of a transmitter and a receiver, each
connected to a directional antenna. The transmitter is capable of sending out a
large UHF or microwave power through the antenna. The receiver collects as
much energy as possible from the echoes reflected in its direction by the target
and then treats and displays this information in a suitable way. The receiving
antenna is very often the same as the transmitting antenna. This is
accomplished through a kind of time-division multiplexing arrangement, since
the radio energy is very often sent out in the form of pulses

Radar bullet
FUNDAMENTALS
Basic radar system: The block diagram of an elementary pulsed radar set
is shown in Fig. For each transmitted pulse, the cycle of events is as follows.
Figure 1 Block diagram of an elementary pulse radar set
Transmitter
Duplexer
Receiver
Figure 1 Block diagram of an elementary pulse radar set

Radar bullet
In response to an internally generated trigger signal, the transmitter
generates a short, rectangular pulse. As soon as a small fraction of the pulse
power is fed to the duplexer, this device disconnects the receiver from the
antenna and connects the transmitter to it. In most radars, though by no
means in all, the antenna moves in a predetermined pattern, i.e., it scans.
Either way, it is normally directional and sends out the generated pulse
in the direction in which it is pointing at the time. The scanning speed may be
mechanically high, but it is small compared with the time taken by pulses to
return from a normal range of targets. Thus, when such echoes are received,
the antenna still points in the right direction to collect them.
As soon as the transmitted pulse terminates, the duplexer disconnects
the transmitter from the antenna. The duplexer also reconnects the receiver to
the antenna, allowing the returning echoes to be correctly processed. The
received pulses are amplified and demodulated by the receiver (which is
almost invariably super heterodyne, as had been discussed in detail in Chap.
6). The pulses from the returning echoes (and noise, of course) are then fed to
the device on which they are to be displayed, as will be described. The cycle is
complete, and the set is once again ready for the transmission of the next pulse
and the succeeding ones, while the antenna scans along its predetermined path.
The radar set is able to show the position of the target, because information
about the azimuth (horizontal direction) and the elevation (vertical direction)

Radar bullet
of the antenna is available. In addition, the distance to the target may
transmitter output tubes, and the first stage of the receiver is often a diode
mixer. The antenna generally uses a parabolic reflector of some form, as will be
mentioned in Sec.
Development of radar From its inception, radar has used a system of
sending short, powerful pulses of radio energy and then analyzing the returned
echoes to determine the position, distance and possibly velocity of the target.
However, the methods of doing so have evolved and become far more refined
and sophisticated as time has gone by. The primary incentive as in so many
other things was the imminence of war. Radar was made possible by a
technology, which, at the time war broke out, was just beginning to show
promise. This technology itself took great strides forward to meet the new
challenges imposed by war.
The first radars worked at much lower frequencies than present systems
(as loq as 60MHz for the original British coastal air-warning radar because of a
lack of sufficiently powerful transmitting tubes at higher frequencies. This was
changed in 1940 with the appearance of the cavity magnetron, and the stage was
then set for the development of modern radar. As can be appreciated, one of the
prime requirements of a radar system is that it should have a fair degree of
accuracy in its indication of target direction. This is possible only if the
antennas used are narrow beam ones, i.e., have dimensions of several

Radar bullet
wavelengths. That requirement cannot be fulfilled satisfactorily unless the
wavelengths themselves are fairly short, corresponding to the upper UHF or
microwave frequencies.
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
The impulse radar bullet system developed in the International Research
Centre for Telecommunications-transmission and Radar (IRCTR). Impulse
radar bullet system comprises Impulse generator, Transmitter, Receiver,
Pulse extender, A/D converter, Processor and Visual display.
Block diagram
IMPULSE GENERATOR

Radar bullet
The pulse generator delivered by SATIS Co. produces 0.8 ns
monocycle pulses. The unique feature of this generator is its small trailing
oscillations, which are below 2.4% of maximum amplitude during the first 2
ns and below 0.5% afterwards. The advantage of a monocycle in
comparison with a mono pulse is that the frequency spectrum of the first
one decreases to zero at low frequencies, which cannot be efficiently
transmitted via the antenna system, while the frequency spectrum of the
second one has a global maximum there. As a result, the magnitude of the
field radiated by an antenna system fed by a monocycle is considerably
larger than the magnitude of the field radiated by the antenna system fed by
a monopoles with the same magnitude.
output signal from the 0.8ns generator
The generator spectrum covers a wide frequency band from
500MHz till 2GHz on 3dB level. At frequencies below 1GHz, attenuation

Radar bullet
losses in the ground are small and considerable penetration depth can be
achieved. However, landmines detection requires down-range resolution of
the order of several centimeters, which can be achieved using frequencies
above 1GHz. It was found experimentally that the 0.8ns monocycle satisfies
penetration and resolution requirements. This output signal from 0.8ns
generator is shown in figure. The spectrum of this pulse has a maximum at
frequencies where the attenuation losses in the ground start to increase. So
the spectral content of the monocycle below this maximum penetrates deep
into the ground and the spectral content above this maximum provides
sufficient down-range resolution.
ANTENNA SYSTEM
The antenna system is one of the most critical parts of radar bullet
system, because its performance depends strongly on the antenna system.
The antenna system should satisfy a number of demands. The antenna
system contains transmitter and receiver. The transmit antenna should:
Radiate short ultra-wide band (UWB) pulse with small ringing.
Radiate electro magnetic energy within a narrow cone in order to filter
out undesirable back scattering from surrounding objects.
Produce an optimal footprint on the ground surface and below it.
The waveform of the radiated field on the surface and in the ground
should be the same.

Radar bullet
The waveform of the radiated field in the ground should not depend on
type of the ground.
The receiver antenna should:
Allow time windowing to isolate the direct air wave from the ground
reflection.
Provide sufficient sensitivity in order to receive very weak fields.
Receive the field in a local point; effective aperture should not be
larger than 1cm2.
Be elevated at least 10cm above the ground surface.
Additionally a possibility to measure simultaneously backscattered
field in two orthogonal polarizations is desirable.
PULSE EXTENDER
Pulse extender will amplify the ground reflection signal up to the
maximum level acquired by A/D converter.
A/D CONVERTER
The transmitter sends out a series of electromagnetic pulses then
listens with the receiver connected to high speed sampler which in turn
feeds A/D Converter. A dielectric anomaly in the soil may cause the signal
to be reflected back to a separate receiver antenna. This information is
converted from nanoseconds to milliseconds so that it may be digitized by a

Radar bullet
conventional A/D converter for processing and display. The center
frequency and band width of the transmitted pulse can be varied by
changing the antenna and are chosen with respect to the required depth of
penetration, soil type and size of the object to be detected. In this
experiment, we used antennas with a center frequency 1.4GHz and 80%
band width. The precision of sampling converter is sufficiently high to do
accurate measurements of scattered transient field. This A/D converter 12
bit accuracy. This provides 66 dB linear dynamic ranges. A/D converter
converts the signal into digital signal which passes to the processor.
PROCESSOR
A/D converter converts the signal into digital signal which passes to
the processor. Processor filters the signal. This signal shows presence or
absence of surrogate mine in the soil. Processor allows passing the presence
of mine detecting signal. Processor selects the mine detecting signal and
passes to the visual display.
VISUAL DISPLAY
Visual display helps to see the range of targets. It displays the exact
position of landmine. The advent of the magnetron also made possible the next
steps in the evolution of radar, namely, airborne radar for the detection of
surface vessels and then airborne aircraft interception radar. In each of these,
particularly the former, tight beams are necessary to prevent the receiver from

Radar bullet
begin swamped by ground reflections, which would happen if insufficient
discrimination between adjacent targets existed.
Microwave radar for antiaircraft fire control was quickly developed, of
which the most successful ground - based version was the U.S. Army's SCR-58.
It was capable of measuring the position of enemy aircraft to within 0.1 , and
the distance, or range to within 25m. such radars were eventually capable of
tracking targets by locking onto them, with the aid of servomechanisms
controlling the orientation of the antennas. Anti-surface vessel (ASV) radars
became very common and quite accurate toward the end of the war. So aid
airborne radar for navigation, bombing or bomber protection electronic
navigation systems were also developed. Radar countermeasures were
instituted, consisting mainly of jamming (transmission of confusing signals at
enemy radar) or the some what more effective dropping of aluminum foil, in
strips of about a half - wavelength, to cover approaching aircraft by producing
false echoes. This "chaff"(American) or "window"(British) proved very
effective, but its use in the war was considerably delayed. Each side thought that
the other did not know about it and so it was kept secret; however, it eventually
came to be used on a very larges scale. One of the indications of the
enormous growth in the importance of radar in World War 11 is the increase in
the staff of the U.S Armys Radiation Laboratory. It started with about 40
people in 1941, and number multiplied tenfold by 1945.

Radar bullet
The advent of the magnetron also made possible the next steps in the evolution
of radar, namely, airborne radar for the detection of surface vessels and then
airborne aircraft interception radar. In each of these, particularly the former,
tight beams are necessary to prevent the receiver from begin swamped by
ground reflections, which would happen if insufficient discrimination between
adjacent targets existed. Microwave radar for antiaircraft fire control was
quickly developed, of which the most successful ground - based version was the
U.S. Army's SCR-58. It was capable of measuring the position of enemy aircraft
to within 0.1, and the distance, or range to within 25m. Such radars were
eventually capable of tracking targets by locking onto them, with the aid of
servomechanisms controlling the orientation of the antennas. Anti-surface
vessel (ASV) radars became very common and quite accurate toward the end of
the war. So aid airborne radar for navigation, bombing or bomber protection
electronic navigation systems were also developed. Radar countermeasures
were instituted, consisting mainly of jamming (transmission of confusing
signals at enemy radar) or the some what more effective dropping of aluminum
foil, in strips of about a half - wavelength, to cover approaching aircraft by
producing false echoes. This "chaff"(American) or "window"(British) proved
very effective, but its use in the war was considerably delayed. Each side
thought that the other did not know about it and so it was kept secret; however,
it eventually came to be used on a very larges scale. One of the indications
of the enormous growth in the importance of radar in World War 11 is the

Radar bullet
increase in the staff of the U.S. Army's Radiation Laboratory. It started with
about 40 people in 1941, and number multiplied tenfold by 1945.
The radar receiver is an ordinary radio receiver having the lowest
possible noise figure, high sensitivity, and a bandwidth appropriate for handling
the pulses involved. The receiver video output is usually displayed on a
cathode-ray tube indicator in such a manner as to show the time difference
between the outgoing pulses and the returning echoes. To achieve this result, the
sweep voltage of the cathode-ray-tube display is synchronized with the
transmitted pulses.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
Radar pulse spreads to a radius of 15 m.

Radar bullet
First of all, a special bullet is fired downward into the ground from a gun
mounted on a helicopter flying about 100m above the ground. The bullet is
designed in such a way that it gives out powerful bust of radio waves from
under the ground. The bullet will produce a pulse of radio waves as it pierces
the ground, and the signal reflected from any landmines within about a 15m
radius will be detected by an antenna on the helicopter.
Once the mines are located, they can be destroyed at once or their exact
position noted so they can be destroyed at once or their exact position noted so
they can be dealt with later. And if the bullet hits it, it would explodeThe radar
pulse is generated from the bullets hit by a process known as magnetic flux
compression.

Radar bullet

Radar bullet
MAGNETIC FLUX COMPRESSION

Radar bullet
Inside the bullet is a solid metal cylinder, surrounded by a tightly wound
coil of wire. As the bullet leaves the gun, there is a battery generating a
magnetic field in the cylinder. When the bullet smashes into the ground, the
sudden deceleration forces the cylinder out from inside the coil. The sudden
movement of the metal cylinder through the magnetic field induces a large pulse
of current in the coil. The coil then acts like an antenna, converting the pulse
into a short burst of high frequency radiation.

Radar bullet
FIELD TEST
After the laboratory tests, testes were conducted at the Arizona desert
using the same experimental setup , the radar bullet was able to detect 35 anti-
tank mines and Val Mara 69 antipersonnel mines, which are a particular
problem in northern Iraq, where the mines have been laid by saddaam husseins
force in their confrontation with the KURBS.
ADVANTAGES

Radar bullet
The light weight system can be fitted to any helicopter. i.e. the gun antenna
computer controllers etc.
Extremely small bullets can be used for detection. A 30 mm bullet gives out
a 4 KW radar pulse - almost 10 times more power than a standard ground
penetrating radar- from 20 centimeters down.
Also since the bullet is beneath the surface of the ground, it transmits more
radio wave into the ground. For ordinary ground, penetrating radar little
radiation penetrates the soil, most is reflected by the ground because of the
sudden change in density between the air and the soil.
It has accurate measurements.
It locates even small targets.
It has been well founded by the defense.
It operates by detecting the dielectric soils which allows it to locate even no
metallic mines.
Biological sensors can only operate for limited periods, but in GPR has no
such limits.
It has been tested in different environmental conditions.
DISADVANTAGES

Radar bullet
Plastic landmines cannot be detected.
It is highly expensive.
It is more power hungry.
It can suffer falls alarm rates as high as metal detectors.
APPLICATIONS

Radar bullet
1. It can be used for detecting landmines
2. It could help geologists surveying for oil, minerals and other buried natural
resources.
3. It can be used for detecting buried pipes. For e.g. recently an illegal pipeline
carrying drugs between Afghanistan and Turkmenistan have been
discovered. Such type of illegal pipeline can be found out using radar
bullets.
FUTURE PROSPECTS

Radar bullet
1. As the UN has already implemented a world wide ban on antipersonnel
mines, the invention of radar bullet helps to speed up the destruction of the
mines.
2. Ten thousands of antipersonnel mines lied buried in the hilly regions of
Cambodia, n. Korea, Afghanistan etc. and according to UN it would take
more than 100 years to detect and destroy these if worked out manually.
Mines clearance or defining is normally broken into these stages. Detection
removal and disposal. Current detection methods range from high-tech
electronic (ground penetrating radar), infrared, magnetic resonance imaging)
to biological detection schemes(Dog Sniff or) and insects or bacteria to
simple brute force detonation methods (Flails, Rollers and plows) and the
use of the hand held mechanical prodders. Most of these methods are very
slow and or expensive and suffer from a hi8gh false alarm rate .So with
helicopters and radar bullets, the mines can be cleared easily.
3. Mass graveyards which results from internal civil wars as in
Cambodia, Kosovo and in some African nations can be detected using radar
bullets.
MINE EFFECTED COUNTRIES

Radar bullet
The countries known to have severe landmine problems are;
Afghanistan, Bosnia, Eritrea, Croatia, china. Unfortunately India Pakistan, Sri
Lanka, Myanmar are also in the list of less-mine affected countries b-sides other
100 countries.
CONCLUSION

Radar bullet
The research on radar bullet were headed by the electrical engineers.
Themes Engel of William Nunnally at the university of Missouri at
Columbia, with $5million in funding from the US army. This can be used
not only for detecting antipersonnel mines, but also for detecting anti- tank
mines as well as for the mines used in sea for targeting the ship and
submarines. . Since it can also be used for exploring oil, minerals and other
buried natural resources, the discovery of radar bullet is a big boost for the
modern world as we are in 21St century. Currently, very little technology is
used in real-world defining activities. Active programs by the U.S Army in
both land mine detection sensor development and systems integration are
evaluating new technologies, incrementally improving existing
technologies, increasing the probability of detection, reducing the false
alarm rate, and planning out useable deployment scenarios. Through
iterative design, build test cycles, and blind and scored testing at Army mine
lanes, steady progress is being made.

Radar bullet
REFERENCE
1. Radar and radio detection- Fredrick Emmons Terman 2. Landmines and radio
detecting- Andrew Deerorow 3. Armed forces - nic.in

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Radar bullet

Dept of ECE 0 seminarsTopics.com

looked after for many years.

Dept of ECE 1 seminarsTopics.com

ABOUT RADAR BULLET

MAGNETIC FLUX COMPRESSION

Dept of ECE 2 seminarsTopics.com

Radar bullet is a relatively new discovery that was invented in mid 99 in

important prospect as about 139 countries singed a treaty in favor of banning

1999 in Ottawa Canada.

looked after for many year.

growing. Therefore considering these factors the discovery of radar bullet is

Dept of ECE 3 seminarsTopics.com

Technologies are used for landmine detection are:

Metal detectors--- capable of finding even low-metal content mines in

Nuclear magnetic resonance, fast neutron activation and thermal

Thermal imaging and electro-optical sensors--- detect evidence of

Biological sensors such as dogs, pigs, bees and birds.

Chemical sensors such as thermal fluorescence--- detect airborne and

waterborne presence of explosive vapors.

distinct types of Radar, time-domain and frequency domain. Time domain

or impulse Radar transmits discrete pulses of nanosecond duration and

transmit single frequencies either uniquely, as a series of frequency steps, or

resulting data is converted to the time domain. Radar operates by detecting

Dept of ECE 4 seminarsTopics.com

ABOUT RADAR BULLET

buried anti-tank (AT) and anti-personnel (AP) landmines which require

close approach or contact to activate. AT mines range from about 15 to 35

deployed on the surface of a road to block a column of machinery. AP mines

and maim people.

distinct types of radar bullet time-domain and frequency domain. Time

domain or impulse radar bullet transmits discrete pulses of nanosecond

Dept of ECE 5 seminarsTopics.com

radar systems transmit single frequencies either uniquely, as a series of

is measured. The resulting data is converted to the time domain. Radar

operates by detecting the dielectric contrasts in the soils, which allows it to

locate even non metallic mines.

In this discussion we deal with buried anti-tank (AT) and anti-

personnel (AP) landmines which require close approach or contact to

activate. AT mines range from about 15 to 35 cm in size. They are typically

road to block a column of machinery. AP mines range from about 5 to 15cm

in size. AT mines which are designed to impede the progress of destroy

In this discussion, we will concentrate on Radar bullet This ultra wide

Time domain or impulse Radar bullet transmits discrete pulses of

nanosecond duration and digitizes the returns at GHz sample rates.

Dept of ECE 6 seminarsTopics.com

Radar bullet systems transmit single frequencies either uniquely, as a series

of frequency steps, or as a chirp. The amplitude and phase of the return

signal is measured. The resulting data is converted to the time domain

In this discussion we deal with buried anti-tank (AT) and anti-personnel

(AP) landmines which require close approach or contact to activate. AT

mines range from about 15 to 35 cm in size. They are typically buried up to

column of machinery. AP mines range from about 5 to 15cm in size. AT

AP mines which are designed to kill and maim people.

Dept of ECE 7 seminarsTopics.com

of certain characteristic if its surroundings, most commonly the presence and

motion of aircrafts, ships or vehicles.

Radar operates by transmitting electromagnetic energy into the

surroundings and detecting energy reflected by objects. If a narrow beam of

distance to the reflecting object is estimated by measuring the period between

principle, the change of medium by the waves must be taken into

Dept of ECE 8 seminarsTopics.com

Radar is basically a means of gathering information about distant