Professional Documents
Culture Documents
of
Offshore Fixed and
Floating Structures
January, 2007
Definition
None.
Fatigue is not a function of the stress level (not really true but
commonly accepted)
How it is measured
This next curve is a typical curve for the steel used on offshore
jackets (tubular structures).
Figure 3 Curve given in API-RP2A for tubular joints
It is less intuitive, however, that these curves vary also with the
environment (there is less fatigue above water than below), with
corrosion and more markedly with thickness (only for thicknesses
above 22mm).
Nloads
Nappliedi
Total Damage =
i =1
Nresistedi
Stress concentration
DNV
Efthymiou, etc.
These equations vary not only with the geometry of the joint,
but also depending on how the loads are applied. This means that the
type of joint can only be established after the load distribution within
the structure has been determined. This is shown in figure 6.
Figure 6 Joint classification
In this case the stress range is defined as a nominal stress
range multiplied by a stress concentration factor
S = S no min al SCF
a) Fixed Platforms
Morison equation:
1 1
q= C D V 2 D + CM A D 2
2 4
1
Fatigue Life =
Total Damage
Typical results present the point of the structural joint that has
the highest stress range and the corresponding fatigue life.
w w p
2
5 w 4
exp 0.5
w p
S ( w) = g w exp
5
2
4 w
p
Where :
2
w angular wave frequency w =
Tw
Tw wave period
TP peak period or significant wave period TZ
2
w p angular spectral peak frequency w p =
Tp
g acceleration of gravity
5 H s wp
2 4
generalized Philip`s cons tan t = (1 0.287 ln( ))
16 g 2
spectral width parameter
= 0.07 if w < w p
= 0.09 if w > w p
peakness parameter
Where:
2
w angular wave frequency w = ;
TW
TW wave period;
Still in this case the number of load cases is very large, so a small
approximation has been introduced, based on which it is possible to
be much more precise and still consider a smaller number of waves.
In general terms something called a transfer function for unit height
waves is generated for the whole range of periods that the wave may
have. Obviously the variation of wave force with wave height is not
linear, but if this function is calculated with the most probable wave
height for each period (and then divided by the wave height) the
errors incurred will be small and perfectly acceptable within
engineering accuracy.
The RMS value RMS of the stress variation s for a given seastate is
given by the following equation:
RMS = ( H 2 ( f ) S ( f )df ) 0.5
0
Tz = RMS / ( f 2 H 2 ( f ) S ( f )df ) 0.5
0
Assuming that this given seastate will occur a fraction m of the entire
Life of the structure, the corresponding number of cycles will be given
by:
N = mLife / Tz
s 2
N s
D= exp ds
2 RMS 0 N ( s) 2 2
The total damage will be the sum of the damages of each seastate.
The final result given by the analysis is the life of the structure at all
the critical points (joints) where stress concentrations occur.
b) Floating Units
In general all of these types of platforms are moored, but the FPSOs
have different types of moorings, which actually change their
behavior.
The hydrodynamic analysis here is not the object of this lecture, but
just for the sake of completeness, the first step is to calculate the
pressure on each of the diffraction elements or panels as the wave
passes through the vessel. The integration of these pressures
produces the net force on the vessel, which is then used to calculate
the vessel motions, treating it as a rigid body with 6 degrees of
freedom: three linear displacements (surge front- and backwards,
sway sidewards and heave up and down) and three rotations (roll
around the longitudinal axis, pitch around the midship transversal axis
and yaw around a midship vertical axis). Water damping plays a very
important role in these calculations, because not all motions have
restoring forces.
The vessel motions can be divided into two types: the linear wave
motions and the second order excursions. The linear wave motions
are those produced for each of these 6 degrees of freedom, obtained
for waves of unit amplitude, and they are called RAOs (Response
Amplitude Operators), which is a traditional terminology for naval
architects. Structural engineers would call these curves Transfer
Functions, as we did with the wave forces on the fixed platform.
Typical RAO curves for quartering seas (the wave incidence on the
vessel is 45, 135, 225 or 315 degrees) are given in figure 24.
Figure 24 Typical RAO curves for quartering seas
The second order motions are long term excursions that the vessel
undergoes while it moves along its anchor lines. Typical values of
excursions are in the range of 10% of the water depth for moored
structures subject to storm seastates.
For the specific purpose of this seminar, there are at least 2 different
effects to be considered here, that cause fatigue: the first is the
vessel deformation and the second the inertial loads induced by the
vessel motions. Both of them require the transformation of the RAOs
already determined, as will be seen below.
It was said above that there are at least 2 effects that cause fatigue,
because depending on the structure there can be other sources as
well. Some examples will clarify.
Let us consider, first of all, the fatigue check of part of the main deck
of an FPSO vessel as shown in figure 25.
The fact that this is an FPSO means that the ballast is gradually
changing, not to speak of the abrupt variation when the offloading
takes place. It is necessary, therefore, to build a structural model, and
calculate the stress variation as the waves pass through it, but this
will have to be done for several ballasting conditions. For each of
these conditions a transfer function will be determined and a spectral
analysis will be performed considering the percentage of the waves
that are related to that condition.
This leaves us with the first two, which are described below.
This first problem is really a matter of determining how the loads will
be applied. The vessel motions are determined by the RAOs, so if we
are able to relate the RAO motions to accelerations around the
structure, we can then generate a transfer function, which relates
wave period to inertial loads.
Figure 22 Transferring motions from the center of rotation to a
general point around the structure
Assuming in figure 22 that is the angular velocity, the angular
acceleration and a the linear acceleration at the center of rotation, it is
easy to show that the x component of inertial force at a general point
of the structure, whose distance from the center of rotation is r and
whose mass is m, can be given by:
Fx = -m ( ax + r sin + 2 r cos )
S(f) = k V2 / f + 4 X / ( 2 + X2 )5/6
Where V is the wind velocity (10m above sea level), f is the wind
frequency in Hz, k is a roughness coefficient (average about 0.0015)
and X = 1800 f / V.
P = 0.5 Cd V2
This equation, where the second order term was neglected, provides
both static and dynamic components of wind. The dynamic
component would be calculated in a dynamic spectral wind analysis
and then added to the static.
It was shown above for fixed platforms that the RMS value RMS of
the stress variation s for a given seastate is given by the following
equation:
RMS = ( H 2 ( f ) S ( f )df ) 0.5
0
Example
Determine the dynamic magnification of the stress at the bottom of
the column support of a roadway traffic sign, whose mass is 200kg,
whose plate diameter is 1m and whose CoG is 3m above the
embedment point. The wind velocity 40 m/s. The maximum force
value shall assume a Rayleigh distribution and a 1.2% probability of
being exceeded. Assume also zero damping.
1m
M=200kg
Fy = 350
3m
EI = 134 kN m2
( 21/2 std)
The equations given below calculate A, the plate area, K, the stiffness
of the plate column support (wind force required to displace the plate
1m), Pstatic, the static wind pressure, Pdynamic, the dynamic wind
pressure and finally Ysta.dev, the standard deviation of the dynamic
wind displacement. In this equation, Hn is the dynamic amplification
factor.
D 2
A= = 0.785 m 2
4
3EI 3 134 kN
K= 3 = = 14.89
L 27 m
V2 kgf
Pstatic = = 100 2 = 1kPa
16 m
Pdynamic = Cd Vm dV = 0,000125 1 40dV = 0.005dV
1 2
Y sta.dev. = Hn (0.005 0.785) 2 Sv f
14.89
2 1 1
Hn = =
(1 r 2 ) 2 + (2 r ) 2 (1 r 2 ) 2 + 4 10 6 r 2
k V 2 4X 0,0015 40 2 4 45 f
S= =
f (2 + X 2 ) 5 / 6 f (2 + 45 2 f 2 ) 5 / 6
1800 f 1800 f
X= = = 45 f
V 40
432
S=
( 2 + 2025 f 2 ) 5 / 6
250
200
150
Sv
100
50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
f (Hz)
1 k 1 14.89
f = = = 1,37
2 m 2 2
2 1 1
Hn = =
(1 r 2 ) 2 + 4 10 6 r 2 2 2
2
1 f
+ 4 10 6 f
1.37
1. 37
300000
250000
200000
2
150000
Hn
100000
50000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
f (Hz)
1000
900
800
700
600
2
500
Hn
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
f (Hz)
0,000104
2 2 2
f
f =0
1
6 f
+ 2 10 (
2 + 2025 f 2 )
5/6
1.37 1.37
1
Y sta.dev = 0.0305 = 0.0117m
14.89
The static deflection is:
1 0.785
est = = 5.27cm
14.89
The Rayleigh distribution is given by the equation below:
P[A > ] =
A A 2 / 2 2
e dA
2
for which the final total deflection is given by 5.27 + 3 x 1.17 = 8.79cm
8.79
DMF = = 1.67
5.27
Mathematical Development
S
FS ( S ) = exp S >0
Where:
Fs(S) is the probability that the value S will be exceeded
S is the random variable representing the stress range;
is the Weibull shape factor;
Let SR a reference stress range be the major stress range that can
occur on a certain number NR of cycles.
SR
=
(LnN R )1 /
Shape Parameter:
Fatigue Damage
It can be shown that the closed solution for the fatigue damage
considering a two segment S-N curve is as given below:
NT m m N r
D= + 1, z + T o + 1, z
A C
Where:
NT is the total number of cycles during the design life;
A, m parameters obtained from first segment of the S-N curve;
C, r parameters obtained from second segment of the S-N curve;
the Weibull shape factor;
m r
+ 1, z o + 1, z
and are incomplete gamma functions.
z
o (a, z ) = t a 1 e t dt
0
Where:
SQ
z =
, SQ is the stress range value at which the change of slope of
These calculations are presented, for instance, in the DnV code and
copied below:
These curves have all been established assuming a life safety factor
of 1.0 and a fatigue life of 20 years. This has led to 100 million cycles.
In case the life is different or a different safety factor is desired,
correction factors have been provided for each curve, one again both
in the air and under water with cathodic protection.
These curves are given below:
An example is presented below:
This value could also have been obtained form table 5.8 given on the
previous page.
This value should be used in table 5.5, two pages above, to obtain
the stress reduction factor for the weld type and in air environment
established. Based on linear interpolation between 0.8 and 0.9 that
table yields a value of (0.733 + 0.741)/2 = 0.737.
Attention is drawn to the fact that this value is only limited for
thicknesses up to 25mm. A further reduction based on the equation
given below is applicable for plate thicknesses exceeding that value.
For a 30mm plate, for instance the corrected value would be: