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International Journal Of Engineering And Computer Science ISSN:2319-7242

Volume 2 Issue 2 Feb 2013 Page No. 416-432
EFFICIENCYIMPROVEMENT OF PELTON WHEEL ANDCROSSFLOW TURBINES IN MICRO-HYDRO POWER PLANTS: CASE

STUDY
Loice Gudukeya,Ignatio Madanhire2
University of Zimbabwe, Department of Mechanical Engineering
P O Box MP169,Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
loicekmg@gmail.com
2
University of Zimbabwe, Department of Mechanical Engineering

P O Box MP169,Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
imadanhire@eng.uz.ac.zw
Abstract:This research study investigated hydro power plant efficiency with view to improve on the power output while keeping the overall
project cost per kilowatt produced within acceptable range. It reviews the commonly used Pelton and Cross-flow turbines which are
employed in the region for such small plants. Turbine parameters such as surface texture, material used and fabrication processes are dealt
with the view to increase the efficiency by 20 to 25 percent for the micro hydro-power plants.
Keywords:hydro, power plant, turbine, efficiency, manufacture, micro
1.Introduction
Micro-hydro power plants are an attractive option for
providing electricity in off grid areas of the country [2]. The
simple Pelton and Cross-flow turbines are predominantly
used for these projects as they are cheaper to construct for
this form of renewable energy. Current level of efficiency is
estimated to be 60%, thus allowing for improvements on the
overall efficiency of whole micro-hydro system.
At 60% turbine efficiency micro-hydro schemes seem to be
underutilising resources. Communities are benefitting by
having their business centres, clinics and schools powered.
However more electrical power can be attained without
increasing the resources but by only increasing the turbine
efficiencies [4]. This can ensure that more households in the
catchment area get more than just lighting, but are able to use
other devices such as refrigerators, stoves etc in their houses.
2. Justification
The improvement of turbine efficiencies will increase the
micro-hydro scheme power output while keeping the project
within the monetary budget. Therefore more electricity is
generated from the same resources head (H) and flowrate (Q)
The design of a micro hydro scheme should ensure better
environmental sustainability as the use of hydro energy
enables communities to rely less on non-renewable sources
such as firewood, paraffin and coal thus ensuring that less
CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere leading to less global
warming [3]. Renewable energy is also a cleaner and safer
form of energy.
3. Overview of micro-hydro power plant

Hydro power is the harnessing of energy from falling water,
such as water falling through steep mountain rivers. The
energy in flowing water is converted into useful mechanical
power by means of a water wheel or a turbine [5]. The
mechanical power from the turbine can be converted into
electricity using an alternator or a generator.
Hydro power systems are classified as micro has the power

generation capacity of less 100kW. They are relatively small
power sources that may be used to supply power to a small
group of users or communities, who are independent of the
general electricity supply grid [7].
A micro-hydropower system (MHS) has the following
components [8]:
A water turbine that converts the energy of flowing
or falling water into mechanical energy. This drives
an alternator, which then generates electrical power
A control mechanism in the form of electronic load
controller to provide stable electrical power.
Electrical distribution lines
To develop an MHS the following features are needed as
given in Figure 1 [9]:
an intake or weir to divert stream flow from the
water course;
a headrace, the canal or pipeline to carry the water
to the forebay from the intake;
a forebay tank and trash rack (gravel trap) to filter
debris and prevent it from being drawn into the
turbine at the penstock pipe intake;
a penstock (pipe) to transport the water to the
powerhouse. This may be set up above the ground
surface or underground depending on the
topography of the site. At rocky sites, penstocks are
supported above ground on concrete blocks called
Anchors or Saddle (Pier) supports. The saddle
supports are provided along the straight length at
regular intervals and anchors are provided at
horizontal and vertical bends along the alignment
of the penstock. These are designed to carry the
thickness and the diameter of the penstock
a powerhouse, being the building that
accommodates and protects the electro-mechanical
equipment, (turbine and generator), that convert the
power of the water into electricity;
Loice Gudukeya International Journal Of Engineering And Computer Science 2:2 Feb 2013(416-432)
a tailrace through which the water is released back

to the river or stream without causing erosion;
Figure 3: Concept of the head[8]

Figure 1:Components of a micro-hydro power system [8]
The power available from a micro-hydro power system is

directly related to the flow rate, the head and the force of
gravity as expressed by the power equation as below:
=
where
Pgross is the theoretical power produced
(kW)
water is the density of water (kg/m3)
Q is the flow rate in the penstock pipe
(m3/s)
g is the acceleration due to gravity
(9.81m/s2)
hgross is the total vertical drop from intake
to turbine (m)
No power conversion system delivers 100% useful power as
some power is lost by the system itself in the form of
friction, heating, noise etc. The efficiency of the system
needs to be taken into account, since all the equipment used
to convert the power from one form to another do so at less
than 100% efficiency. Figure 4 shows the power losses and
efficiencies within a micro-hydro power system [7]:
Page
3.1 Power generation

A hydro scheme requires water flow and a drop in height
(head) to produce useful power. It is a power conversion
system, absorbing power in the form of head and flow, and
delivering power in the form of electricity.
To measure the potential power and energy on a site the first
step is to determine the flow rate and the head through which
the water falls. These two parameters are defined thus:
Flow rate (Q) is the quantity of water flowing past
a point at a given time. Q is measured in cubic
metres per second (m3/s)
Head (H) is the vertical height from the level where
the water enters the penstock at forebay tank to the
level of turbine centerline. The typical unit of
measurement is metres (m).
417
Figure 2:The inside of a power house[9]
=
where Pactual is the actual power produced (kW)

water is the density of water (kg/m3)
Q is the flow in the penstock pipe (m3/s)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)
hgross is the total vertical drop from intake to
turbine (m)
= x x x x x
It is common to assume an overall system efficiency of 50

60%. However, in practice actual power output may be as
low as 30% of gross input power for very small installations
and as high as 70% for larger schemes [3]. Therefore, during
the detailed design stage, it is important to recalculate the
power output based on the actual design and manufacturers
data for the proposed equipment.
The turbine efficiency is typically the lowest of the
component efficiencies [7]. Hence it has the highest chances
of being improved and once this has been done, the overall
system may be improved.
3.2 The turbine
The turbines convert energy in the form of falling water into
rotating shaft power. They basically consist of the following
components [2]:
Figure 4: Power losses and efficiencies in a micro-hydro

system [7]
Typical system component efficiencies are shown in Table 1:
intake shaft - a tube that connects to the piping or

penstock which brings the water into the turbine
water nozzle - a nozzle which shoots a jet of water
(Impulse type of turbines only)
runner - a wheel which catches the water as it
flows in causing the wheel to turn (spin)
generator shaft - a shaft that connects the runner to
the generator
generator - a unit that creates the electricity
exit valve - a tube or shute that returns the water to
the stream from where it came
powerhouse - a small shed or enclosure to protect
the water turbine and generator from the elements
Efficiency
Canal
95%
Penstock
90%
Turbine
60 -80%
Generator
85%
Step-up and down transformers
96%
Transmission
90%
To determine the actual power output from the MHS the

theoretical power must be multiplied by the system
efficiency factor, total:
Selection of the turbine depends on the site characteristics,

the main factors being the head available, the flow rate and
the power required as well as the speed at which the turbine
is desired to run the generator [6]. All turbines have a powerspeed characteristic and an efficiency-speed characteristic.
For a particular head they will tend to run most efficiently at
a particular speed, and require a particular flow rate.
Water turbines are often classified as being either Reaction
or Impulse turbines, depending on whether the runner is
fully immersed in water or whether it operates in air.
Page
System Component
418
Table 1: Typical system component efficiencies [5]
3.2.1 Reaction turbine
In a reaction turbine, the runners are fully immersed in water
and are enclosed in a pressure casing. The runner blades are
angled so that pressure differences across them create lift
forces, like those on aircraft wings, and the lift forces cause
the runner to rotate [5]. The casing is scrolled to distribute
water around the entire perimeter of the runner hence the
runner and the casing are carefully engineered so that the
clearance between them is minimized. Examples of reaction
turbines are the Francis and Kaplan type of turbines.
In a Francis turbine shown in Figure 5, water enters around
the periphery of the runner, passes through the guide vanes
and runner blades before exiting axially from the centre of
the runner. The water imparts most of its pressure energy to
the runner and leaves the turbine via a draught tube. A
Francis turbine is most effective on medium to high head of
water.
Figure 5: Francis turbine [7]

A Kaplan turbine as shown in Figure 6 is a reaction turbine
that is a propeller type which consists of a propeller fitted
inside a continuation of the penstock tube, its shaft taken out
where the tube changes direction. Usually three to six blades
are used, three in the cases of very low head units. Water
flow is regulated by the use of swiveling gates upstream of
the propeller. Kaplan turbines are more sophisticated
versions of propeller turbines and are used in large-scale
hydro sites. Swiveling of the propeller blades simultaneously
with wicket gate adjustment has the effect of maintaining
high efficiency under part-flow conditions. Wicket gates are
carefully profiled to induce tangential velocity of whirl in
the water.
converted to rotation energy in contact with the runner

blades by deflection of the water and change of momentum.
The nozzle is aligned so that it provides maximum force on
the blades. An impulse turbine needs a casing only to control
splashing and to protect against accidents.
3.2. 3 Advantages of impulse over reaction turbine
Impulse turbines are cheaper than Reaction turbines because
no specialist pressure casing and no carefully engineered
clearances are needed. These fabrication constraints make
impulse turbines more attractive for use in micro-hydro
systems. Other advantages of using impulse turbines over
reaction turbines in micro-hydro systems are that impulse
turbines are more tolerant to sand and other particles in the
water. They also allow better access to working parts and are
easier to fabricate and maintain [3].
They are also less subject to cavitations. They have flatter
efficiency curves if a flow control device is built in (e.g
nozzle area change, spear valve, change of number of jets,
guide vanes, partitioning of flow).
The major disadvantage of the Impulse turbines is that they
are mostly unsuitable for low head-to- power ratios.
However, the Cross-flow and multi-jet Pelton are impulse
turbines that are suitable for medium head-power ratios. An
impulse turbine can also operate on a low head, if the power
transmitted is also low and slow speed is acceptable.
It is apparent then that for micro-hydro projects, Impulse
turbines are more suitable than Reaction turbines. Table 4
shows groups of Impulse turbines and the head levels they
best function under.
Table 2: Types of impulse turbines and optimum operating
heads
Turbine
Head (Pressure)
Runner
Impulse
High
Medium
Low
Pelton
Cross-flow
Cross-flow
Turgo
Turgo
Multi-jet Pelton
Multi-jet Pelton
In this study the Pelton wheel and the Cross-flow turbine are
considered in detail
3.2.2 Impulse turbine [4]

In an impulse turbine, the runner operates in air and is turned
by one or more jets of water which make contact with the
blade. The water remains at atmospheric pressure before and
after making contact with the runner blades. In this case,
pressure energy is converted into the kinetic energy of a high
speed jet of water in the form of a nozzle. Then it is
Page
Figure 6: Kaplan turbine
A Pelton turbine consists of a series of cups mounted around

the periphery of a circular disc. The shaft of the Pelton
turbine is mounted either horizontal or vertical. The turbine
is not immersed in water but operates in air with the wheel
driven by jets of high pressure water which hit the cups. The
kinetic energy of the water jets is transferred to the turbine as
the water jet is deflected back. The kinetic energy of a jet of
water is converted into angular rotation of the cups as the jet
strikes. The high-velocity jet of water emerging from a
nozzle impinges on the cups and sets the wheel into motion.
The speed of rotation is determined by the flow rate and the
velocity of water and these are controlled by the spear valve.
419
4. Pelton wheel turbine [6]
The water must have just enough speed to move out from
between the cups and fall away under gravity from the
wheel.
Figure 9: Water jet being deflected back at an angle of 165 0.
4.1 Characteristics of Pelton wheel cups/buckets [7]

The central part of each bucket has a splitter ridge. This is
the part that the water jet hits first. This splitter ridge should
be sharp and smooth, so that it cleanly splits the jet into two
halves. The force on the bucket comes from it catching the
water and taking out as much of the waters momentum as it
can. The more the waters momentum absorbed by each
bucket, the better the turbine efficiency. Getting a good
torque from this force requires the force to act at as large a
radius as possible. To achieve this, the position of the end
point of the splitter ridge is important. The optimum position
will have most of the water hitting the bucket when it is
nearly at right angles to the jet. The angle of the splitter ridge
is set so that it is approximately at right angles to the jet
when the full cross-section of the jet is hitting it. The rest of
the internal shape is designed to allow water to flow freely
round, and out at the edges. The water should emerge at a
favourable an angle to give maximum moment from the
momentum change. This is achieved by having the cup
surfaces smoothly curved, with a reasonably large radius.
The jet should always strike the surface between the splitter
ridge first and never at the edges of the bucket. The
surface between the splitter ridge and the outside end of the
bucket has to be shaped so that it directs all the water from
the ridge into bucket cups.
Ideally the bucket should take the water around a complete
U, removing all the energy from the jet, and leaving the
water stationary in air and then have it fall under its own
weight into the tailrace. In reality this is not achievable
because the next bucket would hit the water left hanging in
mid-air. The edges of the bucket are consequently angled
outwards; just enough to make sure that the water clears the
next bucket.
The rotational speed of the buckets hence the runner is

determined by the jet velocity as illustrated in Figure 10.
Figure 10: Water jet hitting the bucket
The net head acting on the Pelton wheel

H = Hg - hf
where Hg = gross head
hf is the head loss due to friction,
which is given by the Darcy Weisbach Equation
=
where f
4 2
2
= Darcy friction factor (dimensionless)
L = length of the penstock (m)

V = volumetric flow rate (m/s)
420
Figure 8: Pelton buckets
So if the bucket is moving at a velocity of vb and the water is

coming out of the bucket at a speed of vb, in almost the
opposite direction, this would mean that the speed of the
water coming out relative to the housing is nearly zero; its
energy having been completely removed by the bucket [7].
Page
Figure 7: Pelton turbine [6]
For optimum efficiency the speed of the jet, vj, should be

about twice the speed of the bucket, vb. Because the runner
is moving away from it, the speed at which the jet enters the
bucket is given by . The jet is split by the ridge and
flows round the two cups to emerge at the sides of the
bucket. The inside of the bucket should be as smooth as
possible and evenly curved so that the water does not loose
much speed as it goes round. Lack of smoothness reduces
efficiency. If there were no losses, the water jet would leave
at a velocity equal to . If the jet speed, vj, is twice the
bucket speed, vb, then the water, relative to the bucket, leaves
at a speed of: = 2 =
velocity of the jet at inlet = (2gH)

in figure 10 this is = V
v = v1 = DN / 60
where N = speed of the wheel in rpm
D = diameter of the wheel
the velocity triangle at inlet will be a straight line where
Vr = V v
= 0 and = 0
from the velocity triangle at outlet
Vr1 = Vr
and
V1 = Vr1 cos v1
the force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of

motion is:
F = aV [V + V1]
where a is the area of the jet given as:
a = d2 / 4
d = diameter of the jet
the angle is an acute angle, therefore positive sign is taken
work done by the jet on the runner per second
= F x v = aV[V + V1] x v
(Nm/s)
power given to the runner by the jet

= aV[V + V1] x v
(W)
work done / s per unit weight of water striking/s

= aV[V + V1] x v
weight of water striking/s
= aV[V + V1] x v
aV x g
= [V + V1] x v
g
the energy supplied to the jet at inlet is in the form of kinetic
energy and is equal to mV2 / 2
and kinetic energy of jet per second
= aV x V2
2
Therefore the kinetic energy of the water jet is transferred to
the buckets and hence the runner. So the runner rotational
speed depends on the jet velocity.
In order to optimize efficiency, the number of buckets on the

turbine runner is generally between 18 and 22. For the Pelton
wheel turbine to function as expected, the buckets must be
attached securely onto the runner. This is to avoid buckets
flying off the runner during operation or buckets moving
from their original positions, hence compromising efficiency.
There are a number of ways of mounting buckets onto the
runner hub. The whole runner and buckets may be cast as
one piece or buckets may be cast separately and are then
bolted, clamped or welded onto the runner [4]. Casting of
buckets and mounting them to the runner is the process
widely used in the manufacturing of turbines. It is cheap,
reliable and can produce complex shapes easily.
4.4 Materials for Pelton wheel turbine buckets
The chief material requirements are high strength, abrasion
resistance, casting suitability and ability to withstand
extended use in water. Materials in common use are
Aluminium, Copper Alloys, Grey Cast Iron, Stainless Steel
and Plastic.
4.5 Flow control for Pelton wheel turbine efficiency
In order to maximise the efficiency of the turbine, it is
important to be able to control the flow rate. The need to
control this flow arises due to site conditions that include
change in water flow rate with changing seasons. There are
various options that are used to control the flow of the water
jet, and these include the varying of number of jets, the spear
valve and the replacement of nozzles [5].
Varying number of jets: If a multi-jet has shut off valves
fitted on each of its jets, it can be run at different flow rates
by simply altering the number of jets playing on the runner.
Figure 11 shows a four-jet turbine. If jets are of equal
diameter then the flow will simply vary in proportion to the
number of active jets. It may be economic to use unequal
diameter jets, and divide the year into more seasonal flows.
421
then
4.3 Pelton wheel turbine efficiency [7]

The parameters of the runner that affect efficiency are:
diameter of runner, number of jets, number of buckets of a
runner and method used to attach buckets to a runner.
A small runner is cheaper to make than a larger one. It takes
less material and the housing and associated components can
be made smaller. To use smaller runners requires dividing
the flow of water among a large number of jets. Multiple-jet
Pelton turbines can have up to six jets before interference
effects between jets lead to too much inefficiency. Multiplejet machines have the following advantages over the singlejet machines:
higher rotational speed
smaller runner and case
some flow control is possible without extra
equipment such as the spear valve
less chances of blockage in most designs due to
reduced surge pressures
Page
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

D* = diameter of penstock (m)
instantaneously blocking the nozzle should it become
detached while the turbine is operational.
Figure 11: A four-jet Pelton turbine [5]

It is possible to utilise the nozzle replacement approach in a
multi-jet turbine to provide greater variation in flow. This
will reduce the cost of adding further jets, but will require
increased input from an operator of the plant.
Spear Valve:The spear valve is a streamlined spear head
arranged to move within the nozzle allowing variation in
effective orifice cross-sectional area without introducing
energy loses. Hence the water flow rate is varied with a
constant jet velocity. Large turbines may include more
than one spear valve around the periphery of the rotor. The
spear is moved by a handle or automatically by a mechanical
speed governor as shown in Figure 12.
Replacement of nozzles:One nozzle is removed and replaced

with a more appropriate one to suit the seasonal change.
Thus wet season flow would require a larger nozzle size than
dry season flow. It is possible to divide the yearly flow
variation into two, three or more parts and provide a suitable
nozzle for each flow. This is a low-cost method of
controlling flow. It is important to be certain that sufficient
operator skill and input is available and the plant has to be
stopped when nozzles are changed. The water jet may be
diverted by a jet deflector plate, by breaking the jet and by
shut-off valves.
Jet deflector plate
The water jet may be deflected away from the buckets of the
runner when the plate is rotated into the jets path as shown
in Figure 12. This is very useful in stopping the turbine
without shutting off the flow in the penstock hence avoiding
the dangers of pressure surges. The process of stopping the
turbine is then completed by diverting the flow at the forebay
tank.
Breaking jet
The turbine may be stopped by moving the spear valve in the
forward direction until the water striking the runner is
reduced to zero or by use of the Jet Deflector Plate. However
when the water has been completely stopped from reaching
the runner, due to inertia the runner goes on revolving for
some time. To stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle
maybe provided which directs the jet of water on the back of
the buckets. This jet is called the Breaking Jet and is shown
in Figure 14.
Figure 12: Spear valve and Jet Deflector plate on a single jet
turbine
Figure 13 shows the effect of the spear valve on the water
jet. When the spear valve is moved in the forward direction
more the water jet diameter is smaller, and vice versa is true.
Figure 14: The breaking jet
Shut-off Valves
A gate valve or butterfly valve may be placed in the turbine

manifold. Pelton wheels are driven by long penstocks in
which surge pressure effects, due to valve closure, can be
very dangerous and lead to damage caused by bursting of the
penstock. If these valves are fitted, they must always be
closed slowly, particularly during the last phase just before
shut off.
422
Spear valves are very effective where continuous flow

regulation is considered necessary and their use in such cases
may be cost effective. In addition they can stop a foreign
body which has fallen into the penstock from blocking the
nozzle.
However in some cases, multi-jet Pelton wheel turbines are
chosen over single-jet with a spear valve because the spear
valve is expensive. It can also present the danger of
Page
Figure 13: Effect of spear valve position to the water jet

diameter
4.6 Friction
Turbine efficiency can be considered separately as hydraulic
efficiency, mechanical efficiency, volumetric efficiency and
overall efficiency [7].
i.
Hydraulic efficiency
Hydraulic efficiency is defined at the ratio of power
given by water to the runner of a turbine to the
power supplied by the water at the inlet of the
turbine. The power at the inlet of the turbine is the
highest and this power goes on decreasing as the
water flows over the buckets of the turbine due to
hydraulic losses as the buckets are not as smooth.
Hence the power delivered to the runner of the
turbine will be less than the power available at the
inlet of the turbine. From Figure 10, mathematically
the hydraulic efficiency of a turbine is:
h = power delivered to runner
power supplied at inlet
= work done per second
K.E. of jet per second
=aV[V + V1] x v
(aV) x (V)2 / 2
= 2 [V + V1] x v
(V)2
ii.
Mechanical efficiency
The power delivered by water to the runner of a
turbine is transmitted to the shaft of the turbine. Due
to mechanical losses, the power available at the
shaft of the turbine is less than the power delivered
to the runner of a turbine. The ratio of the power
available at the shaft of the turbine to the power
delivered to the runner is defined as mechanical
efficiency. Hence, it is written as:
m = power at the shaft of the turbine
power delivered by water to the runner
iii.
Volumetric efficiency
The volume of the water striking the runner of a
turbine is slightly less than the volume of water
supplied to the turbine. Some of the volume of the
water is discharged to the tail race without striking
the runner of the turbine. Thus the ratio of the
volume of the water actually striking the runner to
the volume of water supplied to the turbine is
defined as volumetric efficiency. It is written as:
= m x h
Friction has the greatest impact on hydraulic efficiency and
in turn hydraulic efficiency is one of the factors affecting the
overall efficiency. This makes friction an important factor in
overall turbine efficiency. For example in the analysis of
flow friction of Pelton turbine hydraulics it is indicated that
the flow friction in the Pelton buckets has a substantial
impact on the system efficiency.
The direct influence is determined by the friction, which
directly retards the bucket motion and thus determines the
power output. The indirect way is determined by the changes
of relative flow and the pressure distribution in the bucket.
The flow friction theorem points out that the total reduction
of the system efficiency is equal to the total efficiency
reductions by two different ways. In the total efficiency
reduction, the effect from the indirect way dominates. In
addition, frictions in the bucket, whether at the bucket
entrance or at the exit, always cause a reduction in system
efficiency. The efficiency drop resulting from the flow
frictions represents the greatest part in the total loss in the
system efficiency of a Pelton turbine.
4.7 Water jet and Pelton wheel buckets
Of great importance is the interaction of the water jet with
the Pelton buckets. The jet discharged from the nozzle of a
Pelton turbine is a key item of hydropower systems and its
precise shape and position are highly relevant to the
optimum design of the turbine buckets to match the
incoming flow.
In the first configuration, the interaction between the runner
and an axial-symmetric jet characterized by a given velocity
jet profile were investigated, whereas in the second
configuration the runner was coupled with the needle nozzle
and the final part of the penstock and the interaction between
the jet and the bucket were analyzed. The results confirmed
that the turbine efficiency is affected by the water jet
interaction with the turbine was shown.
Cross-flow turbines
The turbines comprise of a drum shaped runner consisting of

two parallel discs connected together near their rims by a
series of curved blades. It has its runner shaft horizontal to
the ground in all cases [8].
v = volume of water actually striking the runner

Overall efficiency
Overall efficiency is the ratio of power available at
the shaft of the turbine to the power supplied by the
water at the inlet of the turbine. It is written as:
o = volume available at the shaft of the turbine
power supplied at the inlet of the turbine
Figure 15: Cross-flow turbine

The Cross-flow turbine consists of a cylindrical water wheel
or runner with a horizontal shaft, composed of 18 up to 37
blades, arranged radially and tangentially. The blade's edges
Page
iv.
423
volume of water supplied to the turbine
are sharpened to reduce resistance to the flow of water. A
blade is made in a part-circular cross-section. The ends of the
blades are welded to disks to form a cage, instead of the bars,
the turbine has trough-shaped blades.
In operation, the water jet of rectangular cross-section passes
twice through the rotor blades, arranged at the periphery of
the cylindrical runner. The water strikes the blading first
from the periphery towards the centre, imparting most of its
kinetic energy, and then crosses the runner from inside
outwards striking the blades on exit and imparting a smaller
amount of energy on leaving the turbine as shown in Figure
16.
withstand high operational stress and enable smooth

operation. The design and hydraulic layout result in
minimized vibrations and noise level. Special care should be
taken in the layout of the main bearings for the runner and
the guide vane. The casing is designed in such a way that
different options for the bearing system are available to cope
with the specific site requirements, flywheel or belt drive. A
sealing system is included in the side covers. The guide vane
unit can easily be taken out through a side cover for
inspection, cleaning or replacement. To obtain the
guaranteed efficiency, the cylindrical runner is fabricated
with high precision.
5.1 Flow control in Cross-flow turbine
Flow control is done by a guide vane. The shaft of the guide
vane is parallel to the rotor shaft, it fits neatly inside the
nozzle to keep leaks at the side in the closed condition within
limits. It guides water to the runner and controls the amount
of water entering the runner. The device is operated by a
screw and nut which is connected to a hand wheel. It can
also be coupled to automatic operation, to the hydraulic
cylinder of a speed governor. In addition, rubber gaskets are
used to seal up the turbine housing.
The effective head driving the Cross-flow runner can be

increased by the inducement of a partial vacuum inside the
casing. This is done by fitting a draught tube below the
runner which remains full of tail water at all times. Any
decrease in the level induces a greater vacuum which is
limited by the use of an air bleed valve in the casing. Careful
design of the valve and casing is necessary to avoid
conditions where water might back up and submerge the
runner. This has the additional advantage of reducing spray
damage on the bearings since the internal vacuum causes air
to be sucked in through the bearing seals, so impeding the
movement of water out of the seals.
Different turbine types respond differently to changed flow

at constant head. Typical efficiency characteristics of three
turbines are given in Figure 17. The curves shown assume
pressure turbines which have facilities for varying water flow
rate at constant head, for example, spear valves or multiple
jets on Pelton turbines, partition devices of flow control
vanes on Cross-flow turbines.
Part-flow efficiency of
different turbines
Two major attractions of the Cross-flow turbine are that it is

a design suitable for a wide range of heads and power ratings
and it lends itself easily to simple fabrication techniques.
This is a feature that is of interest in developing countries,
e.g. the runner blades can be fabricated by cutting a pipe
lengthwise in strips.
The turbine housing may be entirely made of mild steel
plates. Mild steel is tougher than grey cast iron and is good
on impact and frost resistance and is rigid enough to
Efficiency (%)
The efficiency of Cross-flow turbine depends on the

sophistication of its design. For example a feature such as
vacuum enhancement is expensive because it requires the use
of air seals around the runner shaft as it passes through the
casing, and airtight casing. Sophisticated machines attain
efficiencies of 85%. Simpler ones range typically between
60% and 75%.
100
Pelton &
Turgo
50
Cross-flow
0
0
0.5
Francis
Flow (as a fraction of maximum flow)
Figure 17: Part-flow efficiency of various turbines
Micro-hydro plants overview
The turbines for this study are for micro-hydro power plants
at sites located in Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe as
shown in Table 3.
424
Going
through
the
runner
twice
provides
additional efficiency. When the water leaves the runner, it
also helps clean the runner of small debris. The Cross-flow
turbine is a low-speed machine that is well suited for
locations with a low head but high flow.
The correct design speed of a turbine depends on the power

rating of turbine, the site head and the type of turbine [9].
Small turbines designed for micro-hydro applications may at
times have techniques for altering the flow rate of water. On
larger machines a method of altering flow is different. Crossflow has guide vanes which alter the water flow rate.
Page
Figure 16: Flow of water across the turbine
Table 3: Micro-hydro power plant by site
SITE
NAME
GROSS
DESIGNED
TURB
DESIGNED
HEAD
FLOW
INE
EFFICIEN
(m)
RATE
TYPE
CY (%)
(m3/s)
A
BONDO,
51
0.325
Pelton
60%
MALAWI
B
DAZI, NYANGA
138
0.035
Pelton
60%
NYAMWANGA,
26
0.277
Cross-
60%
HONDE
flow
VALLEY
D
CHITUNGA,
35
0.180
MOZAMBIQUE
Cross-
60%
flow
SITE A: Bondo
The Bondo MHS has a gross head of 51m and a design
flowrate of 0.325m3/s. A special characteristic at this site is
the high flowrate. This is due to the vast amount of water
that flow in Bondo River. Figures 18 to 20 show the weir,
part of the canal at Bondo project and the Pelton turbine in
use at this site.
Figure 20: The Pelton wheel turbine at Bondo MHS

The Bondo project benefits two schools in the area; a
primary and a secondary schools and teachers houses, one
clinic including the waiting mothers home and staff houses
and one business centre. The business centre has some
grocery shops, a battery charging centre, hair salon and an
electric grinding mill. There are seven villages in the Bondo
catchment area with a total of 3084 households. However,
evidence shows that if more power could be produced further
developments would be possible.
SITE B: Dazi micro-hydro project
At the site the head is 138m, the design flowrate is
0.035m3/s. A pelton turbine is in used. A special
characteristic of this site is the very high head that
compensates for the low flows. The project benefits a school
in Figure 21, a clinic and lighting for about 1000 people in
nine villages. More power would allow the 1000 people to
use electrical gadgets such as refrigerators and stoves.
Figure 18: Weir at Bondo MHS
Figure 21: A classroom lit by power from the Dazi MHS
425
Page
Figure 19: Part of the canal at Bondo MHS
SITE C: Nyamwanga project

The Nyamwanga MHS is located 27km North East of Hauna
Township in Chief Zindis area in Mutasa District . The
gross head is 26m, the flowrate is 0.277m3/s. A Cross-flow
turbine is in use at this project as shown in Figure 22. The
project benefits one school, and one shopping centre with
fifteen shops. The plan for the shopping centre is shown in
Figure 23:
366 households. A cross-flow turbine is in place at this
project site.
7. Research design process

Visits were done to the workshops where turbines are
fabricated were. There the study of the factory
manufacturing of turbines was done by following through the
fabrication process. Visits were also made to the project sites
to physically test turbine efficiencies.
Figure 22: The Cross-flow turbine for Nyamwanga project
7.1 Physical testing of turbine efficiency

Physical testing of the turbine rotational speed was done
using a tachometer. A tachometeris an instrument that
measures the rotational speed of a shaft or disk. Tachometers
may either be manual or digital. A digital one is shown in
Figure 25 [8].
Figure 25: Digital Tachometer
Figure 23: Plan for Nyamwanga business centre that is

benefitting from the project.
SITE D: Chitunga project
The rainfall pattern is shown in Figure 24.
The digital gadget displays the RPM on the screen. The

rotation of the turbine was measured using a digital
tachometer model by placing the tip of the tachometer on a
point on the centre of the runner at site C. The rotation of the
turbine was then used to calculate the efficiency of the
turbine as follows:
= ( )( + )
and =
and =
At the site, the gross head is 35.12m, the designed flowrate

is 0.180m3/s. The project benefits one school, one clinic, an
energy centre, local authority offices, four grinding mills and
= turbine power output (W)

= density of water (kg/m3)
= bucket rotational velocity (m/s)
= jet velocity
= flowrate (m3/s)
= runner radius (m)
= runner speed (rpm)
= constant of friction
Also efficiency could be assessed by checking the

performance of the turbine. A load (e.g. an industrial welding
machine) is carried to site. A typical example is one which
operates at 25amps and about 35Amps when striking an arc.
The community is then disconnected and the load is
connected. The operating current is measured and multiplied
by the system voltage. This gives the power output which is
426
Figure 24: Average rainfall graph for Chitunga
60
Page
where P
u
vj
Q
R
N
k
then compared to the designed power output. From this, one
can tell if the turbine is still performing as designed.
It is important to make certain the correct number of buckets
on a runner. This guarantees that the outgoing bucket does
not interfere with water jet now hitting the next bucket. To
ensure the correct number of buckets on a runner, a
simulation program called Autodesk Inventor was used to
simulate the turbine rotation. This is a 3D mechanical solid
modelling design software for creating 3D digital prototypes
used in the design, visualisation and simulation of products.
poured into the mould and the riser is the way excess metal
goes through.
8. Results analysis
8.1 Design and manufacture of turbines
The friction within the Pelton buckets, the interaction of the
water jet with the buckets, the accuracy in the cutting of
Cross-flow blades and the method of welding of the blades to
the runner all have major roles in the efficiency of a turbine.
8.1.2 Pelton turbine manufacture
The head and flowrates were collected from each of the four
study sites. This data was used to calculate the gross power
output hence the size of the runner, number of buckets,
number and size of water jets. The efficiency of the turbine is
designed at 60%. Two of the four sites that were analysed
have Pelton wheel turbine working on them. Data from the
sites is given in Table 4.
Table 4: The two MHS sites that have the Pelton wheel
turbine installed on them
SITE
GROSS
FLOW
CAPACITY
TURBINE
EFFICIENCY
HEAD
RATE
(kW)
TYPE
(%)
(m)
(m3/s)
51
0.325
88
Pelton
60%
138
0.035
20
Pelton
60%
Figure 27: Pelton bucket that has been machined

In Figure 27 the bucket has been machined to remove the
feeder and riser. It has 2 holes drilled through it for bolting to
the runner. It is important to have the holes expertly drilled
otherwise the buckets will not sit on the runner perfectly and
the turbine is misaligned. This reduces the efficiency of the
turbine as some energy is lost to heavy vibrations and noise
since the water jet will not be hitting on the correct spot
anymore.
The capacity for each site is the actual power output .

Buckets are sand cast individually and bolted to a runner.
Figures 25 to 30 show this process. The pattern is used to
produce the mould, the hollow section in the sand box where
the molten metal is poured in to produce the required Pelton
buckets.
Figure 28: Alignment of buckets on the runner
Figure 26 is showing a single bucket that has been sand cast.

The feeder and the riser are still attached to the bucket. The
feeder is the entrance through which the molten metal is
Page
Figure 26: Pelton bucket that has been sand cast.
427
Figure 28 shows how individual buckets are aligned on the

runner. They sit at an angle to each other. This allows for the
full force of the jet to be applied on each bucket one after
another without hindrance from the previous bucket. This
ensures maximum efficiency of the turbine.
8.1.3 Cross-flow turbine manufacturing
Cutting and welding are basically the two procedures carried
out in the fabrication of Cross-flow turbines. The site head
and flow rate are collected from the site as the critical
parameters. These are used to calculate the expected power
output hence the size of the runner, number, length and width
of blades the turbine. The overall efficiency of the turbine is
also designed at 60%. Two of the four sites that were studied
are using the Cross-flow turbine as shown in Table 7.
Table 5: The two MHS sites that have the Cross-flow
turbine installed on them
Figure 29: A complete turbine
A finished turbine is shown is Figure 29. Seventeen buckets
are bolted onto the runner. The number of buckets per runner
is important in making sure there is enough space between
the buckets to allow the water jet to hit individual buckets
with the same force.
SITE
GROSS
HEAD
(m)
FLOW
RATE
(m/s)
CAPAC
ITY
(KW)
TURBIN
E
TYPE
EFFICIE
NCY
(%)
26
0.277
30
Cross-flow
60%
35
0.180
34
Cross-flow
60%
Figure 30 shows the turbine housing being welded together.

The capacity for each site is the actual power output.
The blades are then cut using a cutting torch and welded to
the runner. Figures 31 to 33 show the Cross-flow turbine
ready for mounting.
Figure 30: Turbine housing being welded together
Figure 32 is shows a Cross-flow turbine that is ready for

connection. The cuttings on the runner where the blades are
welded into are the ones that give the blades the required
curve.
428
Figure 31: The inside of the turbine showing the

nozzle
Figure 32: Finished Cross-flow turbine
Figure 33: Blades welded to the runner
Page
The individual parts of the turbine housing were cut using a

cutting torch. The inside of the turbine housing is shown in
Figure 31. The nozzle through which the water jet goes
through to the turbine is seen in the picture. The sizing of the
nozzle is important in having the correct size water jet, hence
the right amount of force on the turbine that ensures
maximum efficiency.
Figure 33 shows closely the blades welded into the runner.
The curving of the blades guides the flowing water as it
flows from one end of the turbine to the other.
100.0
Turbine efficiency & roughness for different manufacting processes
80.0
60.0
40.0
Rough
ness
Turbi
ne Eff
20.0
0.0
A
Manufacturing process
Figure 35: Turbine efficiency & roughness for different

manufacturing processes
The graph indicates that as the manufacturing process
roughness increases the overall efficiency of the turbine
produced decreases. This emphasizes the need to use
manufacturing processes with minimal roughness.
8.2 Effect of roughness due to manufacturing

The processes used to manufacture turbines are sand casting,
oxyacetylene welding and flame cutting. Different
manufacturers of turbines provided quotations that included
the turbine efficiencies and methods used to manufacture the
turbines.
Each manufacturing process has a different roughness. This
combined with material roughness determines the friction of
a turbine and it will then translate to turbine efficiency, in
particular hydraulic efficiency. The hydraulic efficiency
affects overall turbine efficiency directly [6].
Table 6 compares different manufacturing processes against
the overall turbine efficiency associated with each process.
Table 6: The turbine efficiencies associated with roughness
of different manufacturing processes
Manufacturing
Process
Turbine
Efficiency
Roughness
Pressure die casting
85.0
1.6
Investment casting
85.0
3.2
Milling
85.0
6.3
Laser
80.0
6.3
Electron beam
80.0
6.3
Oxyacetylene welding
60.0
25.0
Sand casting
60.0
25.0
Flame cutting
60.0
50.0
Figure 35 shows a graph that was drawn to relate this

roughness to the turbine efficiencies
Mechanical efficiency is the other determining factor of the

overall efficiency. One way to improve this efficiency in
casting procedures is to cast segments comprising of a
number of buckets or whole runners, comprising the runner
and all the buckets.
8.3 Effect of the water jet movement
Of great importance in the mounting of the Pelton turbine is
its interaction with the water jet. To maximize efficiency the
jet must hit precisely the centre of each Pelton bucket. That
way the jet gives the maximum drive to each bucket as noted
earlier in the design of the buckets that the rotation of the
turbine depends on the water jet velocity. This fact matches
with the experimental studies of the jet of a Pelton turbine.It
was concluded that the jetdischarged from the nozzle of a
Pelton turbine is a key item of hydropower systems and its
precise shape and position are highly relevant to the
optimum design of the turbine buckets to match the
incoming flow.
8.4 Turbine material
The type of material used to fabricate a turbine affects its
efficiency. Good materials are hard and must be able to resist
erosion and corrosion. This ensures that the turbines will
function at their best efficiency for the expected life span on
the micro hydro power plant. Stainless steel is mainly used
for Pelton and Cross-flow turbines and mild steel is used for
casings.
This study revealed that other materials that maybe used for
turbines are Aluminium, Cast Iron, Copper based alloys such
as Brass and Bronze, and Sheet steel. The properties of these
materials and their prices per kg are given in Table 7.
429
The turbine casing is shown in Figure 34. The cutting torch

is used to cut the different parts which are then welded
together.
Page
Figure 34: The turbine casing.
This diagnosis of roughness affecting the overall efficiency

of turbines tallies with the findings that the flow friction in
the Pelton buckets has a substantial impact on the system
efficiency of the turbine. The efficiency drop resulting from
the flow frictions represents the greatest part in the total loss
in the system efficiency of a Pelton turbine.
Table 7: Properties of different materials and their prices per
kg
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
ROUGHNESS
(x100-2)
BRINELL
HARDNESS
(x100)
PRICE/
KG
(US$/kg
)
Aluminium
0.2
1.2
1.32
25
3.02
0.83
Grey cast
iron
Brass
3.6
5.54
Bronze
3.6
5.54
Stainless
steel
Sheet Steel
4.15
1.47
15
4.5
0.29
Figures 36 and 37 show the relationships between roughness

and price per kg of material and hardness and price per kg of
material respectively.
is close to the lowest. Sheet Steel maybe the cheapest and its
hardness is slightly higher than that of stainless steel but its
roughness is much higher than Stainless Steel. Such a
roughness means that it has a much higher friction than
Stainless Steel and this is not good for the hydraulic
efficiency of the turbine and hence the overall efficiency.
Brass and Bronze are too expensive for MHS. This is
because they are alloys of Copper which is a very expensive
metal. Its price is about $8 per kg.
Aluminium has a price close to Stainless Steel and the lowest
roughness, but is susceptible to damage if debris such as
stones and sand find their way to the turbine. This is because
it has the lowest hardness. The roughness of Grey Cast Iron
is too high. This compromises the turbine efficiency despite
having a low price and a fairly high hardness.
8.5 Effect of increasing turbine efficiency on MHS power
out put
The resultant change in actual power output due to increase
in turbine efficiency of the four MHS that were studied is
shown in the Table 8.
Material roughness compared to price of material
Table 8: Differences in power output due to increase in

turbine efficiency
30
Material roughness
25
SITE
TURBIN
E TYPE
CURRENT
TUBINE
EFICIENCY
CURRENT
POWER
OUTPUT
(kW)
NEW
TURBINE
EFFICIENC
Y
POSSIBLE
POWER
OUTPUT
(kW)
Bondo (A)
PELTON
0.60
88.00
0.85
124.67
Dazi (B)
PELTON
0.60
20.00
0.85
28.33
Nyamwanga
(C)
CROSSF
LOW
0.60
34.00
0.80
45.33
Chitunga (D)
CROSSF
LOW
0.60
30.00
0.80
40.00
20
15
ROUGHNES
S (x100^-2)
10
PRICE/KG
5
0
A
CMaterial
D
Figure 36: Material roughness compared to material price
DIFERENCE IN POWER OUTPUTS

140.00
Material Hardness compared to material price
120.00
100.00
CURRENT
POWER
OUTPUT
(kW)
POSSIBLE
POWER
OUTPUT
(kW)
POWER OUTPUT
80.00
60.00
40.00
Material hardness
20.00
BRINELL
HARDNE
SS
(x100)
3
2
1
0.00
SITE
Material
Figure 37: Material hardness compared to material price

The two graphs shows why Stainless steel is the most
commonly used material in the manufacturing of turbines for
MHS. It has a high hardness, a very low roughness and price
In all the four cases there is a remarkable increase in power

output coming from the same resources. Therefore using the
materials and manufacturing processes that give the highest
possible yield from each site and resources is most ideal.
Page
430
Figure 38: Difference in MHS power output for the four

sites analysed
8.6 Performance measurements
After the turbine has been set up and the micro hydro is just
starting to run, it is of utmost importance to measure the
efficiency of the turbine in order to verify if it is meeting the
expected efficiency. This is done using a tachometer. This is
done at the initiation of a project and after it has run for six
months to check if all is performing as expected. During the
period of study the tachometer was used to check the
performance of the turbine at Site C as shown in Table 9.
New turbines have a better efficiency; therefore the capacity

of a MHS is improved. These turbines are more expensive
than the current turbines in use and this translates to higher
total project costs. However, because a turbine with better
efficiency also improves the MHS capacity the projects are
made even more viable because in the end the project cost
per kW is reduced. The change in project cost per kW for
each site is shown in Table 12.
Table 9: Tachometer readings at Site C
Table 12: The difference in project costs per kw
SITE
READINGS
495 rpm
515 rpm
511 rpm
492 prm
498 rpm
The average of these numbers was used to calculate turbine

power output.
The designed power output for this site is 34kW and turbine
efficiency is designed at 60%. The calculated power output
from these readings was 33.3kW. The two power outputs are
comparable to each other, therefore it was concluded that the
turbine was still operating at 60%.
The need for performance measurement is invaluable. When
done on regular intervals problems are identified and
rectified before the MHS needs to be shut down.
TURBINE
TURBINE
MHS
TURBINE
TOTAL
PROJ
TYPE
EFFICIENC
CAPA
COST (US$)
PROJEC
ECT
CITY
COST
COST(U
PER
S$)
kW
509
444.00
789.14
4
60%
88kW
5000.00
Pelton
60%
20kW
5000.00
81 775.20
Cross-
60%
30kW
7000.00
174
719.00
823.97
158
340.00
166.84
088.76
flow
Cross-
60%
34kW
7000.00
flow
Table 11: Costs involved with better efficiency turbines

TURB
TURBIN
NEW
TURBINE
TOTAL
PROJEC
INE
CAPACITY
COST (US$)
PROJECT
T COST
TYPE
EFFICIE
COST(US$)
PER kW
NCY
A
Pelton
85%
125kW
6500.00
510 944.00
4 087.55
Pelton
85%
28kW
6500.00
83 275.20
2 974.12
Cross-
80%
40kW
8200.00
175 919.00
4 397.98
80%
45kW
8200.00
159 540.00
3 545.33
flow
D
Crossflow
4 088.76
2 974.12
5 823.97
4 397.98
4 166.84
3 545.33
6000
5000
CURRENT
PROJECT
COST PER
kW
POSSIBLE
PROJECT
COST PER
kW
4000
3000
2000
1000
SITE
Figure 39: The reduction in project cost per kW on each site
Using quotations from suppliers new MHS capacity were

calculated, total project cost and project cost per kW as
shown in Table 11.
SITE
4 087.55
5 789.14
REDUCTION IN PROJECT COST PER kW
$ / kW
Table 10: Costs involved in the selected four projects
Pelton
COST PER kW
7000
There is a limit on the project cost per kilowatt for each

MHS. It entails that total project cost of each site depends on
its capacity. A project is considered financially viable if the
budget does not exceed $6000 per kW. Table 10 shows the
costs that were involved in the selected projects.
EXPECTED PROJECT
COST PER kW
This reduction is shown graphically in Figure 39.
9.Financial analysis
SITE
CURRENT PROJECT
The graph is showing that even though turbines of higher

efficiencies are more expensive the overall project cost per
kW actually decreases.
I. 10. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS

It is highly recommended to consider investing in processes
that produce turbines with higher efficiencies such as:
Pressure die casting of turbines. They may be
cast as whole turbines or as segments made up
of a number of buckets.
Investment casting of whole turbines.
CNC milling of Pelton buckets.
Cutting of Pelton runner and Cross-flow runner
and blades using CNC laser, CNC plasma.
Electron beam and laser welding of blades to
runners.
431
Page
TACHOMETER
These processes offer far less roughness compared to current
methods that include sand casting, flame cutting and
oxyacetylene welding. That reduction in roughness lessens
friction and the overall efficiency of a turbine is increased.
11. Conclusion
This study has revealed that turbines of better efficiencies
can be manufactured, made available for MHS and the
projects remain financially viable. This was achieved
through the comparison of current fabrication methods used
locally to methods used by different suppliers of turbines.
Even though the better efficiency turbines are more
expensive than the ones being used currently the overall
benefit is clear. More electricity is generated hence the cost
per unit kW actually decreases making the projects even
more viable. The financial viability of a project was
determined by the project cost per kilowatt produced. Use of
better efficiency turbines will make it possible to harness
more electrical power from the same resources.
12 Further research
Further studies may be carried out on need forexperimental
investigations with respect to the flow friction effects on the
hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton turbine as well as
considering materials which can be locally sourced for
fabrication of the MHS in the country. As the MHS has
potential for renewable energy resource, meaning less
pollution to the environment which is encouraged by the
dictates of Cleaner Production for sustainable development.
Authors Profiles
MrsLoiceGudukeya,graduated with a Honors Degree

in Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering in 2004 from
the National University of Science and Technology,
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe and Masters Degree in Renewable
Energy in 2012 from the University of Zimbabwe, Harare,
Zimbabwe. She has been an Assistant Lecturer at the Harare
Institute of Technology and University of Zimbabwe. She
has also understudied micro-hydro projects at Practical
Action. Currently she is a Lecturer in the Mechanical
Engineering Department at the University of Zimbabwe and
working on preparatory work for her Phd in Climate Change.
References
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
MrIgnatioMadanhire,
graduated with a BSc Mechanical(Hon) Engineering and
MSc in Manufacturing Systems and Operations Management
in 1993 and 2010 respectively from the University of
Zimbabwe. He has been a mechanical engineer with
Department of Water Large Dam Designs, and also worked
as a Senior Lubrication Engineer with Mobil Oil Zimbabwe
as well as Castrol International dealing with blending plants
and lubricants end users. Currently, he is a lecturer with the
University of Zimbabwe in the Mechanical Department
lecturing in Engineering Drawing and Design. He has
published a number of research papers on cleaner
production.
432
[2]
Balino (2012), Design Pelton Bucket Runner.

<http://www.balino.com/ingles/turbinas/pelton.htm
> viewed on 6 October 2012
BETP ( 2012), Hydraulic Turbines
<http://www.betp.net/2012/01/pelton-wheelturbine/> viewed on 6 October 2012
Bright hub (2012), Hydraulic Turbines: Francis
Turbine
<http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/mechanica
l/articles/27407.aspx> viewed on 15 September
2012
Development book shop( 2012), Micro-hydro Pelton
Turbine Manual
<http://developmentbookshop.com/product_info.ph
p?products_id=441> viewed on 13 sept 2012
Greenstone (2012), Community Development
Library, Pelton Turbine
<http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl%3Bj
sessionid=0f.9.pp&sib=1&p.s=ClassifierBrowse&p.
sa=&p.a=b> viewed on 6 October 2012
HARC (2012), Turbines
<http://files.harc.edu/Documents/EBS/CEDP/Hydro
powerPart2.pdf>viewed on 1 November 2012
Hydropower( 2012),Axco Generators for hydropower
applications
<http://www.axcomotors.com/hydropower_generat
or.html> viewed on 16 September 2012
John F Douglas, Janus M Gasiorek, John A
Swaffied, Lynn B Jack ( 2005). Fifth edition. Fluid
Mechanics
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International Journal Of Engineering And Computer Science ISSN:2319-7242

EFFICIENCYIMPROVEMENT OF PELTON WHEEL ANDCROSSFLOW TURBINES IN MICRO-HYDRO POWER PLANTS: CASE

University of Zimbabwe, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Keywords:hydro, power plant, turbine, efficiency, manufacture, micro

3. Overview of micro-hydro power plant

Hydro power systems are classified as micro has the power

a tailrace through which the water is released back

Figure 3: Concept of the head[8]

The power available from a micro-hydro power system is

3.1 Power generation

Figure 2:The inside of a power house[9]

where Pactual is the actual power produced (kW)

It is common to assume an overall system efficiency of 50

Figure 4: Power losses and efficiencies in a micro-hydro

intake shaft - a tube that connects to the piping or

Step-up and down transformers

To determine the actual power output from the MHS the

Selection of the turbine depends on the site characteristics,

Table 1: Typical system component efficiencies [5]

Figure 5: Francis turbine [7]

converted to rotation energy in contact with the runner

3.2.2 Impulse turbine [4]

Figure 6: Kaplan turbine

A Pelton turbine consists of a series of cups mounted around

4. Pelton wheel turbine [6]

Figure 9: Water jet being deflected back at an angle of 165 0.

4.1 Characteristics of Pelton wheel cups/buckets [7]

The rotational speed of the buckets hence the runner is

Figure 10: Water jet hitting the bucket

The net head acting on the Pelton wheel

= Darcy friction factor (dimensionless)

L = length of the penstock (m)

Figure 8: Pelton buckets

So if the bucket is moving at a velocity of vb and the water is

Figure 7: Pelton turbine [6]

For optimum efficiency the speed of the jet, vj, should be

velocity of the jet at inlet = (2gH)

the force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of

power given to the runner by the jet

work done / s per unit weight of water striking/s

In order to optimize efficiency, the number of buckets on the

4.3 Pelton wheel turbine efficiency [7]

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

Figure 11: A four-jet Pelton turbine [5]

Replacement of nozzles:One nozzle is removed and replaced

Figure 14: The breaking jet

A gate valve or butterfly valve may be placed in the turbine

Spear valves are very effective where continuous flow

Figure 13: Effect of spear valve position to the water jet

The turbines comprise of a drum shaped runner consisting of

v = volume of water actually striking the runner

Figure 15: Cross-flow turbine

volume of water supplied to the turbine

withstand high operational stress and enable smooth

The effective head driving the Cross-flow runner can be

Different turbine types respond differently to changed flow

Two major attractions of the Cross-flow turbine are that it is

The efficiency of Cross-flow turbine depends on the

Flow (as a fraction of maximum flow)

Figure 17: Part-flow efficiency of various turbines

Micro-hydro plants overview

The correct design speed of a turbine depends on the power