Chapter 1 Manufacturing Introduction

1- Manufacturing
Technologically
Application of Physical and Chemical (Science) processes to alter the geometry, properties,
and appearance of give starting material to make parts and products.

Economically
Transformation of materials into items of greater value by means of one or more processing
and/or assembly operation

2- Manufacturing Industries classified as:

i. Primary- cultivate ( ) and exploit natural resources (Eg: Agriculture and Mining
())
ii. Secondary take output of primary industries and convert them into consumer and capital
goods (Eg: Manufacturing, construction, power utilities)
iii. Tertiary constitute the service sector (eg. Retail, financial, education,
transportation, government)

3. Manufactured Products
i. Consumer goods Products purchased directly by consumers
Eg- Cars, PC, TVs, tires, and tennis rackets
ii. Capital goods Products purchased by companies to produce goods and provide services.
Eg. Aircraft, trucks, buses, machine tools, construction equipment.

4. Terms
i. Production quantity the number of units produced annually of given product type
ii. Product variety the number of different types of products made

5. Manufacturing Capability technical and physical limitations of manufacturing firm and its
industrial plants
- 3 dimensions
i. Technological processing capability- available set of manufacturing processes
ii. Physical product limitations size and weight of the products that can be made
iii. Production capacity production quantity that can be produced in a given time period.
6. Materials in Manufacturing (4)
I. Metals ferrous & nonferrous
II. Ceramics Crystalline ceramics and glass
III. Polymers Thermoplastic, thermosets, and elastomers
IV. Composites Non- homogenous mixture of three basic types

I. Metals
- Alloys composed two or more elements, at least one of which is metallic
a) Ferrous based on iron (eg. Steel and cast iron)
b) Non-ferrous metals other metallic elements (eg. Aluminium, copper, nickel, silver, tin)

II. Ceramics
- Compounds contain metallic and non-metallic elements like (oxygen, nitrogen, &
carbon)
i. Crystalline ceramics traditional ceramics (clay)modern ceramics (alumina)
ii. Glasses based on silica

III. Polymers
- Compound formed of repeating structural units called mers, whose atoms share electrons
to form very large molecules. 3 categories
i. Thermoplastic can subjected to heating and cooling without altering molecular structure
ii. Thermosetting molecules chemically transform into rigid structure cannot reheat
iii. Elastomers shows significant elastic behaviour (eg. Rubber)

IV. Composites
- Material consists of 2 or more phases are processed separately and bonded together to
achieve properties superior to its constituents
 Chapter 3: Manufacturing Component Geometry Distribution

1) Properties materials behavior when subjected to mechanical stress

- Includes (elastic modulus, ductility, hardness, various measures of strength)
Dilemma mechanical properties that designers desirable
2) Properties of Engineering Materials
I. Stress-strain relationships reflected by stress-strain curve
Tensile stretching the material
Compressive squeezing the material
Shear slide against each other

a. Tensile test

I) Engineering Stress
F
e
Ao

e = engineering stress,
F = applied force,
Ao = original area of test specimen
II) Engineering Strain
L Lo
e
Lo

e = engineering strain;
L = length at any point during elongation;
Lo = original gage length

III) Engineering Stress- Strain Plot

IV) Hookes Law

e = E e
E is a measure of the inherent stiffness of a material
V Yield point/ yield strength/ yield stress/ elastic limit
- beginning of plastic deformation
Vi) Tensile Strength
Fmax
Ao
Ts =

Vii) Ductility measure = elongation EL

L Lo
EL f
Lo

Viii) True Stress

F

A
 = true stress;
F = force; and
A = actual (instantaneous) area resisting the load.
Noted: A A0
X) True Strain
L
dL L
ln
Lo
L Lo

Xi) True Stress-Strain Curve

Xii) Log-Log Plot

ix) Relationship between true stress and true strain in the plastic region
K n
 K = strength coefficient; and
n = strain hardening exponent
II) Stress-Strain Relationship:
1) Perfectly Elastic

Brittle materials: ceramics, many cast irons, and thermosetting polymers

2) Elastic and Perfectly Plastic

Metals behave like this when heated to sufficiently high temperatures (above
recrystallization)

B) Compression Test
Compression force applied to test piece and resulting change in height and diameter

I) Engineering Stress
 e = - F/Ao
Ao = original area of the specimen

II Engineering Strain
h ho
e
ho

III Stress- Strain Curve in compression

- Cross section increases (shape of plastic region differ from tensile test)
- Engineering Stress is higher

C) Brittle Testing
Specimen of rectangular cross-section is positioned between two supports, and a load is
applied at its center.

- deform elastically until fracture failure Cleavage

I Transverse Rupture Strength
1.5FL
TRS
bt 2
TRS = transverse rupture strength;
F = applied load at fracture;
L = length of specimen between supports;
b and t are dimensions of cross section
D) Shear Properties
- Application of Stresses in opposite directions on either side of a thin elements
a) Shear Stress , b) Shear Strain

i) Shear Stress
F

A
F = applied force
A = area over which deflection occurs.
ii) Shear Strain


b
= deflection element;
b = distance over which deflection occurs
iii) Torsion Stress Strain Curve

G = shear modulus, or shear modulus of elasticity ; G 0.4E, where E = elastic

modulus

II. Hardness
Resistance to permanent indentation ()
Good hardness -resistant to scratching and wear
 1) Brinell and
- A hard ball is pressed into specimen surface

2F
HB
Db ( Db Db2 Di2 )

HB = Brinell Hardness Number (BHN),

F = indentation load, kg;
Db = diameter of ball, mm, and
Di = diameter of indentation, mm

2) Rockwell
- cone shaped indenter is pressed into specimen

III. Effect of temperature on mechanical properties (Strength and Ductility)

Metal heated to sufficiently high temperature
- new grains form that are free of strain
- The metal has recrystallized
- perfectly plastic material; that is, n = 0

IV. Fluid properties

- solidification processes
Metals are cast in molten state
- Viscosity- resistance to flow (a measure of the internal friction when velocity gradients
are present in the fluid)
using two parallel plates separated by a distance d and a fluid fills the space between
the two plates

- force F can be reduced to a shear stress by dividing by plate area A

F dv

A dy
Shear Stress : ; Shear Rate : -
dv = change in velocity, m/s; and
dy = change in distance y, m
Shear rate = velocity gradient perpendicular to flow direction

Shear viscosity is the fluid property that defines the relationship between F/A and dv/dy;
 F dv

A dy
or
where = a constant of proportionality called the coefficient of viscosity, Pa-s
For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is a constant
For non-Newtonian fluids, it is not

Viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of shear stress to shear rate during flow

V. Viscoelastic behavior of polymers

- melt is not constant
a. It is affected by flow rate
b. Its behavior is non-Newtonian
- fluid that exhibits this decreasing viscosity with increasing shear rate is called
pseudoplastic

Viscoelastic Behavior
- Material property that determines the strain that the material experiences when subjected
to combinations of stress and temperature over time
Combination of viscosity and elasticity

VI. Volumetric and melting properties

- Properties related to the volume of solids and how these properties are affected by
temperature
I_Density (strength-to-weight ratio, which is tensile strength divided by density)
- Temperature increase: density decreases, Volume per unit weight increases
2_Thermal expansion
Change in length per degree of temperature
L2 - L1 = L1 (T2 - T1)
= coefficient of thermal expansion;
L1 and L2 are lengths corresponding respectively to temperatures T1 and T2

3_Melting point
Temperature at which it transform from solid to liquid state (opposite freezing)
Heat of fusion = heat energy required at Tm to accomplish transformation from solid to liquid
VII. Thermal properties
Temperature determines the thermal energy level of the atoms, leading to the changes in
materials
Specific heat
- quantity of heat energy required to increase the temperature of a unit mass of material by
one degree
- H = C W (T2 - T1)
H = amount of heat energy;
C = specific heat of the material;
W = its weight;
(T2 - T1) = change in temperature

- Volumetric Specific Heat

The quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit volume of material by
one degree
- Volumetric specific heat = C

Thermal conductivity
- Capability of a material to transfer heat through itself by the physical mechanism of
thermal conduction

Thermal Diffusivity
- ratio of thermal conductivity to volumetric specific heat is frequently encountered in
heat transfer analysis
k
K
C