Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Producedby:NaturalResources
ManagementandEnvironment
Department
Title:Waterliftingdevices... PDFversion
Franais Moredetails
2.WATERLIFTINGFORIRRIGATION
2.1GENERALPRINCIPLESOFWATERLIFTING
2.1.1DefinitionsofWork,Power,EnergyandEfficiency
Energyisrequired,bydefinition,todoworktherateatwhichitisusedisdefinedaspower(see
AnnexIfordetaileddefinitionsofunitsandtheirrelationships).Aspecificamountofworkcanbe
donequicklyusingalotofpower,orslowlyusinglesspower,butintheendtheidenticalamountof
energyisrequired(ignoring"sideeffects"likeefficiencies).
Thecostofpumpingorliftingwater,whetherincashorkind,iscloselyrelatedtotherateatwhich
powerisused(i.e.theenergyrequirementinagivenperiod).Sincethereisoftenconfusiononthe
meaningofthewords"power"and"energy",itisworthalsomentioningthattheenergyrequirement
consistsoftheproductofpowerandtimeforexample,apowerofsay,5kWexpendedoveraperiod
ofsay,6h(hours),representsanenergyconsumptionof30kWh(kilowatthours).Thewatt(W),and
kilowatt(kW)aretherecommendedinternationalunitsofpower,butunitssuchashorsepower(hp)
andfootpoundspersecond(ft.lb/s)arestillinuseinsomeplaces.Thejoule(J)istheinternationally
recommendedunitofenergyhoweveritisnotwellknownandisaverysmallunit,beingequivalent
toonly1Ws(wattsecond).ForpracticalpurposesitiscommontouseMJ(megajoulesormillionsof
joules),orintheworldoutsidescientificlaboratories,kWh(kilowatthours).lkWh(whichisone
kilowattforonehouroraboutthepoweroftwohorsesbeingworkedquitehardforonehour)isequal
to3.6MJ.Fuelsofvariouskindshavetheirpotencymeasuredinenergytermsforexamplepetroleum
fuelssuchaskeroseneordieseloilhaveagrossenergyvalueofabout36MJ/litre,whichisalmost
exactly10kWh/litre.Enginescanonlymakeeffectiveuseofafractionofthisenergy,butthepowerof
anenginewillevensoberelatedtotherateatwhichfuel(orenergy)isconsumed.
Thehydraulicpowerrequiredtoliftorpumpwaterisafunctionofboththeapparentverticalheight
liftedandtheflowrateatwhichwaterislifted.
Inotherwords,powerneedsarerelatedproratatothehead(heightwaterislifted)andtheflowrate.
Inreality,theactualpumpingheadimposedonapump,or"grossworkinghead",willbesomewhat
greaterthantheactualverticaldistance,or"statichead",waterhastoberaised.Fig.1indicatesa
typicalpumpinstallation,anditcanbeseenthatthegrosspumpinghead,(whichdeterminesthe
actualpowerneed),consistsofthesumofthefrictionhead,thevelocityheadandtheactualstatic
head(orlift)onboththesuctionsideofthepump(inthecaseofapumpthatsuckswater)andonthe
deliveryside.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 1/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Fig.1Typicalpumpinstallation
Thefrictionheadconsistsofaresistancetoflowcausedbyviscosityofthewater,turbulenceinthe
pumporpipes,etc.Itcanbeaconsiderablesourceofinefficiencyinbadlyimplementedwater
distributionsystems,asitisafunctionwhichishighlysensitivetoflowrate,andparticularlytopipe
diameter,etc.ThisisdiscussedinmoredetailinSection2.1.4.
Thevelocityheadistheapparentresistancetoflowcausedbyacceleratingthewaterfromresttoa
givenvelocitythroughthesystemanyobjectormaterialwithmassresistsanyattempttochangeits
stateofmotionsothataforceisneededtoaccelerateitfromresttoitstravellingvelocity.Thisforceis
"felt"bythepumporliftingdeviceasextraresistanceorhead.Obviously,thehigherthevelocityat
whichwaterispropelledthroughthesystem,thegreatertheaccelerationrequiredandthegreater
thevelocityhead.Thevelocityheadisproportionaltothesquareofthevelocityofthewater.
Therefore,ifthewaterispumpedoutofthesystemasajet,withhighvelocity(suchasisneededfor
sprinklerirrigationsystems),thenthevelocityheadcanrepresentasizeableproportionofthepower
needandhenceoftherunningcosts.Butinmostcaseswherewateremergesfromapipeatlow
velocity,thevelocityheadisrelativelysmall.
2.1.2EfficiencyofComponentstheImportanceofMatching
Thegeneralprinciplethat:
appliestoanywaterliftingtechnique,whetheritisacentrifugalpump,oraropewithabucketonit.
Theactualpowerandenergyneedsarealwaysgreaterthenthehydraulicenergyneed,because
lossesinevitablyoccurwhenproducingandtransmittingpowerorenergyduetofriction.Thesmaller
thefrictionlosses,thehigherthequalityofasystem.Thequalityofasystemintermsofminimizing
lossesisdefinedasits"efficiency":
usingenergyvaluesintheequationgivesthelongertermefficiency,whilepowervaluescouldbe
usedtodefinetheinstantaneousefficiency.
Atrulyfrictionlesspumpingsystemwouldintheorybe100%efficienti.e.alltheenergyappliedtoit
couldreappearashydraulicenergyoutput.However,intherealworldtherearealwaysfrictionlosses
associatedwitheverymechanicalandhydraulicprocess.Eachcomponentofapumpingsystemhas
anefficiency(orbyimplication,anenergyloss)associatedwithitthesystemefficiencyortotal
efficiencyistheproductofmultiplyingtogethertheefficienciesofallthecomponents.Forexample,a
smallelectricallydrivencentrifugalpumpconsistsofanelectricmotor,(efficiencytypically85%),a
mechanicaltransmission(efficiencyifdirectdriveofsay98%),thepumpitself(optimumefficiencysay
70%)andthesuctionanddeliverypipesystem(say80%efficient).Theoverallsystemefficiencywill
betheproductofallthesecomponentefficiencies.Inotherwords,thehydraulicpoweroutput,
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 2/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
measuredas(statichead)x(flow)(sincepipelosseshavebeenconsideredasapipesystem
efficiency)willinthiscasebe47%,derivedasfollows:
Theefficiencyofacomponentisgenerallynotconstant.Thereisusuallyanoperatingconditionunder
whichtheefficiencyismaximizedorthelossesareminimizedasafractionoftheenergythroughput
forexampleacentrifugalpumpalwayshasacertainspeedatagivenflowrateandheadatwhichits
efficiencyisamaximum.Similarly,apersonordraftanimalalsohasanaturalspeedofoperationat
whichthelossesareminimizedandpumpingiseasiestinrelationtooutput.
Therefore,toobtainapumpingsystemwhichhasahighoverallefficiencydependsverymuchon
combiningachainofcomponents,suchasaprimemover,transmission,pumpandpipes,sothatat
theplannedoperatingflowrateandstatichead,thecomponentsarealloperatingclosetotheir
optimumefficienciesi.e.theyare"wellmatched".Amostimportantpointtoconsideristhatitis
commonforirrigationsystemstoperformbadlyevenwhenallthecomponentsconsideredindividually
arepotentiallyefficient,simplybecauseoneormoreofthemsometimesareforcedtooperatewell
awayfromtheiroptimumconditionforaparticularapplicationduetobeingwronglymatchedorsized
inrelationtotherestofthesystem.
2.1.3IrrigationSystemLosses
Thecompleteirrigationsystemconsistsnotonlyofawatersourceandwaterliftingmechanismand
itsprimemoverandenergysupply,butthentheremustalsobeawaterconveyancesystemtocarry
thewaterdirectlytothefieldorplotsinacontrolledmanneraccordingtothecropwater
requirements.Theremayalsobeafielddistributionsystemtospreadthewaterefficientlywithineach
field.Insomecasestherecouldbeawaterstoragetanktoallowfinitequantitiesofwatertobe
suppliedbygravitywithoutrunningthewaterliftingmechanism.Fig.2indicatesthekeycomponents
ofanyirrigationsystem,andalsoshowssomeexamplesofcommonoptionsthatfulfilthe
requirementsandwhichmaybeusedinavarietyofcombinations.
Fig.2Keycomponentsofanirrigationsystem
Mostoftheirrigationsystemcomponentsinfluencethehydraulicpowerrequirements.Forexample,if
pipesareusedfordistribution,eveniftheytransferwaterhorizontally,pipefrictionwillcreatean
additionalresistance"felt"atthepump,whichineffectwillrequireextrapowertoovercomeit.Ifopen
channelsareused,extrapowerisstillneededbecausealthoughthewaterwillflowfreelybygravity
downthechannel,theinputendofthechannelneedstobehighenoughabovethefieldtoprovide
thenecessaryslopeorhydraulicgradienttocausethewatertoflowatasufficientrate.Sotheoutlet
fromthepumptothechannelneedstobeslightlyhigherthanthefieldlevel,thusrequiringan
increasedstaticheadandthereforeanincreasedpowerdemand.
Forthesamereasonthesecondaryorfielddistributionsystemwillalsocreateanadditionalpumping
head,eitherbecauseofpipefriction,orifsprinklersareusedthenextrapressureisneededtopropel
thejetsofwater.Evenopenchannelsorfurrowsimplyextrastaticheadbecauseoftheneedtoallow
forwatertoflowdownhill.
Thepowerneededistheproductofheadandflow,andanylossesthatcausewatertofailtoreach
theplantsalsorepresentareductionineffectiveflowfromthesystem.Suchlossesthereforeaddto
thepowerdemandandrepresentafurthersourceofinefficiency.Typicalwaterlossesaredueto
leakagefromtheconveyancesystembeforereachingthefield,evaporationandpercolationintothe
soilawayfromcroproots.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 3/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Therefore,incommonwiththeprimemoverandthewaterliftingdeviceanentireirrigationsystem
canbesubdividedintostages,eachofwhichhasa(variable)efficiencyandadiscreteneedfor
power,eitherthroughaddingtotheactualpumpingheadorthroughdecreasingtheeffectiveflowrate
duetolossesofwater(orboth).
Mostcomponentshaveanoptimumefficiency.Inthecaseofpassiveitemslikepipesordistribution
systemsthismightberedefinedas"costeffectiveness"ratherthanmechanicalefficiency.All
componentsneedtobechosensoastobeoptimizedclosetotheplannedoperatingconditionofthe
systemifthemosteconomicalandefficientsystemistobederived.Theconceptof"cost
effectiveness"isanimportantoneinthisconnection,sincemostirrigationsystemsareacompromise
ortradeoffbetweentheconflictingrequirementsofminimizingthecapitalcostofthesystemand
minimizingtherunningcosts.Thispointmaybeillustratedbyacomparisonbetweenearthchannels
andaluminiumirrigationpipesasaconveyancethechannelsareusuallycheaptobuildbutrequire
regularmaintenance,offermoreresistancetoflowand,dependingonthesoilconditions,areprone
tolosewaterbybothpercolationandevaporation.Thepipeisexpensive,butusuallyneedslittleorno
maintenanceandinvolveslittleornolossofwater.
Becausepurchasecostsareobviousandrunningcosts(andwhatcausesthem)arelessclear,there
isatendencyforsmallfarmerstoerronthesideofminimizingcapitalcosts.Theyalsodothisasthey
sooftenlackfinancetoinvestinabettersystem.Thisfrequentlyresultsinpoorerirrigationsystem
efficienciesandreducedreturnsthenmaybepossiblewithamorecapitalintensivebutbetter
optimizedsystem.
2.1.4FlowThroughChannelsandPipes
Theproperdesignofwaterconveyancesystemsiscomplex,andnumeroustextbooksdealwiththis
topicindetail.Itisthereforeonlyproposedheretoprovideanoutlineofthebasicprinciplessofaras
theyareimportanttothecorrectchoiceandselectionofwaterliftingsystem.Usefulreferenceson
thissubjectare[3]and[8].
i.Channels
Whenwaterisatrest,thewaterlevelwillalwaysbehorizontalhowever,ifwaterflowsdownanopen
channelorcanal,thewaterlevelwillslopedownwardsinthedirectionofflow.Thisslopeiscalledthe
"hydraulicgradient"thegreaterthefrictionalresistancetoflowthesteeperitwillbe.Hydraulic
gradientisusuallymeasuredastheratiooftheverticaldroppergivenlengthofchanneleg.lmper
100misexpressedas1/100or0.01.Therateofflow(Q)thatwillflowdownachanneldependson
thecrosssectionalareaofflow(A)andthemeanvelocity(v).Therelationshipbetweenthesefactors
is:
Forexample,ifthecrosssectionalareais0.5m2,andthemeanvelocityislm/s,thentherateofflow
willbe:
Table2SUGGESTEDMAXIMUMFLOWVELOCITIES,COEFFICIENTSOFROUGHNESSAND
SIDESLOPES,FORLINEDANDUNLINEDDITCHESANDFLUMES
Metres Feet
persecond persecond
UNLINEDDITCHES
Sand
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 4/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Sandyloam
0.50.7 1.72.5 0.0300.035 2:1to21/2:1
Clayloam
0.60.9 2.03.0 0.030 11/2:lto2:1
Clays
0.91.5 3.05.0 0.0250.030 1:1to11/2:1
Gravel
0.91.5 3.05.0 0.0300.035 1:1to11:1
Rock
1.21.8 4.06.0 0.0300.040 1/4:1to1:1
LINEDDITCHES
Concrete
Castinplace
1.52.5 5.07.5 0.014 1:1to11/2:1
Bricks
1.21.8 4.06.0 0.0180.022 11/2:1
Asphalt
Concrete
1.21.8 4.06.0 0.015 1:1to11/2:1
Exposedmembrane
0.91.5 3.05.0 0.015 11/2:1to1:1
Plastic
FLUMES
Concrete
1.52.0 5.07.0 0.0125
Metal
Smooth
1.52.0 5.07.0 0.015
Corrugated
1.21.8 4.06.0 0.021
Wood
0.91.5 3.05.0 0.014
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 5/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Themeanvelocity(v)ofwaterinachannelcanbedeterminedwithreasonableaccuracyfortypical
irrigationchannelsbytheChezyFormula:
whereCistheChezycoefficientwhichisdependentontheroughnessofthesurfaceofthechannel
(n),itshydraulicradius(r),(whichistheareaofcrosssectionofsubmergedchanneldividedbyits
wettedsubmergedperimeter),andthehydraulicgradient(s)ofthechannel(measuredinunitfallper
unitlengthofchannel).
TheChezycoefficientisfoundfromManning'sFormula:
inthisformulaK=1ifmetricunitsareused,orK=1.486iffeetareusedristhepreviouslydefined
hydraulicradiusandnistheManning'sCoefficientofRoughnessappropriatetothematerialusedto
constructthechannel,examplesofwhicharegiveninTable2.Thistableisalsoofinterestinthatit
indicatestherecommendedsideslopesandmaximumflowvelocitiesforaselectionofcommonly
usedtypesofchannels,rangingfromearthditchestoconcrete,metalorwoodenflumes.Combining
theaboveequationsgivesanexpressionforthequantityofwaterthatwillflowdownachannelunder
gravityasfollows:
whereQwillbeinm3/s,ifAisinm2,risinmetres,andKis1.
Toobtainagreaterflowrate,eitherthechannelneedstobelargeincrosssection(andhence
expensiveintermsofmaterials,constructioncostsandlandutilization)oritneedstohaveagreater
slope.Thereforeirrigationchanneldesignalwaysintroducestheclassicproblemofdeterminingthe
besttradeoffbetweencapitalcostorfirstcost(i.e.constructioncost)andrunningcostintermsofthe
extraenergyrequirementifflowisobtainedbyincreasingthehydraulicgradientratherthanthecross
sectionalarea.Thenatureoftheterrainalsocomesintoconsideration,aschannelsnormallyneedto
followthenaturalslopeofthegroundifextensiveregradingorsupportingstructuresaretobe
avoided.
Obviouslyinreality,thedesignofasystemiscomplicatedbybends,junctions,changesinsection,
slopeorsurface,etc.Thereaderwishingtostudythistopicingreaterdetailshouldrefertoan
appropriatetextbookonthissubject.
Afurtherpointtobeconsideredwithchannelsisthelikelylossofwaterbetweenthepointofentryto
thechannelandthepointofdischargecausedbyseepagethroughthechannelwallsandalsoby
evaporationfromtheopensurface.Anysuchlossesneedtobemadeupbyextrainputsofwater,
whichinturnrequireextrapumpingpower(andenergy)inproportion.Seepagelossesareofcourse
mostsignificantwherethechannelisunlinedorhasfissureswhichcanlosewater,whileevaporation
onlybecomesaproblemforsmallandmediumscaleirrigationschemeswithchannelshavingalarge
surfaceareatodepthratioandlowflowrates,particularlyunderhotanddryconditionsthegreatest
lossesofthiskindoccurgenerallywithinthefielddistributionsystemratherthaninconveyingwaterto
thefield.Themainfactorseffectingtheseepageratefromachannelorcanalare:
i.soilcharacteristics
ii.depthofwaterinthechannelinrelationtothewettedareaandthedepthofthegroundwater
iii.sedimentinwaterinrelationtoflowvelocityandlengthoftimechannelhasbeeninuse
Thislatterpointisimportant[9],asanychannelwillleakmuchmorewhenithasbeenallowedtodry
outandthenrefill.Seepagedecreasessteadilythroughtheseasonduetosedimentfillingthepores
andcracksinthesoil.Therefore,itisdesirabletoavoidlettingchannelsdryoutcompletelytoreduce
waterlosseswhenirrigatingonacyclicbasis.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 6/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Typicalconveyanceefficienciesforchannelsrangeatbestfromabout90%(ormore)withaheavy
claysurfaceoralinedchannelincontinuoususeonsmalltomediumlandholdingsdownto6080%
inthesamesituation,butwithintermittentuseofthechannel.Inlessfavourableconditions,suchas
onasandyorloamysoil,alsowithintermittentuse,theconveyanceefficiencymaytypicallybe50
60%orless(i.e.almosthalfthewaterenteringthechannelfailingtoarriveattheotherend).
Methodsforcalculatingconveyancelosseshavebeenderivedandarediscussedindetailinspecialist
references(suchas[9]).Forexample,anapproachusedbytheIrrigationDepartmentinEgypt[9]
usesanempiricalformulaattributedtoMolesworthandYennidumia:
whereSwillbetheconveyancelossinm3/sperlengthL
ii.Pipes
Apipecanoperatelikeachannelwitharoofoniti.e.itcanbeunpressurized,oftenwithwaternot
fillingit.Theadvantageofapipe,however,isthatitneednotfollowthehydraulicgradientlikea
channel,sincewatercannotoverflowfromitifitdipsbelowthenaturallevel.Inotherwords,although
pipesaremoreexpensivethanchannelsinrelationtotheircarryingcapacity,theygenerallydonot
requireaccuratelevellingandgradingandarethereforemorecheaplyandsimplyinstalled.Theyare
ofcourseessentialtoconveywatertoahigherleveloracrossuneventerrain.Aswithachannel,a
pipealsoissubjecttoahydraulicgradientwhichalsonecessarilybecomessteeperiftheflowis
increasedinotherwordsahigherheadorhigherpressureisneededtoovercometheincreased
resistancetoahigherflow.Thiscanbeclarifiedbyimaginingapipelinewithverticaltappingsofit(as
inFig.3).Whennoflowtakesplaceduetotheoutletvalvebeingclosed,thewaterpressurealong
thepipewillbeuniformandthelevelsintheverticaltappingswillcorrespondtotheheadofthe
supplyreservoir.Ifthevalveisopenedsothatwaterstartstoflow,thenahydraulicgradientwillbe
introducedasindicatedintheseconddiagramandthelevelsintheverticaltappingswillrelatetothe
hydraulicgradient,inbecomingprogressivelylowerfurtheralongthepipe.Thesameappliesifa
pumpisusedtopushwateralongapipeasinthelowestdiagraminthefigure.Herethepumpneeds
toovercomearesistanceequaltothestaticheadofthereservoirindicatedinthetwoupper
diagrams,whichisthepipefrictionhead.Inlowliftapplications,asindicated,thepipefrictionhead
caninsomecasesbeaslargeorlargerthenthestatichead(whichintheexampleisallsuctionhead
sincethepumpismountedatthesamelevelasthedischarge).Thepowerdemand,andhencethe
energycostswillgenerallybedirectlyrelatedtototalheadforagivenflowrate,sothatinthe
example,frictionlossesinthepipecouldberesponsibleforabouthalftheenergycosts.
Thosewishingtoundertakescientificallyrigorousanalysisshouldconsultaspecializedhydraulicstext
book,(eg.[8]or[9])butan
approximatevalueoftheheadlossthroughapipecanbegainedusingtheempiricalequation[8],
[10]:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 7/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Fig.3Theconceptofan'hydraulicgradient'
Theheadlossduetofrictionisexpressedasan"hydraulicgradient",i.e.headperlengthofpipe(m
permorftperft).
Note:useK=10withmetricunits,(LandDinmetresandQincubicmetrespersecond),andK=
4.3withLandDinfeetandQincubicfeetpersecond.ValuesofCaretypically1.0forsteel,1.5for
concrete,0.8forplastics.
Aneasywaytoestimatepipefrictionistousecharts,suchasFig.4.Referencetothisfigure
indicatesthataflow,forexample,of6litres/second(95USgall/minute)throughapipeof80mm(3"
nominalbore)diameterresultsinalossofheadper100mofpipeofjustover2m.,Asanalternative
method,Fig.5givesanomogram(fromreference[10])forobtainingtheheadloss,giveninthiscase
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 8/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
asm/km,forrigidPVCpipe.Theseresultsmustbemodified,dependingonthetypeofpipe,by
multiplyingtheresultobtainedfromthechartbytheroughnesscoefficientofthepiperelativetothe
materialforwhichthechartofnomogramwasderivedforexample,ifFig.4istobeusedforPVC
pipe,theresultmustbemultipliedbythefactor0.8(asindicatedatthefootofthefigure)because
PVCissmootherthanironandtypicallythereforeimposesonly80%asmuchfrictionhead.
Accountmustalsobetakenoftheeffectsofchangesofcrosssection,bends,valvesorjunctions,
whichalltendtocreateturbulencewhichineffectraisestheeffectivefrictionhead.Ageingofpipes
duetogrowthofeitherorganicmatterorcorrosion,orboth,alsoincreasesthefrictionheadperunit
lengthbecauseitincreasesthefrictionalresistanceanditalsodecreasestheavailablecrosssection
offlow.Thisisacomplexsubjectandvariousformulaearegivenintextbookstoallowthiseffectto
beestimatedwhencalculatingheadlossesinpipes.
Theheadlossduetofrictioninapipelineisapproximatelyrelatedtothemeanvelocityandhencethe
flowratesquaredi.e.:
therefore,thetotalheadfeltbyapumpwillbeapproximatelythesumofthestatichead,thefriction
headand(ifthewateremergesfromtheoutletwithsignificantvelocity)thevelocityhead:
i.e.(totalhead)=(statichead)+(frictionhead)+(velocityhead)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 9/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Fig.4Determinationofheadfrictionlossesinstraightpipes
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 10/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Fig.5HeadlossnomogramcalculatedforrigidPVCpipesusingBlasiusformula
Sincethevelocityofflowisproportionaltotheflowrate(Q),theaboveequationcanberewritten:
where
Fig.6illustratestherelationshipbetweenthetotalheadandtheflowrateforapumpedpipeline,and
thepipelineefficiencywhichcanbeexpressedinenergytermsas:
Fig.6Howpipelineandefficiencyvarywithflow
2.1.5SuctionLift:theAtmosphericLimit
Certaintypesofpumparecapableofsuckingwaterfromasourcei.e.thepumpcanbelocated
abovethewaterlevelandwillliterallypullwaterupbycreatingavacuuminthesuctionpipe.Drawing
waterbysuctiondependsonthedifferencebetweentheatmosphericpressureonthefreesurfaceof
thewaterandthereducedpressureinthesuctionpipedevelopedbythepump.Thegreaterthe
differenceinpressure,thehigherthewaterwillriseinthepipe.However,themaximumpressure
differencethatcanbecreatedisbetweensealevelatmosphericpressureonthefreesurfaceanda
purevacuum,whichtheoreticallywillcauseadifferenceoflevelofwaterof10.4m(or34ft).However,
beforeadropinpressureevenapproachingapurevacuumcanbeproduced,thewaterwillstart
gassingduetoreleaseofairheldinsolution(justlikesodawatergasseswhenreleasedfroma
pressurizedcontainer)ifthepressureisreducedfurther,thewatercanboilatambienttemperature.
Assoonasthishappens,thepumplosesitsprimeandthedischargewillcease(duetolossofprime)
oratleastbeseverelyreduced.Inaddition,boilingandgassingwithinthepump(knownascavitation)
cancausedamageifallowedtocontinueforanylengthoftime.
Thesuctionliftsthatcanbeachievedinpracticearethereforemuchlessthan10.4m.Forexample,
centrifugalpumps,whicharepronetocavitationduetothehighspeedofthewaterthroughthe
impeller,aregenerallylimitedtoasuctionliftofaround4.5m(15ft)evenatsealevelwithashort
suctionpipe.Reciprocatingpumpsgenerallyimposelowervelocitiesonthewaterandcantherefore
pullahighersuctionlift,butagain,forpracticalapplications,thisshouldnevernormallyexceedabout
6.5m(21ft)evenundercoolsealevelconditionswithashortsuctionpipe.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 11/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Athigheraltitudes,orifthewateriswarmerthannormal,thesuctionliftwillbereducedfurther.For
example,atanaltitudeof3000m(10000ft)abovesealevel,duetoreducedatmosphericpressure,
thepracticalsuctionliftwillbereducedbyabout3mcomparedwithsealevel,(andproportionatelyfor
intermediatealtitudes,sothat1500mabovesealevelwillreducesuctionliftbyabout1.5m).Higher
watertemperaturesalsocauseareductioninpracticalsuctionheadforexample,ifthewaterisat
say30C,(or86F)thereductioninsuctionheadcomparedwithwateratamorenormal20Cwillbe
about7%.
Extendingthelengthofthesuctionpipealsoreducesthesuctionheadthatispermissible,because
pipefrictionaddstothesuctionrequiredthiseffectdependsonthepipediameter,buttypicallya
suctionpipeofsay80mlengthwillonlyfunctionsatisfactorilyonhalftheabovesuctionhead.
2.1.6DrawdownandSeasonalVariationsofWaterLevel
Groundwaterandriverwaterlevelsvary,bothseasonallyandinsomecasesduetotherateof
pumping.Suchchangesinheadcansignificantlyinfluencethepowerrequirements,andhencethe
runningcosts.However,changesinheadcanalsoinfluencetheefficiencywithwhichthesystem
works,andtherebycancompoundanyextrarunningcostscausedbyaheadincrease.Moreserious
problemscanarise,resultingintotalsystemfailure,ifforexampleasurfacemountedsuctionpumpis
inuse,andthesupplywaterlevelfallssufficientlytomakethesuctionliftexceedthepracticalsuction
liftlimitsdiscussedintheprevioussection.
Fig.7illustratesvariouseffectsonthewaterlevelofawellinaconfinedaquifer.Thefigureshows
thatthereisanaturalgroundwaterlevel(thewatertable),whichoftenriseseithersideofariveror
pondsincegroundwatermustflowslightlydownhillintotheopenwaterarea.Thewatertabletends
todevelopagreaterslopeinimpermeablesoils(duetohigherresistancetoflowandgreatercapillary
effects),andisfairlylevelinporoussoilorsand.
Ifawellisboredtobelowthewatertableandwaterisextracted,thelevelinthewelltendstodrop
untiltheinflowofwaterflowing"downhill"fromthesurroundingwatertablebalancestherateatwhich
waterisbeingextracted.Thisformsa"coneofdepression"ofthewatertablesurroundingthewell.
Thegreatertherateofextraction,thegreaterthedropinlevel.Theactualdropinlevelinagivenwell
dependsonanumberoffactors,includingsoilpermeabilityandtype,andthewettedsurfaceareaof
wellbelowthewatertable(thegreatertheinternalsurfaceofthewellthegreatertheinflowratethat
ispossible).Extrainflowcanbegainedeitherbyincreasingthewelldiameter(inthecaseofahand
dugwell)orbydeepeningit(thebestpossibilitybeingwithaborehole).
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 12/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Fig.7Effectsofvariousphysicalconditionsontheelevationofwatersurfacesinwells
Drawdownusuallywillincreaseinproportiontoextractionrate.Adangerthereforeiflargeand
powerfulpumpsareusedonsmallwellsorboreholesistodrawthewaterdowntothepumpintake
level,atwhichstagethepumpgoeson"snore"(touseacommonlyuseddescriptiveterm).Inother
words,itdrawsamixtureofairandwaterwhichinmanycasescausesittoloseitsprimeandcease
todeliver.Aswithcavitation,a"snoring"pumpcansoonbedamaged.Butnotonlythepumpisat
riskexcessiveextractionratesonboreholescandamagetheinternalsurfacebelowthewatertable
andcausevoidstobeformedwhichthenleadstoeventualcollapseofthebore.Evenwhenafully
linedandscreenedboreholeisused,excessiveextractionratescanpullalotofsiltandotherfine
materialoutwiththewaterandblockthescreenandthenaturalvoidsinthesurroundingsubsoil,
therebyincreasingthedrawdownfurtherandputtinganincreasingstrainonthelowermostpartof
thebore.Alternatively,withcertainsubsoils,thescreenslotscanbeerodedbyparticlessuspended
inthewater,whentheextractionrateistoohigh,allowinglargerparticlestoentertheboreand
eventuallythepossiblecollapseofthescreen.
Neighbouringwellsorboreholescaninfluenceeachotheriftheyarecloseenoughfortheirrespective
conesofdepressiontooverlap,asindicatedinFig.7.Similarly,thelevelofriversandlakeswilloften
varyseasonally,particularlyinmosttropicalcountrieshavingdistinctmonsoontypeseasonswith
mostraininjustafewmonthsoftheyear.Thewatertablelevelwillalsobeinfluencedbyseasonal
rainfall,particularlyinproximitytoriversorlakeswithvaryinglevels,(asindicatedinFig.7).
Therefore,whenusingboreholes,thepumpintakeisbestlocatedsafelybelowthelowestlikelywater
level,allowingforseasonalchangesanddrawdown,butabovethescreeninordertoavoid
producinghighwatervelocitiesatthescreen.
Whenspecifyingamechanizedpumpingsystem,itisthereforemostimportanttobecertainofthe
minimumandmaximumlevelsifasurfacewatersourceistobeused,orwhenusingawellor
borehole,thedrawdowntobeexpectedattheproposedextractionrate.Apumpingtestisnecessary
todeterminethedrawdowninwellsandboreholesthisisnormallydonebyextractingwaterwitha
portableenginepump,andmeasuringthedropinlevelatvariouspumpingratesafterthelevelhas
stablized.Inmanycountries,boreholesarenormallypumpedasamatterofroutinetotesttheirdraw
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 13/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
downandtheinformationfromthepumpingtestiscommonlyloggedandfiledintheofficialrecords
andcanbereferredtolaterbypotentialusers.
2.1.7ReviewofaCompleteLiftIrrigationSystem
Thefactorsthatimposeapowerloadonapumporwaterliftingdeviceareclearlymorecomplicated
thansimplymultiplyingthestaticheadbetweenthewatersourceandthefieldbytheflowrate.The
loadconsistsmainlyofvariousresistancestoflowwhichwhenaddedtogethercomprisethegross
pumpinghead,butitalsoisincreasedbytheneedtopumpextrawatertomakeupforlosses
betweenthewatersourceandthecrop.
Fig.8summarizestheseinageneralway,sothattheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofdifferent
systemsdiscussedlaterinthispapercanbeseeninthecontextoftheirgeneralefficiency.Thetable
indicatesthevariousheadsandlosseswhicharesuperimposeduntilthewaterreachesthefield
actualfieldlossesarediscussedinmoredetailinSection2.2whichfollows.
Thesystemhydraulicefficiencycanbedefinedastheratioofhydraulicenergytoraisethewater
deliveredtothefieldthroughthestatichead,tothehydraulicenergyactuallyneededfortheamount
ofwaterdrawnbythepump:
WhereEstatisthehydraulicenergyoutput,andEgrossishydraulicenergyactuallyapplied.
Finally,Fig.9indicatestheenergyflowthroughtypicalcompleteirrigationwaterliftinganddistribution
systemsandshowsthevariouslosses.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 14/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Fig.8Factorsaffectingsystemhydraulicefficiency
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 15/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 16/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Fig.9Energyflowthroughtypicalirrigationsystem(showingpercentageoforiginalenergyflowthatis
transmittedfromeachcomponenttothenext).
2.1.8PracticalPowerRequirements
Calculatingthepowerrequirementforwaterliftingisfundamentaltodeterminingthetypeandsizeof
equipmentthatshouldbeused,soitisworthdetailingtheprinciplesforcalculatingit.Ingeneralthe
maximumpowerrequiredwillsimplybe:
wherethemassflowismeasuredinkg/sofwater.1kgofwaterisequalto1litreinvolume,soitis
numericallyequaltotheflowinlitrespersecondgistheaccelerationduetogravityof9.81m/s2(or
32.2ft/s2).Therefore,forexample,5litre/secthrough10mwithasystemhavinganoverallefficiency
of10%requires:
Thedailyenergyrequirementwillsimilarlybe:
eg.for60m3/dayliftedthrough6mwithanaverageefficiencyof5%
Note:60m3=60000litreswhichinturnhasamassof60000kg(=60tonne).Also,since1kWh=
3.6MJ,wecanexpresstheaboveresultinkWhsimplybydividingby3.6:
so
Itfollowsfromtheserelationshipsthatasimpleformulacanbederivedforconvertinganhydraulic
energyrequirementintokWh,asfollows:
Iftheabovecalculationrelatestoagasolineenginepumpirrigationsystem,asitmightwiththe
figureschosenfortheexample,thenweknowthatastheenergyinputis19.6kWh/dayandas
gasolinetypicallyhasanenergycontentof32MJ/litreor8.9kWh/litre,thissystemwilltypicallyrequire
aninputof2.2litreofgasolineperday.
Fig.10illustratesthehydraulicpowerrequirementtoliftwateratarangeofpumpingrates
appropriatetothesmalltomediumsizedlandholdingsthispublicationrelatesto.Thesefiguresare
thehydraulicoutputpowerandneedtobedividedbythepumpingsystemefficiencytoarriveatthe
inputpowerrequirement.Forexample,ifapumpof50%efficiencyisused,thenashaftpowerof
twicethehydraulicpowerrequirementisneeded(pumpefficienciesarediscussedinmoredetailin
Chapter3).ThesmalltableonFig.10indicatesthetypicalhydraulicpoweroutputofvariousprime
moverswhenworkingwitha50%efficientwaterliftingdevicei.e.itshowsabouthalfthe"shaft
power"capability.Therangesasindicatedaremeanttoshow"typical"applicationsobviouslythere
areexceptions.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 17/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Fig.10Hydraulicpowerrequirementstoliftwater
Fig.11Relationshipbetweenpower,headandflow
Thesepowercurves,whicharehyperbolas,makeitdifficulttoshowtheentirepowerrangeof
possibleinterestinconnectionwithlandholdingsfromlessthan1hato25ha,eventhoughtheycover
theflow,headandpowerrangeofmostgeneralinterest.Fig.11isalogloggraphofheadversus
flow,whichstraightensoutthepowercurvesandallowseasierestimationofthehydraulicpower
requirementforflowsupto100l/sandhydraulicpowersofupto16kW.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 18/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Fig.12isperhapsmoregenerallyuseful,beingasimilarlogloggraph,butofdailyhydraulicenergy
requirementtodeliverdifferentvolumesofwaterthrougharangeofheadsofupto32m.Theareaof
landthatcanbecovered,asanexampleto8mmdepth,usingagivenhydraulicenergyoutputover
therangeofheadsisalsogiven.
Fig.12Relationshipbetweenenergy,headanddailyoutput(areasthatcanbeirrigatedtoadepthof
8mmareshowninparentheses)
Finally,Fig.13isanomographwhichallowstheentireprocedureofcalculatingpowerneedsfora
givenirrigationrequirementtobereducedtorulingafewlinessoastoarriveatananswer.The
followingexampleoftheprocedureisindicatedandhelpstoillustratetheprocessstartingwiththe
areatobeirrigated(intheexample3haisused),rulealineverticallyupwardsuntilitintersectsthe
diagonal.Thispointofintersectiongivestherequireddepthofirrigation8mmisusedintheexample
butfieldanddistributionlossesarenotaccountedforinthisnomograph,sotheirrigationdemand
usedmustbethegrossandnotthenettrequirement.Rulehorizontallyfromthepointofintersection,
acrosstheverticalaxis(whichindicatesthedailywaterrequirementincubicmetresperday240in
theexample)untilthelineintersectsthediagonalrelatingtothepumpinghead10mheadisusedin
theexample.Droppingaverticallinefromthepointofintersectiongivesthehydraulicenergy
requirement(6.5kWh(hyd)/day).Thisisconvertedtoashaftenergyrequirementbycontinuingthe
linedownwardstothediagonalwhichcorrespondswiththeexpectedpumpingefficiency50%
efficiencyisassumedfortheexample(theactualfiguredependsonthetypeofpumpingsystem)and
thisgivesashaftpowerrequirementof13kWh/daywhenalineisruledhorizontallythroughtheshaft
poweraxis.Thefinaldecisionisthetimeperdaywhichistobespentpumpingtherequiredquantity
ofwater5hisusedastheexample.Hence,rulingalineverticallyfromthepointofintersectiontothe
averagepoweraxis(whichcoincideswiththestartingaxis),showsthatameanpowerrequirement
(shaftpower)ofabout2.6kWisnecessaryforthedutychosenintheexample.Itshouldbenotedthat
thisismeanshaftpowerasignificantlyhigherpeakpowerorratedpowermaybenecessaryto
achievethismeanpowerforthenumberofhoursnecessary.
Thisnomographreadilyallowsthereadertoexploretheimplicationsofvaryingtheseparametersin
theexampleitisperhapsinterestingtoexploretheimplicationsofcompletingthepumpinginsay3h
ratherthan5handitisclearthatthemeanpowerrequirementthengoesuptoabout4.25kW.
Insomecasesitmaybeusefultoworkbackwardsaroundthenomographtoseewhatapowerunit
ofacertainsizeiscapableofdoingintermsofareasanddepthsofirrigation.
Thenomographhasbeendrawntocovertherangefrom010ha,whichmakesitdifficulttosee
clearlywhattheanswersareforverysmalllandholdingsofunderlha.However,thenomographalso
worksifyoudividetheareascaleby10,inwhichcaseitisalsonecessarytodividetheanswerin
termsofpowerneededby10.Intheexample,ifwewereinterestedin0.3hainsteadof3ha,andif
thesameassumptionsareusedondepthofirrigation,pumpinghead,pumpefficiencyandhoursper
dayforpumping,theresultwillbe0.26kW(or260W)insteadof2.6kWasindicated.Obviouslythe
dailywaterrequirementfromthetopaxiswillalsoneedtobedividedbyten,andintheexamplewill
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 19/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
be24m3/day.Similarly,itispossibletoscalethenomographupbyafactoroftentolookatthe
requirementsfor10to100hainexactlythesameway.Notethatinmostrealcases,ifthescaleis
changed,factorslikethepumpefficiencyoughttobechangedtoo.Anefficiencyof50%usedinthe
exampleisapoorishefficiencyforapumplargeenoughtodeliver240m3/day,butitisratherahigh
efficiencyforapumpcapableofonlyonetenthofthisdailydischarge.
Fig.13Nomogramforcalculatingpowerneedsforagivenarea,depthofirrigationandhead
2.2OUTLINEOFPRINCIPLESOFSMALLSCALEIRRIGATION
2.2.1IrrigationWaterRequirements
Thequantityofwaterneededtoirrigateagivenlandareadependsonnumerousfactors,themost
importantbeing:
natureofcrop
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 20/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
cropgrowthcycle
climaticconditions
typeandconditionofsoil
topography
conveyanceefficiency
fieldapplicationefficiency
waterquality
effectivenessofwatermanagement
Fewofthesefactorsremainconstant,sothatthequantityofwaterrequiredwillvaryfromdaytoday,
andparticularlyfromoneseasontothenext.Theselectionofasmallscaleirrigationsystemneedsto
takealloftheabovefactorsintoaccount.
Thecroptakesitswaterfrommoistureheldinthesoilintherootzone.Thesoilthereforeeffectively
actsasawaterstoragefortheplants,andthesoilmoistureneedsreplenishingbeforethemoisture
levelfallstowhatisknownasthe"PermanentWiltingPoint"whereirreversibledamagetothecrop
canoccur.Themaximumcapacityofthesoilforwateriswhenthesoilis"saturated",althoughcertain
cropsdonottoleratewaterloggedsoilandinanycasethiscanbeawastefuluseofwater.Inall
casesthereisanoptimumsoilmoisturelevelatwhichplantgrowthismaximized(seeFig.12).The
artofefficientirrigationistotrytokeepthemoisturelevelinthesoilasclosetotheoptimumas
possible.
Referencessuchas[3],[8],[10]and[11]giveamoredetailedtreatmentofthissubject.
2.2.2NettIrrigationRequirement
Theestimationofirrigationwaterrequirementsstartswiththewaterneedsofthecrop.Firstthe
"ReferenceCropEvapotranspiration"ETisdeterminedthisisastandardizedrateof
evapotranspiration(relatedtoareferencecropoftallgreengrasscompletelyshadingthegroundand
notshortofwater)whichprovidesabaselineandwhichdependsonclimaticfactorsincludingpan
evaporationdataandwindspeed.AfulldescriptiononthedeterminationofET oispresentedin
reference[11].BecauseETodependsonclimaticfactors,itvariesfrommonthtomonth,oftenbya
factorof2ormore.Theevapotranspirationofaparticularcrop(ETcrop)willofcoursebedifferent
fromthatofthereferencecrop,andthisisdeterminedfromtherelationship:
Kcisa"cropcoefficient"whichdependsonthetypeofcrop,itsstageofgrowth,thegrowingseason
andtheprevailingclimaticconditions.Itcanvarytypicallyfromaround0.3duringinitialgrowthto
around1.0(orabitover1.0)duringthemidseasonmaximumrateofgrowthperiodFig.13shows
anexample.Thereforetheactualvalueofthecropwaterrequirement,ETcropusuallyvaries
considerablythroughthegrowingseason.
Theactualnettirrigationrequirementatanytimeisthecropevapotranspirationdemand,minusany
contributionsfromrainfall,groundwaterorstoredmoistureinthesoil.Sincenotallrainfallwillreach
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 21/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
theplantroots,becauseaproportionwillbelostthroughrunoff,deeppercolationandevaporation,
therainfallisfactoredtoarriveatafigurefor"effectiverainfall".Also,somecropsrequirewaterfor
soilpreparation,particularlyforexample,rice,andthisneedhastobeallowedforinadditiontothe
nettirrigationrequirement.
Togiveanideaofwhatthesetranslateintointermsofactualwaterrequirementsanapproximate
"typical"nettirrigationrequirementundertropicalconditionswithareasonablyefficientirrigation
systemandgoodwatermanagementis4000m3/hapercrop,butunderlessfavourableconditionsas
muchas13000m3/hapercropcanbeneeded.Thisisequalto4001300mmofwaterpercrop
respectively.Sincetypicalgrowingcyclesareintherangeof100150daysinthetropics,theaverage
dailyrequirementwillthereforebeinthe30130m3/harange(313mm/day).Becausethewater
demandvariesthroughthegrowingseason,thepeakrequirementcanbemorethandoublethe
average,implyingthatanettpeakoutputof50200m3/hawillgenerallyberequired(whichgivesan
indicationofthecapacityofpumpingsystemneededforagivenareaoffield).
Inadequateapplicationsofirrigationwaterwillnotgenerallykillacrop,butaremorelikelytoresultin
reducedyield[11].Conversely,excessiveapplicationsofwatercanalsobecounterproductiveapart
frombeingawasteofwaterandpumpingenergy.Accurateapplicationisthereforeofimportance
mainlytomaximisecropyieldsandtogetthebestefficiencyfromanirrigationsystem.
2.2.3GrossIrrigationRequirement
Theoutputfromthewaterliftingdevicehastobeincreasedtoallowforconveyanceandfieldlosses
thisamountisthegrossirrigationrequirement.Typicalconveyanceandfielddistributionsystem
efficienciesaregiveninTable3[11][12],fromwhichitcanbeseenthatconveyanceefficienciesfall
intotherange6590%(dependingonthetypeofsystem),while"farmditchefficiency"orfield
applicationefficiencywilltypicallybe5590%.Therefore,theoverallirrigationsystemefficiency,after
thedischargefromthewaterliftingdevice,willbetheproductofthesetwotypically3080%.This
impliesagrossirrigationwaterrequirementatbestabout25%greaterthanthenettrequirementfor
thecrop,andatworst300%ormore.
Theprevious"typicalpeaknettirrigation"figuresof50200m3/dayperhectareimply"peakgross
irrigation"requirementsof60600m3/dayawidevariationduetocompoundingsomanyvariable
parameters.Clearlythereisoftenmuchscopeforconservationofpumpingenergybyimprovingthe
waterdistributionefficiencyinvestmentinabetterconveyanceandfielddistributionsystemwill
frequentlypaybackfasterthaninvestmentinimprovedpumpingcapacityandwillachievethesame
result.Certainlycostlypumpingsystemsshouldgenerallyonlybeconsideredinconjunctionwith
efficientconveyanceandfielddistributiontechniques.Theonlyrealjustificationforextravagantwater
lossesiswherepumpingcostsarelowandwaterdistributionequipmentisexpensive.
Table3AAVERAGECONVEYANCEEFFICIENCY
Basinforricecultivation Continuoussupplywithnosubstantialchangein 90
flow
Rotationalsupplybasedon <1,000 70
predeterminedschedulewith
lesseffectivemanagement
>10,000
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 22/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Rotationalsupplybasedon <1,000 65
advancerequest
>10,000
BAVERAGEFARMDITCHEFFICIENCY
Rotationor Unlined:Siltclay <20 6070
Intermittent Linedorpiped >20 80
Rotationor Unlined:Sand,loam <20 55
Intermittent Linedorpiped >20 65
CAVERAGEAPPLICATIONEFFICIENCY
Heavyclay
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 23/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Asummaryoftheproceduresofaroutlinedtoarriveatthegrosscropirrigationwaterrequirementis
giveninFig.14.
Fig.14Rateofcropgrowthasafunctionofsoilmoisturecontent
2.2.4PumpingRequirement
Inordertospecifyawaterliftingsystemthefollowingbasicinformationisneeded:
i.theaveragewaterdemandthroughthegrowingseason
ii.thepeakdailywaterdemand(whichgenerallywilloccurwhenthecropcoefficientandrateof
plantgrowthareattheirpeak)
Havingdeterminedthedailyapplicationrequiredbytheplants,afurtherconsiderationisthe"intake
rate"asdifferentsoiltypesabsorbwateratdifferentrates,(seeTable4).Toorapidarateof
applicationonsomesoilscancausefloodingandpossiblelossofwaterthroughrunoff.This
constraintdeterminesthemaximumflowratethatcanusefullybeabsorbedbythefielddistribution
system.Forexample,somesiltyclaysoilscanonlytakeabout7l/secperhectare,butincontrast
sandysoilsdonotimposeaseriousconstraintastheycanoftenusefullyabsorbover100l/sper
hectare.Obviouslylowerratesthanthemaximumareacceptable,althoughtheapplicationefficiency
islikelytobebestatareasonablyhighrateinmostcases,andfarmersobviouslywillprefernotto
takelongerthannecessarytocompletethejob.
Takingaccountoftheaboveconstraintonflowrate,itisthenpossibletocalculatehowmanyhours
perdaythefieldwillrequireirrigating,forexamplebyusingthenomogramgiveninFig.15
Table4AVERAGEINTAKERATESOFWATERINmm/hrFORDIFFERENTSOILSAND
CORRESPONDINGSTREAMSIZE1/sec/ha
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 24/25
4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices
Sandyloam 25(15to75) 70
Loam 12.5(8to20) 35
Clayloam 8(2.5to5) 7
Siltyclay 2.5(0.03to5) 7
Clay 5(1to15) 14
Fig.15ExampleofacropcoefficientcurveforcornplantedinmidMayatCairo,Egypte.g.initial
stageis8.4mm/daywithirrigationfrequencyof7days
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm 25/25