Elrctrical Power Engineering

Syllabus

Electrical power generation ..10 hours

Power transmission ...20 hours
Insulation and Corona .8 hours
Power cable ...10 hours
Switchgear . 6 hours
Electrical part of a power station 6 hours

References

1- Electrical power systems.

{ A.E. Guile , W. Paterson } Volume one
2- Elements of power system analysis .
{ William D. Stevenson , SR. }
3- A course in electrical power .
{ M.L. Soni and P.V. Gupta }
4- Electrical power systems.
{ Weedy , B.M. }
5- Fundamentals of power system .
{ S.K. Agarwala }
6- Principles of power system .
{ V.K. Mehta }
7- Power system analysis .
{ Charles A. Gross }
8- The Transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
{ Cotton }
9- Power system analysis and design .
{ J. Duncan Glover }

1
Structure of electrical power systems
The structure of electric power systems consists of the following
main parts :
1- Generating stations ( power station ) : Bulk electric power is
produced by special plants known as generating stations or
power plants . This part divided in two section :
a- Mechanical section It is sources of mechanical energy as
( Boiler, Turbine.) .
b- Electrical section as ( Alternators, transformers,
protection apparatus, controls system, and measuring
instruments.. ) .
2- Transmission lines: are the connecting links between the
power stations and the distribution system and lead to other
power systems over interconnections .There are two types:
a- Overhead transmission line .
b- Under ground cables .
3- Distribution systems: It connects all the individual loads to
the transmission line.
ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION
Energy Resources
The resources of electrical energy ( primary fuels ) may be
divided into :
a - Thermal : as Coal, Oil, Natural gas, Nuclear, and Solar
b- Non Thermal : as Hydropower , Wind , and direct solar
conversion .

2
 While considering primary fuels in meeting the worlds
energy requirements we may therefore include the
following :

i- Solid fuels ( Coal )

ii- Liquid fuels ( Oil )
iii- Natural gas
iv- Hydropower
v- Nuclear

The above Fig. shows the possible changes in percentage

shares of primary fuels in meeting the worlds energy
requirement over period of 50 years ( 1950-2000 )

3
Location of power station
The best geographical location of the generating plants would be
close to the electrical load centers , i.e, the regions where the
major energy demand exists . However, the locations of the
primary fuel conventional energy sources do not necessarily
coincide with load centers.
We are therefore faced with following choice ;
1- Build the power plants close to the energy sources and then
transport the electrical energy to the load centers
2- Build the power plants close to load centers and transport the
fuel from the source locality.
The electrical power grid makes the first alternative
technically feasible . However, in reality , the actual choice will
be based upon a combination of technical , economical and
environmental factors.

Type of power station

There are four type of power station :
1- Thermal power station ( Steam power station ), the primary
fuels for this type are (oil or coal or natural gas )
2- Hydro-Electric power station , this type installed where
resources of water available at sufficient head.
3- Nuclear power station , the primary fuels for this type is
( Nuclear fusion of Uranium )
4- Diesel power station , in this type , diesel engine is used as
the prime mover .
4
 Thermal power station ( Steam power station )
A generating station which converts heat energy of coal or oil
into electrical energy is known as a steam power station.
The schematic arrangement of steam power station is shown in
below fig.

5
Main parts of power station are :
Boilers : It is a device meant for production steam under
pressure.
There are two type of boiler:
a) Fire tube boiler ; b ) Water tube boiler
For electrical power stations , generally water tube boiler
are used.
Turbine : It is the main part of the mechanical system of the
power station from which the mechanical energy
can be obtained.
Alternator ( Synchronous generator and exciter) : It is the main
part of electrical system from which the electrical
energy can be obtained.
2-pole ; 3000 r.p.m ( 50 HZ )
; 3600 r.p.m ( 60 HZ )
Power 1000 MW ; 11-33 KV ; 3-phase ; stare
connection
Air cooling up to 40 MW , above 40 MW using
hydrogen for cooling
Main exciters are compound d.c generators of 115 V or
230 V .
Generally , power factor is 0.8 lagging .

6
 Selection of site :
The water supply should be available .
The site should be easily accessible.
Stability of foundation.
Land should be available at a reasonable price and further
extension should be possible
Restrictions of surrounding.

Hydro-Electric power station

A generating station which utilizes the potential energy of water at

a high level for the generation of electrical energy is known as
hydro-electric power station.
The schematic arrangement of a hydro-electric plant is shown in
below fig.

7
* Kinetic energy of water is its energy in motion ( flow of
water ) and is a function of mass and velocity .
* Potential energy is a function of the difference in level of
water between two points ( head ) .
Choice of site :
1- The station should be situated where a sufficient flow and
head of water are available .
2- The site should be easily a accessible
There are three different methods of classification hydro-
electric plants :
According to quality of water available , according to this
classification the plants may be divided into :
a) Run-off river plant without pond age.
b) Run-off river plant with pond age.
c) Reservoir plants.
According to available head , according to this
classification the plants may be divided into :
a) High head H > 300 m
b) medium head 30 < H < 300 m
c) Low head H < 30 m
According to nature of load. , according to this classification
the plants may be divided into :
8
 a) Base load.
b) Peak load.
c) Pumped storage plants for peak load.
Main parts of hydro-electric plants:
1- Reservoir : Its purpose is to store water .
2- Dam : The function of dam is to provide a head of water to
be utilized in the water turbine.
3- Penstocks : These are pipes of large diameter, taking water
from the intake works to the power house (
turbine )
4- Prime mover : It is converted kinetic energy of ( turbine )
water into mechanical energy .
5- Power house : It consists of two main parts :
* Turbine
* Electric equipment ( generator ).

Nuclear power station

A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into

electrical energy is known as a nuclear power station.
The schematic arrangement of nuclear power plant and nuclear
reactor is shown in below fig.

9
10
 Choice of site :
1- As in the case of steam power station the water should be
available .
2- It should be situated a way from the populated area from the
safety point of view.
3- The site should be easily accessible.
4- There should be sufficient space to get rid of radio active
waste.
5- It should be situated as near to the load center as possible to
avoid losses in transmission

Fuels:
Fuels generally used in reactor are natural Uranium ( U ) , 235
92

Plutonium ( Pu ) and Uranium ( U ) . Only (U ) is naturally

239
94
233
92
235
92

available .
Natural uranium occurs in three isotopes (U , 0.7%) , (U ,
235
92
238
92

99.3%) and (U . minute traces ) . Of these isotopes U is very

234
92
235
92

easily and readily fissionable.

Pu and U are not found in nature , but can formed in the

239 233
94 92

nuclear reactors during fission process from U and Thorium Th

238
92
232
90

due to the absorption of neutrons with out fission .

Elements of a nuclear power station :
A nuclear power station differs from a conventional steam (thermal)
power station only in the steam generating part (i.e boiler) , the boiler

11
of steam power station is replaced by the nuclear reactor and heat
exchanger.
The heat energy thus released is utilized in raising steam at high
temperature and pressure . the steam runs the steam turbine which
converts steam energy into mechanical energy .
Moderator : It is used to moderate or reduce the neutron speeds
to value that increase the probability of fission occurring . made
from Graphite heavy water or beryllium.
Shielding : the purpose of shielding is to give protection from
the deadly radiation.
Control rod : by this rod can be controlled chain reaction . The
materials of rod are Cadmium , Boron .
Coolant : A coolant transfer heat production in side the reactor
to a heat exchanger . The coolants commonly used are gas ( air ,
Hydrogen , helium ) , water , heavy water , liquid metals
( sodium ) .

Diesel Power Station

A generating station in which diesel engine is used as the prime

mover for the generating of electrical energy is known as diesel
power station .
The fig. below shows the schematic arrangement of a typical
diesel power station .

12
Advantages
1- The design and layout of the plant are quite simple.
2- It occupies less space , and it can be located at any place .
3- It can be started quickly and can pick up load in a short time .
4- There are no standby losses , and it requires less quantity of
water for cooling and less operating staff .
5- The overall cost is much less than that of steam power station
of the same capacity .
6- The thermal efficiency of the plant is higher than that of a
steam power station ( 35% )

13
Disadvantages
1- The plan has high running charges as the fuel ( i.e diesel )
used is costly .
2- The plant does not work satisfactory under overload
conditions for a longer period .
3- The plant can only generate small power .
4- The cost of lubrication and maintenance charges are
generally high .

GAS Turbine Power Plant

A generating station which employs gas turbine as the prime
mover for the generation of electrical energy is known as a gas
turbine power plant .
In gas turbine , air is used as the working fluid . The air is
compressed by compressor and is led to the combustion
chamber where heat is added to air, thus raising its temperature .
The hot and high pressure air from the combustion chamber is
then passed to the gas turbine where it expands and does the
mechanical energy .
The fig. below shows the schematic arrangement of a gas
turbine power plant .

14
Advantages
1- It is simple in design , and much smaller in size as compared
to steam power station of the same capacity since no boiler
and their auxiliaries such as feed water arrangement are
required .
2- The initial and operation costs are much lower than that of
equivalent steam power station .
3- It requires comparatively less water as no condenser is used .
4- The maintenance charge are quite small because it is simple
in construction and operation as compared to steam turbine .
5- It can be started quickly from cold conditions .

15
6- There are no standby losses .These losses occur in a steam
power station because boiler is kept in operation even when
the steam turbine is supplying no load .
Disadvantages
1- There is problem for starting the unit. It is because before the
starting the turbine , the compressor required power from
some external source .
2- The overall efficiency of such plants is low ( about 20 % )
because the exhaust gases from the turbine contain sufficient
heat , and a greater part of power developed by the turbine is
used in driving the compressor .
3- The temperature of combustion chamber is quite high
(3000 F) so that its life is comparatively reduced .
Load Curves and Factors
In choosing the type of generation ( thermal , hydro-electric and
nuclear) ,and to select the size and number of generating units , a
number of points have to be considered . Some of these are :
The kind of fuel available and its cost, availability of suitable
sites for a hydro station , and the nature of load to be supplied.
The load which a power system has to supply is never constant
because of variable demands at different time of the day .The
variations can be see from the predication load curve.
load curve :
It is a graphic record showing the demand of the power for every
instant during the hour , the day , the month or the year .
The figure below , represent the daily load curve
16
Important terms and factors

The variable load problem has introduction the following terms

and factors in power plant generating :
1. Connected load : It is the sum of continuous rating of all the
equipments connected in supply system.

2. Demand : Demand of an installation or system is the load that

is drawn from the supply at a specified interval of
time , it is expressed in KWs , KVA or Amperes.

17
3. Maximum demand : It is the greatest demand of load on the
power station during a given period .
Max. demand is very important to
determine the installed capacity of the
station . The station must be capable
meeting the max. demand .

Max. demand
4. Demand factor = Connected load

Demand factor < 1 , it is used to determine the capacity of

the plant equipment. and may indicate
the degree to which the total connected
load is operated simultaneously .
5. Average load : The average of load occurring on the power
station in a given period ( day or month or
year ) is known as average load or average
demand.

No of units ( KWh ) generated in day

Daily average load = 24 hours

Total energy generated during a day KWh

= 24 hours

Area under the daily curve

= 24 hours

18
 Also :

Total energy generated during a month KWh

Monthly average load = No of hours in a month

Total energy generated during a year KWh

Yearly average load = No of hours in a year (8760 h)

Total energy generated during T period

In general average load = No of hours in T period

Average demand
6- Load factor (L.F.) = Max demand (load ) during a certain
period

Total energy generated during a T period

No. of hours in T period
= Max. demand

Total enrgy generated during a T period

= Max. demand No. of hours in T period

Note : If T = 24 hours , the L.F is called daily load factor

19
 1
L.F < 1 ; L.F Max. demand

Cost Plant Capacity of Station Max. Demand

1
Cost of plant L.F of power station

i.e load factor is very important to determine the overall cost

of plant.
And it indicates the degree to which the peak load is sustained
during the period .
Sum of individual max . demand
7 Diversity factor ( D.F ) = Max. demand on power station

Fig ( a ) 1. 2-6 100 KW = y1

2. 2-6 100 KW = y2
3. 2-6 100 KW = y3

y1 y 2 y 3
D .F
Y
3y 300
= Y = 300
= 1 ( Very bad D.F )

300
Fig ( b ) D.F 3 ( Very good D.F )
100

20
 KW KW

y1
y2 Y

y1 y2 y3 Y y3

0 8 16 24 hours 0 14 16 hours

Fig. b Fig. a

1
D.F 1 ; D.F Max. demand

1
Cost of plant D.F

Actual energy produced

8 Capacity factor = Max. energy that could have been produce

21
 Average load ( demand ) T
= Max . demand T

Average demand
= Plant Capacity

If the period is one year ,

Annual KWh output
Annual Capacity factor = Plant capacity 8760

9- Reserve Capacity = Plant Capacity Max. Demand

Station output in KWh

10 - Plant use factor = Plant capacity hours of use

EX. 20 MW power station , produce annual output of

6.5 10 6 KWh and remains in operation for 2100
hours in year , find the plant use factor.

( 6.5 10 6 ) 10 3
plant use factor = ( 20 10 6 ) 2100 = 0.154

= 15.4 %
22
 Load Duration Curve
When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order
of descending magnitudes , the curve thus obtained is called a
load duration curve . It gives the data in more presentable form.
Figures below represent i) daily load curve , ii) daily load
duration curve

Area under daily load curve = Area under daily load duration
curve .
= Total energy generated ( KWh ) on
the day
23
Load curves and selection of the number and sizes of
the generation units

The number and size of generating units are selected in such a

way that they correctly fit the station load curve as shown :

Time Units in operation

0-----7 1
7-----12 1+2
12-----14 1
14-----17 1+2
17-----22.30 1+2+3
22.30-----24 1+2

24
The important points in the selection of generator
units are:

The selection of units should be approximately fit the annual

( yearly) load curve of the station.
The capacity of the plant should be made 15 to 20% more
than the maximum demand.
One unit should be kept as a spare generating unit ( stand by
unit ).
By using identical units ( having the same capacity ) ensure
saving in cost of station .

25
 The load curve can be fit very accurately if large number and
small capacity of units are selected , this is one side , in other
side , the investment cost per KW of capacity increases as the
size of the units decreases .

Inter Connected Grid System

The connected of several generating station in parallel is known
as inter connected system

Example: A power station is to supply three consumers . The

daily demand of three consumers are given below :

Time (hours) Consumer (1) Consumer 2) Consumer (3)

06 200 KW 100 KW No - load
6 14 600 KW 1000 KW 400 KW
14 18 No - load 600 KW 400 KW
18 24 800 KW No - load 600 KW

Plot the load curve of power station and , find :

1- Load factor of individual consumer.
2- Diversity factor of power station .
3- Load factor of power station .

26
 Solution :
(KW)
2400
2000 2000

1600
1200 1400

800 1000

400 300

6 14 18 24 hours

Energy consumed / day

1- load factor of consumer = 100
Max . demand hours in day

load factor of consumer(1) =

200 6 600 8 0 4 800 6
100 56 .25 %
800 24
load factor of consumer(2) =
100 6 1000 8 600 4 0 6
100 45 .8 %
1000 24
load factor of consumer(3) =
0 6 400 8 400 4 600 6
100 58 .3 %
600 24

27
 Sum of indiviual max . demands
2- Diversity factor = max . demand on power station

From load curve , the Max. demand on power station is 2000 KW

800 1000 600
Diversity factor = 1 .2
2000
3- Load factor of power station =
300 6 2000 8 1000 4 1400 6
100 62.9 %
2000 24
Example: A power station is to supply two loads . The daily
load curve of the station is as shown in figure below . If the load
factor of the two loads are 0.416 and 0.458 respectively , and the
diversity factor of the power station is 1.142 , find :
1- The load factor of power station .
2- The energy consumed per day and the maximum demand of
each load .
KW
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
6 12 14 20 24 hours

28
 Solution :

Energy consumed ( generated ) / day

1- load factor ( L.F ) = 100
Max. demand hours in day

Load factor of power station =

1 1
18 400 6 400 10 400 ( 6 400 ) ( 6 600 )
2 2
1400 24

16600
= 0 .49
1400 24

2- Let : E1 energy consumed by load 1

E2 energy consumed by load 2
M1 Max. demand of load 1
M2 Max. demand of load 2
L.F1 , L.F2 - load factor of loads 1 and 2

E1 E1
L.F 1 ; 0.416
24 M 1 24 M 1

10 M1 = E1 .. (1)

29
 E2
0 .458
24 M 2
11 M2 = E2 (2)

Sum of indiviual max . demands

Diversity factor = max . demand on power station

M1 M 2
1 . 142
1400
1600 = M1 + M2 .(3)
Energy generated from power station = E1 + E1
16600 = E1 + E2 .(4)
Put (3) and (4) in (2)
11 ( 1600 M1 ) = 16600 E1
17600 16600 11 M1 + E1 = 0 .(5)
Put (1) in (5)
1000 11 M1 + 10 M1 = 0
M1 = 1000 KW
From (3) M2 = 1600 1000 = 600 KW
From (1) E1 = 10 x 1000 = 10000 KWh
From (2) E2 = 11x 600 = 6600 KWh

30
 Discussion Questions
1- Draw the important components of a steam power station .
2- What factors are taken into account to select the site of steam power station .
3- State the main parts of a thermal power station , and discuss the function of
each part .

4- Draw the important components of a Hydro-Electric power station .

5- What factors are taken into account to select the site of Hydro-Electric power
station .

6- Draw the important components of a nuclear power station .

7- What factors are taken into account to select the site of nuclear power station .
8- What do you understand from the load curve and what information are
converged by a load curve.
9- Discuss the important points to be taken into consideration while selecting the
size and number of units generation .
10- Explain the terms , connected load , load factor , plant use factor , diversity
factor .

Tutorial Problems
Q1 A power station is to supply three loads. The daily cycle of loads are given below:

Time in hours 0-6 6 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 18 18 - 22 22 - 24

Loads A in MW 10 15 20 30 15 5

Time in hours 0 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 24
Loads B in MW 0 15 0

Time in hours 0-4 4 - 10 10 - 14 14 - 16 16 - 20 20 - 24

Loads C in MW 5 15 50 10 20 10

1. Draw the load and duration curves of power station.

2. Calculate: i- load factor of each load.
ii- load factor of the power station.
iii- Diversity factor of the power station.
iv- The capacity factor when the station is having reserve
set 20% of the max. Demand.

31
Q2 A power station is to supply two loads . The daily load curves of two loads are
shown in figures below :

MW MW

25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

4 12 16 20 24 hours 12 16 24 hours

Load curve A Load curve B

1- Plot the load and duration curves of power station .

2 - Find :
i- Load factor of each load.
ii- Load factor and Diversity factor of power station.
iii- The reserve capacity and Capacity factor of the power station .If the
power station consists of three units , the installed capacity of each
unit is 20 MW.

Q3 A Power station is to supply two loads . The daily of loads are given below.

Time in hours 0-6 6-8 8-16 16-22 22-24

Load A in W 4 12 18 30 35

Time in hours 0-2 2-10 10-16 16-20 20-24

Load B in W 8 15 20 25 10

Draw the load and duration curves of power station, and find:
1- Load factor of each load.
2- Load factor of the power station.
3- Diversity factor of the power station.
4 - The capacity factor when the station is having reserve set 20% of the
max. Demand.

32
Prediction of load and Energy Requirements

The nature of load to be supplied affects the choice of plant to a considerable extent. The load
which a power system has to supply is never constant because of variable demands at different
time of the day . The variations can be seen from the predicated LOAD CURVE.

The minimum capacity of generating station must be such as to meet the maximum demand At
the same time it is essential for the power system to maintain reliability and continuity of power
supply at all time.

Therefore to determine the prediction of load and energy requirement must be draw the load
curve of demand. There are some methods for this purpose ,are:

1- Load survey

2- Methods of extrapolation

3- Mathematical methods

4- Mathematical methods using economic parameters.

Choice of Type, Size and Number of Generator Units

In choosing the type of generation ( thermal, hydro-electric and nuclear ) , and to select the size
and number of generating units, a number of points have to be considered. Some of these are:
The kind of fuel available and its cost, abundant quantity of cooling water should be available (
for thermal station ), availability of suitable sites ( for hydro station ), and the nature of load to be
supplied.

The important points in the selection of generator units are:

33
 The selection of units should be approximately fit the annual ( yearly) load curve of the
station.

The capacity of the plant should be made 15 to 20% more than the maximum demand.

One unit should be kept as a spare generating unit ( stand by unit ).

By using identical units ( having the same capacity ) ensure saving in cost of station .

34
 Power Transmission

There are two types of transmission system:

a- Overhead transmission line .
b- Under ground cables .

Overhead transmission line

An overhead transmission line consists of conductors

, insulators , support structures , and in most cases ,
shield wire ( ground wire ) .

Economic choice of transmission voltage

P1 phase VI cos ( 1 )
IF cos constant

loss ,
P 1 phase V I { C.S . A of conductor cost
Voltage regulation (V . R )
cost of transformers , towers,
insulators , and switch gears

The transmission losses may be computed from the

approximate formulas :

 Ptr2 Qtr2
Ploss Rl 2
watt
Vtr
Ptr2 Qtr2
Qloss X l 2
var .( 2 )
Vtr

Where : Rl - resistance of line

X l - reactance of line
Ptr and Qtr are active and reactive
transmission power ( power of
load )

Above discussion and formulas informs that the cost

for lost energy decreases with increased voltage level .
However , the fixed costs of (towers , insulators
transformers and switchgears ) increase with voltage .

Therefore , for every transmission line , there is

optimum transmission voltage , beyond which there
is nothing to be gained in the matter of economy.

The fig. blow shown that the total transmission costs

will therefore be minimized at a certain voltage level.
It is called economical transmission voltage .

transmission
costs
total costs

fixed costs

cost for lost

energy

economical voltage
transmission voltage level

The empirical formula to find the economical

transmission voltage between lines in a 3-phase ac
system is :

3P
V 5 .5 0 . 62 l ..( 3 )
150

Where V line voltage in KV .

P maximum KW per phase to be
delivered to single circuit .
l length of transmission line .

The larger power to be transmitted and greater the

distance over which they must be wheeled , the
higher must be the operation voltage level chosen .

 Standard voltage levels

Low voltage transmission (KV) :

11 , 22 , 33 , 66

High voltage transmission (KV) :

110 , 132 , 220 , 275 , 330

Extra high voltage transmission (KV) :

380 , 400 , 500 ,750 , 1000

1100-1500 under research

Conductor material

Characteristics of material ;
1- High electrical conductivity .
2- High tensile strength .
3- Low cost .

Better materials :
1- Copper (Cu):
Conductivity and tensile strength of copper
are high , but cost of material also high .

2- Aluminum (AL) :
a- conductivity of AL is 60% of that of Cu .
b- Coefficient of expansion is high .
c- Weak (low) tensile strength .

 d- Lower cost and lighter weight of an AL
conductor compared with a Cu .
e- For the same resistance , AL conductor has
a large diameter than an Cu conductor , i.e
low effect of corona .

Therefore aluminum has replaced copper as the most

common conductor metal for overhead transmission .

Symbols identifying different types of AL conductors

are as follows :
AAC : all- aluminum conductor .
AAAC : all- aluminum -alloy conductor .
ACAR : aluminum conductor alloy reinforced .
ACSR : aluminum conductor , steel reinforced .

The most common conductor types is ACSR , which

consists of layers aluminum strands surrounding a
central core of steel strands as shown in fig. below .

Steel strands

Aluminum strands

 Stranded conductors are easier to manufacture , since
larger conductor size can be obtained by simply
adding successive layers of strands , and also easier
to handle and more flexible than solid conductors .

The number of strands depends on the number of

layers and on whether all the strands are the same
diameter . (The strands are uniform diameter) :

Total No. of strands ( N s ) = 1 3 n ( n 1) ( 4 )

Where n is the number of layers around the central

strand .

No.of layers 1 2 3 4 5
(n)
Ns, including 6+1=7 18+1=19 36+1=37 60+1=61 90+1=91
the Single
center strand

First layer

Second layer

Stranded conductors usually have central wire (core)
around which are successive layers of ( 6 , 12 , 18 ,
24 ) wires as shown in above fig.

The equivalent diameter of stranded conductor is

given by :
D (1 2 n ) d ..( 5 )
Where d - is the diameter of the strand.

EX. Stranded conductor 19/2.9 mm . calculate the

equivalent diameter of conductor .
Solution : The diameter of one strand (d) = 2.9 mm
No. of stranded in conductor (Ns) = 19
Therefore for No. of layer = 2 , distributed
as follow :
=[ 1 + 6 + 12 ]
st nd
core 1 layer 2 layer

or can be calculated by eq. ( 4 ) as follow :

19 1 3 n ( n 1 )
18 3n 2 3n
n2 n 6 0
( n 3)( n 2) 0
n2
D (1 2 n ) d
(1 2 2 ) 2 . 9 14 . 5 mm

Parameters of overhead transmission lines

Transmission lines (T.L) are basically circuits with

distributed constants ( parameters ) : series resistance ,
series inductance , shunt capacitance , and shunt
conductance are distributed a long the whole length
of line ,as shown in below fig.
2
Series resistance accounts for ohmic ( I R ) line losses.
Series impedance , including resistance and inductive
reactance , gives rise to series voltage drops along
the line .
Shunt capacitance gives rise to line charging
currents .
Shunt conductance accounts for ( V 2 G ) line losses
due to leakage currents between conductors or
between conductors and ground over insulators ,
addition to corona losses . Shunt conductance of
overhead lines is usually neglected.

The same current flows through the upper and lower
part of each section the resistance and inductance of
both can be combined and the equivalent circuit of
below fig. is obtained . Thus :

R1 r1 r1 , L1 l1 l1 etc.

Then if each section of the line is of equal length

corresponding to unit length ( say one meter ) of the
line we will have :

R1 R2 R3 ....... R , resistance per unit length of

the line i.e. ohms/loop meter . Similarly ,
L1 L2 L3 ..... L henrys/loop meter ,
G1 G2 G3 ..... G mhos/loop meter , and
C1 C2 C3 ...... C farads/loop meter

Section of
unit length

Reaistance

The d.c resistance of various type of conductors at

specified temperature T is found by :
T l
Rdc.T .( 6 )
A
Where T - conductor receptivity at temperature T
( . m) .
l conductor length (m) .
A conductor cross- sectional area ( m 2 ) .

The resistance of T.L conductor is effected by the

following factors :

1- Spiraling of a stranded conductor :

For stranded conductors , alternate layers of strands

are spiraled in opposite directions to hold the
strands together . Spiraling makes the strands
length 2% longer than the actual conductor length .
As a result , the dc resistance of a stranded is 1 or
2% larger than that calculated from eq. ( 6 ) for a
specified conductor length .

 2- Temperature :

Temperature correction are determined by :

R2 T t2
..( 7 )
R1 T t1

Where R1 and R2 are the resistances of conductor

at temperatures t1 and t 2 respectively .

T = 234.5 for annealed copper of 100% conductivity

= 241.5 for hard-drawn copper of 97.3%
conductivity .
= 228.1 for hard-drawn aluminum of 61%
conductivity .

3- Frequency ( skin effect ) :

For dc , the current distribution ( current density ) is

uniform throughout the conductor cross section , and
eq. (6) is valid . However , for ac , the current
distribution is nonuniform . As frequency increases ,
the current in a solid cylindrical conductor tends to
crowd toward the conductor surface , with smaller
current density at the conductor center. This
phenomenon is called skin effect .
The increase in resistance due to skin effect can be
determined from tables or curves .

Inductance :

It is defined as the flux linkages per unit current . i.e :

L henrys ( 8 )
I
Where - is flux linkage ( Weber-turns )
I - is current ( amperes )

For instantaneous value of current and flux linkage,

L
i
[ and I are in phase , L is real . ]

This is true provided flux linkage of circuit vary

linearly with current , i.e , the magnetic circuit has
constant permeability ( ) . If permeability is not
constant we have to make use of the second
fundamental equation :

d dLi di
e L ( 9 )
dt dt dt
Where e is induced voltage ( volt ) .
L is constant of proportionality , inductance
( henrys ) .

 di
dt - is rate of changes of current
( amps/second ) .

Mutual inductance between two circuits is defined

as flux linkages of one circuit per unit current in the
other circuit .
12
M 12 henrys
I2 .(10)
Where 12 - is flux linkages with circuit 1 (Weber-
turns)
I 2 - is current in circuit 2 (amps)

Inductance of a solid cylindrical conductor due

to internal flux :

dx

A dx . 1

mmf N I
mmf H l
mmf NI AT
H ( )
l l m

Where H field intensity .
l - length of path of flux .
l 2 x
N No. of turns of conductor { for our analysis N=1
(one conductor )}

Hl I

Ampere's law : [ The mmf around any closed path

( l 2 x ) equals the current
enclosed by the path ( I x ) ]

Or 2 x H x I x

Where H x - is tangent of contour , it is constant.

I x - is the portion of total current enclosed
by the contour .
If current density in the conductor is uniform ;
x2
Ix I
r 2

I - total current in the conductor .

Ix x2 x
Hx I I AT / m
2 x r . 2 x
2
2 r 2

We know : B H

Where B flux density .

- permeability of conductor .

And , B r 0 H

Where r - relative permeability

0 - permeability of free space
0 4 10 7 henrys / meter
x
Bx I Wb / m 2

2 r 2

Also , we know : B
A

Where - flux ( Weber )

2
A area ( m )

The differential flux d per unit length of

conductor in the cross - hatched rectangle of width
dx shown in fig. above , is :

 B A ; d Bx .dA
xI xI
d dA dx.1 Wb / m
2 r 2
2 r 2

Where d - flux enclosed in element of thickness

dx per meter ( axial ) length of
conductor .

So that flux linkage per meter length of conductor :

x2 x3I
d d dx Wb.T / m
r 2
2 r 4

Integrating above eq. from x = 0 to x = r determines

the total flux linkages int . in side the conductor :
r
x3 I r 3
int . I dx 4
x dx
0
2 r 4
2 r 0
r
I x
4
I
Wb.T / m
2 r 4 4 0 8

For nonmagnetic conductor , r = 1 ;

therefore , 0 4 10 7

 0 I 4 10 7 1
int . I 10 7 Wb.T / m
8 8 2

The internal inductance Lint . per unit length of

conductor due to this flux linkage is then :

int . 10 7
Lint . henrys / meter (11)
I 2

Flux linkages between two points external to an

isolated Conductor ( Inductance of a solid
cylindrical conductor due to external flux ) :

conductor carried D1 P1
current = I
x dx

D2
P2

mmf N I H l
l 2 x ; N 1
N No. of turn

 2 x H x I x I
I
Hx AT / m
2 x

B H
A
I
Bx Wb / m 2
2 x
B A ; d Bx .dA
The flux links with current I in the thickness dx :
I
d dx Wb / m
2 x
The flux linkage per meter :

d d ( flux external to the conductor links

all the current in the conductor . )

The flux linkages between P1 and P2 :

D2
I I D2
12
D1
2 x
dx
2
ln
D1
Wb.T / m

For nonmagnetic conductor , r = 1 ;

 therefore , 0 4 10 7

D2
12 2 10 I ln
7
Wb.T / m
D1

12 D
L12 2 10 7 ln 2 henrys / m
I D1

..(12)
Inductance L12 , this only for flux linkage of an
isolated conductor which lie between the points
P1 and P2 distant D1 and D2 respectively from the
center of the conductor as shown in fig.

Inductance of single phase Two wire line :

conductor
radius r2
conductor
radius r1

For external flux only ( using eq. 12 )

 D
L1ext 2 10 7 ln henrys / m
r1
For internal flux only ( eq. 11 )
10 7
L 1int . henrys / meter
2
Therefore , total inductance of the circuit due to
current in conductor 1 only is :

L1 L int L ext
1 D
L1 10 7 2 10 7 ln
2 r1
1 D D
2 10 7 ln 2 10 7 ln e 1 / 4 ln
4 r1 r1
D D
2 10 7 ln e 1 / 4 2 10 7 ln 1 / 4
r
1 e r1
1 / 4
But , e 0 .7788
D
L1 2 10 7 ln
0.7788 r1

D
L1 2 10 7
ln henrys / m
r1 ( 13 )

Where , r1 0.7788
r1 is called Geometric mean radius ( G.M.R )

 r1 = 0.7788 times the radius of conductor .

Also, the inductance due to current in conductor

No.2 :
D
L2 2 10 ln
7
henrys / m
r2
Total inductance for the complete circuit :
7 D D
L L1 L2 2 10 ln ln
r1 r2
D2
2 10 7
ln
r1 r2
1/ 2
1 D2 D 2

4 10 7 ln 4 10 ln
7

2 r1 r2 r1 r2
D
4 10 7 ln
r r
1 2

If the radius of the two conductor is same , i.e :

r1 = r2 = r , therefore r1 r2 r

 D
L 4 10 7 ln henrys / m ( H / m)
r
And ,
D
L 0.4 ln mH / Km
r

...........( 14 )

Sometimes this inductance is called inductance per

loop length , it is double the inductance per
conductor in a single phase line .

Flux linkages of one conductor in a group :

I 1 I 2 I 3 ....... I n 0

If 1 p1 denotes all the flux linkages of conductor 1
due to its own current I1 , internal and external , upto
point P . By using eq. (11) and (12) :

I1 D1 P

1 p1 2 I 1 ln 10 7
2 r1
DP
2 10 7 I 1 ln 1 Wb .T / m
r1
where r1 = 0.7788 r1

Also , 1 p 2 - is flux linkages with conductor 1 due to

current in conductor 2 ( I2 ) , but excluding flux
beyond point (P) is equal to the flux produced by I2
between the point P and conductor 1 (i.e. the flux
linkages due to I2 with in limiting distance D2 p and
D12 from conductor 2 ) .
D2 p
1 p 2 2 10 I 2 ln
7

D12
Similarly for 1 p 3 , ........ 1 pn
The flux linkages 1 p with conductor 1 due to
I 1 , I 2 , I 3 ,... I n , but excluding flux beyond point P is:

D1 p D2 p D3 p Dnp

1 p 2 10 I1 ln
7
I2 ln I3 ln .... In ln
r1 D12 D13 D1n

 1 1 1 1
I ln I ln I ln .... I ln
7 1
2 10 r1
2
D12
3
D13
n
D 1n
I ln D I ln D I ln D ..... I ln D
1 1p 2 2p 3 3p n np

But , I n I 1 I 2 I 3 ....... I n 1

1 1 1 1
1
I ln I ln I ln .... I ln
r1
2 3 n
D12 D13 D1n
1 p 2 107 I1 ln D1 p I 2 ln D2 p I3 ln D3 p ..... (I1

I 2 I3 ...... I n1) ln Dnp

1 1 1 1
I1 ln I 2 ln I3 ln .... I n ln
7
r1 D12 D13 D1n
1 p 2 10
D D D
I1 ln 1 p I 2 ln 2 p ...... I n1 ln (n1) p
Dnp Dnp Dnp

Now if point (P) moves infinity, terms such as :

D1 p D2 p D( n 1) p
; .....
Dnp Dnp Dnp approach the value 1 and ,
ln(1) = 0

 1 1 1 1
1 2 107 I1 ln I 2 ln I3 ln .... I n ln
r1 D12 D13 D1n
Wb.T / m

Also denoting r1 as D11 we have :

1 1 1 1
1 2 107 I1 ln I 2 ln I3 ln .... I n ln
D11 D12 D13 D1n

Wb.T / m .(15)

Inductance of composite conductor lines :

conductor A conductor B
carried current I carried current - I

Applying eq. (15) to segment (filament ) (a) of
conductor A , we obtain for flux linkage of filament (a)

I 1 I 1 I 1

a 2 10 ln
7
ln ..... ln

P Daa P Dab P Dap
I 1 I 1 I 1
2 10 7 ln ln ..... ln
q D q D q Daq
aa ab

1 1 / p 1
1/ p
1
1/ p

ln
ln ..... ln
7
2 10 I Daa
Dab Dap

lnDaa lnDab ..... lnDaq
1/ q 1/ q 1/ q

1 / q
1 1
ln ln ln D 1/ q
Where D
aa
D aa 1 / q aa

q Daa Dab Dac .....Daq

a 2 10 I ln p
7
Wb.T / m
Daa DabDac.....Dap

a q Daa Dab Dac .....Daq

La 2 p 107 ln H /m
I/p Daa DabDac.....Dap
p

(16)
La - Inductance of filament (a) .
In similar manner we may write :

b q Dba Dbb Dbc .....Dbq

7
Lb 2 p 10 ln H /m
I/p p DbaDbbDbc.....Dbp

 Where :
ln ( x y z ) ln x ln y ln z
ln ( y / x ) ln y ln x
ln ( x ) y y ln x
The average inductance of the filaments of conductor A
is :
L L L ..... Lp
L average a b c
p
Conductor A is composed of (p) filaments electrically
in parallel ;
1- If , L a Lb Lc Lp Laverage
L
LA a
p
Where LA , inductance of conductor A .

2 - If L a Lb Lc Lp

Laverage La Lb Lc ......Lp
LA
P P2

pq (Daa Dab Dac .....Daq ) (Dba Dbb Dbc .....Dbq )...

2
p
(Daa DabDac.....Dap )(Dba DbbDbc.....Dbp )...
LA 2 107 ln H /m
....(Dpa Dpb Dpc .....Dpq )
....(Dpa DpbDpc.....Dpp )

(17)

The numerator is called Geometric mean distance
( G.M.D ) between conductors A and B , and denoted
Dm , but denominator is called Geometric mean radius
( G.M.R ) and denoted DS .

Dm
LA 2 107 ln henrys/ meter ..(18)
DSA
D
LB 2 107 ln m henrys/ meter
DSB

If conductors A and B are identical i.e. DSA DSB DS

Dm
L LA LB 4 107 ln H /m
DS
Dm .(19)
0.4 107 ln mH / Km
DS

Where L inductance of line (or loop)

Inductance of three-phase lines :

A) Equilateral spacing :

Ia Ib Ic 0
By using eq.(15)
1 1 1
a 2 107 I a ln Ib ln Ic ln Wb.T / m
r D D
Ia (Ib Ic )
D
a 2 107 I a ln Wb.T / m
r

D
La 2 107 ln H /m .(20)
r

r 0.7788 r
L a - Inductance per phase of 3-phase line .
IF conductor is stranded , r DS , therefore :

D
La 2 107 ln H /m .........(21)
DS

 B) Unsymmetrical spacing :

In this case , the flux linkages and inductances of the

phases are different , since the circuit becomes
unbalance . Balance of the three phases can be
restored by exchanging the positions of the conductors
at regular intervals along the line so that , the
conductor of each phase occupies each of the three
positions 1,2 and 3 for about one-third of its length , as
illustrated in below fig.
Such an exchange of conductor position is called
transpositions

1- Transposed conductor with unsymmetrical spacing:

Assume a1 , a 2 , a 3 - are the flux linkages of

conductor (a) in positions 1 , 2 , and 3 respectively and
by using eq. (15) :
7 1 1 1

a1 2 10 I a ln Ib ln Ic ln
r D12 D31
1 1 1
a 2 2 10 I a ln Ib ln
7
Ic ln
r D 23 D 12

1 1 1
a3 2 107 I a ln Ib ln Ic ln
r D31 D23

Then average flux linkages of conductor (a) :

a1 a 2 a 3
a
3
1 1 1 1 1
a 2 107 I a ln Ib ln Ic ln

r 3 D12D23D31 3 D12D23D31

7
1 1 1
2 10 I a ln Ib ln Ic ln
r 3 D D D 3 D D D
12 23 31 12 23 31

But , I a ( I b I c )
3 D D D
a 2 10 I a ln 12 23 31
7
Wb.T / m
r

 a 3 D12 D23 D31
7

La 2 10 ln H /m
Ia r

7
Deq
L a 2 10 ln H /m
Ds (22)

Where , Deq 3 D12 D23 D31 ; Ds r

L a L b L c ( because of the circuit is balance )

Average phase inductance = 3 L a L b L

1
c

3La
La
3
7
Deq
2 10 ln H /m
Ds
2- Untransposed conductors with unsymmetrical
spacing :

By using eq. (15) , flux linkage of conductor (a)

7 1 1 1
a 2 10 I a ln Ib ln Ic ln
r D12 D31

 a
L
And inductance of phase (a) , a
Ia
1 I 1 Ic 1
La 2 107 ln b ln ln
r I a D12 I a D31
Ia Ib Ic 0
If I a is taken as a reference phasor :

I a I a 0 ; I b I a 240 ; I c I a 120
And ,
Ib
1240 cos 240 j sin 240
Ia
1 3
j
2 2
Ic
1120 cos120 j sin 120
Ia
1 3
j
2 2
Thus summarizing :

D12D31 D12
7
L a 2 10 ln j 3 ln H /m
r D31

D23 D12 D23
7
L b 2 10 ln j 3 ln H /m
r D12

 D31D23 D
L c 2 10 ln
7
j 3 ln 31 H /m
r D23

...........(23)

IF conductor is stranded , r DS , in above equations

.
Inductance of bundled conductors :

It is common practice for Extra high voltage (EHV)

lines to use more than one conductor per phase , a
practice called bundling . Bundling reduces the electric
field strength at conductor surfaces , which in turn
reduces or eliminates corona , and also reduces the
series reactance ( Z ) of the line by increasing the GMR
of the bundle .
Fig. below shows common EHV bundles consisting of
two , three , or four conductors .

 d - bundle spacing .
To calculate inductance of bundle conductor , DS in
eq.( 21 , 22 , 23 ) replaced by the GMR of the bundle ,
b
which is denoted by DSL .

1- For two conductor bundle :

b
2 ( DS d ) 2 4 ( DS d ) 2 ( DS d )
2
DSL

2- For three conductor bundle :

b
3 ( DS d d )3 9 ( DS d 2 )3 3 DS d 2
2
DSL

3- For four conductor bundle :

4 (DS d d d 2)4 16 (DS d 3 2)4 4 DS d 3 2

b 2
DSL
1.09 4 DS d 3

IF conductor is solid , DS r in above three condition

Inductance of parallel circuit three phase lines
with symmetrical spacing :

a a a C

b b b b

c C c a

incorrect correct Tower

arrangement of conductors

Flux linkage of phase (a) conductors :

D D
3D 2D 3D

D 30 30 D

 1 1 1 1
a r
I ln ln
b I ln ln
2D D 3D
a 2 107
1 1
Ic ln ln
3D D

1 1 1

a 2 10 I a ln
7
I b ln I c ln
2
2 D r 3D 2
3D

1 1
a 2 107 I a ln I b I c ln
2
2 D r 3D

But , I a I b I c 0
7 1 1
a 2 10 I a ln I a ln
2
2Dr 3D
3D2 3D

a 2 10 I a ln
7
7

2 10 I a ln

2 D r 2 r

Inductance of phase (a) :
a 3D
La 2 10 ln
7
H /m

Ia 2 r (24)

Inductance of each conductor (a) or ( a) 2 La

3D 3D
2 2 10 7
ln 4 10 ln

7


H /m
2r 2r

EX.1 A 3-phase , 50Hz , 132 KV overhead transmission
lines has conductor diameter of 4 cm each , are
arranged in a horizontal plane as shown in fig .
supplies a balanced load , assume the line is
completely transposed . Find the inductance per
Km per phase .

Phase A Phase B Phase C

4m 4m

Solution :

D m Deq 3 D AB D BC DCA
3 4 4 8 5.04 m
DS r 0.7788 r
4
0.7788 1.5576 cm
2
7 Dm 7 5.04
L 2 10 ln 2 10 ln
Ds 1.5576 10 2

11 .53 10 7 H / m
1.153 mH / Km

EX.2 A 3-phase , 50Hz , 400 KV overhead transmission
lines are arranged in a horizontal plane , each phase
has two strand bundle conductors , the diameter
of each strand is 25mm , as shown in the fig.
below. Find the inductance per Km per phase .

0.3m 25mm

6m 6m
Phase A Phase B Phase C

Solution :

D m Deq 3 D AB D BC DCA
3 6 6 12 7.56 m
DS r 0.7788 r
25
0.7788 9.735 mm
2
b
DSL DS d
9.735 10 3 0.3 0.054 m
7 Dm 7 7.56
L 2 10 ln 2 10 ln
Ds 0.054
9.88 10 7 H / m 0.988 mH / Km

 Discussion Questions
1 The resistance of a transmission line is effected by some factors .
Explain these factors .
2 What is the effect of skin effect in the resistance of transmission
line conductors .
3 Show that the inductance of a conductor due to internal flux is
given by :
1
L 10 7 H /m
2
4 What is the effect of temperature in the resistance of transmission
line conductors .
5 Derive in expression for the inductance per phase for a 3- phase
overhead transmission line when conductors are of equilateral
spacing .
6 What is the effect of unsymmetrical spacing of conductors in a
3-phase transmission line .
7 State the advantage of bundle conductor lines over single
conductor lines .

Tutorial Problems
Q1. A 3-phase , 50 Hz , 110 KV , overhead transmission line consists
of three solid conductors of 3 cm diameter positioned on the
corners of triangle with sides of 2 m , 2.5 m , 3.125 m .
If the conductor of each phase of this line is replaced by three-
strand bundle conductor has the same equivalent area of one solid
conductor , and the space between the strands of bundle is 0.2 m .
Find the inductance for two conditions . Assume the internal
magnetic flux of conductor is neglected and the line is transposed.

Q2. A 3-phase , 132 KV , 50 Hz , 100 Km , single circuit bundle
conductor transmission line as shown in the figure below . If the
diameter of each strand is 1 cm , and the conductors are
regularly transposed . Determine , the inductance per phase per
Km .

6m

5m

0.18 m