CHAPTER 3 HEREDITY AND VARIATION

1. CELL DIVISION

1. The nucleus of a cell contains many small-thread like structures called chromosomes.
2. Chromosomes are built from molecules called Deoxyribonucleic acids. (DNA)
3. Each DNA molecules contains thousands of genes.
4. Genes exist in pairs. One gene is inherited from the father and one from the mother.

CELL NUCLEUS CHROMOSOME DNA GENE

MITOSIS & MEIOSIS

i. Mitosis occurs in all somatic cells, except in sex cells.

ii. It produces 2 daughter cells.
iii. Meiosis occurs in sex organs to produce gametes.
iv. One parent cell produces 4 daughter cells. The number of chromosomes is half of the
number in parent cell.
v. There are 2 stages in meiosis, called meiosis_I_ and meiosis II_.

THE STAGES IN MITOSIS

Parent cell
The chromosomes shorten, fatten and
become clearly visible

Chromosome replication into thread

like structures called chromatids.

Chromosomes align themselves at the

equatorial plate

Sister chromatids separate and move

to the opposite poles
Centromeres divide
At the same time cell begins to divide

The new nuclear membrane

is formed
Two daughter cells are
produced

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The new nuclear
membrane are formed
Two daughter cells are
produce
 THE STAGES IN MEIOSIS

Parent cell Chromosomes in nucleus

shorten and fatten

Replication and crossing

over in chromatids occur

Chromosomes are arranged

at equatorial plate

Chromatids separate and

move to opposite poles

2 daughter cells formed

Chromosomes are
arranged at the centre of
the cell

Chromatids separate Each daughter cell contains half

Cell begin to split the number of chromosomes of
the parent cell

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 Compare and Contrast between Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
1 Cell division 2
2 Product 4
Same Number of chromosomes Half the number
Yes Genetically identical No
In somatic cells Place In sex cells
To produce new cells for growth
Purpose Gametes
and to replace damaged cells

Difference between mitosis and meiosis

Difference between mitosis and meiosis

The Importance of Mitosis and Meiosis

MITOSIS

1.Mitosis form new cells for growth and to replace a damaged or died cells.
2.To ensure that the number of chromosomes in daughter cell is identical to that of the parent cell.

MEIOSIS

1. To produce gametes with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cells.
2. It allows a species to maintain a constant number of chromosomes in the offspring.
3. To form variation between species.

2. INHERITANCE

1. Inheritance is a process of passing genetic information of characteristics or traits from parents to

offspring.

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2. Genes are divided into 2, dominant and recessive.
3. Human beings have _46 chromosomes. This means that we have _23_ pairs of homologous
chromosomes.
4. Combination of genes it possesses is called genotype.
5. The characteristics that can be observed or determined is called phenotype.
6. A dominant gene is a gene which can show the characteristics it controls when it pairs with a
recessive gen.
7. The recessive gene only shows its characteristics when paired with another recessive gene.

Dominant Recessive
Characteristics
characteristic characteristic
Tongue rolling Ability to roll the tongue Inability to roll the tongue

Ear-lobe Presence of ear-lobe Absence of ear-lobe

Eye colour Brown eyes Blue eyes

Skin pigment Normal skin pigment Absence of skin pigment(Albinism)

Mechanism of Inheritance of Traits

Father Mother

Parents (Free ear lobe) (Attached ear lobe)

EE ee

Meiosis

Gamet E E e e

Fertilization

Offspring

E E E E
e e e e

All free ear lobe

The schematic diagram shows the inheritance of ear lobe

Dominant genes are represented by capital letters whereas recessive genes are represented
by small letters.
E represents the genes for free ear lobe, which is the dominant gene.
e represents the gene for attached ear lobe which is the recessive gene.

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 Monohybrid cross

Y for dominant traits ( yellow seeds)

y for recessive traits (green seeds)

Parents: YY X yy

Phenotype: __Yellow__ ___Green___

Gametes: Y Y y y

Genotype: ___Yy___ ___Yy__ Yy ____Yy___

Phenotype: __yellow___ yellow yellow yellow

________________________________________________________________________

F1 Generation: Yy X Yy

Phenotype: yellow seed _yellow seed__

Gametes: Y y Y y

Genotype: YY Yy Yy yy
Phenotype: __yellow_ ___yellow __yellow_ _green

Phenotype ratio: ____3 yellow_____:_____1 green_____

3. SEX DETERMINATION AND THE OCCURANCE OF TWINS

1. Human has 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs are autosomes and 1 pairs is sex
chromosomes.
2. Type of the sex chromosomes are _X_ and _Y__.
3. Females have _XX_ sex chromosome, while male have _XY_ sex chromosomes.
4. Female has contains 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes XX(44 + XX) while
male has 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 types of sex chromosomes X and Y(44 + XY)
5. The sex of a child is determined by the father according to the type of sperm.

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 The schematic diagram below show how sex is determined.

Parents: Father Mother

XY XX

Meiosis

Gametes: X Y X X

Fertilisation

Genotype: XX XY XX XY

Phenotype: Girl Boy Girl Boy

Genotype ratio: 1XX : 1XY
Phenotype ratio: 1 girl : 1 boy

TWINS

1. There are two types of twins, identical and non-identical twins.

2. Identical twins are formed from _1_ sperm and_1_ ovum, while non-identical twins are formed
from _2_ sperms and _2_ ova.
3. Identical twins have same genetic traits, sex_ and appearance_.
4. Non-identical twins may have different_genetic traits and may have similar or different sex.
5. In identical twins, if the two embryos do not completely separate, they are called
_siamese_ twins.
The differences between identical twins and non-identical twins.

Characteristic Identical twins Non-identical twins

Number of ovums involved 1 2
Number of sperms involved 1 2
Number of zygotes produce 1 2
Number of placentas 1 2
Sex of child (same / different) Same Same/different
Genetic traits (same / different) same different

6. The similarities between this two types of twins are born through pregnancy.

4. MUTATION
1. What is mutation?
The spontaneous random change to the structute of genes or chromosomes of an
organism.
2. There are two types of mutation, gene mutation and chromosomes mutation.
3. The change that occurs in chemical structure of a gene is gene mutation.
4. The change of gene sequence in a chromosome or the change in the number of chromosomes
is chromosomes mutation.
5. The examples of gene mutation are albinism, colour blindness and haemophilia.
6. The examples of chromosome mutation are Downn syndrome, Klinefelters and Turners
syndrome.
7. The Downs syndrome is caused by the presence of one extra chromosome at chromosome 21
in the somatic cells.
8. The characteristics of Klinefelters syndrome are narrow shoulders and small testes.
9. The Turners syndrome is a women who lacks one X chromosome.
10. There are some factors that can increase the chance of mutation : High frequency radiowaves,
toxic chemical and nuclear radiation.

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11. The advantages and disadvantages of mutation:

Advantages Disadvantages
Causes variations and organisms able to adapt
Causes infertility
to the environment
More resistant to diseases, wheather and Causes physical, mental and foetus
polluted environment retardation

5. GENETIC RESEARCH

1. Genetic research have contributed to the field of _medicine_and agriculture_.

2. The example of contribution in each field:

Medical Agriculture
To make human insulin for diabetics Species Tenera a new breed of oil palm fruits
Sheep can produce milk which contains protein The sahiwal Friesian cows which produce more
that can cure haemophilic milk

3. Selective breeding is very important. It is done on crops and livestock.

4. The importance of selective breeding in plants and livestocks are:
i. Resistant to diseases.
ii. Shorter growth period.
iii. Higher yield.
iv. Better quality.

6. VARIATION

1. Variation is the difference among individuals of the same group.

2. The examples of variation in human are fingerprints, ability to roll a tongue, ear lobe and
blood group.
3. There are two types of variation, continuous and discontinuous.
4. The example of continuous variation are height, body weight, intelligence, skin colour, width
of shoulder and length of sole.
5. The examples of discontinuous variation are blood group, fingerprint, ability to roll the
tongues, ear lobe, left-handedness and presence of dimples.
6. The similarity of continuous and discontinuous variation is caused by crossing over in meiosis
and mutation.
7. The differences between the two types of variation:

Type Continuous variation Discontinuous variation

Has distinct characteristics Small degree of variation Clear-cut differences
Environmental factors Affected Not affected
Can be inherited No Yes

8. There are two factors that cause variation, genetic and environmental.
9. Mutation may also be another factor of variation and it will produce new variety.
10. Variation is very important for us. The example of the important of variation are:
i. Enable each individual to be different from others.
ii. More resistant to changes in the surrounding.
iii. To form new breeds.

7. CODE OF ETHICS IN GENETIC RESEARCHES

Misused of knowledge in genetics can cause various controversial issues concerning religion and
humanity. Code of ethics in genetic researches is important to ensure that genetic researches benefit
mankind.
Example: Human cloning and the marketing of genetically modified products have become hot
issues debated at present.If cloning is carried out on humans, serious problems would arise. Religious
people consider humans produced by cloning as not having souls.

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 PAPER 1

1. Which of the following is the unit of inheritance found in chromosomes?

A Gene C Gamete
B Sperm D Nucleus

2. What is the function of cell division through meiosis?

A Produces more siblings

B Replaces damaged tissues
C Increases the size of an organism
D Creates variation in a population of organisms

3. The diagram below shows four stages of mitosis in a plant cell.

Which of the following is the correct sequence of mitosis process?

A P,R,Q,S C Q,P,R,S
B R,P,S,Q D S,P,R,Q

4. A goldfish has 100 chromosomes in each body cell. How many

chromosomes are found in each male gamete?

A 25 C 75
B 50 D 100

5. What is the number of chromosomes found in a female human skin cell?

A 22+ X C 44 +XX
B 22+ Y D 44+XY

6. Which of the following processes in plants involves meiosis?

A Bud growth C Repair of tissue

B Root growth D Formation of pollen

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7. Chromosomes duplicate during cell division. How many times does replication of
chromosomes occur during mitosis and meiosis?

Mitosis Meiosis
A once once
B once twice
C twice once
D twice twice

8. What is the name of the thread-liked structure found within the nuclei of a cell?

A Gene C Nucleus
B Autosome D Chromosomes

9. The diagram below shows a process in the human body.

Parent cell

Process Y

Daughter cells

What is the name of the process?

A Mitosis C Meiosis
B Fertilization D Cross-over

10. Where does mitosis take place?

A Sperm C Ovary
B Anther D Somatic cells

11. The diagram below shows cell division in an animal cell.

Which of the following statement is correct about the cell division?

A Cell divides once only

B Four identical cells are produced
C Have the same kind of chromosomes
D Similar number of chromosomes as parent cell
12. The diagram below shows four stages of meiosis.

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 Which of the following shows the correct sequence?

A P,R,S,Q C Q,S,P,R
B R,S,P,Q D Q,R,P,S

13. Which of the following statements is true about mitosis?

A Occurs in ovary
B Produces gametes
C Produces two daughter nuclei
D Chromosomes number is halved

14. What are dominant genes?

A Cannot reproduce themselves

B Fully express their characteristics
C Do not express their characteristics
D Multiply to produce more daughter cells

15. When can the recessive genes be expressed fully?

A Dominant genes are absent

B Dominant genes are present
C Both dominant and recessive genes are absent
D Both dominant and recessive genes are present

16. The diagram shows the stages in human reproduction.

Sperm
Testes Stage Y
Stage X Zygote Baby
Ovum
Ovaries

What are stages X and Y?

X Y
A Mitosis Mitosis
B Meiosis Mitosis
C Meiosis Meiosis
D Mitosis Mitosis
17. Which of the following processes is involved in the formation of zygote?

A Mitosis C Mutation

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 B Meiosis D Fertilization

18. Which of the following is dominant trait in human?

A Curly hair C Left handed

B Blue eyes D Attached ear lobe

19. The gene for tall characteristics T of a pea tree is more dominant than t, which
reveals the short characteristics. Which of the cross below will produce half of the filial
which are tall?

A TT and tt C TT and Tt
B Tt and Tt D Tt and tt

20. Azman who has the ability to roll his tongue has gene Aa and marries Siti who
has the same ability and has gene Aa too.
What is the percentage of having children that are not able to roll t tongue?

A 100% C 50%
B 75% D 25%

21. The diagram shows sex determination in human

Parent 44+XY x 44+XX

Gamete P 22+Y 22+X 22+X

Offspring 44+XX Q 44+XY 44+XY

Which of the following chromosomes are found in gamete P and offspring Q ?

P Q
A 22+Y 22+ X
B 22+X 44+XX
C 22+Y 44+XX
D 22+X 44+XY

22 What is the chromosome in a normal human egg cell ?

A 22+ X C 22+Y
B 23+XY D 23+XX

23. The diagram shows a first generation of cross breeding of two flowers

Parents red flower x white flower

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 First red red white white
Generation flower flower flower flower

R represents the dominant genes for red flower

r represent s the recessive genes for white flower
What are the genes for the parents?

Male Female
A RR Rr
B RR rr
C Rr rr
D rr Rr

24. Farid who is able to roll his tongue has the genotype Gg. He married Sara who
is also able to roll her tongue and has the genotype Gg. What percentage of their
children will be able to roll their tongues?

A 25% C 75%
B 50% D 100%

25. What determines the gender of a baby ?

A Chromosomes in the ovum

B Type of sex chromosomes in the sperm
C Number of chromosomes in the sperm
D Number of chromosomes in the ovum

26. Which of the following is the correct genotype?

Male Female
A XX XY
B XY XX
C YY XX
D XX YY

27. What is the percentage probability that a couple will have a baby girl?

A 25% B 50% C 75% D 100%

28. What is the chromosome number of a female foetus?

A 22+X C 44+XX
B 22+Y D 44+XY

29. How are identical twins formed?

A Two ova fertilized by two different sperms

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 B One ovum fertilized by two different sperms
C Two ova fertilized by one sperm before splitting into two
D One ovum fertilized by one sperm before splitting into two

30. Why can non-identical twins be of different sexes ?

A They arise from the same zygote

B The same sperm fertilizes two different ova
C Two different sperms fertilize two different ova
D Two different sperms fertilize the same ovum

31. Which of the following describes Siamese twins?

A Born separately
B Have different genetic content
C Have underdeveloped body parts
D Identical twins do not separate completely

32. Two children are identical twins. Which of the following characteristic is not common
between them?

A Sex C Blood group

B Height D Ability to roll tongue

33. What is the term used for the sudden and permanent changes in the DNA ?

A Mitosis C Variation
B Mutation D Crossing over

34. Which of the following can cause mutation?

A Changes in the shape

B Random physical changes
C Changes in the genes structure
D Random fusion of a sperm and an ovum

35. The nucleus of a boys skin cell has 47 chromosomes. What is the name of the genetic
disorder the boy is suffering from ?

A Albinism C Sickle cell anemia

B Downs syndrome D Turners syndrome

36. What causes albinism?

A Virus infection C Hormone imbalance

B Mutation of a gene D Changes in chromosomes number

37. Which of the following pairs is correct?

Mutation Characteristics
Downs syndrome 47 chromosomes in the nucleus
Klinefelters
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Turners syndrome Lack of one Y chromosome in the gene
Albinism Additional Y chromosomes in the gene
 A
B
C
D

38. What is the advantages of mutation?

A Form underdeveloped individuals

B Produce more varieties of new species
C Stop the process of growth in organisms
D Encourage the process of growth in organisms

39. The information shows the characteristics of an individual.

Lacks pigmentation in the skin

Has white skin, eye lashes and hair
Skin is sensitive to sunlight

What is the name of genetic disorder the individual is suffering from?

A Albinism C Colour blindness

B Haemophilia D Downs syndrome

40. Which of the following is a result of gene mutation?

A Haemoplilia
B Downs syndrome
C Turners syndrome
D Klinefelters syndrome

41. The diagram shows the cross between two different varieties of mango

Mango K Mango L
-has thick flesh -slightly thinner flesh
- sweet -not so sweet
-small fruit X -big fruit

Mango M

What is the purpose of crossing Mango K with Mango L?

A Plenty of fruits
B Big and sweet fruits

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 C Trees bear fruits faster
D Big fruits with thick flesh

42. What is the term used for the selection of plants or animals of desirable traits?

A Gene screening
B Artificial breeding
C Natural selection
D Selective breeding

43. What is the production of genetically identical individuals called?

A Cloning C Back-crossing
B Breeding D Hybridization

44. The diagram shows the breeding of two different types of oil palm

Oil Palm X X Oil Palm Y

small fruit bigger fruit

thin mesocarp thicker mesocarp
thin endocarp thicker endocarp

Oil Palm Z

What is the result of breeding these oil palms ?

A Plenty of oil palm

B Sweeter oil palm
C Oil palm Z produces plenty of palm oil
D Oil palm Z becomes more resistant to disease

45. Which of the following is an example of a continuous variation?

A Fingerprint C Height
B Blood group D Type of ear lobe

46. Which of the following graphs correctly shows the distribution frequency of
continuous variation?

A B C D

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47. Which of the following is the example of discontinuous variation?

A Height
B Skin colour
C Blood group
D Body weight

48. What is the meaning of variation?

A Sudden change in hereditary material

B Sudden change in external appearance caused by the environment
C Different expression of similar characteristics among individuals of
the same species
D Different expression of similar characteristics among individuals of
the different species

49. Which of the following does not involve genetic engineering?

A Gene therapy for treating cancer

B The production of Tenera oil palm
C The production of insulin by bacteria
D The production of genetically modified food

50. What is the characteristics desired from the genetic research done on plants?

A Matures faster
B Produces less fruit
C Easy to get diseases
D Has short life span

PAPER 2

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 SECTION A

1. Pupils in a certain class had their weight measured. The data obtained is shown below:

Weight of pupils ( kg )

36 41 45 46 45 43 44 40 53 52
58 59 51 45 46 48 45 47 49 44
47 50 43 51 38 47 49 48 54 46

(a) Complete Table 1 using the given data.

Weight of pupils (kg) 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

Number of pupils

TABLE 1

(b) Using the data in table 1, draw a histogram below to show the distribution of
the weight of pupils.
Number of pupils

14

12

0
35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 Weight (kg)

[2 Marks]
(c) What type of variation is shown by a pupils weight ?

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 [ 1 Mark]

(d) Other than weight, state two examples that show the same type of variation.

[ 1 Mark]

SECTION B

1. Diagram 1 shows the process involved in the formation of twins

Ovum sperm Process Q

Process R

Two zygote
formed

DIAGRAM 1

(a) Name the process that takes place at Q

.

[ 1 Mark]
(b) Name the type of cell division that takes place at R

[ 1 Mark]
(c) State the type of twins formed in the figure shown above.

[ 1 Mark]
(d) State two similarities found in the zygote formed after process R.

.
[ 1 Mark]

(e) What type of twins that will be formed if process R is incomplete?

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 .

[ 1 Mark]
(f) If the spermatozoa in the figure carries 22+Y chromosome,

(i) what will be the sex of the zygotes?

.

[ 1 Mark]
(ii) state the number and the type of sex chromosomes in both the zygotes

.
[ 1 Mark]

2. Diagram 3 shows the cross-breeding of pea plants. T represents the dominant

genes while t represents the recessive gene.

Parent Tall plant x Short plant

Genotype

Gamete

Genotype Tt

Phenotype Tall Tall Tall Tall

DIAGRAM 3

(a) What is meant by gene?

.
[ 1 Mark]
(b) The above pea plant have a pair of Tt genes which show the tall trait. Explain this.

.

[ 1 Mark]

(c) Complete the above figure by writing the possible genotypes of the parent, gamete
and offspring
[2 Marks]

3. The bar chart below shows the result of a study in a group of students.
Number2. of
students
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 80

60

40

20

Roll tongue
able unable

(a) Calculate the percentage of students who are able to roll their tongues.

.
[ 1 Mark]
(b) i) What are the characteristics shown by the graph above?

.
[ 1 Mark]

ii) What is the type of variation in this situation?

.
[ 1 Mark]

(c) i) Is the presence or absence of ear lobes the same type of variation as (b)ii?

.
[ 1 Mark]

ii) Give reasons for your answer in (c) i.

[1 Mark]

4 (a) What does cell division refers to?

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 .

.
[ 1 Mark]
(b) What is meiosis?

.
[ 1 Mark]

(c) Compare the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells and in the parent
cell

[ 1 Mark]
(d) State two importance of meiosis in organisms

i)

ii) .

[2 Marks]

5. (a) What is mutation?

SES 1511 Kelantan 2007 46



[ 1 Mark]

(b) State two types of mutation and explain each of them

1. ..

2. ...
[2 Marks]

(c) Give two examples of consequences of each mutation named in (b)

1.

2.
[2 Marks]

(d) i) What is Klinefelters syndrome?

.
[ 1 Mark]

ii) What is the cause of Klinefelters syndrome?

.
[ 1 Mark]

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 SECTION C

1.
No two individuals are alike. Every person is unique in himself

(a) Examine the above statement, then suggest a suitable hypothesis for an
investigation to determine the weight of forty students (boys and girls) who are all
18 years of age. [1 Mark]

(b) Describe an experiment that could be carried in the classroom to verify your
hypothesis.
Your description should include the following:
(i) Aim of the investigation [1 Mark]
(ii) Identification of variables [3Marks]
(iii) List of apparatus [1 Mark]
(iv Tabulation of data [1 Mark]
(v) Conclusion [1 Mark]

2. Study the statement below

The length of leaves is a type of continuous variation

(a) Suggest a suitable hypothesis to investigate this statement. [1 Mark]

(b) Design an experiment to test your hypothesis this statement

(i) Aim of the experiment [1 Mark]
(ii) Identification of variables [2 Marks]
(iii) List of materials and apparatus [1 Mark]
(iv) Method [3 Marks]
(v) Recording and analyzing [1 Mark]
(vi) Conclusion [1 Mark]

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3. (a) State four differences between cell division through mitosis and meiosis.
[4 Marks]

(b) Hair
Skin

Cell division

Liver Red blood

cell

The cell division that takes place in the body parts of a student is shown above. Explain
how you would build a concept based on the information above. Your explanation should
include the following.
(i) Identify two common features
(ii) Build an initial concept
(iii) Give one example of body part that undergoes this cell division and one
example of body part that does not undergo this cell division.
Give reason for each example.
(iv) Explain the actual concept [6 Marks]

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