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Literature Review
Literature Review
CHAPTER 2
LITERATUREREVIEW
2.1 DRAFTING
The theory of ideal drafting is explained using Figure 2.2. The front roller
speed is twice that of the back rollers, so that the draft is two. In Figure 2.1, the
leading fibre A has just reached the front nip, and the fibre is therefore moving at
the speed of the front rollers. All the other fibres are either held in the back nip
or belong to the sliver being fed to the back rollers, and are therefore moving at
back roller speed. The diagram2 shows the position, a moment later, when fibre
B has moved one unit, has just been released by the back nip and has reached the
front nip. In the meantime fibre A, which has been moving at twice the speed of
B, has moved two units, and consequently the leading ends of the fibres A and B
are two units apart, instead of one unit as they were in the original sliver. Since
they are now both moving at the speed, they retain this spacing. The drafting
proceeds according to diagrams3 and 4, and the state of affairs after it has
continued for some time is shown in bottom diagram, with the drafted sliver to
the right of the front roller nip. The effect of the drafting is to space the left hand
ends of the fibre twice as far apart as they were in original sliver (Foster 1958).
The fibre moves at the velocity of back roller and continue till it
reaches the front roller nip then it pickup the speed of front roller.
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Real drafting differs from the perfect drafting described in the above
section in four ways (Foster 1958):
1. The fibres in the sliver or roving are not all the same length and are not
perfectly straight and parallel.
2. The roller nips do not always remain in fixed positions.
3. The rollers do not always run at steady speeds.
4. The rollers sometimes slip, so that the fibres under them do not move at
the speed of the rollers.
First is largely a property of the raw material and cause a wave like
irregularity called the drafting wave. When all the fibres are not of the same
length, the shorter ones are released by the back rollers before their front ends
have reached the front rollers. These fibres tend to come out of the front rollers
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in clots and so cause alternate thick and thin places in the drafted material. This
is called the drafting wave. The other three differences are due to mechanical
faults in the machinery.
If the roller setting is less than the length of the longer fibres, then the
fibres would be held at the same time by both back and front rollers which
would cause the front rollers to deliver small undrafted tufts of fibres. This effect
is known as spewing. Some fibres are also broken when the setting is too close.
All cottons contain fibres of different lengths and when the setting is
wide enough to avoid spewing, there are many fibres shorter in length than the
roller setting. The rear ends of these fibres are released by the back rollers before
their front ends have reached the front rollers. Consider one of the shorter fibres,
at the moment of its release by the back rollers. It is moving at the speed of the
back rollers and its partly surrounded by fibres which are held by the back
rollers, and which by friction against it tend to keep moving at back roller speed.
It is not gripped by either line of rollers, and is not therefore controlled directly
by them, but is carried forward solely by other fibres. Such a fibre is called a
floating fibre (Foster 1958).
The floating fibres are, however, also in contact with other fibres
which are held by the front rollers and therefore dragged forward at front rollers,
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and therefore tend to be dragged forward at front roller speed. For some of the
floating fibres, the drag exerted by the fast moving fibres exceeds that of slow
moving fibres, and they are pulled forward at front roller speed, and reach the
front rollers earlier than they should. This means that the number of fibres held
by the front rollers becomes greater than it would otherwise have been, so that a
thick place is formed under the front rollers. This succession of thick and thin
places is called the drafting waves.
Irregular flow of the fibres changes the position of fibres relative to their
expected positions after drafting and creates unwanted variations in linear
density. With natural fibres, length is quite variable and the error is distributed.
The variation produces a hill typical of this type of error, as shown in the actual
distribution in Fig. 2.3(a)and it is easily distinguished from a mechanical error
(Fig. 2.3(b)), which shows up as spikes like those at A and B (also there are less
easily distinguished peaks such as shown at C). The first of these types is often
called a drafting wave and it is a fibres borne error. Fig. 2.3(a) shows two hills,
which indicates that two different drafting waves were created, one from a
rearward drafting zone and a large wave from a forward one. Since a difference
between the roll setting and effective fibre length is an important factor,
variations in fibre length can produce undesirable results, which show up as
blotchiness or streakiness in the fabrics.
normal mill, and the aim is to set all of them to standard values appropriate to
the material being processed. Changing the ratch setting (i.e. the distance
between the nip lines of successive pairs of rolls in a drafting system) throughout
a mill is a major operation. Settings of all the drafting systems must be
maintained within close tolerances to the values standard in the particular mill.
Also the fibre purchasing agent must seek to acquire fibres within a standard
range of fibre length distributions. These are management and maintenance
problems; changes are not made lightly. Once set up, the ratch settings are
usually maintained until the next maintenance period. Thus, it is useful to
constrain the variability in the fibre population by blending and careful stock
control.
2.4.2 Apron
In the figure, f is the fibre gripped by the front roller nip moving at
the velocity of V1 (fast moving front fibre), b the fibre gripped by the back roller
nip moving at the velocity of V2(slow moving back fibre), and s is the floating
short fibre, neither griped by the front nor by the middle roller nip and move
with the velocity of either V1 or V2 based on the frictional resistance between
short fibre & front fibre, and short fibre & back fibre(Subramanian and Peer
Mohamed 2006).
Where Pf is the pulling force exerted by front roller nip; F fb, the
frictional resistance between fast moving front fibre and slow moving back fibre;
Ffaisthe frictional resistance between fast moving front fibre and slow moving
aprons; Mf is the mass of fast moving front fibre; V1is the velocity of front roller;
V2 is the velocity of middle roller; t is the time for acceleration; and D 1 is the
draft in the apron zone.
Lower value of Pf compared to RHS of Eq. (2.1) results in roller slip
and leaves the strand undrafted.
The short fibres will be accelerated before they reach the front roller
nip and the drafting wave will be created when
Where Fsf is the frictional resistance between floating short fibre and
fast moving front fibre; Fsb, the frictional resistance between floating short fibre
and slow moving back fibre; Fsa, the frictional resistance between floating short
fibre and aprons, i.e. the controlling force exerted by the aprons over the floating
short fibres and ms, the mass of floating short fibre.
The Eq. (2.2) shows that the formation of drafting wave can be
avoided by (i) exerting controlling force over the floating fibres using aprons and
(ii) increasing the inertial force of drafting fibres. From Eq. (2.2), it is further
clear that either Fsa and Fsb have to be increased and/ or F sf has to be reduced in
order to avoid formation of drafting wave for a given draft and front roller
speed. The controlling force exerted by the aprons on the floating short fibre F sa
can be increased by reducing the gap between the top and bottom aprons, i.e. by
reducing the spacer thickness. This reduction in gap between the aprons will, on
the other hand, increase the value of F fa manifold in Eq.(2.1) Under extreme
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conditions, the fall outs of the reduction of gap between the aprons are given
below.
If Pf is less than the RHS value of the Eq. (2.1), it will result in roller
slip and undrafting. If Pf is still greater than the RHS value of the Eq. (2.1), it
would cause increased tensioning of the drafting fibres and may lead to fibre
breakage. Moreover, to keep Pf at greater level, the loading on the front roller
has to be increased at the cost of life of cots and other rotating element.
The yarn uniformity increases due to the reduction in gap between the
aprons up to a certain level. Beyond that level, reduction in spacer thickness
leads to deterioration instead of improvement in yarn quality. Hence to get better
control of floating fibres without undrafting, the controlling force F sa has to be
increased without causing manifold increase of Ffa and it can be achieved by
suitably distributing the controlling force over different regions of main draft
zone according to the requirement.
2.6 SPACERS
The top aprons are forced by spring pressure against the lower aprons.
The intensity of fibre clamping and thus fibre guidance depends upon this
pressure and also upon the distance between the two aprons. The pressing effect
should be considerable, but not too high, otherwise it is impossible to achieve
controlled drawing of fibres out of the clamped strand. The arrangement must
also permit precise adaption of the minimum distance to the fibre volume. In
order to maintain this closely defined minimum distance between the aprons, the
distance pieces of variable height are interchangeably inserted between the
nose bar of the lower apron and the cradle edge of the top apron, i.e. at exit
opening M.
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Where Fsf is the frictional resistance between floating short fibre and
fast moving front fibre; Fsb, the frictional resistance between floating short fibre
and slow moving back fibre; Fsa, the frictional resistance between floating short
fibre and aprons, Fps the frictional resistance between floating short fibre and
pin., i.e. the controlling force exerted by the pin over the floating short fibres and
ms, the mass of floating short fibre.
The air pressure of pneumatic pipe line was controlled with the air
regulator.
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A pressure of 4.5 bar was chosen after several trials for trouble free
processing. Figures 2.10 and 2.11 show the pneumatic pipe arrangement with
mingling chamber attached in the front drafting zone (R. Murugan &
C.Vigneswaran 2011).
roller, the slots separate each strand into multiple sub strands and positively lead
them into the entangled yarn structure.
In the spinning system using a DSR roller, a drafted strand enters the
nip of a DSR roller which has a lot of small grooves that positively lead the
drafted fibres into the main twist triangle from both sides and prevent them from
escaping from entangled yarn structure body giving a lower hairiness to the yarn.
The angle of slots on the DSR roller is one of the most important parameters
which properly lead the fibre ends into the entangled yarn structure (Ali Akabar
Merati, Aliasghar Alamdar- Yazdi & Alireza Farokhnia 2013).
Figure 2.12- A schematic of DSR roller (a) side view, (b) front
view, (c) top view and (d) three dimensional view [= angle of slots relative
to direction of roller]
towards roller centre to provide a convergent path for the fibres in the strand at
the twist triangle. In this figure, is the angle of slots having the values 15, 30
and 40(Fig. 2.13).
2.10 FRICTION
The three major modes of contact used during measurements are the
point, line and the area. These correlate with the nature of contacts found in
textiles during processing and use. Point contacts exist between metallic wires
and fibres during carding, between needles and fibres during sewing in apparel
manufacturing, and between the fibres at the crossover points during stretching
and bending of woven and knitted fabrics. It should be noted, however, that
since textiles are soft and deformable, the seemingly point contact actually
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involves a small area of some shape. The line type of contact can be expected to
exist between fibres during drafting in yarn formation, and during stretching and
bending of yarns and yarn based products in processing and use. Just as point
contact involves contact over some area, so does the line contact. Examples of
area contact, i.e. contacts over significant geometrical areas, include those
between two items of clothing worn by an individual, clothing and skin, clothing
and upholstery, clothing and bed linen, stocking and shoe liner, between
footwear and flooring including carpet (Gupta 2008).
In Line contact, the load is distributed over the material for some
distance. Due to that more amount of force acting on the material. So it requires
more amount of pulling force at delivery point.
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For point contact between two filament yarns, the method adopted
was the one based on capstan geometry. The angle of wrap and diameters of the
fibres being small, the contacts are also small and assumed to be a point. The
value of is calculated with the well known capstan equation, given below, in
which is the angle of wrap:
T2/T1=e
When the textile material is pulled over a cylindrical body, a frictional force
develops between material and cylinder surface due to normal force
generated tensions T0 and T1exerted on the ends.
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Fx = 0
= T cos (/2) +. N (T + T).cos (/2)
FY = 0
= N - (T + T) sin (/2) - T sin (/2)
For small , sin (/2) = (/2)
cos (/2)= 1
Substituting:
Fx T= . N
FY N=T.
Substituting:
NT= .T.
T2
dtt = d
T1 0
T2/T1 = e