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Lect - Notes - MICROWAVE ENGINEERING PDF
Lect - Notes - MICROWAVE ENGINEERING PDF
DEPARTMENT OF ECE
EC1402 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
PREPARED BY
K.BALAJI,AP/ECE
UNIT I
PART A
1. Define s-matrix
In a microwave junction there is intersection of three or more components.There will be an
output port ,in addition there may be reflection from the junction of other ports.Totally there may
be many combinations,these are represented easily using a matrix called S matrix.
The reflection coefficient can be given by the equations below, where ZS is the
impedance toward the source, ZL is the impedance toward the load.
A negative reflection coefficient means that the reflected wave receives a 180, or ,
phase shift.
PART B
S-parameters are complex (magnitude and angle) because both the magnitude and phase
of the input signal are changed by the network. Quite often we refer to the magnitude only, as it
is of the most interest. Who cares how the signal phase is changed by an amplifier or attenuator?
You mostly care about how much gain (or loss) you get. S-parameters are defined for a given
frequency and system impedance, and vary as a function of frequency for any non-ideal network.
S-parameters refer to RF "voltage out versus voltage in" in the most basic sense. S-
parameters come in a matrix, with the number of rows and columns equal to the number of ports.
For the S-parameter subscripts "ij", j is the port that is excited (the input port), and "i" is the
output port. Thus S11 refers to the ratio of signal that reflects from port one for a signal incident
on port one. Parameters along the diagonal of the S-matrix are referred to as reflection
coefficients because they only refer to what happens at a single port, while off-diagonal S-
parameters are referred to as transmission coefficients, because they refer to what happens from
one port to another.
Note that each S-parameter is a vector, so if actual data were presented in matrix format,
a magnitude and phase angle would be presented for each Sij. The input and output reflection
coefficients of networks (such as S11 and S22) can be plotted on the Smith chart. Transmission
coefficients (S21 and S12) are usually not plotted on the Smith chart.
S-parameters describe the response of an N-port network to voltage signals at each port.
The first number in the subscript refers to the responding port, while the second number refers to
the incident port. Thus S21 means the response at port 2 due to a signal at port 1. The most
common "N-port" in microwaves are one-ports and two-ports, three-port network S-parameters
are easy to model with software such as Agilent ADS, but the three-port S-parameter
measurements are extremely difficult to perform with accuracy. Measure S-parameters are
available from vendors for amplifiers, but we've never seen a vendor offer true three-port S-
parameters for a even a simple SPDT switch (a three-port network).
Let's examine a two-port network. The incident voltage at each port is denoted by "a",
while the voltage leaving a port is denoted by "b". Don't get all hung up on how two voltages can
occur at the same node, think of them as traveling in opposite directions!
If we assume that each port is terminated in impedance Z0, we can define the four S-
parameters of the 2-port as:
There's a missing step to this derivation, which was pointed out by Alex (thanks!) You'll
find the complete derivation on Wikipedia, we'll update this page soon.
See how the subscript neatly follows the parameters in the ratio (S11=b1/a1, etc...)?
Here's the matrix algebraic representation of 2-port S-parameters:
If we want to measure S11, we inject a signal at port one and measure its reflected signal.
In this case, no signal is injected into port 2, so a2=0; during all laboratory S-parameter
measurements, we only inject one signal at a time. If we want to measure S21, we inject a signal
at port 1, and measure the resulting signal exiting port 2. For S12 we inject a signal into port 2,
and measure the signal leaving port 1, and for S22 we inject a signal at port 2 and measure its
reflected signal.
Did we mention that all of the a and b measurements are vectors? It isn't always
necessary to keep track of the angle of the S-parameters, but vector S-parameters are a much
more powerful tool than magnitude-only S-parameters, and the math is simple enough either
way.
S-parameter magnitudes are presented in one of two ways, linear magnitude or decibels
(dB). Because S-parameters are a voltage ratio, the formula for decibels in this case is
Sij(dB)=20*log[Sij(magnitude)]
Remember that power ratios are expressed as 10xlog(whatever). Voltage ratios are
20xlog(whatever), because power is proportional to voltage squared.
The angle of a vector S-parameter is almost always presented in degrees (but of course,
radians are possible).
Types of S-parameters
Small signal S-parameters are what we are talking about 99% of the time. By small
signal, we mean that the signals have only linear effects on the network, small enough so that
gain compression does not take place. For passive networks, small-signal is all you have to
worry about, because they act linearly at any power level.
Large signal S-parameters are more complicated. In this case, the S-matrix will vary
with input signal strength. Measuring and modeling large signal S-parameters will not be
described on this page (perhaps we will get into that someday)
A reciprocal network always has a symmetric S-parameter matrix. That means that
S21=S12, S13=S31, etc. All values along the lower-left to upper right diagonal must be equal. A
two-port S-parameter matrix (at a single frequency) is represented by:
If you are measuring a network that is known to be reciprocal, checking for symmetry
across the diagonal of the S-parameter matrix is one simple check to see if the data is valid.
______________________________________________________________________________
Examples include small-signal models for transistors (such as the hybrid-pi model),
filters and matching networks. The analysis of passive two-port networks is an outgrowth of
reciprocity theorems first derived by Lorentz.[3]
A two-port network makes possible the isolation of either a complete circuit or part of it
and replacing it by its characteristic parameters. Once this is done, the isolated part of the circuit
becomes a "black box" with a set of distinctive properties, enabling us to abstract away its
specific physical buildup, thus simplifying analysis. Any linear circuit with four terminals can be
transformed into a two-port network provided that it does not contain an independent source and
satisfies the port conditions.
There are a number of alternative sets of parameters that can be used to describe a linear
two-port network, the usual sets are respectively called z, y, h, g, and ABCD parameters, each
described individually below. These are all limited to linear networks since an underlying
assumption of their derivation is that any given circuit condition is a linear superposition of
various short-circuit and open circuit conditions. They are usually expressed in matrix notation,
and they establish relations between the variables
Input voltage
Output voltage
Input current
Output current
which are shown in Figure 1. These current and voltage variables are most useful at low-
to-moderate frequencies. At high frequencies (e.g., microwave frequencies), the use of power
and energy variables is more appropriate, and the two-port currentvoltage approach is replaced
by an approach based upon scattering parameters.
The terms four-terminal network and quadripole (not to be confused with quadrupole) are
also used, the latter particularly in more mathematical treatments although the term is becoming
archaic. However, a pair of terminals can be called a port only if the current entering one
terminal is equal to the current leaving the other; this definition is called the port condition. A
four-terminal network can only be properly called a two-port when the terminals are connected
to the external circuitry in two pairs both meeting the port condition
Figure 2: z-equivalent two port showing independent variables I1 and I2. Although resistors are
shown, general impedances can be used instead.
where
Figure 3 shows a bipolar current mirror with emitter resistors to increase its output
resistance.[nb 1] Transistor Q1 is diode connected, which is to say its collector-base voltage is zero.
Figure 4 shows the small-signal circuit equivalent to Figure 3. Transistor Q1 is represented by its
emitter resistance rE VT / IE (VT = thermal voltage, IE = Q-point emitter current), a
simplification made possible because the dependent current source in the hybrid-pi model for Q1
draws the same current as a resistor 1 / gm connected across r. The second transistor Q2 is
represented by its hybrid-pi model. Table 1 below shows the z-parameter expressions that make
the z-equivalent circuit of Figure 2 electrically equivalent to the small-signal circuit of Figure 4.
RE RE
The negative feedback introduced by resistors RE can be seen in these parameters. For
example, when used as an active load in a differential amplifier, I1 -I2, making the output
impedance of the mirror approximately R22 -R21 2 rORE /( r+2RE ) compared to only rO
without feedback (that is with RE = 0 ) . At the same time, the impedance on the reference side
of the mirror is approximately R11 R12 (rE + RE), only a moderate value, but still
larger than rE with no feedback. In the differential amplifier application, a large output resistance
increases the difference-mode gain, a good thing, and a small mirror input resistance is desirable
to avoid Miller effect.
Figure 5: Y-equivalent two port showing independent variables V1 and V2. Although resistors are
shown, general admittances can be used instead.
where
where
This circuit is often selected when a current amplifier is wanted at the output. The
resistors shown in the diagram can be general impedances instead.
Notice that off-diagonal h-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have
dimensions the reciprocal of one another.
rE
Figure 8: G-equivalent two-port showing independent variables V1 and I2; g11 is reciprocated to
make a resistor
where
Often this circuit is selected when a voltage amplifier is wanted at the output. Notice that
off-diagonal g-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have dimensions the
reciprocal of one another. The resistors shown in the diagram can be general impedances instead.
ABCD-parameters
This representation is preferred because when the parameters are used to represent a
cascade of two-ports, the matrices are written in the same order that a network diagram would be
drawn, that is, left to right. However, the examples given below are based on a variant definition;
where
The negative signs in the definitions of parameters and arise because is defined
with the opposite sense to , that is, . The reason for adopting this convention is so that
the output current of one cascaded stage is equal to the input current of the next. Consequently,
the input voltage/current matrix vector can be directly replaced with the matrix equation of the
preceding cascaded stage to form a combined matrix.
The RF Toolbox add-on to MATLAB[16] and several books (for example "Network
scattering parameters"[17]) use this last definition, so caution is necessary. The "From S to T" and
"From T to S" paragraphs in this article are based on the first definition. Adaptation to the second
definition is trivial (interchanging T11 for T22, and T12 for T21). The advantage of T-
parameters compared to S-parameters is that they may be used to readily determine the effect of
cascading 2 or more 2-port networks by simply multiplying the associated individual T-
parameter matrices. If the T-parameters of say three different 2-port networks 1, 2 and 3 are
, and respectively then the T-parameter matrix for the cascade of all three
networks ( ) in serial order is given by:
As with S-parameters, T-parameters are complex values and there is a direct conversion
between the two types. Although the cascaded T-parameters is a simple matrix multiplication of
the individual T-parameters, the conversion for each network's S-parameters to the
corresponding T-parameters and the conversion of the cascaded T-parameters back to the
equivalent cascaded S-parameters, which are usually required, is not trivial. However once the
operation is completed, the complex full wave interactions between all ports in both directions
will be taken into account. The following equations will provide conversion between S and T
parameters for 2-port networks.[18]
From S to T:
From T to S
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain about S matrix of two port and four network networks.
For a generic multi-port network, each of the ports is allocated an integer 'n' ranging from
1 to N, where N is the total number of ports. For port n, the associated S-parameter definition is
in terms of incident and reflected 'power waves', and respectively.
Where is the diagonal matrix of the complex reference impedance for each port, is
the elementwise complex conjugate of , and are respectively the column vectors of the
voltages and currents at each port and
Sometimes it is useful to assume that the reference impedance is the same for all ports in
which case the definitions of the incident and reflected waves may be simplified to
and
For all ports the reflected power waves may be defined in terms of the S-parameter
matrix and the incident power waves by the following matrix equation:
where S is an N x N matrix the elements of which can be indexed using conventional matrix
(mathematics) notation.
Reciprocity
A network will be reciprocal if it is passive and it contains only reciprocal materials that
influence the transmitted signal. For example, attenuators, cables, splitters and combiners are all
reciprocal networks and in each case, or the S-parameter matrix will be equal to its
transpose. Networks which include non-reciprocal materials in the transmission medium such as
those containing magnetically biased ferrite components will be non-reciprocal. An amplifier is
another example of a non-reciprocal network.
Lossless networks
Lossy networks
A lossy passive network is one in which the sum of the incident powers at all ports is
greater than the sum of the reflected powers at all ports. It therefore dissipates power,
or : . In this case , and is positive
definite.
2-Port S-Parameters
The S-parameter matrix for the 2-port network is probably the most commonly used and
serves as the basic building block for generating the higher order matrices for larger networks.[9]
In this case the relationship between the reflected, incident power waves and the S-parameter
matrix is given by:
Expanding the matrices into equations gives:
and
Each equation gives the relationship between the reflected and incident power waves at
each of the network ports, 1 and 2, in terms of the network's individual S-parameters, , ,
and . If one considers an incident power wave at port 1 ( ) there may result from it
waves exiting from either port 1 itself ( ) or port 2 ( ). However if, according to the definition
of S-parameters, port 2 is terminated in a load identical to the system impedance ( ) then, by
the maximum power transfer theorem, will be totally absorbed making equal to zero.
Therefore
and
Similarly, if port 1 is terminated in the system impedance then becomes zero, giving
and
An amplifier operating under linear (small signal) conditions is a good example of a non-
reciprocal network and a matched attenuator is an example of a reciprocal network. In the
following cases we will assume that the input and output connections are to ports 1 and 2
respectively which is the most common convention. The nominal system impedance, frequency
and any other factors which may influence the device, such as temperature, must also be
specified.
Complex linear gain
That is simply the voltage gain as a linear ratio of the output voltage divided by the input
voltage, all values expressed as complex quantities.
That is simply the scalar voltage gain as a linear ratio of the output voltage and the input
voltage. As this is a scalar quantity, the phase is not relevant in this case.
dB.
This is more commonly used than scalar linear gain and a positive quantity is normally
understood as simply a 'gain'... A negative quantity can be expressed as a 'negative gain' or more
usually as a 'loss' equivalent to its magnitude in dB. For example, a 10 m length of cable may
have a gain of - 1 dB at 100 MHz or a loss of 1 dB at 100 MHz.
Insertion loss
In case the two measurement ports use the same reference impedance, the insertion loss
(IL) is the dB expression of the transmission coefficient . It is thus given by[10]:
dB.
It is the extra loss produced by the introduction of the DUT between the 2 reference
planes of the measurement. Notice that the extra loss can be introduced by intrinsic loss in the
DUT and/or mismatch. In case of extra loss the insertion loss is defined to be positive.
Input return loss: Input return loss ( ) is a scalar measure of how close the actual
input impedance of the network is to the nominal system impedance value and, expressed in
logarithmic magnitude, is given by
dB.
By definition, return loss is a positive scalar quantity implying the 2 pairs of magnitude (|)
symbols. The linear part, is equivalent to the reflected voltage magnitude divided by the
incident voltage magnitude.
The output return loss ( ) has a similar definition to the input return loss but applies to the
output port (port 2) instead of the input port. It is given by
dB.
The scalar logarithmic (decibel or dB) expression for reverse gain ( ) is:
dB.
Often this will be expressed as reverse isolation ( ) in which case it becomes a positive
quantity equal to the magnitude of and the expression becomes:
dB.
The voltage reflection coefficient at the input port ( ) or at the output port ( ) are
equivalent to and respectively, so
and .
Voltage reflection coefficients are complex quantities and may be graphically represented
on polar diagrams or Smith Charts
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) at a port, represented by the lower case 's', is a
similar measure of port match to return loss but is a scalar linear quantity, the ratio of the
standing wave maximum voltage to the standing wave minimum voltage. It therefore relates to
the magnitude of the voltage reflection coefficient and hence to the magnitude of either for
the input port or for the output port.
At the input port, the VSWR ( ) is given by
4-Port S-Parameters
4 Port S Parameters are used to characterize 4 port networks. They include information
regarding the reflected and incident power waves between the 4 ports of the network.
They are commonly used to analyze a pair of coupled transmission lines to determine the
amount of cross-talk between them, if they are driven by two separate single ended signals, or
the reflected and incident power of a differential signal driven across them. Many specifications
of high speed differential signals define a communication channel in terms of the 4-Port S-
Parameters, for example the 10-Gigabit Attachment Unit Interface (XAUI), SATA, PCI-X, and
InfiniBand systems.
Stimulus
Note the format of the parameter notation SXYab, where S stands for scatttering
parameter or S-parameter, X is the response mode (differential or common), Y is the
stimulus mode (differential or common), a is the output port and b is the input port. This is the
typical nomenclature for scattering parameters.
The first quadrant is defined as the upper left 4 parameters describing the differential
stimulus and differential response characteristics of the device under test. This is the actual mode
of operation for most high-speed differential interconnects and is the quadrant that receives the
most attention. It includes input differential return loss (SDD11), input differential insertion loss
(SDD21), output differential return loss (SDD22) and output differential insertion loss (SDD12).
Some benefits of differential signal processing are;
The second and third quadrants are the upper right and lower left 4 parameters,
respectively. These are also referred to as the cross-mode quadrants. This is because they fully
characterize any mode conversion occurring in the device under test, whether it is common-to-
differential SDCab conversion (EMI susceptibility for an intended differential signal SDD
transmission application) or differential-to-common SCDab conversion (EMI radiation for a
differential application). Understanding mode conversion is very helpful when trying to optimize
the design of interconnects for gigabit data throughput.
The fourth quadrant is the lower right 4 parameters and describes the performance
characteristics of the common-mode signal SCCab propagating through the device under test.
For a properly designed SDDab differential device there should be minimal common-mode
output SCDab. However, the fourth quadrant common-mode response data is a measure of
common-mode transmission response and used in a ratio with the differential transmission
response to determine the network common-mode rejection. This common mode rejection is an
important benefit of differential signal processing and can be reduced to one in some differential
circuit implementations.[11][12]
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Compare Z, Y, h and S Parameters.
The 2-port network shown to the left is representative of that implied in the application of
these equations. Basic relationships of voltage and current are given in the table to the right.
Many other sources exist on the particulars of 2-port network analysis, so it will not be covered
here.
All of the parameter equations make use of complex values for all numbers of impedance
and the resulting matrix parameters, i.e., Z = R jX.
Z01 and Z02 are the complex impedances of ports 1 and 2, respectively; similarly, Z*01 and Z*02
are the complex conjugates of the respective impedances.
S-Parameters
Y-Parameters
Z-Parameters
h-Parameters
ABCD-Parameters
________________________________________________________________________
5. Evaluate S Parameters in reference to any property with example.
6. (i) Explain the S Parameters with an application
UNIT II
PART A
1. What are the various reasons pertaining to the wide use of microwaves ?
(i) Large Bandwidth
(ii)Improved directivity with an Aerial array
(iii)Reliability
(iv)Low Power requirement.
Clockwise [S]= 0 0 1
100
0 10
16. Name some wave guide components used to change the direction of the guide through
an arbitrary angle
(i)Wave guide corner
(ii) Bend
(iii)Twist
===============================================================
5. Write Short notes on
(i) Circulator
(ii) Isolator
(ii)ISOLATOR
===============================================================
6. Write short notes about,
UNIT III
PART A
6.How are spurious oscillations generated in TWT amplifier? State the method to
suppress it.
In a TWT, adjacent turns of the helix are so close to each other and hence oscillations are
likely to occur. To prevent these spurious signals some form of attenuator is placed near the
input end of the tube which absorb the oscillations.
8.How the klystron amplifier can act as klystron oscillator? What are the
applications of klystron amplifier?
When the klystron amplifier is given a positive feedback such that the overall phase shift
becomes zero 360 and __Av _= I then klystron amplifier acts as an oscillator.
Applications:
(1) UHF TV Transmitters
(2) Long ranger radar
(3) Linear particle accelerator
(4) Troposcatter links
(5) Earth station transmitter.
1.Explain about Two cavity Klystron mode of operation with neat diagram.
2.Explain about output power, efficiency of Klystron
3. Explain about Reflex Klystron with neat diagram.
4.Explain about TWT in Detail.
5. Explain about the Magnetron with neat diagram.
6.Explain about Multi cavity Klystron with neat diagram.
7. Problem
8. Problem
EC 1402 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
UNIT IV
PART A
11.What is MESFET?
If the field effect transistor is constructed with metal semiconductor schottky barrier
diode,the device is called metal-semiconductor field effect transistor.
UNIT IV
UNIT V
MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS
PART A
8.What is Bolometer?
It is a power sensor whose resistance change with changed temperature as it absorb the
microwave power.It is ashort thin metallic wire sensor with positive temperature coefficient of
resistance.
9.What is calorimeter?
It is convenient device setup for measuring the high power at microwave which involves
conversion of microwave energy in to heat,absorbing the heat in a f luid and determine the temp.
12.How will you determine the vswr and return loss in reflecto meter method?
The voltage ratio between port3 or port4 is known reflectin coefficient (T) determined
we determine VSWR and return loss as,
VSWR=(1+T)/(1-T)
Return loss=-20 log(T)
15.What is a wavemeter?
It is a device used for frequency measurement in microwave.It has cylindrical cavity with a
variable short circuit termination .It changes the resonant frequency of cavity by changing
cavitylength.
The General Radio Type 874-LBA slotted line and cross-section views of the carriage
showing the crystal mount and the probe are shown in Figure 3.
Be sure the stub is not tuned to a harmonic of the desired signal rather than to the
fundamental. Confusion may result in some cases if the tuning is done with a high VSWR on the
line, as the minima of the harmonics may not be coincident with the minima of the fundamental
and, consequently, the harmonic content of the signal picked up by the probe may be greater than
that present in the local oscillator output. To minimize the possibility of mistuning, the probe
should be tuned with a low VSWR on the line, for instance, with the line terminated in a Type
874-WM 50 Ohm Termination. As a check, the distance between two adjacent voltage mimina
when the line is terminated in a short circuit can be measured. If the stub is tuned correctly, the
spacing should be a half wavelength.
Probe Penetration Adjustment
The probe penetration should be adjusted for adequate senstivity as well as insignificant
effect on the measured VSWR. The presence of the probe affects the VSWR because it is a small
admittance in shunt with the line. It has the greatest effect at a voltage maximum, where the line
impedance is high.
To adjust the probe penetration, remove the tuning stub connected to the left-hand
connector and turn the small screw found inside the inner connector (See Figure 3). Clockwise
rotation of the screw increases the coupling. In most cases in which moderate VSWR's are
measured, a penetration of about 30% of the distance between the two conductors gives
satisfactory results. For this experiment, your probe penetration has been initially adjusted to
give approximately 30% coupling as indicated below.
To adjust the coupling to 30%, increase the coupling until the probe strikes the center
conductor of the slotted line; then back it off six full turns of the screw. The point of contact
between the probe and the center conductor is most easily measured by connecting an ohmmeter
between the inner and outer conductors of the line with the standing wave indicator connected as
shown in Figure 1. Using the 2000 ohm range on the ohmmeter, note the point at which the
resistance suddenly drops from a very high value to a reasonably low value. The crystal is in
series with this circuit, so the resistance will not drop to zero. No indication will be obtained if
the crystal has been removed. Do not screw the probe downtight against the center conductor, as
it will damage the probe.
The amount of the probe penetration can be visually checked by looking at the probe
though the slot from one end of the line. The effect of the probe coupling on the VSWR can be
determined by measurement of the VSWR at two different degrees of coupling. If the measured
VSWR is the same in both cases, the probe coupling used has no significant effect on the
measurement. If the measured VSWR's are different, additional measurements should be made
with decreasing amounts of probe penetration until no difference occurs. However, as pointed
out in the previous paragraph, a 30% coupling usually gives satisfactory results except when the
VSWR is high, which usually requires a large coupling.
The SWR Meter
The standing wave indicator, or SWR meter, is a low-noise tuned amplifier-voltmeter
calibrated in dB and SWR. The amplifier has a 3 dB bandwidth of approximately 25 Hz centered
at approximately 1000 Hz. The RF source must be modulated with a square wave having a
frequency which corresponds to the center of the bandpass of the SWR meter. The SWR meter is
a linear amplifier and linear voltmeter with the meter scales calibrated for use with a square-law
detector. Hence a two to one change in voltage to the SWR meter is shown as a 3 dB change; this
would be a 6dB change on a conventional voltmeter.
2.Explain about VSWR with neat diagram.
The SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the standing wave
ratio in a transmission line. The meter can be used to indicate the degree of mismatch between a
transmission line and its load (usually a radio antenna), or evaluate the effectiveness of impedance
matching efforts.
A directional SWR meter measures the magnitude of the forward & reflected waves by
sensing each one individually, with directional couplers. A calculation can then be performed to
arrive at the SWR.
A simple directional SWR meter (NOTE: in the above diagram, the REV and FWD label
is reversed, FWD should be the diode near the TX input, and REV should be the diode near the
ANT output
Referring to the above diagram, the transmitter (TX) and antenna (ANT) terminals are
connected via an internal transmission line. This main line is electromagnetically coupled to two
smaller sense lines (directional couplers) which are terminated with resistors at one end, and
diode rectifiers at the other. The resistors are chosen to match the characteristic impedance of the
sense lines. The diodes convert the magnitudes of the forward & reverse waves to FWD and
REV DC voltages, respectively, which are then smoothed by the capacitors[1].
SWR Bridge
SWR can also be measured using an impedance bridge circuit. The bridge is balanced (0
volts across the detector) only when the test impedance exactly matches the reference
impedance. When a transmission line is mismatched (SWR > 1:1), its input impedance deviates
from its characteristic impedance; thus, a bridge can be used to determine the presence or
absence of a low SWR.
To test for a match, the reference impedance of the bridge is set to the expected load
impedance (for example, 50 ohms), and the transmission line connected as the unknown
impedance. RF power is applied to the circuit. The voltage at the line input represents the vector
sum of the forward wave, and the wave reflected from the load. If the characteristic impedance
of the line is known to be 50 ohms, we know the magnitude and phase of the forward wave; it is
the same wave present on the other side of the detector. Subtracting this known wave from the
wave present at the line input yields the reflected wave. Properly designed, a bridge circuit can
be used not only to indicate a match, but the degree of mismatch - thus making it possible to
calculate the SWR. This usually involves alternately connecting the reference wave and the
reflected wave to a power meter, and comparing the magnitudes of the resulting deflections[2].
Limitations
Note that an SWR meter does not measure the actual impedance of a load (i.e., the
resistance and reactance), but only the mismatch ratio. To measure the actual impedance, an
antenna analyzer or other similar RF measuring device is required. Note also that for accurate
readings, the SWR meter must be matched to the line impedance, usually 50 or 75 ohms. To
accommodate multiple impedances, some SWR meters have switches on the rear, to select the
resistance appropriate for the sense lines.
An SWR meter should be connected to the line as close as possible to the antenna: All
practical transmission lines have a certain amount of loss, which causes the reflected wave to be
attenuated as it travels back along the line. Thus, the SWR is highest closest to the load, and only
improves as the distance from the load increases[3].
When not actually measuring SWR, it is best to remove the more usual types of passive
SWR meter from the line. This is because the internal diodes of such meters can generate
harmonics when transmitting, and inter modulation products when receiving. Because active
SWR meters do not usually suffer from this effect, they can normally be left in without causing
such problems.
SPURIOUS SIGNALS
In tuning a klystron, ordinarily the repeller voltage is adjusted for maximum power at a desired
frequency. Then if square wave modulation of the klystron is added without regard to the operating
voltages, the repeller voltage excursions will be incorrect. On square wave peaks the repeller voltage
will not stabilize at maximum power output but will swing between two points which may not
lie in the desired, or even the same mode. The result is closely-spaced frequencies and the typical,
result on a standing wave pattern is illustrated in Figure 3. When square wave modulation is used, it
is necessary to adjust the repeller voltage and the modulating voltage
so the modulating peaks will lie at the maximum of the desired repeller mode and the modulating
troughs do not lie in a mode. It is also desirable that the rising and falling portions of the modulating
voltage do not pass through undesired modes.
3.Describe Spectrum Analyzer in Detail with diagram
Types
An analog spectrum analyzer uses either a variable band-pass filter or a superheterodyne receiver.
With a band-pass filter, the mid-frequency is automatically tuned (shifted, swept) through the
range of frequencies of which the spectrum is to be measured. With a superheterodyne receiver,
the local oscillator is swept through a range of frequencies.
A digital spectrum analyzer computes the discrete Fourier transform (DFT), a mathematical
process that transforms a waveform into the components of its frequency spectrum.
Some spectrum analyzers (such as "real-time spectrum analyzers") use a hybrid technique where
the incoming signal is first down-converted to a lower frequency using superheterodyne
techniques and then analyzed using fast fourier transformation (FFT) techniques.
Form Factor
Spectrum analyzers tend to fall into two form factors: bench top and handheld.
Bench top
This form factor is useful for applications where the spectrum analyzer can be plugged into AC
power, which generally means in a lab environment or production/manufacturing area. Bench top
spectrum analyzers have historically offered better performance and specifications than the
handheld form factor. Bench top spectrum analyzers normally have multiple fans (with
associated vents) to dissipate heat produced by the processor. Due to their architecture, bench top
spectrum analyzers typically weigh more than 30 pounds (14 kg). Some bench top spectrum
analyzers offer optional battery packs, allowing them to be used away from AC power. This type
of analyzer is often referred to as a "portable" spectrum analyzer.
Handheld
This form factor is useful for any applications where the spectrum analyzer needs to be taken
outside to make measurements or simply carried while in use. Attributes that contribute to a
useful handheld spectrum analyzer include:
Battery-powered operation (and the ability to swap the battery while in the field) to allow the user
to move freely outside.
No fans and no vents, to prevent the ingress of environment contaminants.
Clearly-viewable display to allow the screen to be read in bright sunlight, darkness or dusty
conditions.
Light weight (usually less than 15 pounds (6.8 kg) and preferably less than 10 pounds (4.5 kg)) to
enable easy carrying, whether on level surfaces, or while climbing up antennas or down into
maintenance areas.
Frequency range
Two key spectrum analyzer parameters are frequency and span. Frequency specifies the
center of the display. Span specifies the range between the start and stop frequencies, also
referred to as the bandwidth of the analysis. Sometimes it is possible to specify the start and stop
frequency rather than center and range.
Marker/peak search
Controls the position and function of markers and indicates the value of power. Several
spectrum analyzers have a "marker delta" function that is used to measure the signal-to-noise
ratio or bandwidth.
Bandwidth/average
Amplitude
The maximum value of a signal at a point is called amplitude. A spectrum analyzer that
implements amplitude analysis is called a Pulse height analyzer.
View/trace
It Manages parameters of measurement. It stores the maximum values in each frequency
and a solved measurement to compare it.
Operation
Fig.A real time analysis of a song. This spectrum analyzer output features frequency on X (horizontal),
magnitude on Y (vertical), and moves through time in sequence with the song
Fig.Frequency spectrum of the heating up period of a switching power supply (spread spectrum) incl.
waterfall diagram over a few minutes.
Usually, a spectrum analyzer displays a power spectrum over a given frequency range,
changing the display as the properties of the signal change. There is a trade-off between how
quickly the display can be updated and the frequency resolution, which is for example relevant
for distinguishing frequency components that are close together. With a digital spectrum
analyzer, the frequency resolution is = 1 / T, the inverse of the time T over which the
waveform is measured and Fourier transformed (according to uncertainty principle). With an
analog spectrum analyzer, it is dependent on the bandwidth setting of the bandpass filter.
However, an analog spectrum analyzer will not produce meaningful results if the filter
bandwidth (in Hz) is smaller than the square root of the sweep speed (in Hz/s)[citation needed], which
means that a digital analyzer will always outperform an analog device in terms of frequency
resolution for a given acquisition time. Choosing a wider bandpass filter will improve the signal-
to-noise ratio at the expense of a decreased frequency resolution.
For very weak signals, a pre-amplifier is used, although harmonic and intermodulation
distortion may lead to the creation of new frequency components that were not present in the
original signal. A new method, which doesn't use a high local oscillator (LO) (that usually
produces a high-frequency signal close to the signal) is used on the latest analyzer generation
like Aaronias Spectran series. The advantage of this new method is a very low noise floor near
the physical thermal noise limit of -174 dBm (1Hz).
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio is the ratio of the voltage maximum (antinode) to the
adjacent voltage minimum (node) on a transmission line.
The standing wave is produced by the superposition of a forward travelling wave and a
reflected travelling wave when the transmission line is terminated in other than its characteristic
impedance. The reflected wave is created to reconcile the conditions at the end of the
transmission line, including the load impedance and the natural ratio of V/I in the forward and
reflected travelling waves. is the ratio of Vr/Vf, and VSWR on a sufficiently long lossless line
can be predicted as (1+||)/(1-||) from the conditions at the termination or some other point. ,
Vr and Vf are phasor quantities, ie can be expressed as complex numbers.
There are many methods of indirect measurement of VSWR, but one of the most
common, and quite an ingenious device in its simplicity and usefulness is the Breune VSWR
bridge. This article will use the Bruene circuit as a vehicle for explaining principles that are
common to similar instruments.
The circuit contains two directional samplers, one for the forward travelling wave, and one for
the reflected travelling wave. A sample of the line voltage is obtained by the voltage divider
formed by the 10pF and 330pF capacitors.
A sample of the line current is taken by the current transformer, and the secondary current is
passed through the 82 resistor to develop a voltage at each end of the secondary wrt the centre,
that is proportional to the current in the main line, and opposite in phase at each end of the
winding.
Fig 1 shows a typical VSWR meter based on Bruene circuit. The circuit samples voltage and
current in a very small region of the transmission line, sufficiently small to consider it a point
sample at the frequencies of interest.
Since the voltage sample is connected to the centre of the secondary, the ends of the
secondary will be a voltage that is proportional to the the line voltage plus line current times Z n
(the impedance for which the meter is calibrated), and the line voltage minus line current times
Zn for forward and reflected detectors respectively. The 10pF capacitor is adjusted so that in the
reflected position with applied RF power, the meter shows zero deflection with a Zn load
(typically 50+j0).
The following describes the circuit in detail in the general sense. V1 is the RF voltage at
the lower end of the secondary (wrt ground) in the circuit above, V2 is the voltage at the upper
end of the secondary (wrt ground), Zx corresponds to half of the 82 resistor. The description
assumes the components (capacitors, transformer, diodes) are ideal, and that the VSWR meter
loading of the through line is insignificant.
V1=|k1*V+k2*I*Zx| ...(1)
V2=|k1*V-k2*I*Zx| ...(2)
V1=|k1*(V+I*Zn)| ...(3)
V2=|k1*(V-I*Zn)| ...(4)
Since V=Vf +Vr , and Vr=*Vf and I=If -Ir , and Ir=*If eqn (3) can be rewritten as
V1=|k1*(Vf*(1+)+If*(1-)*Zn)| ...(5)
V1=|k1*(Vf*(1+)+Vf*(1-))| ...(6)
V1=|k1*Vf*((1+)+(1-))| ...(7)
V1=|k1*2*Vf| ...(8)
V2=|k1*2**Vf| ...(8)
So
Substituting for ||
To analyse the circuit of Fig 1 at 100W connected to a 50+j0 load, for a current
transformer of 1:25+25 turns bifilar, the peak current in the 82 resistor is
2^0.5*(100/50)^0.5/50 or 0.04A, yielding a peak half winding voltage of 0.1*82/2 or 1.65V.
The 10pf capacitor would be adjusted for 0V on the REF switch terminal which will correspond
to about 5.5pF for a voltage sample of 1.65Vpk on the 330pF capacitor. This would give a DC
voltage about 2.7V (allowing for diode voltage drop) at the FOR switch terminal and 0V at the
REF switch terminal.
It is key to note that the accuracy of the instrument in measuring is dependent of the
calibration impedance Zn and less dependent on the Zo of the sampler line section where is is
relatively short (as it is usually).
Other circuits
There are other circuits of VSWR meters, the most common other type uses a pair of
short loosely coupled transmission lines with detectors in the sampler line section. Differently to
the Bruene circuit, the coupling is frequency dependent although some designs achieve
compensation over a range of frequencies (eg Bird 43 elements). Frequency dependent samplers
cannot be simply calibrated as directional wattmeters. Despite this difference, the same
principles apply as explained for the Bruene circuit, in that the circuit samples voltage and
current in a very small region of the transmission line, sufficiently small to consider it a point
sample at the frequencies of interest. From there on, the explanation is the same (though k1 and
k2 may be frequency dependent).
There are other methods for indirect measurement of VSWR that would not be classed as a
VSWR meter, eg a true directional transmission line or waveguide coupler with power meters on
the coupled ports. This configuration comes into its own on microwave frequencies where it is
difficult to construct other types of samplers that are small enough to not disturb the system
being measured.
Directional Wattmeter
Since the forward and reflected detectors in the instrument described above responds to
Vf and Vr respectively, the question arises as to whether the instrument can be calibrated in
power.
The power passing any point in a transmission line is given by P=real(V*conjugate(I)). When Z n
is real (lossless lines and distortionless lines), this can be simplified to Vf*If-Vr*Ir, often
expressed loosely as forward power less reflected power.
Instruments are usually calibrated to a nominal Zn that is real (eg 50+j0), and in that case, with
better quality instruments, the calibration of the scale(s) in Watts (where P f=Vf2/Zn and
Pr=Vr2/Zn), and calculation of power as P=Pf-Pr is sound. The term directional wattmeter is a bit
of a misnomer in that the values of Pf and Pr are not of themselves meaningful, but the difference
of the two is the power at that point.
Beware, these comments apply to the type of directional detector described above, and not to a
simple line RF voltmeter that is incorporated in some instruments and calibrated only for power
when VSWR=1.
Fig 3 shows the conditions a a length of RG6/U terminated in a load of 60-j26. The model is
based on a detailed lossy model of the line.
The magnitude of line voltage and line current show the classic standing wave patterns.
The green line is the calculated VSWR on the line (which has a characteristic impedance of 75-
j0.8).
The VSWR(50) line shows the VSWR that would be indicated on a short VSWR meter calibrated
for 50+j0, but that should not be interpreted as the VSWR on the actual RG6/U transmission
line.
Note also how the real VSWR falls smoothly from 1.54 at the load to 1.48 at a distance of 20m
from the load, a result of line loss.
Power increase smoothly from the load to the source end, but the slope of the line changes
minutely in this example with line current, the slope (meaning the attenuation per unit length) is
highest approximately where current is highest, meaning the main loss is I2R loss in the centre
conductor.
The VSWR meter captures which is the magnitude of , the phase of is lost and so the
VSWR meter is unable to be used to predict the value of Z at a point, except in the special case
where VSWR=1 and therefore Z is Zn . Fig 4 above shows the impedance along the line for the
example. It can be seen that impedance continually changes along the line, and that is true in the
general case except where VSWR=1.
Errors
There are many sources of errors in VSWR meters, the most common ones are:
The greatest error is probably the last. VSWR meters are widely used, and ingenious as they are,
the results are often incorrectly interpreted.
It is possible to achieve a good null (ie low VSWR) on a nominal dummy load, even though an
instrument might itself cause higher VSWR because of an inaccurate line section or excessive
coupling.
Mismatch loss or loss due to standing waves can be determined accurately knowing the
propagation constant () of the line and the complex reflection coefficient () at a known point
on the line. An approximation of the mismatch loss can be made using the propagation constant
() (in fact just the attenuation component) and VSWR (which depends only on the magnitude of
the complex reflection coefficient () that is reasonably accurate only on medium length lines
with low VSWR and low loss. This has affects the accuracy of a directional wattmeter of this
type for assessing the matched line loss of a s/c or o/c length of line, but for most purposes the
effect is small and the test gives good results (providing the VSWR meter gives accurate
readings at high VSWR).
5.Explain about the method of finding Antenna Radiation pattern.
Radiation Patterns
The radiation or antenna pattern describes the relative strength of the radiated field in
various directions from the antenna, at a fixed or constant distance. The radiation pattern is a
"reception pattern" as well, since it also describes the receiving properties of the antenna. The
radiation pattern is three-dimensional, but it is difficult to display the threedimensional radiation
pattern in a meaningful manner, it is also time consuming to measure a three-dimensional
radiation pattern. Often radiation patterns are measured that are a slice of the three-dimensional
pattern, which is of course a two-dimensional radiation pattern which can be displayed easily on
a screen or piece of paper. These pattern measurements are presented in either a rectangular or a
polar format.
Antenna Rotator:
Connect the DC to AC power inverter to the battery.
Caution: DO NOT touch the back of the rotator control box, the three terminals are at 115 Volts
potential.
Plug the rotator control box into the inverters AC outlet. Turn the control dial so that the
line points to the North direction. If the dipole or Yagi antenna is being tested, make sure that the
attached antenna is facing forward in the same direction as the transmitting antenna. Simply
move the mast and tripod around until this is correct. Once this is in place, it is now in position
for your zero degree measurement.
Radiation Measurement:
Connect the external attenuator in series between the receiver and the antenna. There are
five switches on the external attenuator. Each of the numbers below the switches represent the
attenuation factor in dB. For example, if switch 1 and 8 are on, the total attenuation is 1dB + 8dB
= 9dB. If all of the switches are on, the attenuation factor will be 31dB. After the antenna and the
attenuator are connected to the receiver, the s-meter on the radio receiver should show the
relative signal strength of the incoming signal. The attenuators switches should be off at this
point (pointed towards the numbers). If the signal strength on the receivers meter is higher than
20dB, you will need to enable the 10 and/or 20dB internal attenuators on the receiver as well.
The objective is to find the correct value of attenuation so that the signal meter on the receiver
read a 7. Turn on the appropriate combination of the attenuators switches so that the signal
meter read a 7. Add up the dB levels from both the receivers attenuators and the inline
attenuator. Record this value for your 0 degree measurement.
Rotate the control knob on the control module in 11.25 degree increments (follow the
markers on the rotator module). For each increment, adjust the necessary combination of
attenuation factor, by turning on or off the appropriate switches, so that the receiver signal meter
once again measures a 7. Record the value. Repeat the above process for each degree
increment until you get back to 0/360 degrees. When you are finished and need to measure
another antenna, return the knob back to the original 0 degree position. Once the data is
collected, use Matlab to plot the data. You may use the polar function. Remember to convert
from degrees back to radians for this purpose. Matlab will automatically convert back to degrees
when it plots the pattern.
Sample Readings
Degrees dB
0 57
11.25 57
22.5 57
33.75 56
45 54
56.25 51
67.5 50
78.75 49
90 36
101.25 35
112.5 30
6.Explain about the method of microwave power measurement.
Figure 1 below shows a highly useful Pin/Pout measurement setup, based on many years
of experience slaving away out in the lab. This test bench could be automated using LabView if
you are so inclined, but it works quite well for taking data manually. The setup exploits the A/B
relative power measurement capability of the dual power meter to quickly find compression
points of your device under test (DUT) without even plotting any data. The setup can be used to
measure P1dB of two-port networks (amplifier, limiter, multiplier) and as well as three-port
networks (frequency translators such as mixers).
Figure 1. Power test bench in operation
Referring to the figure, you'll need one RF signal source for amplifier measurements, and
two for mixer measurements. Beyond the need for a second source, there are other key
differences between measuring an amplifier and measuring a mixer. For example, you will have
to keep track of the losses of the input and output networks as well as the power head cal factors
at the different input and output frequencies (RF and LO) for mixer measurements.
Be sure that the sources you use are able to handle the RF and LO frequencies that your
DUT requires. You should pick synthesized sweep oscillators over old-fashioned sweepers, so
that frequency errors are minimized. Although many sources provide a built-in variable
attenuator function that allows you to control the RF power level, you should consider using an
external, infinitely-variable attenuator to control the signal level as shown, since this way you
can quickly adjust the signal to within a few hundredths of a dB. We like to use waveguide
rotary-vane attenuators for this purpose.
Signal source 1 must provide the power level needed to put the DUT well into
compression, and source 2 needs to provide the proper local oscillator power level for mixer
tests. For high power levels you can add power amplifiers to either source, but you may have to
consider the effects of power amplifier broadband noise on the measurement, particularly if you
use a traveling-wave tube (TWT). Perhaps more importantly, you will have to consider the effect
of high-power signals on each and every component in the setup so that you don't roast anything.
Remember, if you do barbeque a component, consider sending us a photo of the remains for the
Microwave Mortuary!
Within the input network,the coupler following source 1 samples the input signal to the
DUT. Attenuator A1 may be used to adjust the input power to power head A to put it into its
"best" range (10 dB to 30 dB less than the maximum power). It also serves to reduce SWR errors
on the input side of the DUT. The isolator that follows the input coupler helps reduce SWR
errors if your DUT has a poor input match. It also prevents directivity errors, by keeping
reflected power from the DUT from corrupting the power meter reading at power head A. If you
use a high-directivity coupler in the input network this should take care of the problem without
the need of an isolator. Be sure the coupler and isolator operate over the required bandwidth. To
determine the measurement uncertainty of the input network due to directivity, you can perform
the following check before you measure your DUT. Insert a matched 50 ohm load where the
DUT would go and apply CW signal from source 1. Observe the power level of power head A.
Now remove the matched load and attach a short circuit (if a short is not available an open circuit
will be nearly as good). The maximum directivity error of the input network will be the
difference in the two power meter readings. You should strive for less than 0.1 dB error here.
Cables A and B may not be necessary, they are used for convenience as well as
mechanical strain relief. If you didn't use any cables at all, you could hang the coupler, DUT and
both power heads of the sweeper's RF output RF connector, which might amount to 50 inch-
pounds of lateral torque on the coax connection to the source. We don't have to tell you why that
would be bad, do we?
In the output network, attenuator A2 can be used to adjust the power into power head B
to keep it within the "sweet spot" during DUT measurements. For example, if your DUT is
known to provide 30 dBm saturated output power, you might want a 20 dB attenuator on the
output. Filter FL1 is extremely important for mixer measurements, it is there to reject RF and LO
leakage that would corrupt the power head B reading. You need to find a filter that will pass the
IF frequency and reject the RF and LO frequencies (by 30, 40, or 50 dB or more!) Don't have
such a filter laying around the lab? Build one!
Before you measure the power transfer characteristics (input versus output power) of a
nonlinear microwave device, you should have an idea what to expect. Check out our page on
nonlinear devices.
How do you know what power heads, couplers, and attenuators to use? The first step is to
get to know what you are measuring, and what power heads you have available for the
measurement. Go to the manufacturer's web sites, read the data sheets, heck, print them out. The
two most important parameters for your DUT are gain (or loss), and maximum output power.
Also, decide what frequency band you're interested in. Check out your cables, adapters, power
heads, couplers, attenuators, and make sure that everything works well within your frequency
band. Not sure about where your connectors crap out? Visit our page on microwave connectors!
Let's start with the output network. What is the maximum output power of your DUT?
You need to arrange the output network so that this power is about 10 dB below the specified
range of your power head B. Suppose you are testing a two watt amplifier, and you have a
8481A power head (20 dBm is its highest specified power). You should choose a 2 watt, 20 dB
attenuator for the output network. Then the highest power your power head will see is 13 dBm.
The amplifier you want to measure has 30 dB gain. At the saturated output power, you
might expect it to have 27 dB gain. Therefore, you will need to drive it with at least 6 dBm
power. Suppose that your sweeper that you will use for source 1 puts out 10 dBm. That means
your input network, including cables, must have less than 4 dB loss. That should be no problem.
Also, suppose that all you have for an input coupler is a 10 dB coupler. This means that when
you drive the DUT with 6 dBm power, the coupled port on the coupler will see approximately -4
dBm. A good choice for the input power head would be a 8484A low-power unit (-20 dBm
highest specified power). You should add a 20 dB pad to the coupled port (attenuator A1) to drop
the power to the power head to -24 dBm maximum.
Before you continue, consider what the worst case power your power heads will see to
make sure they are safe from being blown up. At the output, if you measure an extremely out of
spec power amp that saturated at 4 watts instead of 2 watts, your power head will still only see
16 dBm. The 8481 is OK up to 25 dBm, so you are safe there. On the input, if the sweeper was
cranked to its highest output power of 10 dBm, and your input network had zero loss, the 8484A
power head would still only see -20 dBm through the 20 dB coupler. It takes +20 dBm to
damage it. One final check... be sure that your DUT does not put any DC voltage on the input or
output connections. If it does you should add a DC block at the offending port. Now you are
good to go!
The setup must first be calibrated, meaning that you must determine the input coupling
coefficient (we'll call it C1 here) as well as the output network loss coefficient (we'll call that
C2). C1 is the difference between the input power at the DUT and the power displayed on power
meter A. C1 is found by hooking up the setup as shown below in Figure 2, with power head B
connected directly to the output of the input network (where your DUT will go). You will find
C1 by displaying A/B for this reading. Take this data somewhere in the middle of the power
range that you want to explore.
Figure 2. Power test bench, input network calibration
Guess what? Only power head B needs to "speak the truth" in this measurement setup, both
during the calibration and during the measurements. By this we mean that you can leave the
calibration factor on power head A at 100% at all frequencies, as long as you always observe the
proper cal factor on power head B during the calibration and measurement procedures at each
frequency point. This is because everything that power head A measures will be relative to a
measurement of power head B.
C1 should be entered as an offset to power head C1 so that the power meter will
automatically display the input power to your DUT. (If you want to make this correction later in
your notebook or spreadsheet, that's OK, but why not take advantage of this feature?) For
example, if the coupled power is -21.3 dB less than the DUT input power, C1 is -21.3 dB, and
the offset you enter for power head A is +21.3 dB. You will need to measure a coupling factor
C1 at each frequency that you want to measure (and change the offset during measurements at
each frequency), although over a narrow bandwidth you may not notice a big difference in C1
over frequency.
Next you need to determine the output network loss coefficient C2. For non-mixer
measurements, C2 can be measured by hooking up the setup completely, but without the DUT,
as shown in the figure below. The difference between the measured power at power head B and
the input power measured at power head A (with its coupling factor C1 entered as an offset) will
be the output loss C2.
For mixer measurements, you are better off measuring the output loss (coefficient C2) using a
network analyzer. This is mainly because the input coupler will have a completely different
response at the IF frequency than it did when you measured the coupling coefficient C1.
The following measurement procedure is used for measuring a two-port device such as an
amplifier. Ryan, thanks for helping us check this! Although it is not explicitly stated, it is good
practice to turn off the RF power when making changes to the setup, then turn it on when you
need to make a measurement.
1. Make sure that the power meter has warmed up for one hour with the power heads
connected. Have another donut while you wait.
2. Hit the preset button, this eliminates all of the offsets and cal factors stored by the last
guy who used the power meter.
3. Select dBm for your data, not watts (dBm is preferred by 9 out of 10 microwave
engineers!)
4. Turn off all RF source power and high power amplifiers on your bench and zero the
power heads. The power meter should eventually read "LOG ERROR" for both power
heads.
5. Calibrate both power heads using the power meter's built-in 50 MHz reference
oscillator. Attach power head A to the reference oscillator output (the type N jack on the
face of the power meter), select power head A to display (hit the "A" button). Now hit
"CAL ADJ", and input the cal reference setting for power head A (typically 100%). Note:
for low power heads, you will need to use the Agilent 11708A precision 30 dB/50 MHz
attenuator.
6. Check the cal adjustment of power head A by turning the 50 MHz oscillator on, with the
cal factor set to the cal reference setting (typically 100%). You should read 0.00 dBm for
all power heads except the ones that require the 30 dB reference attenuator. These power
heads should read -30.00 dBm.
7. Repeat Steps 5 and 6 for power head B. Turn off the reference oscillator.
8. Enter the cal factor for power head B (output power) for the first frequency you will be
measuring. Note: leave the cal factor for power head A at 100% from start to finish of
this procedure.
9. Now it's time to determine input coupling coefficient C1. Attach the power heads to
their proper locations in the test setup for calibrating the input network (see Figure 2).
Turn on the RF power and set it at the midrange of where you plan to sweep. Display
A/B on the meter. This is the input coupling coefficient at your first frequency. Write it
down.
10. Determine if you have enough power range from your setup While observing power
meter B (at this step it reads the input power to your DUT), vary the RF power using the
sweeper's built-in attenuator and/or the external variable attenuator (if you have one).
Observe that you can reach the minimum and maximum input power that your
measurement requires.
11. You can now measure your worst-case directivity error. Display power meter A, then
hit "REL" to reference the meter to the current power level (meter should read 0.00 dB).
Then briefly remove power head B and replace it with a short circuit. If you have
excellent directivity, the power meter reading should only change by perhaps 0.1 dB.
Write it down. Put power head B back and continue.
12. Repeat steps 8, 9 and 10 for each frequency you will be measuring, and create a table for
the input coupling coefficient C1 over the frequency range. You can skip the directivity
error measurement (step 11) on the additional frequencies if you are confident that your
setup has good directivity at each frequency. Don't forget to change the power head B cal
factor when you change frequencies.
13. Now it's time to measure the output loss coefficient C2. Note: in the case that your
output network has no appreciable loss, you can skip this step. Connect up the test bench
without the DUT, as shown in Figure 3. For the first frequency, enter the input network
coefficient C1 as an offset to power head A, and be sure to set the proper calibration
factor for power head B. Turn on the RF and set it near your midrange power level. Due
to the C1 offset, power head A is now reading your DUT input power directly. Display
A/B on the power meter; this is equal to your output network loss coefficient C2. Write it
down.
14. Repeat step 13 for each frequency that you will be measuring, and create a table for C2
over the frequency range.
15. Now it's time to measure the power transfer characteristics of your DUT. For each
frequency, enter the proper cal factor for power head B, enter the input coupling
coefficient C1 as an offset to power head A, and enter the output loss coefficient C2 as an
offset to power head B. Install the DUT and bias it to the target quiescent point. Turn on
the RF, and set it to the lowest power setting you want to take data at. You are now good
to go!
16. You now have your choice of displaying input power (power meter A), output power
(power meter B) or gain (A/B). You only need to write down two of these, we like to
record input power and gain. Using steps of approximately 1 or 2 dB, measure the input
power, gain and drain current IDS for the amplifier. Start at 20 dB below the P1dB point
on the data sheet and continue until the amplifier output is saturated (one dB change in
Pin results in less than 0.1 dB change in Pout).
During network deployment, maintenance, and trouble shooting phases, insertion loss can
be measured by disconnecting the antenna and connecting an enclosed short at the end of the
transmission line. If a Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA) is used in the transmission feed line
system, it is best to remove the TMA and antenna from the system configuration to perform an
insertion loss measurement. It is best to always disconnect the cable at the same location so the
measured data can be compared to the historical data for accuracy and repeatability. Using Site
Master, cable insertion loss can be measured in CABLE LOSS or RETURN LOSS mode.
In Cable Loss mode, Site Master automatically considers the signal traveling in both
directions thus making the measurement easier for the user in the field. The following section
explains the procedure to measure insertion loss in cable loss mode and return loss mode. The
measurement setup and equipment required is the same for both modes Insertion Loss
Measurement Setup The insertion loss measurement set up for a typical transmission feed line
system is shown in Figure 2. Remove the antenna and connect an enclosed precision short at
the end of the transmission line. If a Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA) is in the transmission
feed line system, remove the TMA and antenna and connect an enclosed short at the end of the
transmission line. Insertion loss measurement for a transmission feed line system with a tower
mounted amplifier is shown in Figure 3.
Procedure
Step 1. Power On the Site Master and press the MODE key.
Step 2. Select FREQ-CABLE LOSS using the Up/Down arrow key and press ENTER.
Step 3. Set the start and stop frequencies F1 and F2. As an example, F1=750 MHz and F2=850
MHz for a typical cellular frequency band.
Step 4. Connect the phase stable test port extension cable to the RF port.
Step 5. Calibrate the Site Master at the end of the phase stable test port extension cable. (See the
section entitled Calibrating Site Master with the Phase Stable Test Port Extension
Cable for details.)
Step 6. Disconnect the antenna and connect an enclosed precision "short" at the end of the
transmission line.
Step 7. Connect the other end of the transmission line to the phase stable cable of the Site
Master. A trace will be displayed on the screen when the Site Master is in continuous
sweep mode.
Step 8. Press the AMPLITUDE key and set the TOP and BOTTOM values of the display. In
Figure 4, the TOP is set to 2 dB, and the BOTTOM is set to 5 dB.
Step 9. Press the MARKER key.
Step 10.Set M1 to MARKER TO PEAK.
Step 11.Set M2 to MARKER TO VALLEY.
Step 12.Calculate the insertion loss by averaging M1 (MARKER TO PEAK) and M2 (MARKER
TO VALLEY) values as follows:
Step 13. Press SAVE DISPLAY and name the trace using the soft keys and Press ENTER.