Transmission filtering by high-amplitude reflection
coefficients: Theory, practice, and
processing considerations
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CRAIG A. COULOMBE and D. NEIL BIRD
0 ver the past few years, Chevron
Canada Resources has had an intense
and successful exploration effort in the
Simonette area of west central Alberta
(Figure 1). During our investigations, it
was noticed that seismic data in the De-
vonian section are severely lacking in
frequencies above 50 Hz even though
the Cretaceous yields plenty of signal
out to 75 Hz (Figure 2). The Mannville
coals were the suspected cause of the at-
tenuation. Interbed multiples created by
the coals could act as a transmission fil-
ter attenuating the higher frequency
data. Since high resolution, and thus
broad band, data were essential to iden-
tifying our exploration target, it was
necessary to confirm, model, and re-
move the effects of the coals from our
data.
In 199 1, Chevron drilled a Devonian
test well in the area. A synthetic seis-
mogram generated from this well (Fig-
Figure 1. Location of study area.
Chevron Canada Resources
Calgary, Canada
ure 3) did not match our surface data. A
VSP was run to investigate the mis-tie.
It confirmed the presence of a multiple
at our zone of interest and also gave ex-
cellent data with which to test our coal
attenuation hypothesis.
Real data observations. Figure 4, a
subset of the raw data from the VSP,
shows the very high amplitude reflec-
tion from the coals. Figure 5 shows the
downgoing VSP wavefield and its am-
plitude envelope just above, through,
and below the coals (flattened at 200
ms). The attenuation of the waveform is
visible even on these plots.
The data above the coals have a nice,
compact waveform with a dominant pe-
riod of about 34 ms. The amplitude en-
velopes are front-loaded with a total
width of about 72 ms. After passing
through the coals, the waveforms
change significantly (righthand traces).
They are visibly broader (dominant pe-
riod of approximately 36 ms and enve-
lope width of approximately 88 ms) and
the envelopes show a pronounced delay
in energy. These changes suggest filter-
ing of the waveform by a minimum
phase transmission filter.
Spectral analysis of the waveforms
above and below the coals quantify the
measurements (Figure 6). The data
above the coals are broadband with us-
able frequencies of 10-65 Hz. Below
the coals, a pronounced notch is appar-
ent at 50 Hz. The bandwidth of the sig-
nal is 10-45 Hz below the coals.
Obviously, transmission through the
coals has a substantial effect on the seis-
mic waveform. It occurs over a short
time window (100 ms), which is about
three periods.
Modeling. We have attempted to
model the observed phenomena using
two different approaches. In all cases,
the velocity model is derived from the
sonic log trace measured in the well
(Figure 3). The density profile is also
shown in this figure. It was generated
using a constant density of 2200 kg/m3
for the entire well except for the coals,
which were given a density of 1200
kg/m3.
Elastic wave finite difference. Figure
7 displays the raw VSP modeled by
SOLID, an elastic wave finite differ-
ence algorithm. The source waveform
mimics an impulse response. Figure 8
shows the modeled downgoing VSP
wavefield and its amplitude envelope.
On these data, the coals generate an ob-
vious side lobe that trails the main event
by 10 ms. Spectral analysis of these
data (Figure 9) do show the attenuation
of frequencies centered at 50 Hz, but the
severe notch in the observed VSP data is
not replicated.
LogM synthetic with multiples. The
effect of the coals can also be simulated
using LogM (a 1-D convolutional mod-
eling package). We have altered the
sonic log by adding a step in impedance
above and below the coals to capture the
incident and transmitted waveforms.
We have also turned on interbed multi-
ples (Figure 10). Spectral analysis of
the waveforms generated in this manner
do show that a notch appears at 60 Hz in
the spectrum below the coals (Figure
11). Note also that the phase distortion
suggests a minimum phase filter.
Transmission filter. Throughout our
discussion, we have been stressing the
idea that the coals generate interbed
multiples that are equivalent to a trans-
mission filter. This idea was introduced
by ODoherty and Anstey (Geophysical
Prospecting, 197 1). Their theory sug-
gests that a given RC series generates a
transmission filter which is minimum
phase and has the amplitude spectrum
SEPTEMBER 1996 THE LEADING EDGE 1037
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Figure 3. Synthetic seismogram and the sonic from the

test well.

Figure 2. Amplitude spectra of surface data; (a) above Figure 4. Raw VSP data from test well. Notice the strong
the coals and (b) below the coals. reflection caused by the coals.

= At)
where F is the amplitude spectrum of
the transmission filter, R is the power
spectrum of the RC series and At is the
transit time through the RC series. The
amplitude spectrum for a transmission
filter generated by the coals and calcu-
lated by this formula is shown in Figure
12. Notice the significant notch be-
tween 55 and 65 Hz and minor ones at
75 and 110 Hz.
By match filtering the waveforms
measured below the coals to those
above, the representative transmission
filter for the real VSP and modeled data
can be created. These filters are dis-
played in Figure 13. They all show a
notch forming at 50-60 Hz though the
exact magnitudes and positions are not
identical to the theory.
Acquisition and processing consider-
ations. We now have an explanation for
why it is hard to record broadband data
in the Devonian in the Simonette area.
The coals act as a transmission filter
and create a notch in the data between
50 and 65 Hz. If the data above the coals
do not contain energy above 65 Hz, it is
difficult to identify the notch and thus
the data below the coals appear band-
limited. We have shown that the trans-
mitted signal is attenuated by the coals,
so extra effort (high fold, for example)
must be made to record broadband data
from below the coals.
Another consideration is the decon-
volution process. Previous to this analy-
sis (at Chevron Canada Resources),
character anomalies in the Devonian
that coincided with changes in the coals
were deemed risky because of explo-
ration failures. We have shown that the
coals create a nonstationary wavelet in
our data because they act as a minimum
phase transmission filter. It is not sur-
prising that changes in the coals can
create character anomalies if only sin-
gle gate deconvolution is used.
Figure 14 demonstrates the effect
(on synthetic data) of nonstationarity on
the choice of deconvolution. Trace 1 is
the RC series from the study well con-
volved with a minimum phase version
of the time varying wavelet measured in
the VSP. It is the input trace. Trace 2

1038 THE LEADING EDGE SEPTEMBER 1996

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Figure 5. (a) Downgoing VSP wavefield around the coals

extracted from raw VSP data and flattened to 200 ms; (b)
amplitude envelope of the downgoing wavefield.

Figure 7. Synthetic raw VSP data

generated using a finite difference elastic
wave modeling algorithm.

SEPTEMBER 1996 THE LEADING EDGE 1039

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Figure 8. (a) SOLID synthetic downgoing VSP wavefield Figure 9. SOLID synthetic downgoing VSP wavelet and
around the coals extracted from the raw VSP data and spectra: (a) above and (b) below the coals.
flattened to 200 ms; (b) amplitude envelopes of
downgoing wavefield.

Incident
Waveform
Figure 10. LogM
synthetic with interbed
multiples and velocity
steps above and below
the coals to capture the
wavelet.

Transmitted
Waveform

1040 THE LEADING EDGE SEPTEMBER 1996

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Figure 11. LogM synthetic wavelet and spectra; (a) above

and (b) below the coals. Notice notch at 60 Hz and phase-
rotated waveform below the coals.

Figure 12. Amplitude spectrum of the ODoherty and Figure 13. Transmission filters made by match filtering the
Anstey theoretical transmission filter generated by the wavelet below the coals to the wavelet above the coals: (a)
coals. Notice the notch between 50 and 70 Hz. real VSP data; (b) SOLID data; (c) LogM data.

SEPTEMBER 1996 THE LEADING EDGE 104

 transmission filter caused by the coals
and gives the interpreter increased con-
fidence in the character integrity of the
data. Our standard processing flow for
data from Simonette includes two
passes of deconvolution. The first is one
gate surface consistent deconvolution
(to estimate and remove the source and
geophone wavelets, both of which are
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cessing flow to include a poststack two-
gate deconvolution to help remove the
effects of the transmission filter caused
by the coals
Finally, because wavefields recorded
by VSPs are easier to analyze and less
subjective than those of surface data,
the former allow us to identify the ef-

fect of the coals. Perhaps VSPs should

stationary). Poststack (because of in- be recorded more frequently in the con-
creased S/N), we apply a two gate spik- tinuing effort to improve surface
ing deconvolution as a residual
deconvolution. Acknowledgements: We would like to
thank Chevron Canada Resources for al-
Conclusion. We have shown that the lowing us to publish this paper. We also
Mannville coals act as transmission fil- thank C. Frasier; H. Martin, and N. Ross for
ters that affect our surface seismic data. insightful criticism.
They place a notch at 50-70 Hz in the
spectra of data recorded below the Craig Coulombe received bachelors
coals, which limits the bandwidth and (1990) and masters (1992) degrees in geo-
adds phase distortions. The transmis- physics from the University of Calgary. He
sion filter has been measured on a VSP, consultedfor Schlumbergers Seismic Prod-
modeled by two different methods, and uct Development group from 1990-92 before
confirmed by theoretical considera- joining Chevron Canada Resources.
tions.
This analysis has caused Chevron D. Neil Bird received a masters degree
Canada Resources to change its acqui- in geophysics from the University of British
sition parameters by increasing the fold Columbia (1981). He has been an interpret-
in an attempt to record data with ing geophysicist with Chevron Canada since
broader spectra and thus higher resolu- graduation with the exception of two years
tion in the Devonian (below the coals). at Chevrons research facility in La Habra,
Figure 14. Deconvolution tests. Trace California.
In addition, we have altered our pro
1 = input data with time varying
wavelet caused by the transmission
filter. Trace 2 = desired output (the
well reflectivity convolved with a zero
phase, bandlimited wavelet). Trace 3
= Result after a single gate
deconvolution. Note the poor match
to the desired output below 1200 ms.
Trace 4 = Result after two gate
deconvolution. Notice the improved
match to the desired output.
(the zero phase bandlimited RC series)
is our desired output. The results of a
single gate deconvolution and a zero
phase bandpass filter applied to trace 1
are shown on trace 3. Note that below
the coals (at 1100 ms), the output does
not look much like our desired output. It
is of visibly lower frequency and is
phase rotated. Trace 4 is the result of a
two gate deconvolution, followed by a
zero phase bandpass filter where the de-
sign gates are above and below the
coals, respectively. Trace 4 better
matches our desired output (trace 2).
On surface seismic data, single gate
deconvolution whitens the entire spec-
trum and, as a result, does not correctly
remove the effect of the coals. Two gate
deconvolution (with the design gates
above and below the coals) removes the

1042 THE LEADING EDGE SEPTEMBER 1996