Ecology

O level IGCSE 2022-2023

16/2/2023
Part 1
Nutrients cycle

Dr. Nihal Gabr

 😈

Why we need nitrogen ? To be available to plants …to make proteins Denitification N2 in air
Nitrogen cycle
…for growth and pass it to humans and animals.
Nitrate
Fix in soil in a form

Nitrification nitrogen containing cpd

Nitrogen fixing bacteria NHu*
Saprophytic bacteria Decomposition Plant
Nitrifying bacteria
Denitrifying bacteria
Animals

Dead
Nitrogen fixation A

Nitrogen gas in air

Lightning
Nitrogen fixing bacteria
• nitrogen gas react with oxygen and form • growing in root nodules of leguminous
nitrogen oxide N2+02 -Nitogenixide plants ( beans , clover , lentils ) .
x
• Dissolve in rain • Nitrogen gas combine with hydrogen
NHu
gas in air ,,,,producing ammonium ions N2+ Hz
-
• Washed away in the soil NHS
• Nitrogen containing compound in soil
• They form nitrates
Leguminous plants

Root nodules
Absorbed by plants to make proteins for growth.
 Saprophytic bacteria and nitrifying bacteria ( decomposition and nitrification )

Absorbed by plants
to make proteins

Nutrition Animals
Plant
Nitrate and nitrogen
Feeding / ingestion
containing compound

1 Lightening and nitrogen

fixing bacteria
( nitrogen fixation)

Dead bodies
2
Nitrogen gas
Saprophytic bacteria
Release extra cellular enzymes

Proteins in dead bodies …….broken down amino acids

Amino acids………………deaminated into ammonium ions + sugar 3
Nitrifying bacteria undergo nitrification
( in aerobic conditions) using plough

Denitrifying bacteria Nitrate Nitrite

Denitrification
4
In case of anaerobic conditions
Role of the nitrogen fixing bacteria

1. Growing in the root nodules of the leguminous plants turning nitrogen gas
2. By combing with hydrogen from air into ammonia / ammonium ions
3. Then it forms nitrates / nitrogen containing compound in the soil
4. which is then absorbed by plants from soil by active transport or diffusion
5. To make amino acid needed to make proteins for growth , making enzymes ,
hormones , nucleic acid ( DNA) Denitrification
Role of the saprophytic bacteria
1. Under anaerobic
1. Carry decomposition of dead plants and animals and their organic waste
conditions where the
products
water logs the soil ..no
2. Where they release extracellular enzymes ( digestive enzymes ) that break
soil aeration
down proteins in dead bodies into amino acids
2. Denitrification where
3. Which in turn will be deaminated into ammonium ions /ammonia
nitrates are turned back
Proteins ………………amino acids
into nitrogen gas by
Amino acids ………….ammonium ions and sugars
denitrifying bacteria
Role of the nitrifying bacteria :

1. Carry nitrification under aerobic conditions ( in well aerated soil )

2. Where in will turn ammonium ions into nitrites then nitrates in the soil
3. To be absorbed by the plant needed to make proteins and nucleic acids .
 Carbon cycle Photosynthesis , respiration , combustion , decomposition

CO2
Photosynthesis

Respiration
Respiration

Plants Feeding Animals

ele
Nutrition
Decomposition /
Combustion
respiration
Dead bodies

Decomposition Under high temperature and

Optimum temperature
pressure
Fossilisation

By decomposers Fossil fuels

returning minerals
Factors affecting carbon cycle : back to soil

1. Deforestation : increase Co2 concentration in the atmosphere

• less plants …less photosynthesis ….less CO2 absorbed from the atmosphere
• decomposers break down dead roots left behind ….so adding to large amount of CO2 to the atmosphere

2. Burning of fossil fuels : due to increase in energy demand and increase in number of vehicles .
3. Increase in population …..increase in respiration .
Describe consequences of increasing CO2 in atmosphere

Long wave
radiation
X
X 202
Light rays from the sun hit the EARTH”S atmosphere
As short wave radiation
Short wave radiation
Reflected as long wave radiation
(o So CO2 trap long wave radiation
In Earth’s atmosphere
This is called ENHANCED GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
E Cause global warming
+ve effect -
Increase temperature
Melting of ice caps
Increase CO2 concentration .
Cause rise in sea level ….floods
Increase rate of photosynthesis
Destruction of habitat
Increase growth
No food , no shelter , no breeding site
Increase crop yield
So increase in animal extinction

-whats the effect of increase in CO2

on habitat / on plants
19/2/2023
Part 2
Energy flow
Part 1 energy flow
Food chain: represents the energy flow from one organism to another

Grass .....................................deer.............................................lion ................................

Producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary consumer
Organisms making their own Heterotrophic( herbivore Carnivores feed only on ( carnivores/
food from photosynthesis s feeding only on plants ) other animals . omnivores)
First trophic level Second trophic level Found in the third trophic Found in the fourth

level trophic level

NOT A CYCLE AS ENERGY DOESN”T GET BACK TO SUN

Dead ( decomposition by decomposers such as bacteria and fungi )
Which get their energy from dead materials. Returning minerals back to the soil.

Food web: several food chains linked together.

Advantages : that each living organism can have more than one
food source

Trophic levels

Position of an organism in a food web / a food chain

 1000 k.J 100 k.J
10, 000K.J
10% energy trasnferred
Plant ............................giraffe ................................lion
10% energy trasnferred

90% lost 90% lost

First trophic
Second trophic level Third trophic level
level
Primary consumer Secondary
Producer
Herbivores Consumer
Carnivores

90% lost to the surrounding

1. Active transport of minerals 90% lost to the surrounding:
2. Evaporation of water using heat energy 1. Movement
followed by transpiration 2. Respiration
3. In dead leaves / roots 3. Excretion
4. Part of light is not absorbed / reflected 4. Undigested food / faeces
5. Parts of the plant are non edible 5. Not all animal parts are eaten
6. Parts lost in undigested cellulose fibres
7. Part lost in respiration .
 Explain why Advantages of having shorter food chain / fewer trophic levels
Efficient energy transfer
Explain why Fewer organisms at a top of food chain ( population size)
Explain why Its better to feed human on plants rather than animals

Grass .................rabbit .................tiger /human

Grass is found at first trophic level

1’
Rabbit is found at second trophic level

1 1 As we move up in trophic levels more energy is lost to the surrounding and less energy is being transferred
1
2 2 2 Where only 10% of the energy is transferred while 90% of the energy is lost
3 3 3 Where 90% is lost to the surrounding in ….excretion, respiration , movement , egestion( undigested food)
4 4 4 So less energy is being reached /available for organisms at higher trophic levels
5 5 5 So less energy to support the life of large population

May be due to disease, hunting , introducing new species that increased the
6
competition on food resources , habitat destruction by human activities.

Suggest a disadvanatge for feeding on plants only

Plants don’t contain all essential amino acids

Parts of the plant are not digested ( cellulose fibers) so egested in faeces
Pyramids 2. Pyramids of biomass
Column represent number of
1. Pyramids of numbers
individuals X mass of each individual
Column represents the number of
organisms at each trophic level

30 x 1.5kg
Tiger 20
30 birds

1000 caterpillar 1000x 0.1 kg

Deer 50
1 x 1000 kg
Grass 10000 1 tree

Number Mass
So sometimes it is not pyramid shaped
because it doesn;take into consideration the Indicates how much food is available /left at each
size of the living organism trophic level
So represent energy avilable at each trophic level

3. Pyramid of energy
Column represent amount of energy present at each trophic level
Where 10 % of energy being transferred from lower trophic level to 100 K.j
higher ones
1000 K.J
Where at each trophic level there is energy loss
10, 000 kj
So pyramid shaped
23/ 2/ 2023
Part 3
Food production
Eutrophication

DR. Nihal Gabr


1. Using modern machinery
2. Use artificial fertiliser
3. Pesticides
Insecticides ….kill insect
Herbicide …..kill herbs / weeds
Food production
Il
Positive effect
Cultivation and harvesting will
be quicker , and more land area
can be used
Increasing soil fertility by
Availability of minerals. such as
nitrates and magnesium to plant
Importance if nitrate , magnesium
Kill pest ( weeds / insect )
Less competition on nutrients and
light and water
Avoid damage of crop
Increasing crop yield
Negative effect
• More fossil fuels …more CO2
…green house gas ….pollution
• Soil is compacted , so difficult
for rainwater to penetrate the
soil .
Eutrophication
Increase in population of bacteria
…decrease the O2 concentration
in water ..damage to the aquatic
life
1. Non biodegradable
Bioaccumulation
Toxic concentration in animals at highest
trophic level.
So might disrupt food chain
Decrease biodiversity and increase risk of
extinction .
2. Herbicide kill useful plants
Insecticide ..kill useful insects as pollinators
3. Weeds might become resistance to herbicide
Insect might become resistant to insecticide
 🫑 🫑 🫑 🐛
🫑
🫑 🫑 🫑 🫑 Advantages Disadvantages
4. Monoculture
🫑
🫑 🫑 🫑
🫑 1. Efficient food production , 1. increase the risk of spread of disease …..crowded place
🫑
less land area required with same type of plant
2. Mechanical harvesting 2. Use up specific minerals from the soil …decrease soil
easier . fertility …use of artificial fertilser ….lead to eutrophication
…..damage aquatic life
3. Increase pest population ….more use of insecticides ..kill
useful insects/ animals such as pollinators + non
biodegradable causing bioaccumulation
4. Decrease the OTHER pest population … disrupt food
chain ….decrease biodiversity …increase risk of extinction
5. Deforestation…destruction of habitat ….no food , no
shelter and no breeding site…decrease biodiversity …
increase of extinction .

Biodiversity
Solution
A) species diversity
B) habitat diversity Crop rotation / mixed crop rotation
C) genetic diversity
Different crops in same field
…reduce pest population by breaking their life cycles
….allow mineral balance , so less use of fertiliser
 🐄
5. Modern irrigation system
6. Selective breeding
( intensive farming )
Intensive farming
Live stock
Advantages
Provide water to growing
plant therefore removing a
limiting factor
+ve effect:
1. Improvement in the variety of animals
and plants
2. Farmers use high energy food to feed
their animals so increasing production
of milk meat and wool from animals
3. Regular medications given to
animals so they stop developing
diseases
4. Animal are kept under controlled
temperature to maximize their growth
rate
Disadvantages
Can lead to leaching of
minerals from soil
1. Over crowded places lead
to spread of disease
2.so they increase dosing of
antibiotic so increasing
chance that bacteria become
resistant to antibiotics
3. Decrease in
biodiversity ...increase risk of
extinction
4. Waste and left overs from
animals cause pollution ...bad
smell
 Advantages Disadvantages
7. Genetic engineering

Examples of genetically engineered 1. Creating a super weed , if the

products :
1. Crop plants resistant to herbicide
Example : soya beans ......les
competition ....so more growth ...so
increase in crop yield
2. Crop plants are modified to contain toxic
substance to kill insect ( insect resistant )
Cotton plants ...........less use of insecticides
3.golden rice ...rich in vitamin A
herbicide resistant plant cross
pollinate with a wild relative .
2. Bacteria might escape from
laboratories resulting in
unpredicted consequences.
3. Still faremers have to pay for
the premium product which is
usually expensive

4. New organisms might be

4. Food can be engineered into a more
patented ..companies refuse to
convenient , such a potatoes which absorb
share its benefits with other .
less fat becoming more crisper .
Making company powerful.

5. Plants can be modified to be Pathogen

resistant ..........increase crop yield

6. Plant can be drought resistant

8. Deforestation Why ? 1. Increase land area available for food production
2. Get wood for buildings
*

are
3. Get wood for furniture
4. Urbanization
Wood as a source of energy
Effect on Atmosphere

Less plants ……less photosynthesis ………less oxygen produced / concentration ….more CO2
concentration ……green house gas ….absorb / trap more heat …….increase temperature of
Earth’s atmosphere ……..ENHANCED GREEN HOUSE EFFECT ….global warming…..melting of
ice caps …..increase/ rise in sea level ………floods ………destruction of habitat ……………no food ,
no shelter no breeding site …….disruption of food chain ……decrease in biodiversity ……..increase
risk of extinction .
Effect of deforestation
on animals
Soil
1. Less roots to absorb water …water logging
2. Less roots to hold soil in place …so rain / wind can
easily hit the soil removing top layer of soil causing soil
erosion and desertification.

Rivers
Soil washed into rivers …floods
 💨

Eutrophication Increase in population of bacteria ....decreasing the-concentration of oxygen in

water .........damage the aquatic life
Promote the growth of algae
2
1 Excessive use of fertiliser on water surface

-
6 Oxygen concentration in
Drained / washed away into rivers
5 Bacteria will grow and water will decrease
respire aerobically

Fish die and damage

peo
4 Plant deep in water
to aquatic life
cant carry
photosynthesis …so
they will die

A) excessive use of fertiliser

B) throwing un treated
1. Drain into rivers
2. Promote the growth of algae
sewage in water/ rivers
3. Block sunlight from reaching the rooted plants
1. Throwing untreated
4. So can’t undergo photosynthesis
5.Death of aquatic / rooted plants sewage .....same steps V
from 2 to 10
6. Promote growth of bacteria
Sewage contain nitrogen
7. On dead plants and algae
8. Respire aerobically ..decreasing the oxygen concentration in water
containing compounds promote
9. Anaerobic conditions growth of algae
10. Damage/ migration to aquatic life ( plants and animals )

Solution 1. Control the use of fertiliser

Apply only when crops are growing
Sewage treatment
Never apply to empty field '
" "
%
=
Don;t place when rain forecast I
l l r
'
ill
Dont spray near rivers and streams
2. Use manure its heavier so not easily leached by water besides
release minerals slowly allowing effecient absorption of minerals
Increasing Food production
Read
1. Modern machinery.. +ve faster cultivation
-Ve fossil fuels , soil become compact

+ve increase in soil fertility + importance of minerals

2. Artificial fertilisers …
-ve eutrophication

+ve reduce competition , protect crop

3. Use of pesticides ………
-ve kill nuseful insects / plants + non biodegradable

+ve increase in food production

4. Mono culture …………..
-ve biodiversity , decrease of soil fertility , spread of disease

5. Modern irrigation system …….+ve water becomes no longer limiting factor

-ve leaching of minerals away from soil surface

6. Live stocks ……………..

+v increase food production , increasing quality of food
-ve spread of disease ..over use of antibiotics …resistance + decrease in biodiversity

7.genetic engineering
8. Deforestation… +ve more land for cultivation
-ve destruct habitat
 Comment on the use of pesticides …..tips for answering questions

Insecticides Herbicides
To avoid damage of crop
Less competition
Advantages
Increase in crop yield and quality Increase in crop yield and quality

Disadvantages Kill useful insects such as pollinators Kill useful plants

1. Non biodegradable
Bioaccumulation
Toxic concentration in animals at higher trophic levels
Disruption of food chain
Loss of biodiversity and increase probability of extinction
2. Develop resistance

1. Weather forecast ….to avoid being transferred to another nearby places

What are factors /
And kill useful insects /plants
specifications while
2. Number of times need to be applied ….cost
choosing
3. Herbs / insects are not resistant
4. Biodegradable
26/2/2023
Part 4
Human influence
Conservation
 Read
Causes of famine

Increasing population Natural disaster War

How an increase in population 1. Crop might be burnt

decrease in food production? 1. Earthquakes
2. Farmer join military
1.increase in food demand 2. Droughts ….due to
service .
2. Unequal distribution of food deforestation / global
3. Limited area of framing due to warming
urbinisation ( many buildings) 3. Disease
4. Pollution ( eutrophication, soil 4. Floods …..cause soil
erosion , acid rain) erosion
5. Poverty

Result in unequal distribution of food where some area have higher crop yield over the other
Explain the reason for unequal food production >
1. More suitable environmental conditions ( water availability )
2. Advanced agriculture ( modern machinery , genetic engineered seeds , fertilsers )

Solution for unequal distribution of food / famine

Donating food to poor countries but this can happen only for a short time until people in these countries can plant their
own crops and become self sufficient
Self sufficiency can be achieved or done by educating farmers about modern agriculture methods , Water supplies by
digging wells
 Human influence

Air pollution Water pollution

Deforestation
1.Green house gases ( CO2, 1. Untreated sewage and
Affects:
methane , CFC) fertilser …eutrophication +
1. On soil ……soil erosion and
2. Nuclear fall out spread of disease
desertification
2. On animals ….loss of habitat 2. Non biodegradable plastic.

….decrease in biodiversity and 3. Pesticides

increase risk of extinction ….bioaccumulation , kill useful

3. Atmosphere….enhanced green organisms

house effect …global warming

4. On rivers ….floods

1. Green house gases

1. Co2 …..burning of fossil fuels ……ENHANCED GREEN HOUSE effect ……..

2. Methane gas :
A) decay of rubbish in land fill
B) from sludge …..
C) cattle chewing the cud
D) anaerobic bacteria in mud paddy fields ( rice)
3. CFC; refrigerator and air conditions
3.nuclear fall out

Nuclear explosion …..mutation ….damage DNA …cancer and deformities in babies …death
Change in genetic material

Water pollution '

1. Fertilsers and untreated sewage …….eutrophication

2. Pesticides …..kill useful insects and plants ….non biodegradable …bioaccumulation …disrupt food chain . .
3. Non biodegradable plastics :
A) plastic contains toxins / harmful chemicals
B) BLOCK digestive system of animals if mistakenly swallowed ..cause their death .
C) BLOCK AIR WAYS of animals ….suffocation so they die
D) BLOCK sunlight for photosynthesis
E) BLOCK flow of water in streams …stationary water …spread of disease ….less aeration of water ….oxygen
concentration decrease …migration / damage of aquatic animals .
F) Non biodegradable….bioaccumulation .
 Conservation …….its the process of looking after natural environment to
A maintain the biodiversity of plants and animals . Biotic
B) maintain natural resources ( water, fossil fuels ) for coming generations
Abiotic

Why conserve ( living and non living ) ……

A) why conserve plants and animals ( biotic ) :

1. Maintain biodiversity
2. Prevent extinction
3. Maintain resources like food availability
4. Increasing research such as finding resources for medicine
5. Encourage genetic diversity Within species ( gene pool)
6. Avoid disruption of food chain / food webs
7. Tourism.
8. Providing habitats for many species
9. Keeping beauty of nature for those who enjoy nature like poet , artist .

B) abiotic ( non living )

Maintain natural resources

Fossil fuels are non renewable source of energy that will end up soon
And they need million of years to be formed again….so we need to conserve them for the coming generations
A) Biotic ( animals and plants ) Interbreeding ( from other population )
Inbreeding ( relatives , from the same population)
1 Definition of endangered species :
Species that are found in low population , so hard to breed and maintain genetic diversity .

2 Problems of having low population Self pollination

1. Increase in inbreeding ….little variation …..increase in homozygosity ………..higher
chance for genetic diseases to be inherited ……less able to adapt to new
environmental conditions …..less selection and evolution………increase competition
….less survival chance …increase risk of extinction

3 What causes a decrease in population

Hunting and poaching ( illegal hunting)
Pollution
Deforestation and habitat destruction ,
lack of food
Spread of disease
Increase in competition by introducing new species
Reaching to carrying capacity
Climate change
+ ……low population …….inbreeding ..decrease in variation …….
 4. Ways of conserving species :
4
Capitative breeding , conserving fish and fish restocking , educating people . Conserve
forest , seed banks , restore natural habitats

A) captive breeding programmes :;

Enclosing animals in a-suitable place and keep them away from predators , diseases and allow
them to breed ( exchanging gametes and use of AI and IVF) then reintroduce them to their natural
habitat …aim of such programes is to maintain genetic diversity ( exchange sperm cells and egg
between zoos ) to increase gene pool .

B) conserving fish stocks

1. Where they are provided with a

1. Fish restocking ( captive breeding to fish ) : by breeding large number
protected habitat
of fish in fish hatcheries 2. With food , space, mates ( increase
2. Legal quotes : by catching only certain quantities and species of fish genetic diversity)
enforced by inspectors 3. Reintroduce them back into
natural habitat
3. Controlling of size of mesh : to allow immature fish to escape
4. While monitoring their numbers
4. Educating people
5. And setting regulations to limit
To avoid catching endangered fish , during breeding seaosons , their fishing
understand fish migration pattern

C) restoring damaged habitat , monitoring and protecting species and their natural habitat
 D) keeping natural resources like conserving forest

1. Governmental rules :
Refuse to grant license for cutting trees

2, selective felling
Instead of clear felling ( cutting all trees)
Just cut small part so remaining trees will provide habitat for some animals

3. Coppicing
Cutting down tree leaving 1 meter to regrow

4. Planting new trees

Yet better to conserve primary forest :
Planting new tress to replace the old ones still cant replace primary forest .
5. Educating people about importance of conserving forest .

D) seed banks Where seeds can remain dormant for many years and then germinate when conditions are right
Also easier to store seeds as they take up less space

So collect and store seeds of plant species that are endangered then grow them in capitatvity or
reintroduce into their natural habitat
 B) abiotic ( a non living )factors

Water + non sustainable resources ( use sustainable resources and allow recycling ) .

1. How to conserve abiotic factors……By using sustainable resources

Resources that can be replaced as fast as they are removed

Why? Non sustainable resources need million of years to be reformed and to conserve them for coming generations
How? By recycling

A) recycling paper B) recycling metals

Save energy used in mining metal ores

Less forest cleared
C) recycling plastic
Less water used in paper production from recycled paper Less fossil fuels being used
Use less energy for collection and transportation Decrease amount of wast added to land fill .................

Less rubbish burnt so less carbon dioxide given off D) recycling to water

Less waste added to land fill Steps : 1. Remove pathogen which cause disease ( water borne
Shredding disease like cholera )
Pulp 2. Avoid bad smell and pollution
Soaking in water 3.remove nutrients which promotes the growth of bacteria and
De inking cause eutrophication. 4. Reuse water
Bleaching
Flattening
E) recycling glass:
Where glass is made by heating sand at high temp releasing large amount of
CO2
So recycling .....less CO2 released, reduce use of raw materials as sand

Definition of sustainable development ?

Providing the needs of an increasing human population without harming the environment

How ?
1. Local people as farmers
2. National goverments who set regulations to make sure that new developments are planned and constructed
with environment need
3. In addition to role of conservation bodies ( international organisation) .

1. adaptive features:
An inherited feature that helps an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment. Or
The inherited functional features of an organism that increase its fitness.
2. Fitness:
The ability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the environment in which it is found.( a word used to describe how
well adapted an organism is to its environment.
3. Process of adaptation:
The process resulting from natural selection, by which populations become more suited to their environment over many
generations.