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no membrane-bound organelles
heterotrophic (plants and animals) and saptrophic (absorb food from the dead)
Binomial Naming System: Genus then Species : minimises confusion all scientists, in all
countries, call a species by the same name.
Evolution of Classification:
Only use to be based on observations to place organisms into groups, but physical features may
not show how closely related organisms are. Now, its based on observations and evidence. The
more similar, the more closely related, the other evidence used:
Molecular: similarities in DNA etc. e.g. Chimps and Humans share 94% of DNA.
Embryological: early stages of development.
Anatomical: structure/function of body parts.
Behavioural: similarities in behaviour and social organisation.
3 Domains
Bacteria have:
different cell membrane structure
different internal structure of the flagella
different enzymes (RNA polymerase) for building RNA
no proteins bound to their genetic material
different mechanisms for DNA replication and building RNA
Why classify?
for convenience
make study of living things more manageable
easier to identify organisms
help see relationships between species
Taxonomic Hierarchy: placing organisms into a series of smaller and smaller groups (taxa),
where all members share one or more features or homologies.
Taxonomy: the study of the differences between species eg: morphology, nutrition which are used
place organisms in groups. It involves naming organisms and organising them into groups based
on their similarities and differences. This makes it easier for scientists to identify them and to study
them.
Phylogeny: History of the evolution from a shared ancestor, tells us who's related to whom and
how closely. Closely related species diverged away from each other most recently.
Species:
a group of organisms with similar morphology (looks the similar), physiology (internally
similar, chemically) and behaviour (how they act)
which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring
and which are reproductively isolated from other species
Community: the various populations of different species that share an ecosystem/ habitat
Niche:
the precise role of an organism in its environment
the sum total of all the organisms' interactions
A niche can only be occupied by one species.
Gene Pool: the sum total of all alleles of all genes within a population
Adaptation: features which enable an organism to survive and reproduce and being specialised to
suit an environment in which the organism lives
Behavioural Adaptations: any actions by organisms, which help them to survive and reproduce.
Physiological Adaptations: features of the internal workings of an organism, which help them to
survive and reproduce.
Anatomical Adaptations: physical structural features of an organism's body, which help them to
survive and reproduce
Co-adaptation: when two organisms become dependent of each other and more and more
closely adapted
Natural Selection: organisms change over time as they adapt to their changing environment
Natural Selection:
Observation: more offspring produced than can survive
Struggle for existence:
competition for survival between members of the same species for resources such as food
limited resources between too many organisms
population size is limited by environment
A mutation in a gene may result in a change in the physical appearance of an organism, in its
physiology or even in its pattern of behaviour. If this change is advantageous, the frequency of
those alleles within the population will increase. The changing environment also leads to many
species having to adapt to the changes in the climate or different animals that have migrated to
the area that could be potential predators.
Endemism:
Species is unique to a single place
Isn't naturally found anywhere-else in the world
E.g. the giant tortoise is endemic to the Galapagos Islands
Amyloplast:
has a double membrane
storage of starch grains
Pits:
regions of thin cell wall
allows transport of substances between cells
Plasmodesmata:
channels in cell wall that link adjacent cells together
allows transport and communication between cells
Middle Lamella:
is an adhesive sticking adjacent plant cells together
gives plant stability
contains pectins
Vacuole:
contains cell sap (water, enzymes, minerals and waste products)
keeps cell turgid (stops plant wilting)
involved in the breakdown and isolation of unwanted chemicals in cell
has a tonoplast (membrane)- controls what enters and leaves the vacuole
Cell Wall:
made of Cellulose
supports plant cells
Chloroplast:
double membrane
membrane stacked up to form grana
photosynthesis takes place here (in grana or stroma-a thick fluid)
Amyloplast:
membrane
store starch grains
convert starch to glucose for release
Centriole:
hollow cylinders containing microtubules
separation of chromosomes in cell division
Vesicle:
small fluid filled sac in cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane
transports substances in and out of the cell
Lysosome:
shape: round
membrane containing digestive enzymes (digest invading cells or break down worn out
components of the cell
Mitochondria:
oval shaped
double membrane (inner forms cristae)
matrix (contains enzymes for respiration)
site of aerobic respiration- ATP is produced
Ribosome:
small organelle
float free or attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
site were proteins are made
rER:
covered in ribosomes
processes proteins
sER:
system of membranes enclosing a fluid filled space
synthesises and processes lipids and steroids
Golgi Apparatus:
group of fluid filled flattened sacs
vesicles at edge
processes and packages lipids and proteins
Makes lysosomes
Cell Wall:
made of peptidoglycan (polysaccharide protein)
Plasmid:
Small circle of DNA
Mesosome:
infolding of a cell surface membrane
site of respiration
Flagellum: (some)
propel the cell (swim)
Differences in plant and animal cells:
plant cell has a rigid wall, and animal does not
plant cells contain chloroplasts, animals dont
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Size Smaller: 0.5-5 m Larger: 5-200m
Starch: Cellulose:
o Alpha Glucose o Beta Glucose
o Branched amylopectin (1, 4 and 1,6 o Unbranched
glycosidic bonds) and unbranched o Long straight chains
amylose (1, 4 glycosidic bonds) o Strong structural support for plants
o Chains with branches so spiral o Microfibrils
(helical coiled)
o Energy storage in plants
Parenchyma: type of plant tissue found throughout the plant. Fill space in the stem.
Vascular bundle: contains xylem vessels and phloem (transport of products of photosynthesis)
Xylem vessels Phloem Sclerenchyma fibres
There are 3 main types of tissue found in plants:
The vascular tissue is found at the centre of the stem. Each vascular bundle contains xylem
vessels and phloem sieve tubes, on the outside of the bundle are Sclerenchyma fibres.
The ground tissue is found surrounding the vascular tissue in the middle section of a cross-
section of a stem (Parenchyma tissue)
The (dermal tissue) epidermis is on the outer layer of the stem.
The movement of water through xylem vessels provides a mass flow system for the transport of
inorganic ions.
Nitrate ions (form of nitrogen) are needed by plants in order to make amino acids. Plants make
their own amino acids from scratch using inorganic materials by a sequence of enzyme controlled
reactions the nitrogen transported in the xylem is combined with organic molecules from
photosynthesis to make all 20 amino acids. Plants cannot grow without nitrate ions as they are
needed in chlorophyll, nucleic acids, ATP and some growth substances.
Magnesium is needed for chlorophyll
Calcium is required for a structural role in the cell wall and permeability of the cell membrane
Acrosome Reaction:
1. Sperm reaches the ovum
2. Cells surrounding the ovum release chemicals, triggering the acrosome reaction
3. Acrosome swells and fuses with the sperm cell surface membrane
4. Digestive enzymes in the acrosome are released
5. Enzymes digest through the follicle cells and zona pellucida surrounding the ovum
6. Sperm fuses with its cell surface membrane
7. Sperm nucleus enters the ovum
8. Enzymes released from the lysosomes cause the zona pellucida to thicken, preventing the
entry of other sperm
9. Nuclei of the ovum and sperm fuse fertilisation
Plant Fertilisation:
Pollen grain germinates on style
Pollen tube grows down style towards ovary (growth controlled by tube nucleus)
Pollen grain contains 2 nuclei: tube nucleus and the generative nucleus
On germination of pollen, generative nucleus divides by mitosis to form 2 halpoid male
gamete nuclei
2 male haploid gamete nuclei move down pollen tube
Pollen tube grows through small pore (micropyle) into embryo sac
Both male haploid male gamete nuclei enter the embryo sac
1 of the male gamete nuclei fuses with the egg nuclei forms diploid zygote (divides to
form the embryo)
1 of the male gamete nuclei fuses with the 2 polar nuclei in the embryo sac, forms
triploid zygote (divides to form the seed's storage tissue endosperm)
Stem Cells:
undifferentiated/ unspecialised cells
which can keep dividing
give rise to other types of cell
In a plant: Most plant cells remain totipotent throughout the life of the plant.
Totipotency of plant cells allows plants to be reproduced using plant tissue culture. Small pieces of
plant (explants) are sterilised and then placed on a solid agar medium with nutrients and growth
regulators. The cells then divide to form a mass of undifferentiated cells called a callus. By altering
the growth regulators in the medium they can be grown into a full plant.
Uses of Mitosis:
Growth of multi-cellular organisms
Repairing damaged tissues
In some organisms: important for reproducing asexually producing offspring that is
genetically identical to parent offspring
Prophase:
chromosomes shorten and thicken
centrioles move to opposite ends, forming spindle across cell between 2 poles
nuclear envelope breakdown (nucleolus disappears)
Metaphase:
chromosomes' centromeres attach to spindle fibres at the equator
Anaphase:
spindle fibres contract, pulling chromosomes apart - one chromatid of each chromosome is
pulled to each pole of the spindle
spindle breaks down
Telophase:
chromosomes unravel
nuclear envelope reforms around 2 groups of chromosomes
nucelolus reappears
Meiosis produces four daughter cells nuclei, each with half the number of chromosomes as the
parent cell. The chromosome number is halved.
Development control:
The nucleus has a role in controlling the development of the individual cell and the whole multi-
cellular organism's phenotype. This was first shown in classic experiments using giant algal cells.
The Acetabularia mediterranea and the Acetabularia crenulata have:
a hat
a stalk
and a rhizoid (bottom) containing the nucleus
1. If the hats are removed and the stalks swapped, the plant develops hats with features of
both species. (Intermediate hats)
2. If the intermediate hats are then removed, new ones grow that correspond to the nucleus in
the rhizoid.
This shows the importance of the nucleus and chemical messengers in the development of the
cell.
Cell: In multi-cellular organisms, cells are specialised for a particular function. E.g. muscle cells
and epithelial cells.
Tissue: A group of specialised cells working together to carry out 1 function. E.g. muscle cells
combining to form muscle tissue, and epithelial cells forming epithelial tissue.
Organ: A group of tissues working together to carry out 1 function. E.g. muscle, nerve and
epithelium work together in the heart.
Organ systems: A group of organs working together to carry out a particular function. E.g. the
circulatory system.
Master genes: control the development of each segment. They produce mRNA which is
translated into signal proteins. These proteins switch on the genes responsible for producing the
proteins needed for specialisation of cells in each segment.
ABC of flowering plants: When a plant starts to flower, cells in a meristem become specialised to
form the organs that make up the flower. Most flowers contain the organs: sepals, petals, male
stamens and the female carpel. These are arranged in concentric whorls.
The expression of genes in cells across the meristem determines which structures will form. When
only gene A is expressed sepals form, when only gene C is expressed carpels form. Petals form
when A and B are expressed, and stamens when B and C are expressed.
Some characteristics are controlled by the organism's genotype, with the environment having little
or no effect (e.g. blood group). Discontinuous variation: When characteristics are controlled by
genes at a single locus. They have phenotypes that fall into discrete groups with no overlap.
Continuous variation: Characteristics that are affected by both genotype and environment (e.g.
human height). If a graph is drawn showing the frequency distribution of the different height
categories it will be bell-shaped.
Height increase:
Taller men have more children
Movements of people around the world means less inbreeding - leading to taller people
Better nutrition increased protein
Improved health
End of child labour more energy for growth
Improved heating in houses less energy needed to heat the body- more for growth
MAOA:
Monoamine oxidase A is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of a neurotransmitter in the
brain involved in the regulation of behaviour.
It was discovered that some individuals have a rare mutation in the MAOA gene and produce no
enzyme. They exhibit aggressive and sometimes violent behaviour.
This issue led to a connection between genes and violent behaviour but studies did not show a
clear link.
Childhood maltreatment was associated with more antisocial behaviour as adults.
Cancer:
Cancers occur when the rate of cell multiplication is faster than the rate of cell death. This causes
the growth of a tumour, often in tissues with a high rate of mitosis e.g. the lung, bowel and bone
marrow. Cancers are caused by damage to DNA. DNA can be easily damaged by physical factors
such as UV light. It can also be damaged by chemicals, known as carcinogens, which may be in
the environment or can be produced by cell metabolism. Mutations can also occur when cells
divide, for example if DNA is copied incorrectly in gamete formation , an inherited form of cancer
can result.
There are two types of genes that have a role in the control of the cell cycle and play a part in
triggering cancer, these are:
Oncogenes: code for the proteins that stimulate the transition from one stage of the cell
cycle to the next. Mutations in these cells can lead to the cell cycle being continually active
causing excessive cell division, resulting in a tumour.
Tumour suppressor genes: produce suppressor proteins that stop the cycle, so mutations
inactivating these genes mean there is no break in the cycle.
The environment can either cause physical or chemical damage to an individual making cancer
more likely.
Smoking severely increases the risk of a person developing lung cancer through
carcinogens in tar. This tar lodges in the bronchi and causes damage to DNA in surrounding
epithelial cells.
UV light physically damages DNA cells in the skin. Moles which have been affected by UV
light may grow bigger and develop into a tumour. If the tumour is not removed the cancer
cells can spread to other parts of the body.
Diet is also linked to prevention and the development of cancer. A diet rich in antioxidants
which destroy radicals can help prevent cancer.
Virus infection: a virus RNA may contain and oncogene.
Sustainability
Sustainability: using resources in a way that meets the needs of the current generation without
having particularly damaging consequences on future generations.
Making products sustainable means you would need to use renewable resources (a resource that
can be used indefinitely without running out) e.g. plants are renewable because harvested plants
can be re-grown.
Fossil fuels are not renewable once theyve been used there will be no more
Attach the fibre to a clamp stand and hang a weight from the other end.
Keep adding weights, one at a time, until the fibre breaks
Record the mass needed to break the fibre - the higher the mass, the higher the tensile
strength.
Repeat the experiment with different samples of the same fibre increases the reliability
The fibres being tested should always be the same length
Throughout the experiment all other variables, like temperature and humidity, must be kept
constant
Take safety measures wear goggles to protect eyes, leave the area where weights are
being attached clear so they will fall safely and dont hurt your toes.
Seedbank store of seeds from different species of plant. E.g. Millennium Seed Bank Project
They help conserve biodiversity by storing the seeds of endangered plants. If the plants become
extinct in the wild the stored seeds can be used to grow new plants and maintain the genetic
diversity with, for some species, they store a range of seeds from plants with different
characteristics (different alleles).
Creating the cool, dry conditions needed for storage. This means seeds can be stored for a
long time.
Advantages Disadvantages
Cheaper to store seeds than plants Testing the seeds for viability can be
Larger numbers of seeds can be stored expensive and time-consuming
because they need less space Too expensive to store all types of seed and
Less labour, to look after seeds than plants regularly test them all for viability
Seeds stored anywhere, if cool and dry. Difficult to collect seeds from some plants as
Seeds less likely to be damaged by disease, they may grow in remote locations
natural disaster or vandalism than plants
Testing seeds for viability (the ability to grow into a plant). Seeds are planted, grown and
new seeds are harvested to put back into storage.
Scientific Research
Seedbanks Zoos
Research: how plants can be successfully Research: increases knowledge about the
grown from seeds, useful for reintroducing them behaviour, physiology and nutritional needs of
to the wild animals. Can help conservation efforts in the
wild.
Grow endangered plants for use in medical Zoos can carry out research that is not possible
research, as new crops or materials. Dont have for some species in the wild, e.g. nutritional or
to remove endangered plants from the wild. reproductive studies
Disadvantage: only studying plants from seeds Disadvantage is that animals in captivity may
in seedbank limits the data to small, interbred act differently to those in the wild
populations. Information gained may not be
representative of wild plants
Zoos help with Education raise public awareness and interest in conserving biodiversity.
Studbooks: show the history and location of all the same species which are in captive breeding
programmes. Keep a record/database of individuals breeding history
Inside the seed the embryo remains dormant until the conditions are suitable for restarting growth.
Seeds are vital to plants, they are adapted to ensure that they:
protect the embryo
aid dispersal
provide nutrition for the new plant
In flowering plants the ovule is fertilised by the nucleus from a pollen grain and develops into a
seed. The outer layers of the ovule are lignified creating a tough seed coat (testa) which protects
the embryo within the seed. The surrounding ovary develops into a fruit which can help seed
dispersal.
In some species the stored food remains outside the seed in storage tissue called endosperm.
Seeds of this type are called endospermic.
Seeds come in many shapes and sizes most of which are appropriate for wide dispersal which
means offspring are less likely to have to compete for nutrients with other plants.
When conditions are suitable the seed begins taking in water through a small pore in the seed
coat, which triggers metabolic changes in the seed. Production of plant growth substances is
switched on and these let out enzymes which mobilise stored food. Maltase and amylase break
down starch into glucose which is converted to sucrose for transport to the radicle (young root)
and plumule (young shoot). Proteases break down proteins in the food store to give amino acids.
Lipases break down stored lipids to give glycerol and fatty acids.