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Mechanical Vibration PDF
Mechanical Vibration PDF
K
-
K
m
FORCED VIBRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
x
When a mechanical system undergoes free vibrations, an initial force (causing some
displacement) is impressed
mg upon the system, and the system is allowed to vibrate under the
influence of inherent elastic properties. The system however, comes to rest, depending upon
the amount of damping in the system.
In engineering situations, there are instances where in an external energy source
causes vibrations continuously acting on the system. Then the system is said to undergo
forced vibrations, as it vibrates due to the influence of external energy source. The external
energy source may be an externally impressed force or displacement excitation impressed
upon the system. The excitation may be periodic, impulsive or random in nature. Periodic
excitations may be harmonic or non harmonic but periodic. The amplitude of vibrations
remains almost constant. Machine tools, internal combustion engines, air compressors, etc
are few examples that undergo forced vibration.
3.2 FORCED VIBRATIONS OF SINGLE DOF SYSTEMS UNDER HARMONIC
EXCITATION
Consider a spring mass damper system as shown in Figure 3.1 excited by a sinusoidal forcing
function F=Fo Sin t
k kx Cx
C
F x
m
F = F0 Sin t
F
Fo
Figure 3.1
Let the force acts vertically upwards as shown in FBD. Then the Governing Differential
Equation (GDE) can be written as
m88 = - Kx8 - C x8 + F
x
m 88 + C x8 + Kx = F --------------- (3.1)
x
is a linear non homogeneous II order differential equation whose solution is in two
parts.
Velocity = x8
x8 = X. Cos (t - )
= X Sin [90 + (t - )]
Acceleration
x88 = - X. Sin (t - ), substitute these values in GDE, (equation 3.1)
2
We get
-m 2 X Sin (t - ) + C Sin [90 + (t - )]
+ KX Sin (t - ) = Fo Sin t
m X Sin (t - ) - C Sin [90 + (t - )]
2
Figure 3.2
B X
) (t - )
O Reference axis
Figure 3.3
Displacement vector X: Lags the force vector by an angle and hence shown at (t - ) from
the reference axis.
Spring force: - KX Sin (t - ): which means that the vector KX acting at (t - ) or KX
acting in opposite direction to (t - ) = at [90 + (t - )]
C
= tan-1 -------- (3.6)
K-m2
Further, the above equations can be expressed in terms of the following quantities
Fo
K = Xst - Zero frequency deflection
Deflection
mg of spring mass system under the steady force Fo should not be mistaken as st =
K
m = 1
K n2
C 2
K = Kn
Xst
Thus X (1
= - )22
+ (2 . )2
n2 n
= r = frequency ratio
n Xst
X=
--------- (3.7)
(1 - r2)2 +( 2 . r)2
X
whereXst is called magnification factor, amplification factor, or amplitude ratio.
X
M=Xst : It is the term by which Xst is to be multiplied to get the amplitude.
2
n 2r
tan = = 1-r2
( 1 - )
2
2
n
2r
... tan = 1-r2 -------- (3.8)
rM=
Facto
X/Xst
= 0. 5
= 0.707
=1
=2
Frequency Ratio r = (/n)
Figure 3.4
= 1.0
= 2.0
gle,
has
An
,
P
The following characteristics of the phase angle can be observed from the graph
1) For undamped system the phase angle is 00 for 0<r<1, and 1800 for r>1. This implies
that the excitation and response are in phase for 0<r<1 and out of phase for r>1 when
=0.
2) For >0 and 0<r<1 the phase angle is given by 0 0<<900, implying that the response
lags excitation.
3) For >0 and r>1, the phase angle is given by 90 0<< 1800, implying that the response
leads excitation.
4) For >0 and r=1, the phase angle is =900 implying that the phase difference between
the excitation and response is 900.
5) For >0 and large values of r, the phase angle approaches 1800 implying that the
response and excitation are out of phase.
The damping factor has a large influence on amplitude and phase angle in the region where
r = 1(resonance).The phenomenon represented be frequency response curve can be further
better understood by means of vector diagram as follows. Consider three different cases as
(1) / n << 1 (2) / n = 1 (3) / n >> 1
At very low frequencies, when is very small, the inertia for m 2x and the damping force
Cx are very small.
Fo
Kx
x
CX
(t-)
m2X
Figure 3.6
This results in small values of as shown in fig .The impressed force F0 is almost equal and
opposite to spring force KX. Thus for very low frequencies, the phase angle tends to zero and
the impressed force wholly balance the spring force
Kx
Fo
x
CX
m2X
Figure 3.7
With increased value of , the damping force Cx and inertia force m 2 x increase. The
phase angle also increases. If is increased to such an extent that phase angle =900, the
force polygon becomes a rectangle as shown. The spring force and inertia vectors become
equal and opposite.
KX = m 2 x
= (K/m) = n
= n
/ n =1
This is the response condition of the system during which the forcing frequency is equal to
natural frequency of the system. Also the impressed force is completely balanced by the
damping force.
CX= F0
X= F0 /C = F0/K/ C/K
X=Xst / 2 (/ n)
X=Xst / 2 (/ n) = 1
Xr /Xst = 1/2 Xr = Amplitude at resonance
Case (3): when / n >>1
x
Fo
KX
m2X
CX
Figure 3.8
At very large values of > approaches 1800, the inertia force becomes very large, where as
the spring force and damping force vectors becomes negligibly small. The improved force is
wholly utilized in balancing the inertia force.
1800 i.e., Fo = m 2x
X = F o / m 2
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES:
3.1) A machine part of mass 2.5 Kgs vibrates in a viscous medium. A harmonic exciting force
of 30 N acts on the part and causes resonant amplitude of 14mm with a period of 0.22sec.
Find the damping coefficient. If the frequency of the exciting force is changed to 4Hz,
determine the increase in the amplitude of forced vibration upon removal of the damper.
Part 1: At Resonance
n = forcing frequency = 2/ = 28.56 rad/sec
As / n = 1, X = (F0/K)/2 = 0.014
... = 0.526
Damping coefficient = C = Cc = 2m n
= 2*2.5*28.56*0.526
= 75.04 N/m/s
C = 0.07504 Ns/m
Part (2): When f = 4 Hz
Forcing = 2*fn = 25.13 rad/sec
Frequency n = 28.56 rad/sec, unchanged
Amplitude of vibration with damper
Xa = Fo/K
[1 - r2] 2 + [2r] 2
= 0.01544m
3.2) A body having a mass of 15 kgs, is suspended from a spring which deflects 12mm due to
the weight of the mass. Determine the frequency of free vibrations. What viscous damping
force is needed to make the motion a periodic at a speed of 1mm/sec.
If when, damped to this extent, a disturbing force having a maximum value of 100N
and vibrating at 6Hz is made to act on the body. Determine the amplitude of ultimate motion.
Solution:
Data: m = 15Kg; F0 = 100 N; f = 6Hz; st = 12mm;
(b) The motion becomes aperiodic, when the damped frequency is zero or when it is critically
damped ( = 1).
= n = (g/ ) = 28.59 rad/sec
C = Cc = 2m n = 2*15*28.59 = 857 N/m/s
= 0.857 N/mm/s
Thus a force of 0.857 N is required at a rate of 1mm/s to make the motion a periodic.
(c) X= F0
(K-m2)2 + (c)2
= 2f = 2*6 = 37.7 rad/sec, f0 = 100 N
fn = (1/2)((K/m) ... K = 12,260 N/m
X = 0.00298m
= 2.98mm.
Condition for peak amplitude of vibration
(Expression for peak amplitude)
The frequency at which the maximum amplitude occurs can be obtained as follows.
X Xst
Xst 2 2 2
M= X = [1 - r ] + [2r]
i.e., for a system acted upon by a known harmonic force, the amplitude depends only on (/
n). Hence for X to be maximum [1 r2] 2 + [2r] 2 should be minimum.
dx dx
d(/ n) d(r) ([1 - r2] 2 + [2r] 2) = 0
(
n )
peak = 1 -2 2
( p
n ) peak = 1 -2 2 ---------- (3.10)
p = frequency at which peak amplitude occurs.
Where p refers to the forcing frequency corresponding to the peak amplitude. No maximum
or peak will1occur when the expression within the radical sign becomes negative i.e., for >
or 2
for > 0.707.
p
( n ) = 1 -2 2
r = 1 -2 2 = /n
also we have,
X/Xst = 1 for Xmax = r =1 -2 2
[1 - r2] 2 + [2r] 2
Xmax/Xst = 1
[1 (1 -2 2 )] 2 + [42(1 -2 2 )]
= 1
2 (1 -2 )
Xmax/(F0/K) = 1
2 (1 -2 )
Xmaxmn2/F0 = 1
2 (1 -2 )
25*0.013* n2/25 = 1
2 (1 -2 )
4 - 2 +0.117 = 0
Z2 Z + 0.117 = 0 where 2 = Z.
Solving the quadratic equation
= 0.368, 0.93
The larger value of is to be discarded because the amplitude would be maximum only
for < 0.707 ... take = 0.368
3.4) A weight attached to a spring of stiffness 525 N/m has a viscous damping device. When
the weight is displaced and released, without damper the period of vibration is found to be
1.8secs, and the ratio of consecutive amplitudes is 4.2 to 1.0. Determine the amplitude and
phase when the force F=2Cos3t acts on the system.
Solution:
Data: K = 525 N/m; = 1.8secs: x1 = 4.2; x2 = 1.0; F = F0sint = 2cos3t
... F0 = 2N, = 3 rad/sec
X= Fo/K
[1 - r2] 2 + [2r] 2
n = 2/ = 3.49rad/sec
= ln(4.2/1.0) = 1.435
= = 0.22
2 2
(4 + )
r = /n = 2/3.49 = 0.573
r2 = 0.328
X= 2/525
[1 0.328] 2 + [4*0.484*0.328]
X = 5.3mm
= tan-1(2r)
(1-r2)
= tan-1(2*0.22*0.573)
(1-0.328)
= tan-1(0.375)
= 20.560
3.5) The damped natural frequency of a system as obtained from a free vibration test is 9.8
cps. During a forced vibration test with a harmonic excitation on the same system, the
frequency of vibration corresponding to peak amplitude was found to be 9.6 cps.
Determine the damping factor for the system and natural frequency.
p1 -22 /d = 1 -22
n = d/ 1 -22 = 10 cps.
3.6) A reciprocating pump of mass 300 Kgs is mounted at the middle of a steel plate of
thickness 12 mm and width 500 mm and length 2.5 m damped along two edges as shown.
During the operation of the pump, the plate is subjected to a harmonic excitation of F(t) = 50
cos 60 t N. Determine the amplitude of vibration of the plate.
.
12
m = 300 Kgs
F0 = 50 N
= 60 2.5 m 500
K = 192EI/l3 = 176.94*103 N/m
=0 X = F0 /(K-m 2)2
X = 6.13*10-8mm
Fig. 3.9 Model of Reciprocating Machine Fig. 3.10 Model of Rotating Machine
The GDE
mx8 + Cx8 + Kx = me2 Sin t
= F0 Sin t
where F0 = me2
x = X. Sin (t - )
X 1
Xst = [1-mr ] + [2 r]2
2 2
where Xst = F0 / K, r = /n
here F0 = me2.
me2 /K
X =
[1-mr2]2 + [2 r]2
me2 M
X= K
M
[1-mr ] + [2 r]2
2 2
MX 2 M/K 2 * 1 2
= =
me [1-mr2]2 + [2 r]2 (K/M)
[1-mr ] +
2 2
[2n2 r]2
MX r2
me [1-mr2]2 + [2 r]2 --------- (3.12)
and 2r
= tan-1 1-r2 -------- (3.13)
The variation of MX/me with (r = /n) for different values of is shown in figure 3.11
However, the variation of and r remains as earlier.
=0
= 0.1
me
X/
= 0.15
M
= 0.25
= 0.5
= 1.0
r = / n
Figure 3.11
Solution:
M = 75 Kgs; m = 2 Kgs, K = 11.76*105 N/m.
X = 0.00125 m = 1.25 mm
Vibration Isolation and Transmissibility
In machines vibrations are caused due to unbalanced masses. These vibrations are transmitted
to the foundation upon which the machines are installed. If the transmission of vibrations to
the foundations is not avoided the adjoining machines also set to vibrate.
To minimize the forces transmitted to the foundation machines are usually mounted on
springs or dampers or some other vibration isolation material. Vibration isolation is measured
in terms of the motion or force transmitted to the foundation. The lesser the force or motion
transmitted the greater the vibration isolation.
Force Transmissibility or Transmissibility Ratio
In the case of forced vibrations, it is defined as the rating force transmitted to that impressed
upon the system. it is a measure of the effectiveness of a isolating material.
For a spring mass damper system under harmonic excitation
Xst
X= --- (a) and
[1- r2]2 + [2 r]2
= tan-1
( 21-r r )
2
--- (b)
The forces are transmitted to the foundation or structure through the springs and dampers
provided in the system. Thus the force transmitted to the foundation are the spring force KX
and the damping force cx. Hence the total force transmitted to the foundation is the vector
sum of KX and CX as shown in the Figure.
Impressed force
m
Spring force Damping force
(KX) (CX)
=0
= 0.2
= 0.5
Ft/F
= 0.6 = 0.6
0
= 0.2
=0
Frequency Ratio r = (/n)
The following observations can be made.
Case (i) when /n = 0, r = 0, TR = 1, (independent of )
(ii) = n, r = 1, resonance.
1+ 4 2
TR = 2 , dependent on
If = 0, TR =
Ft / F0 = TR = 0
Discussions: When /n = 0, i.e., the force is steadily applied, TR = 1, irrespective of the
amount of damping produced in the systems. When /n = 1, it is condition of resonance.
The force transmitted is infinity. If damping is used the magnitude of transmitted force is
reduced. When /n < 2 the transmitted is always greater then the impressed force. When
/n = 2, for all the values of damping the force transmitted is equal to impressed force.
When /n > 2, the transmitted force is always less than the impressed force. it also implies
that TR decreases with decreasing values of . Thus, an undamped spring is superior to a
damped spring in reducing force transmissibility. But certain amount of damping is necessary
for to pass through the resonance condition.
As seen from the above order to isolate vibrations due to external force, /n should be very
large, i.e., >2. For a given value of /n should be very small. The static deflection of the
spring should be as high as possible. These conditions will be satisfied by materials like steel
springs, rubber, cork, felt etc., which are generally used as vibration isolators.
Numerical Examples on
Unbalanced Rotating and Reciprocating Masses and Force Transmissibility.
1. A reciprocating machine of mass 75 Kgs is mounted on springs of stiffness 11.76*10 5 N/m
and a damper of damping factor 0.2. The slider of mass 2 Kgs within the machine has a
reciprocating motion with a stroke of 0.08 m. The speed is 3000 rpm. Assuming the motion
of the piston to be harmonic.
2. Amplitude of vibration of the machine.
3. Transmissibility ratio.
4. Force transmitted to the foundation.
5. Is vibration isolation achieved? If so how.
Solution:
M = 75 Kgs: m = 2 Kgs, K = 11.76*105 N/m.
X = 0.00125 m = 1.25 mm
1 + (2*0.2*2.51)2
TR =
(1-2.52)2 + (2*0.2*2.51)2
1+ 1.0080 2.008
= 28.09 + 2.008 = 29.09
TR = 0.1861
Force transmitted to the foundation
Ft
Also TR = F
0
Vibration Isolation: Vibration isolation is achieved as only 18.6 % of the maximum shaking
force (F0) is transmitted to the foundation. This is because the operating range of frequency
ratio /n = r < 2 (2.51> 1.41).
Ft
As r >>>>> 2, F0 0
2. A mass of 100 Kg, is mounted on a spring support having a spring stiffness of 20000 N/m
and a damping coefficient of 100 NS/m. The mass is acted upon by a harmonic force of 39 N
at the undamped natural frequency of the set up. Find
1. Amplitude of vibration of the mass.
2. Phase difference between the force and displacement.
3. Force transmissibility ratio.
3. A refrigerator of mass 35 Kgs operating at 480 rpm is supported on 3 springs. If only 10%
of the shaking force is to be transmitted to the foundation what should be the value of K.
Ft 1+ (2 r)2
=
F0 [1- r2]2 + [2 r]2
assuming that no damped used = 0
TR = 1/(1- r2)
= 1/ (1- r2)
Ft
= 2* 480 / 60 = 16 rad/sec, TR = 0.1 =
F0
1
0.1 =
[1- (16 /n)2]
n = 15.15 rad/sec.
4. A machine supported symmetrically on four springs has a mass of 80 Kgs. The mass of the
reciprocating mass is 2.2 Kgs which move through a vertical stroke of 100 mm with SHM.
Neglecting damping, determine the combined stiffness of the springs so that the force
transmitted to the foundation is 1/20th of the impressed force. the machine crank shaft rotates
at 800 rpm.
If, under actual working conditions, the damping reduces the amplitudes of successive
vibrations by 30%, find (a) The force transmitted to the foundation at 800 rpm (b) The force
transmitted to the foundation at resonance. (c) The amplitude of vibrations at resonance.
M = 80 Kgs, m 2.2 Kg TR = 1/20 = 0.05 N = 800 rpm
= In (X1/x2) = In (1/1-0.3) = 2 / 1 2
= 0.0567
Ft = Force transmitted to foundation at 800 rpm.
Ft 1+ (2 r)2
= = 0.0563 = TR
F0 [1- r2]2 + [2 r]2
Ft = F0 * TR = TR * me2 = 43.47 N
3. At resonance /n = 1
1+ (2 r)2
TR = = 8.875
2
Ft = TR
F0
(Ft) Res = F0 * TR
= men2 * TR
= 2.2 * 0.05 * (18.78)2 * 8.875
(Ft)Res = 326.25 N
Some times the base or support of a spring-mass damper system undergoes harmonic
excitation as shown in figure.
+x
M
y = Y Sin t
+y
Base
Let y: denotes the displacement of the base and x: denotes Base excitation of the mass from
the displacement
static equilibrium position at a given instant t; such that
. Ky
. KX
.
CX
Cy
KX CX
Ky
.
Cy
. .
K (x-y) C(x y)
Now from NSL
= - Kx + Ky Cx8 + y8
x = X Sin (t - )
x8 = X cos (t - )
= X Sin [90 + (t - )]
88 = - 2 X Sin (t - )
x
also y = Y Sin t
y8 = Y Cos t
= Y Sin [90 + t]
8y8 = - Y Sin (t), substituting these values in GDE
2
Thus = 0. The forces can be represented as shown, and the force polygon should close.
= 0.2
= 0.5
X/
Y
= 0.6
= 0.2 = 0.5
=0
r = (/n)
Relative Amplitude: If Z represents the relative motion of the mass with respect to the
support we have Z = x-y
x = (z + y)
The steady state relative amplitude Z and the phase angle lag between the excitation and
relative displacement. The relative motion frequency response which is similar to
reciprocating and rotating unbalance as given below, can be used in designing vibration
measuring instruments.
= 0.1
= 0.15
Z/Y
= 0.25
= 0.5
= 1.0
r = / n
Force Transmitted: Force is transmitted to the base through the spring and dampers. If Z
represents the relative displacement then
1. Figure (given in problem No.3) shows a simple model of motor vehicle that can vibrate in
vertical direction while traveling over a rough road. The vehicle has a mass of 1200 Kg. The
suspension system has a spring constant of 400 KN/m and a damping ratio of = 0.5. If the
vehicle speed is 100 Km/hr. Determine the displacement amplitude of the vehicle. The road
surface varies sinusoidally with an amplitude Y = 0.05 m and a wave length of 6 m.
Given m = 1200 Kg Speed 100 Km/hr
3
K = 400 * 10 N/m Y = 0.05 m
= 0.5 wave length = 6 m
= period
= 4.63 Hz.
Frequency of base excitation
y = Y sin10t
Isolators
Y =?
Solution:
W = 5000 N m = w/g = 509.6 Kg
K = 1*106 N/m W = mg;m = 5000/9.81 Kg
X = 10-6m C = 103 N-S/m
Y=?
X 1+ (2 r)2 y = Y Sin 10t
Y = [1- r2]2 + [2 r]2 = 10
= 31.4 rad/sec
n = K/m = 106/509.6
= 0.0222
= 10 = 31.4 rad/sec
X
Y = 1.1166 given that X = 10-6m
Y = 8.95*10-7 mm
3. A trailer has 1000 Kg mass when fully loaded and 250 Kg when empty. The suspension
has a stiffness of 350 kN/m. The damping factor is 0.5. The speed of the trailer is 100 Km/hr.
The road varies sinusoidally with a wave length of 5 m. Determine the amplitude ratio of the
trailer:
1.When fully loaded.
2.When empty.
Data:
Mass of empty trailer = 250 Kg,
= 0.50 Mass of loaded trailer = 1000 Kg,
k = 350 kN/m
Speed of trailer = 100 Km/hr
= 100*1000/3600 = 27.77 m/sec x
m
One cycle C,K 100 km/hr
y
Y
y = Y Sin t
Road profile
Time period =
= 5/27.77 sec.
= 0.18 sec
= 34.896 rad/sec.
1. Empty trailer:
Natural frequency of empty trailer
The ratio of amplitude of vibration of empty trailer to that of road surface is given as
X = 1+ (2 r)2
Y [1- r2]2 + [2 r]2
= 1.3676/0.9419 = 1.4518
2. Loaded trailer:
When the trailer is fully loaded the natural frequency is given by
[X/Y]empty = 1.4518
[X/Y]loaded = 0.6819
The amplitude of vibration reduces as the mass of the system (loaded trailer) is increased.
Part A
m = 20 Kgs
K = 4*31400 = 125600 N/m
C = 4*392 = 1568 NS/m
y = Y Sin t
= C/2 Km = 0.496
X -5
Y = X = 0.069 mm = 6.9*10 m
Part B
X 1+ (2 r)2
Y [1- r2]2 + [2 r]2
=
Z = 0.025 mm = 2.5*105m
Part C
= (20) (52.4)2*6.9*10-5
Ft = 3.8 N
Chapter 5
Vibration Measuring Instruments
5.1 Introduction
In practice the measurement of vibrations becomes necessary due to following reasons.
1. To determine natural frequencies, modal shapes and damping ratios. The
measurement of frequencies of vibration and forces developed is necessary to design
active vibration isolation systems.
2. The theoretically computed vibration characteristics of a machine or structure may be
different from the actual values due to the assumptions made in the analysis. (To
verify the analytical models).
3. Periodic measurement of vibration characteristics of machines and structures
becomes essential to ensure adequate safety margins. (Preventive maintenance).
4. Measurement of input and resulting output vibration characteristics of a system helps
in identifying the system in terms of its mass, stiffness and damping.
5.2 Vibration Measurement Scheme
Figure 5.1 shows the basic features of a vibration measurement scheme.
1. Vibrating machine or structure.
2. Vibration transducer or pick up.
3. Signal conversion instrument.
4. Display / recording.
5. Data analysis.
2 3 4
1 5
x
Casing
C
y
y = Y Sin t
Base
Figure 5.3
..mx = - C .(x-y)
. K (x-y)
.. Z = x-y;
if . relative
. displacement the equation of motion becomes
mZ + CZ + KZ = m2Y Sin t
from this
Z r2
Y = [1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2
= tan-1 [2 r/1-r2]
The parameters that influence Z/Y and are: (1) frequency ratio r = /n. (2) Damping
factor , as shown in the Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4.
= 0.1 Frequency
response
Z/
= 0.15
Y
curves
= 0.25
= 0.5
= 1.0
n
/
=
r
Figure 5.4 also shows the range of frequencies corresponding to which a seismic instrument
act as a vibrometer or an accelerometer. Type of instrument is determined by the useful range
of frequencies with respect to the natural frequency (n) of the instrument. The relative
displacement Z, may represent the displacement or acceleration depending upon n of the
seismic unit and frequency of vibrating body, .
5.4 Vibrometer or Seismometer
It is an instrument with low natural frequency. Therefore,
>>>>> n
r >>>> 1, r is very large.
Z/Y 1, in particular when r > 3
Z/Y 1, (independent of )
Z=Y
Relative displacement of the seismic mass = displacement of base.
Z = X-Y, X = 0, Z=Y
Hence the seismic mass remains stationary. It remains undisturbed in space. The supporting
casing moves the vibrating body. Thus the relative displacement between the casing and the
mass is the true displacement of the casing. Like wise, the relative velocity between the
casing and the mass is the true velocity of casing. Usually, the relative motion Z is converted
into electric voltage. The seismic mass is a magnet moving relative to the coils fixed to the
case, as shown in Figure 5.6.
x 0 0
0 0
0 0 Seismic mass
Figure 5.6
The voltage generated is proportional to the rate of cutting of magnetic field. Therefore the
output of the instrument is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body. Such
instruements are called velometers. A typical instrument of this kind may have a natural
frequency of 1 Hz to 5 Hz and a useful range of 10 Hz to 2000 Hz. The sensitivity of such
instruments may be in the range of 20 mV/cm to 350 mV/cm. Both the displacement and
acceleration are available from the velocity type transducer by means of the integrator or the
differeniator provided in most signal conditioner units.
Limitation of Vibrometers
In order to have r >>>1, n should be very small. This means that, the mass must be very
large and the spring must have a very low stiffness. Therefore, a vibrometer is a spring-mass-
damper system with a very large mass and a flexible spring. This results in bulky instrument,
which is not desirable in many applications.
In practice, a vibrometer may not have a large value of r, and hence the value of Z, may not
be exactly equal to Y. In such cases the true value of Y, can be computed from:
Z r2
=
Y [1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2
5.5 Accelerometer
It is an instrument with high natural frequency. When the natural frequency of the instrument
is high compared to that of the vibrations to be measured, the instrument indicates
acceleration.
Then
<<<< n,
r <<<<< 1,
the factor [r (/n)2]2 + (2 r)2 approaches unity.
Z (/n)2.Y
(1/n2). 2Y
Thus an instrument with a natural frequency of 100 Hz has a useful frequency range of 0 to
20 Hz with negligible error. (Up to 20 Hz the error is less than 0.01%). Figure 5.8 shows
accelerometers.
Figure 5.8. Accelerometers
n = 4 rad/sec, = 0.2
Z = Relative amplitude Z 4 mm
= 8/2 = 4 mm Mean 8 mm
= 40 rad/sec
r = /n = 40/4 = 10
Z r2
Y = [1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2 = 1.0093
2. A vibrometer has a natural frequency of 10 cps and has a damping ratio of 0.7. It is used,
by mistake, to measure vibrations of a fan base at an exciting frequency of 180 rpm. The
measured vibration velocity of the fan base is 3 mm/s. What is the actual velocity of the fan
base?
For a vibrometer,
Z = r2
Y [1- r2]2 + [2 r]2
In the present case, n = 10 cps = 62.8 rad/sec.
Exciting frequency = 180 rpm = 18.84 rad/sec.
Hence
r = /n = 0.3
(Z/Y) = 0.09/(0.8281 + 0.1764) = 0.089
It may be noted that the actual velocity is beyond permissible limits, whereas what is
read is well below the permissible limit. Hence one should be very careful in selecting
the proper instrument.
Z = 0.004 cm
= 0.0004 mm
Z r2 r2
Y = =[1- r2]
[1- r2]2
4. A vibrometer indicates 2 percent error in measurement and its natural frequency is 5 Hz. If
the lowest frequency that can be measured is 40 Hz, find the value of damping factor.
Solution:
Data: n = 5Hz, = 40 Hz, error = 2%
r = /n = 40/5 = 8
= 0.35
Session-VIII (6.5.05) BKS
Useful frequency range is that range of r between which the maximum error is less than 0.01
%.
Vibrometer: As evident from Figure 5.4 for value of far greater than 1, Z/Y 1 for any
value of . This means that the mass remain un disturbed in space. Hence the relative
displacement between the casing and the mass is the true displacement of casing. Similarly
the relative velocity between the casing and the mass is the true velocity of the casing. The
instruments which have natural frequency n such that r >>>> 1, can read displacement or
velocity directly. They are vibrometers and velometers, respectively.
The accuracy of these instruments depend upon the amount of damping and frequency ratio
at which they are used. Figure 5.6 shows the values of close to 1, plotted against Z/Y. It is
seen that when varies from 0.6 to 0.7 the percentage error in Z as compared to Y is less than
4. For = 0.707, and r >>>1. Z Y and thus the error is less than 0.01%. Thus there is a
lower cut-off frequency for a vibrometer, beyond which it gives readings with error less than
0.01% (concept demonstrated in numerical examples)
Z/Y
Accelerometer:
Z r2
Y = [1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2 = r2
The useful range of accelerometer can be seen from the following graph in Fig 5.8 for
different amounts of damping . The useful frequency range for undamped accelerometer is
very much limited. However, with = 0.7 the useful frequency range is quite large, that is,
between 0 /n 0.25, as shown in Figure 5.8.
Thus an instrument with a natural frequency of 100 Hz has a useful frequency range of 0 to
20 Hz with negligible error. (Up to 20 Hz the error is less than 0.01%). Figure 5.9 shows
accelerometers.
Figure 5.9. Accelerometers
n = 4 rad/sec, = 0.2
Z = Relative amplitude Z 4 mm
= 8/2 = 4 mm Mean 8 mm
= 40 rad/sec
r = /n = 40/4 = 10
Z r2
Y = [1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2 = 1.0093
2. A vibrometer has a natural frequency of 10 cps and has a damping ratio of 0.7. It is used,
by mistake, to measure vibrations of a fan base at an exciting frequency of 180 rpm. The
measured vibration velocity of the fan base is 3 mm/s. What is the actual velocity of the fan
base?
For a vibrometer,
Z = r2
Y [1- r2]2 + [2 r]2
In the present case, n = 10 cps = 62.8 rad/sec.
Exciting frequency = 180 rpm = 18.84 rad/sec.
Hence
r = /n = 0.3, Z = 3 mm/sec
(Z/Y) = 0.09/(0.8281 + 0.1764) = 0.089
It may be noted that the actual velocity is beyond permissible limits, whereas what is read is
well below the permissible limit. Hence one should be very careful in selecting the proper
instrument.
Z = 0.004 cm
= 0.0004 mm
Z r2 r2
Y = =[1- r2]
[1- r2]2
4. A vibrometer indicates 2 percent error in measurement and its natural frequency is 5 Hz. If
the lowest frequency that can be measured is 40 Hz, find the value of damping factor.
Solution:
Data: n = 5Hz, = 40 Hz, error = 2%
r = /n = 40/5 = 8
Z/Y = 1.02 (since the error is 2%)
Z r2
Y = [1- r2]2 + [2 r]2
5. A commercial vibration pick-up has a natural frequency of 5.75 Hz and a damping factor
of 0.65. What is the lowest frequency beyond which the amplitude can be measured with in
(a) 1% error (b) 2% error.
Part (a).
Z r2
Y = [1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2
Error = [Z-Y]/Y*100
1 = (Z/Y-1)100
Given that error is to be 1% Z/Y = 1+0.01 = 1.01
Z = 1.01 times Y
r2
[1- r2]2 + [2 r]2 = 1.01,
r2
[1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2 Z/Y
= 0.65
1.01
Simplification leads to 1.00 * *
0.02 r4 0.31r2 + 1 = 0
giving r = 3.30 and 2.02
1.00 2.02 3.00
r
These are the two values at which Z/Y = 1.01 in between these two values Z/Y will be
greater than 1.01, as shown.
The lowest value of r beyond which the amplitude can be measured with in 1% error is r =
3.30.
/n = /n = r = 3.30
= 3.30 * 5.75 = 10 Hz
= 10 Hz.
Part (b).
When the error is 2% Z/Y = 1.02
When solved for r, for the given value of damping, we get imaginary value of r 2. This means
that, for = 0.65, the curve Z/Y v/s r, does not go as high as Z/Y = 1.02. Thus to get the
frequency for 2% error we have to consider Z/Y = 0.98 Solving for r
r = 1.55
= 8.9 Hz.
6. Specify the lowest frequency of a vibrometer that can be measured with 1% error, if its
natural frequency is 4 Hz and damping ratio is 0.2
= 0.2
n = 4 Hz
Z r2
Y = [1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2
r2
=
[1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2
on simplification
r4 2r2 + 1 + 4 2r2 = r4 / (1.01)2 Z/Y
error = 1%
Z/Y = 1.01 1.01
1.00
* *
We get r4-93.38r2 + 50.75 = 0
Solving, we get
r = 9.635 and 0.739 0.739 1.00 r 9.63
These are the two values at which Z/Y = 1.01. In between these two values Z/Y will be
greater than 1.01
at r1 = 0.739
/n = r1,
= 2.9 Hz.
at r2 = 9.635
/n = r2, = 38.54 Hz.
The lowest frequency beyond which the amplitude can be measured with 1% error is 38.54
Hz.
7. An accelerometer is made with a crystal of natural frequency 20 kHz. The damping ratio of
accelerometer is found to be 0.71. Determine the upper cut off frequency of the
accelerometer for 1% accuracy.
Z r2
Y = [1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2 n = 20 kHz
= 0.71
error = 1 %
r2
1.01 = , imaginary value
[1- r2]2 + [2 r]2
r2
0.99 =
[1- r ] + [2 r]2
2 2
solving r = 0.3667
upper cut-off frequency
f = r* fn = 0.3667*20k Hz
= 7.335 k Hz.
Solution:
Data:
/n = 0.352
z (/n)2
y = [1- r2]2 + [2 r]2
y = 0.253 rad
10. Show that an undamped seismic instrument will show the true response at a frequency
ratio r = 1/2.
2r2 = 1 or r = 1/2
Session-IX (10.5.05) BKS
5.7 Whirling of Shafts
In many practical applications such as turbines, compressors, electric motors and pumps, a
heavy rotor is mounted on a light weight flexible shaft that is supported between bearings.
The mass centre of rotor do not coincide with the centre line of the shaft. Thus there will be
unbalance in the rotor due to manufacturing errors. When the shaft rotates centrifugal force is
induced on the shaft, which makes it to bend in the direction of eccentricity of rotor. In
addition to this other effects such as stiffness and damping of the shaft, hyrtersis damping,
gyroscopic effects, and fluid friction in bearings also cause the shaft to bend. This bending
further increases eccentricity and hence the centrifugal force. This effect is cumulative and
ultimately the shaft may even fail. The extent to which the shaft bends depends upon the
eccentricity of the rotor mass and speed of the shaft.
At certain rotational speeds the shaft tends to vibrate violently in transverse direction. At
these speeds the shaft has a tendency to bow-out and whirl in a complicated manner as shown
in Figure 5.10 and 5.11.
Bearing centre
line
Undeflected Position O O
XC Deflected Position C
G G
e
Bearing Bearing
Bent up shaft axis Rotor or Disc
The excessive vibrations associated with critical speeds may cause permanent deformation
resulting in structural damage. Eg: The rotor blades of a turbine may come in contact with
stator blades. Larger shaft deflections produce larger bearing reactions, which may lead to
bearing failure. The amplitude build up is a time dependent phenomenon and therefore, it is
very dangerous to continue to run the shaft at it critical speed.
The whirling motion of a shaft consists of two components of motion as shown in Figure
5.12.
a. Spinning of the shaft along with rotor about the bent up shaft axis.
b. Rotation of plane A made by the centre line of the bearings and bent up-shaft, about
the centre line of the bearings.
The rotation of plane A, which is generally referred as whirling, may take place in the same
sense as that of spinning of the shaft or in the opposite sense. Further the speed of whirling
may or may not be equal to the speed of spinning of the shaft. When the whirling speed is
equal to the speed of rotation of shaft it is called synchronous whirl.
5.7.1 Critical speed of a shaft with a single rotor (with out damping):
Consider a shaft on which a rotor in symmetrically located between two bearings. The
expression for the deflection of the shaft in terms of frequency ratio and eccentricity can be
obtained as follows based on the following assumptions.
1. Shaft is light and flexible.
2. Gravity effects are negligible.
3. Friction at shaft centre is small.
4. Damping due to air is neglected.
X/e = m2/[k-m2]
= 1/[(k/m2)-1] = 1/[(n/2) 1]
when
= n, X/e ratio is infinite. This particular value of is called critical speed.
But, /n = r (n/ = 1/r)
X/e = 1/[(1/r2) 1]
5.7.2 Discussions:
The relation between X/e and c/ can be plotted as shown below in Figure 5.13.
+
r<
X/e
n /
1.0
- ve
Figure 5.13 Relation between X/e and n / r
Case (i): When = n (r =1)
Forcing frequency coincides with the natural frequency of transverse vibration of the
shaft. X/e approaches infinity i.e., the deflection of geometric centre of the disc tends to
infinity.
The disk has a tendency to fly out, if the damping is insufficient. There will be severe
vibrations of the shaft thereby producing huge bearings reactions.
At = n, the above undesirable effects would occur and therefore = n = c is called
the critical speed of the shaft.
O
C
G
O
G
C
Figure 5.15 Disk with Heavy side inside
Numerical Examples
Solution:
Data:
m = 12 Kgs, l = 1m, d = 24 mm = 0.024 m.
e = 0.11 mm, E = 200*109N/m2
r = / n = 125.66/114.2 = 1.1
X = - 0.634 mm, Negative sign indicates that the displacement is out of phase with the
centrifugal force.
Dynamic force: Fd = m2 (X-e) as r > 1
Fd = 12 * (125.66)2 (0.634 0.11) * 10-3
Fd = 99.29 N
Total load on each bearing (shaft horizontal)
Solution:
K = 72000 N/m
n = 120 rad/sec
= 100 rad/sec
X = - 0.0234 mm
Fd = 1.68/2 = 0.84 N on each bearing
3. A shaft of 14 mm and the length 1.2 m is held in long bearings. It carries a rotor of 16
Kgs at its midspan. The eccentricity of the mass centre of the rotor from the shaft centre is
0.4 mm. The shaft is made of steel for which E = 200 GN/m2 and permissible stress is 70
MPa
Determine the critical speed of the shaft and range of speed over which it is unsafe to run the
shaft. Assume the shaft is mass less, (a) When the shaft is horizontal (b) When the shaft if
vertical.
Data:
m = 16 Kgs, l = 1.2 m, e = 0.0004 m, d = 14 mm = 0.014 m, E = 2*105 MPa
Allowable bending stress: b = 70 MPa
Solution:
(489/N)2 = 0.1333
Thus the range of unsafe speed is 459 and 525 rpm. This range is unsafe because the stress
induced exceeds 70N/mm2
0.00675 = 0.0004/[(489/N)2 1]
(489/N)2 1 = 0.059
N = 475.18 rpm
N = 504 rpm
Thus the range of unsafe speed is 475 and 504 rpm. This range is unsafe because the stress
induced exceeds 70N/mm2
Solution:
Data:
d = 25 mm, l = 750, m = 20 kgs, E = 2.1 * 105N/mm2, = 8000 Kg/m3
st = (Wel3)/48 EI
= 0.0468 * 10-5m
It has been shown that, in a viscously damper system subjected to forced vibrations the
displacement lags behind the forcing function by an angle which is given by
tan = 2r/(1-r2), r = /n = damping ratio.
Due to damping the points O, C and G no longer remain collinear and take up the
configuration given below as shown in Figure 5.16. The point C is pulled back due to
damping. Thus the rotor will be in equilibrium under the action of the following forces.
a. Centrifugal force = me2, due to the eccentricity of mass of the rotor.
b. Spring force = KX.
c. Centrifugal force mX2 due to whirling.
d. Damping force CX.
The above forces are shown both in magnitude and direction as given below in Figure 5.16.
me2 Sin
2
me
G me2
. ) ) 2 Cos
me
O KX C mX2
2
(K -m )x
X CX
CX
Figure 5.16
Resolve these forces in horizontal and vertical direction and for equilibrium.
X = me2/[(K-m2)2 + (C)2];
Divide both numerator and denominator by K
X/e =[ m/K*2]/[(1-m/K*2)2 + (C/K)2], But: K/m = 1/n2 C/K = 2/n
These expressions are very much similar to frequency response curve of single DOF system
subjected to harmonic excitation due to rotating unbalance. The frequency response curves
are as shown in Figure 5.17 and 5.18.
=0
= 0.1
X/
= 0.15
e
= 0.25
= 0.5
= 1.0
r = / n
Figure 5.17
= 0.25 =0
= 0.5
= 0.707
= 1.0
= 2.0
An
gle
Ph
as
,
e
G
C
O
(a) < 90
b. When = n, r = 1
tan , 900
G
C
O
(b) = 90
c. >>>> n, r >>> 1
900 < < 1800
G C
O
d. When = 1800
Irrespective of amount of damping, the point G approaches O. The system tends to be more
stable and it is the desirable conditions.
G
C
O
(d) = 1800
Figure 5.19 shows the phase at different rotational speeds.
G G
C C G G C
C
O O O O
(a) < 90 (b) = 90 (c) 900 < < 1800 (d) = 1800
Figure 5.19
Numerical Example
5. A disc of mass 5 kg is mounted midway between two bearings which are 480 mm apart, on
a horizontal steel shaft 9 mm in diameter. The CG of the disc is displaced by 3 mm from its
geometric centre. Equivalent viscous damping at the centre of the disc is 48 Ns/m. If the shaft
rotates at 675 rpm determine (a) the maximum stress in the shaft. (b) What is the power
required to drive the shaft at this speed. (c) Also compare the maximum bending stress with
the dead load stress in the shaft.
Data:
m = 5 kgs, l = 480 mm, d = 9 mm, E = 200 GPa (assumed)
e = 3 mm, C = 48 Ns/m, N = 675 rpm,
Part (a)
n = (g/st);
K = mn2
= 27402.2 N/m
= 27.4 * 103 N/m
C = 48 Ns/m
= C/2mn = 0.0648
Dynamic load
Fd = [(KX)2 + (CX)2] = 497.56 N
= 916.4 N/mm2
Part (b)
T = 1.102 Nm
Power = 2NT/60
N = 675 rpm
P = 77.9 Watts
Part (c)
b = 82.24 N/mm2
bmax/b, dead load = 916.4/82.04 = 11.14
Session-XI (17.5.05) BKS
6.1 Introduction
The modeling method discussed in previous chapters employed only one coordinate to
describe the motion of the system completely. But general mechanical systems require
several degrees of freedom for a meaningful model. Systems modeled with two independent
co-ordinates to describe their motion are called two Degree of Freedom systems.
There are two equations of motion for a two DOF system, one for each mass. They are
generally in the form of coupled differential equations- i.e., each equation involves all the co-
ordinates. If a harmonic solution is assumed for each co-ordinate, the equations of motion
lead to a frequency equation that gives two natural frequencies for the system. If a suitable
initial excitation is given the system vibrates at one of these natural frequencies. During free
vibrations at one of the natural frequencies, the amplitude of two degrees of freedom (co-
ordinates) are related in a specific manner and the configuration is called principal mode, or
normal mode or natural mode of vibration. Thus a two DOF system has two normal modes of
vibration corresponding two natural frequencies.
K1
m1
X1
K2
m2
X2
K3
Figure 6.1
K1 X1 Let X2 > X1
K1 X1
m1
m1
X1
X1
K2 X2 K2 X1
K2 (X2 X1)
K2 X2
K2 X1
K2 (X2 X1)
m2
m2
X2
K3 X2 X2
K3 X2
Figure 6.2
Cross multiplying
The above equation is quadratic in 2 and gives two values of 2 and therefore the two
positive values of correspond to the two natural frequencies n1 and n2 of the system. The
above equation is called frequency equation since the roots of the above equation give the
natural frequencies of the system.
Discussions:
Let K1 = K3 = K
m1 = m2 = m
Then the frequency equation becomes
m24 2 m (K + K2) 2 + (K2 + 2KK2) = 0
Let: 2 = 2 = 4,
= (K +K2) /m K2/m
2 = (K + 2K2) /m
1 = (K + K2) /m K2 / m = K/m
n12 = K/m
n1 = (K/m)
n1 is called the first or fundamental frequency or I mode frequency, n2 is called the second
or II mode frequency. Thus the number of natural frequencies of a system is equal to the
number of degrees of freedom of system.
Session-XII (18.5.05) BKS
(X1/X2)n1 = K2 / K+ K2 m . K/m
(X1/X2)n1 = 1
(X1/X2)n2 = -1
The displacements X1 and X2 corresponding to the two natural frequency of the system can
be plotted as shown in Figure 6.3, which describe the mode in which the masses vibrate.
Such a diagram is called principal mode shape of the system. When the system vibrates in
principal mode the masses oscillate in such a manner that they reach maximum
displacements simultaneously and pass through their equilibrium points simultaneously or all
moving parts of the system oscillate in phase with one frequency. Since the ratio X1/X2 is
important rather than the amplitudes themselves, it is customary to assign a unit value of
amplitude to either X1 or X2. When this is done, the principal mode is referred as normal
mode of the system.
m1 m2
K1
X1 X2
m1
K2 I Mode
m1
m2
K3
Figure 6.3 Node
X1
.
X2
m2
6.3 Discussion on Natural frequencies and mode shapes:
Observation 1: It can be seen from the figure when the system vibrates in first mode, the
amplitude of two masses remain same. The motion of both the masses are in phase i.e., the
masses move up or down together. When the system vibrates in II mode the displacement of
two masses have the same magnitude with opposite signs. Thus the motions of m 1 and m2 are
1800 out of phase.
Observation 2: When the system vibrates in first mode, the length of the middle spring
remains constant, this spring (coupling spring) is neither stretched nor compressed. It moves
bodily with both the masses and hence totally ineffective as shown in Figure 6.4. Even if the
coupling spring is removed the two masses will vibrate as 2 SDOF system with n = (K/m).
Where as when it vibrates in II mode, the midpoint of the middle spring remains stationary
for all the time. Such a point which experiences no vibratory motion is called a node, as
shown in Figure 6.5.
Observation 3: When the two masses are given equal initial displacements in the same
direction and released, they will vibrate in I mode. When they are given equal initial
displacements in opposite direction and released they will vibrate in II mode as shown in
Figures 6.4 and 6.5
K1
K1
K1
m1
X1
m1
X1
K2 m1
K2
K2
m2
X2
m2 X2
m2
K3
K3 K3
Figure 6.4
K1
K1
K1
m1
X1
m1
.
K2 m1
K2
N N .
m2
K2
m2 X2
m2
K3 K3 K3
Figure 6.5
If unequal displacements are given in any direction, the motion will be superposition of two
harmonic motions corresponding to the two natural frequencies.
Numerical Example
1. Obtain the frequency equation for the system shown in Figure. Also determine the natural
frequencies and mode shapes when K1 = 2K, K2 = K, m1 = m, m2 = 2m.
K1 X1
K1 X1
K1
m1 m1
X1 X1
m1 K2 (X2 X1)
X1
K2 X2 K2 X1
K2 K2 (X2 X1)
K2 X2
K2 X1
m2 m2 m2
X2
X2 X1
From
.. for mass (1)
NSL
m1X1 = - K1X1 + K2 (X2 X1)
.. = - K1X1 + K2 X2 K2X1
m1X1 + X1 (K1 + K2) = K2 X2 ----- (1)
.. mass (2)
For
m2X2 = - K2 (X2 X1)
.. = - K2 X2 + K2 X1
m2 X2 + K2X2 = K2 X1 ----- (2)
..Let X = A Sin t
1 X2 = B Sin t
X1 = - 2 A Sin t, X2 = - 2 B Sin t
(K2 m22) B = K2 A
A/B = [K2 m22] / K2 ----- (4)
Put 2 =
Or
= [[m1 K2 + m2 (K1 + K2)] [{m1K2 + m2(K1+K2)}2]- 4 m1 m2K1K2]] / 2m1m2
Given K1 = 2 K, K2 = K
m1 = m, m2 = 2m
= [mK + 2m (2K +K) [mK + 6mK)2 4m 2mK2K]] / 2m . 2m
n1 = 0.56 (K/m)
n2 = 1.784 (K/m)
A/B = 0.3724
If A = 1, B = 2.6852
A =1
. A =1
B = 2.6852
. . . B = -0.186
I Mode
2. Determine the natural frequency and the corresponding mode shapes for the system shown
in figure
X1 X2
K1 K2 K3
m1 m2
X1 X2
K2X1 K2X1
K1X1 K3X2
m1 m2
K2X2 K2X2
K2 (X2 X1)
3. Determine the Natural frequencies and ratio of amplitudes of the system shown in Figure.
2K
2m
4. Same as above
Given
m1 = 1.5 kg m2 = 0.8 kg
K1
K1 = K2 = 40 N/m
K2
m2
5. Determine the natural frequencies of the system shown in figure. Also determine the ratio
of amplitudes and locate the nodes for each mode of vibration. Assume that the tension T in
the string remains unchanged, when the masses are displaced normal to the string.
l l l
m1 m2
m1 T T x1 - x2
T x1 m2 T x2
m1
x1
T cos T sin
T cos
T m2 x2
T
T (x1 - x2) T cos
x1 T sin T cos
T sin T
T sin
Similarly
- m2 2. B Sin t + (2TB Sin t)/l = (T. A Sin t)/l
Let = 2
l2m1m2 2 2Tl (m1 + m2) + 3T2 = 0
On further simplification
1 = n12 = T/ml n1 = (T/ml)
2 = n = 3T/ml
2
n2 = (3T/ml)
Mode Shape:
A/B = (T/l)/[(2T/l) m1 2]
I mode:
A/B = 1 if A = 1, B = +1
II mode:
A/B = -1
A/B = -1 if A = 1, B = -1
m1 m2
(A/B)n1 = 1
X1 X2
I Mode
m1
Node
X1
. (A/B)n1 = -1
Systems for which one of the natural frequencies is equal to zero are called semi definite
systems.
X1 X2
K
m1 m2
FBD:
x2 > x1
X1 X2
KX2 KX2
m1 m2
KX1 KX1
K (X2 X1)
m1 m2
K (X2 X1)
Mass..(1)
m1 x1 = K (x2 x1)
..
m1 x1 + Kx1 = Kx2 ----- (1)
..
m2 x2 = - K (x2 x1)
..
m2 x2 + Kx2 = Kx1 ----- (2)
1 = n1 = 0
When one of the roots of the frequency equation is zero, one of the natural frequencies is
zero. Such systems are referred as semi definite systems. The system will move as a rigid
body without any distortion of spring. The amplitudes of two masses are equal. They are also
referred as free-free system.
Mode Shapes:
m1 m2
I mode: 0 0
A =1 B =1
(A/B)n1 = (K)/ [K m1 2]
n1 = 0 I mode
(A/B)n1 = 1
0 m1
II mode:
A=1
Node
.
B=-1
0 m2
II mode
(A/B)n2 = (K)/ [K m1 2]
if m1 = m2 =m
Then
(A/B)n2 = -1
6. Determine the natural frequency and mode shapes of the system shown in Figure. Given
m1 = 10 kgs, m2 = 15 kgs, K = 320 N/m
X1 X2
K
m1 m2
x2 > x1
X1 X2
KX2 KX2
m1 m2
KX1 KX1
K (X2 X1)
m1 m2
Frequencies K (X2 X1)
n1 = 0
Mode Shapes
I mode
(A1/A2)n1 = 1.0, if A = 1, B = 1
m1 m2
0 0
A =1 B =1
I mode
II mode
= - 1.49
if A = 1, B = -0.671
0 m1
A=1
.
Node
0 m2 B = - 0.671
II mode
7. An electric train made of two cars each of mass 2000 kgs is connected by couplings of
stiffness equal to 40 * 106 N/m. Determine the natural frequency of the system.
m1
m2
Coupled Cars
Solution: This is an example similar to problem No. 6 only the answer are given here.
Given m1 =m2 = 2000 kgs. K = 40* 106 N/m
n1 = 0
n2 = (2K/m)
= (2*40*106) /2000
n2 = 200 rad/sec
Figure above shows a two rotor system which can be represented as follows.
Kt
J1 J2
Kt 2 Kt 1
J1 J2
Kt 2
Kt 1
1 2
Kt ( 1 - 2)
Kt ( 1 - 2)
1 Kt ( 1 - 2)
Kt ( 1 - 2)
For
.. rotor (2)
2 2 = + Kt (1 - 2)
J..
J2 2 = + Kt 1 Kt 2
..
J2 2 + Kt 2 = Kt 1 ----- (2)
Let,
..1 = A sin t, ..2 = B sin2 t
1 = - A sin t,
2
2 = - B sin t
Substituting the above in 1 and 2 and simplifying we get the amplitude ratios and frequency
equation as follows.
Frequency equation
J1 J2 4 (J1 + J2) Kt 2 = 0
2 = 0, n1 = 0
and or
J1 J2 2 (J1 + J2) Kt = 0
8. Determine the natural frequency of Torsional vibrations of a shaft with two circular disks
of uniform thickness at its ends. The masses of the discs are m1 = 500 kgs and m2 = 1000 kgs
and their outer diameter D1 = 125 cm and D2 = 190 cm. The length of the shaft is 3 m and its
diameter = 10 cm. Modulus of rigidity for shaft material of the shaft G = 0.83 * 1011 N/m2
Also determine in what proportion the natural frequency of the shaft gets changed if along
half the length of the shaft the diameter is increased from 10 cm to 20 cm.
Solution:
Part (1) For free body diagram and expression for frequencies refer previous discussion.
m1 = 500 kg m2 = 1000 kg
D1 = 1.25 m D2 = 1.9 m
l = 3.00 m
d = 0.10 m
G = 0.83 * 1011 N/m2
Two rotor system is a semi definite system whose natural frequency is given by
n1 = 0
n2 = [{(J1 + J2) Kt}/ J1 *J2]
n = [Kt(J1 +J2)/J1J2]
Kt = GIp/l = [0.83 * 1011 / 3.00] *[ (d4)/ 32] = 2.725 * 105 N-m/ rad
n2 = 58.1 rad/sec
Part (2): Since the diameters are different along the length equivalent stiffness is to be
determined as follows.
J1 J2
Kt1 Kt2
Kte
J1 J2
Equivalent System
Given,
d1 = 10 cm, d2 = 20 cm, l1 = l2 = 1.5 m
n2 = 79.597 rad/sec
9. Determine the frequency equation, natural frequency and mode shapes for a double
pendulum shown in figure.
Given m1 = m2
l1 = l2 = l
l1
m1
l2
m2
l1
1
T1 m1
T2
l2
2 m2
T2
x1 m 1g
x2
m 2g
T1
T1Cos 1
1
T2Sin 2
T1Sin 1 2
T2 T2Cos 2
T2
m1g 2
T2Cos 2 T2Sin 2
T2 = mg ----- (2)
T1 = mg + mg
mx2
.. = - T2 sin 2 T2 cos 2 = m2 g, T2 = mg
= - mg sin 2 = - mg2
.. ..
ml (1 + 2) + mg 2 = 0
.. ..
l 1 + l 2 + g 2 = 0 ----- (c)
A (2g - l2) = Bg
Let
= 2
l2 2 4gl + 2g2 = 0
The roots are
1 = 0.5857 g/l = n12
n1 = 0.7655 (g/l)
2 = n2 = 1.847 (g/l)
Mode shapes
I mode
II mode
A = 1, B = -1.414
Session- ()CSM Ch-1
1.INTRODUCTION
1.1 The study of vibration
A body is said to vibrate if it has periodic motion. Mechanical vibration is the study of
oscillatory motions of bodies. Vibrations are harmful for engineering systems. Some times
vibrations can be useful. For example, vibratory compactors are used for compacting
concrete during construction work. Excessive vibration causes discomfort to human beings,
damage to machines and buildings and wear of machine parts such as bearings and gears.
The study of vibrations is important to aeronautical, mechanical and civil engineers. It is
necessary for a design engineer to have a sound knowledge of vibrations. The object of the
sixth semester course on mechanical vibrations is to discuss the basic concepts of vibration
with their applications. The syllabus covers fundamentals of vibration, undamped and
damped single degree of freedom systems, multidegrees of freedom systems and continuous
systems.
1.Beating of heart
2. Lungs oscillate in the process of breathing
3. Walking- Oscillation of legs and hands
4. Shivering- Oscillation of body in extreme cold
5. Speaking - Ear receives Vibrations to transmit message to brain
6. Vibration of atoms
7. Mechanical Vibrations
1.Linear vibrations
2. Non-linear vibrations
3. Random vibrations
4.Transient vibrations
FREE VIBRATIONS
Vibrations under free or natural conditions. No disturbing forces.
Examples
1.Electric bell-clipper oscillation under electromagnetic force.
2.I.C Engines-vibrations due to unbalanced inertia forces
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
m1 m1
m1 m2 m2
m3
Fig 1.1 (a) Fig 1.1(b)
Three D.O.F
Fig 1.1( c)
Cantilever Beam
Continuous system
Fig 1.1( d )
1.5 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (S H M)
X-Displacement
X A-amplitude
A T-Periodic Time
t f-Frequency
f=1/T
=Frequency in radians per second
t= time
A
x t
A
t
X
X= A sin t
..
X=Acceleration
= - A sin t
= A sin (t + )
= - x
RMS Value = A / 2
Problem 1
The frequency of Vibrations of a machine is 150 Hz. Determine a) Its frequency in rad/sec.
b)Time Period of oscillations. If the amplitude of vibrations is 0.8 mm, determine the
acceleration
a) In m/s b) In terms of g
Solution:
Given f = 150 Hz , A= 0.8 mm w= ? T=?
a = ? (in m/s) a = ? (in terms of g)
w=2 f = 2 (150) = 942 Rad/sec
T= 1/f=1/150= 0.0066 sec = 6.66 milli seconds
x = A sin ( t + )
= 0.8 sin ( 942 t + )
.
x = 0.8 (942) cos (942 t + )
..
x = - 0.8 (942)2 Sin (942 t + )
a = (x ) max = 0.8 (942)2 mm/s2
= 710.61 m/s2
= 710.61/9.81= 72.43 g
Problem 2.
A body suspended from a spring vibrates vertically up and down between two positions 3 and
5 cms above the ground. During each second it reaches the top position (5 cms above
ground) 15 times. Find the time period, frequency, circular frequency and amplitude of
motion.
Solution:
5
= Circular Frequency
= 2 f = 2 (15) =30 rad/sec
3
3
x1= A1 Sin t
x2 = A2 Sin (t + )
X = x1+ x2 = A1 Sin t + A2 Sin (t + )
X = Sin t (A1+ A2 Cos ) + Cos t (A2 Sin )
Let A1+ A2 Cos = A Cos -------- 1
A2 Sin = A Sin -------- 2
X = Sin t (A Cos ) + Cos t (A Sin )
X= A Sin (t + )
A2
A1
t
SUM OF HARMONIC
MOTIONS
Beats
Is also a harmonic
motion of the Continuous build up
same frequency and decrease in
amplitude
1.7 BEATS
The phenomenon of beats occurs when two harmonic motions of slightly different
frequencies and same amplitude are added. When the two harmonic motions are in the same
phase, the resultant amplitude will be maximum. On the other hand, when the two motions
are out of phase, they will provide minimum amplitude vibration.
Let X1 = A Sin 1t
X2 = A Sin 2t
X = X1+ X2 =A Sin 1t + A Sin 2t
= 2 A Sin (1+ 2)t Cos (1- 2)t
X = Sin [(1+ 2)t ]/2 When B= 2 A Cos [(1- 2)t]/2
Force
5000 N
Time in sec
Force Developed during punching operation
With the help of Fourier series vibration analysis of such problems can be done
Fourier Series
= 2 / T = Fundamental frequency
ao, a1,a2,b1,b2.. are coefficients of infinite series
(a1cos t+ b1sin t) is First Harmonic
2/
2/
ao= / x(t) dt , an= / x (t) cos (nt)dt
o
o
Problem 1.
an= 1/ p t cos nt dt = 0
The graph is symmetrical about the origin and the function is odd
ao= an = 0
bn= 1/
-
t sin nt dt
The first four harmonics of the series are 2Sint, - Sin 2t ,(2/3) Sin 3t, - (1/2) Sin 4t
They are plotted as numberd curves in the figure. The sum of the first four harmonies is
y = x(t) = 2 Sin t Sin 2t + (2/3) Sin 3t (1/2)sin 4t
Since this is a partial sum of the Fourier series, it may be expected to approximate the
function x. The sum of the four terms is shown in figure
Problem:
Find the Fourier series of the periodic function shown in figure
f(x)
x
-2 - 0 2
f(x)=0 if - x 0
f(x)= if 0 x
0
a0 =1/
-
( 0 dx + dx ) =
0
an = 1/ Cos nx dx = 0 n1
-
sin nx dx = 1/n(1-cosn)
bn=1/
0
The factor (1-cos n ) assumes the following values as n increases
n 1 2 3 4 5
(1-cos n) 2 0 2 0 2
f(x) = /2 + 2sin x +(2/3)sin3x + (2/5)sin 5x +..
= /2 + 2 ( (sin x)/1 + (sin 3x)/3 +(sin 5x)5 +...
1. Problem Identification
2. Mathematical modeling
3. Setting up the differential equation of motion
4. Interpretation of results
Session- ()CSM Ch-2
2. UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION
2.1 Introduction
Free vibrations are oscillations about a systems equilibrium position that occur in the absence
of an external excitation force. If during vibrations there is no loss of energy, it is known as
undamped vibration.
The first step in solving a vibration problem is setting up the differential equation of motion.
The three approaches to setting up differential equation of motion are as follows
m = Mass x = Displacement
..
m x = Inertia Force, = Angular Displacement
I = Mass Moment of Inertia,
..
I = Inertia Torque
DAlemberts Principle states that the resultant of all forces acting on a body along with the
inertia force is equal to zero. For a rotational system we have to consider torques instead of
forces. Using DAlemberts Principle we can setup the differential equation of motion.
Alternatively, we can get the differential equation of motion by applying Newtons second
law of motion. The third approach to setting up the equation of motion is to apply energy
method.
Fig 2.1 shows a one degree of freedom simple spring mass system. It represents several
practical systems. Free vibrations of a system with a single degree of freedom is one of the
most important topics. In fig 2.1 the co-ordinate x is used to describe the position of the
mass. The mass and spring are the basic building blocks for vibrational analysis. Spring
stiffness is defined as the force required to elongate or compress the spring by unit length.
The differential equation of the spring mass system is set up by considering all the forces and
applying DAlemberts Principle
Spring mass system represents several practical systems
Examples:
1. Machine mounted on isolators
2. Mass m attached to the end of a cantilever beam
..
mx K
Figure 2.1
..
m x = Inertia Force
Kx = Spring Force,
= Static deflection of spring
K = Force due to static deflection
mg = Gravitational pull
..
m x + Kx + K - mg = 0
..
m x + Kx = 0
n= K /m
= Natural Frequency of vibrations
This is the only frequency with which the system vibrates when disturbed and let free
. The natural frequency is a characteristic property of the vibrating system. The amplitude of
oscillations C and the phase angle can be determined by applying the initial conditions.
Problem
A small Pelton wheel rotating at 1500 rpm has a rotor of mass 10 Kg mounted at the centre of
a steel shaft which has a span of 0.4 m between bearings. What should be the diameter of the
shaft , so that the transverse natural frequency is 50 percent higher than the running speed?
Assume E for steel as 2x1011 pa.
Rotor
Steel shaft
0.4 m
Equivalent system
K= Equivalent stiffness
m = Mass of rotor
= Deflection at centre
= Wl3/ 48EI
K K=W/ = 48EI / l3
E=Modulus of Elasticity
= 2x1011 Pa
m
I = d4/64
K = (48x2x1011 x d4)/ (0.43x64)
= 3.68x1012 d4 N/m
The figure2.2 shows how a spring elongated by when a mass is placed at the end of a
spring. is known as static deflection. The natural frequency of vibration can be expressed in
terms of static deflection as shown below
= Static deflection
K= mg /
K K n= K/m = (mg) / ( m )
n= g /
Fig 2.2
K1 K2 Ke
m m
x
F Fig 2.3
F= Applied Force
1 K1 x1= Elongation of Spring 1
x2= Elongation of Spring 2
x= x + x2 = F/K1 + F/K2
2 K2 = F(1/K1 +1/K2)
x = F( (K1+K2)/ (K1 K2))
Ke= Equivalent Stiffness
= F/x = ((K1 K2)/ (K1+K2))
F
2.5 ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS
In the case of rotational systems,the differential equation of motion is obtained by adding the
inertia torque to the sum of external torque and equating the sum to zero
Compound Pendulum
O is Point of Suspension
h is distance from O to G
G is Centre of Gravity
I is M.I about O
= mk2 + mh2,
m is mass of the pendulum
K is Radius of Gyration
is angular displacement
..
I + mgh = 0
n = mgh / I = gh /( k2 + h2 )
Problem
The mass of the slender uniform rod shown in the figure is small compared to the mass
attached to it. For small oscillations, calculate the natural Frequency of vibrations of the mass
Ka
F.B.D
.. mg
Mo +I0 = 0
..
m l2 +Ka a cos + mg sin x l = 0
..
+ ((Ka2 +mgl)/ml2) = 0
n = (Ka2 +mgl)/ ml2
Problem
A connecting rod of mass 2Kg oscillates 53 times in 1minute when suspended as shown in
fig. Determine its moment of inertia about its centre of gravity, which is located 25 cm from
the point of support
25
n= (gh)/(K2+h2)
K2 = 0.017126
I G = m K2 = 2x 0.017126
= 0.034252 Kg m2
Problem
Determine the effective mass at a point o of a uniform rod of mass m and length l pivoted at a
distance nl from o as shown in figure.
nl A
O
IA
A
X
R
Knl
Free body diagram
..
IA +Knl (nl) = 0
..
x IA / (n2l2) + Kx = 0
..
Equivalent system me x + K x = 0 me
me= Effective mass at 0
me= IA/( n2l2)
= ml2 (3n2-3n +1)/ (3n2l2) K
me= m ((3n2-3n +1)/3n2)
Problem
Bumpy road
y
A
x
50.26
Body
Wheels
y = ASin t
.
y= A Cost
..
y = - 2 A Sint
The differential equation of motion can also be derived using energy method. In a
conservative system the total energy is constant. In a vibrating system the energy is partly
potential and partly kinetic.
x
.
T=mx2/2
=
( Spring force) dx - mgx
0
x
= ( mg + Kx) dx mgx
0
= mgx + Kx2 /2 mgx = Kx2 /2
d/dt (T + U) = 0
.
d/dt (m x2 /2 + Kx2/2 ) = 0
..
mx +Kx=0
x= A Sin t x = A Cos t
..
(x)max = A ( x)max = A w
.
( K.E)max = m x2max /2 = m(A )2/2
m(A )2/2 = K A2 /2
m 2 = K
= K/m rad/sec
2.7 EFFECT OF MASS OF SPRING
= m x 2 /2+( x / 2l2 )
(y dy)
2
0
. .
= m x2 /2+( x2 / 2l2 )(y3/3) l
0
. .
= m x2 /2+( l3/ 6l2) x2
.
= (m + l/3)x 2 / 2
= (m + l/3) x2 / 2 +Kx2 /2
n= K / (m + l /3)
l =Mass of Spring
2.8. Problems
U Tube Problem
= Density of liquid, A= Cross sectional Area of tube, l= Length of liquid column in tube
. .
K.E = m x 2 /2 = (lA ) x2 /2
P.E = (A x)gx = A g x2
. .. .
lA x x+2gx x =0
..
lx+2gx=0
n = (2g/l) rad/sec
Problem
. .
= m(r )2 /2 + I 2 /2 + K (r )2 /2
. .
= m r 2 2 /2+ I 2 /2+ K r2 2/2
.. ..
mr2 +I + Kr2 = 0
..
(mr2
+ mr /2) + r = 0
2 2
n = 2K / 3m Rad/sec
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Methods of Obtaining Governing equations
3. Equations in Matrix Form
4. Influence Coefficients
5. Methods of Finding Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes
8.1. Introduction
8.1.1. Definition: - The number of degrees of freedom of any structural system is the number
of kinematically independent coordinates required to describe the motion of every particle
that constitute the system. It is determined by the number of inertial elements and the number
of coordinates required to describe the motion of each inertial element.
Examples of M-D-F Systems
y
Inertial element
Fig.8.1 (a): Two-degree-of freedom system with one inertial element and two independent coordinates y and
for one inertial element.
y y
k1 k2
m1 m2
Fig. 8.1(b) : Two degree-of-freedom system with two inertial elements each having independent coordinate y1
and y2 to describe their motion.
8.2. GoverningEquations
1. Force-Balance Method and Moment Balance Method
2. Energy Method (Lagranges Equations)
Note: - We restrict our discussion only to the force-balance method/moment balance method
for obtaining the equations of motion of the given sys0\tem
Force Balance Method
This method is nothing but the application of DAlemberts principle for rectilinear motion
(Eg. Linear Spring-Mass Systems). It states that for dynamic equiibrium, the algebraic sum
of all the forces including the inertia forces is equal to zero.
Moment Balance Method
This method is the application of DAlemberts principle for angular motion (Eg. Torsional
Systems), which states that for dynamic equilibrium, the algebraic sum of all the moments
including the inertial moment about any point in the system is equal to zero.
Note: - Certain systems can have both rectilinear and angular motions. For such systems both
the methods have to be used to get the required equations of motion
m1 0 (c1 + c2) c2
Where [mij] ; [cij] =
0 m2 m1 0c2 (c2 + c3) (c1 + c2) c2
Where [mij] ; [cij] =
(k1 + k2) k2 1 1
0 m2 c2 (c2 + c3)
[kij] = k2 (k2 + k3) ; {i} = ;{i}=
(k1 + k2) k2 1 1
2
Fi Fj
point i point j
Fig. 8.6: A general system to prove Maxwells theorem
Let i and j be two points on the system where loads Fi and Fj can be applied. Now imagine
that the two loads are applied as follows. (i) First load Fi is applied gradually from zero to its
full value and then load Fj is applied at j gradually from zero to its full value with Fi acting
all the time. For this arrangement the total work done by both the forces is calculated as
follows.
When load Fi is applied gradually at point i, the final displacement at i would be aiiFi. Since
the load is applied gradually, the work done is given by
(W)Fi = (1/2)Fi aiiFi
Now when the load Fj is applied at point j gradually from zero to its full value with Fi acting
at i all the time the work done is given by
(W)Fj = Work done by Fi + Work done by Fj
= Fi aijFj + (1/2)Fj ajjFj
Total work done = Wtotal = (W)Fi + (W)Fj
= (1/2)Fi aiiFi + Fi aijFj + (1/2)Fj ajjFj
Similarly when Fj is first applied gradually and then Fi is applied gradually with Fj acting
all the time the total work done is given as follows:
Total = (1/2)Fj ajjFj + Fi aji Fj + (1/2)Fi aiiFi
The total work done should be the same for both the cases as the final deflection curve is
same in both the cases. Therefore equating the two expressions for the total work done we
have
aij = aji
k1 k2 k3
m1 m2
X1
Fig. E8.1(a): Free-body diagram when a displacement X1 is effected at m1 with m2 being held fixed.
Resultant force at station 1 = F11 = k1X1 k2X1
= (k1 + k2)X1
Therefore k11 = F11 / X1 = (k1 + k2)
Or k11 = (k1 + k2)
Resultant force at station 2 = F21 = k2X1
Therefore k21 = F21 / X1 = k2
Or k21 = k2.
By Maxwells theorem k12 = k21
To find k22:- Let a displacement X2 be effected
at m2 with m1 held fixed. Then the free-body diagram for m1 and m2 will be as shown in
Fig.E8.1(b).
X2
m1 m2 k3X2
k2X2
F1
m1 K2(X11X21) m2
k1X11 k3X21
X11 X21
Fig. E8.2(a): Free-body diagram when F1 acts on m1
F2
L1
1 m1
2 L2
m2
3
L3
m3
Fig.8.3: Triple pendulum
Let a force F1 be applied at m1 in the horizontal direction as shown in Fig. E8.3(a).
T1
1
1
x11
m1 F1
x21
(m1 + m2 + m3)g
x31 Fig. E8.3(a): Free body diagram
Force balance in horizontal direction at m1 gives
F1 = T1sin 1
and in vertical direction gives
(m1 + m2 + m3)g = T1cos 1.
For small oscillations, sin 1 = tan 1 and cos 1 = 1.
Therefore F1 = (m1 + m2 + m3)g tan 1
= (m1 + m2 + m3)g x11 / L1
L1
Or a11 = x11 / F1 = ------------------------------
(m1 + m2 + m3)g
It can be seen from the free body diagram that
x21 = x31 = x11. Therefore a21 = a31 = a11. Also by Maxwells reciprocal theorem, a12 =
a21 and a13 = a31.
Therefore L1
a11 = a21 = a12 = a31 = a13 = -------------------------
(m1 + m2 + m3 )g
Now let a horizontal force F2 be applied on m2. Then the free body diagram will be as shown
in Fig. E8.3(b).
T2
1 2
L2 F2
2 m2
x12 F2
X22 = x32
(m2 + m3)g
Fig. E8.3(b): Free body diagram when F2 acts on m2
Force balance in horizontal direction gives
F2 = T2 sin 2
and force balance in vertical direction gives
T2 = (m2 + m3) g.
For small oscillations sin 2 = tan 2 and cos 2 = 1
Therefore F2 = (m2 + m3)g tan 2
= (m2 + m3)g (x22 x12) / L2
Or x22 / F2 x12 / F2 = L2 / (m2 + m3)g
Therefore a22 a12 = L 2 / (m2 + m3)g
Or a22 = a12 + L 2 / (m2 + m3)g
L1 L2
a22 = -------------------------- + ------------------------
(m1 + m2 + m3)g (m2 + m3)g
Also a32 = a22
Let a force F3 be applied horizontally on m3. The free body diagram will be as shown
below.
T3
3
1
x13 2
L3 m 3g
3
x23 F3
x33
k
1200
o
k 1200 k
Spring 1
2m m
L/2 L/2
Fig.E8.5:Schematic for example 8.5
Solution:- Let the location at which m is acting be designated as station 1 and the location at
which 2m is acting be designated as station2. Now let only m be acting at station 1. Then the
deflection curve and the bending moment diagram will be as shown in Fig. E8.5(a).
2 1
y21
y11
L/2 L/2
mgL mgL / 2
Fig. E8.5 (a) : Deflection curve and B-M diagram when only mg is acting
Using moment-area method,
y11 = Moment of the area of the B-M diagram about 1 / (EI)
y11 = (1 / EI) (mgL) x L x 2/3 L = mgL3 / (3EI)
Therefore a11 = y11 / mg = L3 /(3EI)
Y21 = Moment of the area of B-M diagram up to 2 about 2
= (1 / EI) [mgL x L/2 x L/4 + (mgL/2) x L/2 x (2/3)L/2]
= 5mgL3 / (48 EI)
Therefore a21 = y21 /mg = 5L3 / (48 EI)
By Maxwells reciprocal theorem a12 = a21 = 5L3 / (48 EI)
Now let only the load 2mg act at station2. The deflection curve and the B-M diagram will be
as shown in Fig. E8.5(b).
{x1 x2 x3}r m1 0 0 x1 0
0 m2 0 x2 = 0 ..8.6.12
0 0 m3 x3 s 0
After performing the matrix multiplication the above equation reduces to
(x1)rm1(x1)s + (x2)rm2(x2)s + (x3)rm3(x3)s = 0 8.6.13
Where (x1)r, (x2)r and (x3)r are the amplitudes of vibration of masses m1, m2, and m3
respectively when the system is vibrating with natural frequency r and (x1)s, (x2)s, and
(x3)s are the amplitudes of masses m1, m2, and m3 respectively when the system is vibrating
with the natural frequency s.
When r = s, {xi}rT [mi] {xi}s = Mr .................................8.6.14
And {xi} r [ki j] {xi}s = Kr .8.6.15
Where Mr and Kr are referred to as generalized mass and generalized stiffness
respectively.Mr and Kr are actually 1 x 1 matrices.
3.To determine the lowest natural frequency :-
To determine the lowest natural frequency, the governing equations for free vibrations has
to be written in terms of flexibility influence coefficients as follows:
x1 = a11F1 + a12F2 + .a1nFn
x2 = a21F1 + a22F2 + .a2nFn ..8.6.16
xn = an1F1 + an2F2 + . annF
For free vibrations, Fi = mi xi , i = 1 to n. Substituting this in Eq. 8.6.16 we have
.. .. ..
x1 = a11m1x1 a12m2x2 .a1nmn xn
.. .. ..
x2 = a21m1x1 a22m2x2 .. a2nmnxn 8.6.17
: .. .. ..
xn = an1m1x1 an2m2 x2 ......... annmnxn
Assuming harmonic oscillations i.e. xi = xi sint, Eqs.8.6.17 reduces to
{xi} = 2 [aij] [mi] {xi} 8.6.18
Where x1 a11 a12 ...a1n m1 0...0
x2 a21 a22 ...a2n 0 m2..0
{xi} = : ; [ai j] = : [mi] = :
: : :
xn an1 an2.ann 0 0mn
Eq. 8.6.18 can be simplified as :
{xi} = 2 [bi j]{xi} 8.6.19
Where [bi j] = [ai j] [mi] .8.6.20
Equation 8.6.19 is the starting point for the iteration process which is as follows. The
iteration process is started by assuming a set of displacements for {xi} and substituting on the
RHS of Eq. 8.6.19. After performing the multiplication, the RHS reduces to a column vector.
This is then normalized and the procedure is repeated with the normalized column vector
itself as the new estimate. The iteration process is continued till the first mode repeats itself.
The iteration process described above converges to the lowest value of 2 so that the
fundamental mode of vibration is obtained. For the next higher modes and the natural
frequencies, the orthogonality principle is applied to obtain a matrix equation that does not
contain the lower modes. Then the iterative process is repeated as before to get the other
modes.
4. Calculation of Higher Modes :- Since the governing differential equations are linear, we
can use the principle of superposition, which in this case can be stated as follows : If {xi}1,
{xi}2 , .{xi}n are the amplitude vectors corresponding to the natural frequencies 1, 2,
..n then the linear combination of these vectors will also be a solution of the governing
differential equations. That is
{xi} = C1{xi}1 + C2 {xi}2 +.. + Cn {xi}n 8.6.21
If we want to obtain the second mode, then we have to eliminate the first normal mode by
letting C1 = 0. This is done as follows :
Pre-multiplying the above equation by {xi}1T[mi] we have
{xi}1T[mi] {xi} = C1{xi}1T[mi]{xi}1 + C2 {xi}1T [mi] {xi}2 + .Cn{xi}1T [mi]{xi}n
..8.6.22
Introducing the orthogonality principle (Eq. 8.6.10) in Eq. 8.6.22 we get
{xi}1T [mi] {xi} = C1 {xi}1T [mi] {xi}1
By letting C1 = 0 we have {xi}1T [mi] {xi} = {0} 8.6.23(a)
The expanded form of the above equation for a three degree-of-freedom system will be as
follows:
m1 0 0 x1 0
{ x1 x2 x3 }1 0 m2 0 x2 = 0 ..8.6.23(b)
0 0 m3 x3 0
Eq. 8.6.23(b) simplifies to
(x1)1m1(x1) + (x2)1m2(x2) + (x3)1m3(x3) = 0 ..8.6.23(c)
Solving for (x1) from the above equation we get
(x2)1 m2 (x3)1 m3
(x1) = ------------- (x2) -------------- (x3)
(x1)1 m1 (x1)1 m1
Also we can write (x2) = (x2)
and (x3) = (x3)
........................8.6.24
Equations 8.6.24 can be written in matrix form as :
{xi} = [si j] {xi} .8.6.25
(x2)1m2 (x3)1m3
0 ---------- -----------
Where x1 (x1)1m1 (x1)1m1
{xi} = x2 [si j] = 0 1 0
x3 0 0 1
Since Eq.8.6.25 is the result of putting C1 = 0, the first mode of vibration is eliminated or
swept out by the sweeping matrix [si j]. Therefore replacing {xi} on the right hand side of
Eq.8.6.19 we get
{xi} = 2 [bi j] [si j] {xi} ..8.6.26
The above equation is used for the iteration process to get the second lowest mode of
vibration. For obtaining the third lowest mode the following equations, which will eliminate
the first and second modes are used.
(x1)1m1(x1) + (x2)1m2 (x2) + (x3)1m3(x3) = 0 8.6.27(a)
(x1) 2m1(x1) + (x2) 2m2 (x2) + (x3) 2m3(x3) = 08.6.27(b)
Eq.8.6.27(b) is obtained by introducing orthogonality relationship by pre-multiplying
Eq.8.6.21 by {xi}2T [mi] and setting C2 = 0.The sweeping matrix [si j] is formed by using
the Eqs. 8.6.27(a) and 8.6.27(b) along with the identity
(x3) = (x3) ..8.6.27(c)
3k 3k k k
4m 2m m
2mg
L/2
y22 y12
L/2
Fig. E8.5(b) : Deflection curve and B-M diagram when only load 2mg is acting at station2.
Y22 = mgL(L/2) 2/3(L/2)
= mgL3/(12EI)
a22 = Y22 /2mg
Or a22 = L3 / (24 EI)
y22 = (1/EI) (mgL x L/2 x (2/3)L/2 = 2mgL3 / (24EI)
Therefore a22 = y22 / 2mg = L3 / (24 EI )
Also y12 = (1/EI) (mgL) x L/2 x {L/2 + (2/3)L/2}
= (5/48) 2mgL3 / (EI)
Therefore a12 = y12 / (2mg) = 5L3 / (48 EI) = a21 as shown earlier
Example 8.6:
P2 P1
y2
y1
Example 8.7
A string fixed at both ends carries three point masses m1, m2, and m3 equidistant from each
otheras shown in Fig. E8.7. Determine (i) the flexibility influence coefficients and (ii) the
stiffness influence coefficients using basic principles.
m1 m2 m3
L L L L
Fig. E8.7:- Schematic for example 8.7
Solution to Example 8.7
(i) To find displacement coefficients
Let m1 be displaced by a distance y11 by applying a force F1 at m1. Then the free-body
diagram will be as shown in Fig. E8.7(a).
L L L L
y11 y21
T T y31
F1
Fig. E8.7 : Free-body diagram when F1 acts at m1
Force balance in vertical direction at m1 gives
F1 = T sin + T sin
And in horizontal direction we have
T cos = T cos .
For small oscillations we can assume sin = tan, cos =1,
sin = tan and cos = 1. Therefore
F1 = T(y11 / L) + T (y11 / 3L) =(4/3)Ty11 / L .
Or a11 = y11 / F1 = (3/4)(L/T).
By law of similar triangles, a21 =(2/3) a11= (1/2)(L/T)
By Maxwell theorem, a12 = a21 ; a13 = a31
When a force F2 is applied at station 2, the displacements y12, y22, and y32 will be as shown
in Fig. E8.7(b).
L L L L
y12 y32
y22
F2
Fig.E8.7(b): Free-body diagram when F2 acts at station2.
Force balance at station 2 in vertical direction gives
F2 = T sin + T sin = 2T sin
= 2T tan = 2T (y22 / 2L)
= T y22 / L.
Therefore a22 = y22 / F2 = L / T.
By law of similar triangles, a12 = a32 = a22 = L / (2T).
Because of the symmetry of the problem a33 = a11= (L/T).
(ii) To find the stiffness influence coefficients :- Let a displacement y1 be effected at station
1, holding the remaining stations at their respective equilibrium positions. Then the free-body
diagram for the system will be as shown in Fig. E8.7(c).
T y1 T
Fig. E8.7(c): Free-body diagram when a displacement y1is effected at station1.
Total restoring force at 1 in vertical direction due to unit displacement at 1 is given by
F11 = - 2T sin = - 2T tan = - 2T(y1/ L)
Therefore - k11 = F11 / y1 = - 2T / L, or k11 = 2T / L.
By symmetry k33 = k11 = 2T / L.
Restoring force at 2 is given by F21 = T sin = T tan = T(y1 / L)
Therefore - k21 = F21 / y2 = T / L or k21 = - T / L = k12
Restoring force at 3 = F31 = 0. Therefore k31 = 0 = k13.
Let a displacement y2 affected at station 2 holding the stations 1 and 3 at their respective
equilibrium position. Then the free-body diagram will be as shown in Fig. E8.7(d).
L L L L
T y2 T
y11
Fig. E8.8(a): Deflection of the beam due to load W1at station 1.
When a concentrated load W acts on the beam as shown below, the deflection at any location
x from one end of the beam is given by
W
a b
x
yx =(Wbx)(L2 x2 b2) / (6EIL) ; (0 x a) ..8.11
Therefore Y11 =( W1ba)(L2 a2 b2) / (6EIL)
250 x 9.81 x 6.5 x 1.5
Y11 = ----------------------------- [ 82 1.52 6.52]
6EI x 8
= 9714 / (EI)
250 x 9.81 x 6.5 x 1.5
Similarly, Y21 = ------------------------------- [82 1.52 1.52]
6EI x 8
= 6840 / (EI)
Similarly when W2 acts at station 2, the deflections at stations 1 and 2 are calculated as
Y12 = 4104 / (EI), and Y22 = 5823 / (EI).
Therefore Y1 = Y11 + Y12 = (9714 + 4104) / (EI)
=13818 / (EI)
And Y2 = Y21 + Y22 = (6840 + 5828) / (EI)
= 12669 / (EI)
g [ W1Y1 + W2Y2]
n2 = ----------------------------
[W1Y12 + W2Y22]
9.81 x [250 x13818 + 150 x 12669]
= ------------------------------------------------ (EI)
[250 x 138182 + 150 x 126692]
____
Or n = 0.085 EI
Examples on Rayleighs method
Example 8.9:
To find the fundamental frequency for the lateral vibrations of the cantilever beam shown in
Fig. E8.9.
75 kg 50
1m 1m
W2 W1
Y2
Y21
Y11
W1L/2
W1L
From moment-area method we have
Y11 = [1/(EI)]Moment of the area of B-M diagram about station1
= [1/(EI)] (1/2)(W1L)L (2/3)L = (W1L3) / (3EI)
= (50 x 9.81 x 23) / (3EI) = 1308 / EI
Similarly, Y21 = [1/(EI)] [( )(W1L x L/2) x L/4 +
( (W1L/2)(L/2)(2/3)(L/2)]
= (5/48)(W1L3/EI) = (5/48) (50 x 9.81 x 23 / EI)
= 409 / (EI)
To find Y12 and Y22 :- Let the load W2 act at station 2. Then the deflection curve
and the corresponding B-M diagram will be as shown below
Y22 = (1/EI) (W2L/2)(L/2)(2/3)(L/2)
= W2L3/(12 EI)
= 75x9.81 x 23 /(12EI) =245/EI
Y12 = (1/EI)1/2 (W2L/2)(L/2)[(2/3)L/2+ L/2]
=5W2L3/(48 EI)
= 5 x75 x 9.81 x 23 / (48 EI)
= 613 / (EI)
Y1 = Y11 + Y12 = (1308 + 613) /(EI) = 1921 / (EI)
Y2 = Y21 + Y22 = (409 + 245) / (EI) = 685 / (EI)
g [W1Y1 + W2Y2] 9.81 x [50 x 1921 + 75 x 685] / (EI)
n2 = ------------------------ = --------------------------------------------------
[W1Y12 + W2Y22] [50 x 19212 + 75 x 6852] / (EI)2
Or n = 0.0811 (EI)
8.5.3. STODOLAMETHOD
Introduction:- This method is an iterative method and used for finding the fundamental
(lowest) natural frequency of un-damped free vibrations of M-D-F systems
Procedure:- (i) Assume a reasonable deflection curve of the system. The static deflection
curve itself can be assumed as in the case of Rayleighs method.
(ii) Using the above deflection curve, the inertia loading of the system is
determined. This loading will be in terms of n2, where n is the fundamental natural
frequency of the system.
(iii) Considering the system is loaded with the inertia loads, the new deflection
curve is determined. This also will be in terms of n2.
If the assumed deflection curve of (i) above is similar to the calculated deflection curve of
(iii), then the assumed shape of the deflection curve is correct and (iii) gives the value of
n2. If the deflection curve of (i) and (iii) are not similar, then the calculated deflection curve
of (iii) is used as the assumed deflection curve for the next iteration and the procedure is
repeated till the assumed deflection curve and the calculated deflection curve are similar.
It can be shown that whatever deflection curve was assumed initially, we finally end up with
the deflection curve corresponding to the fundamental mode.
Example 8.10 :- To determine the lowest natural frequency for the lateral vibrations of the
beam shown in Fig. E8.10.
250 kg 150 kg
1.5 m 5.0 m 1.5 m
Y11 Y21
Fig. E8.10: Schematic for example 8.10.
Fig. E8.10(a): Deflection curve when only m1g is acting on the beam.
a11 = Y11 / m1g = 3.96 / (EI) ; a21 = Y21 / m1g = 2.79 / (EI)
Similarly when m2g alone acts at location 2 we have
a22 = Y22 / m2g = 0.188 / (EI) ; a12 = a21 by Maxwells theorem.
Trial 1 :- Assume Y1 = 1.0 and Y2 = 1.0
Inertia force at location 1 = F1 = m12Y1 = 250 2.
Similarly F2 = 150 2. Therefore Y1 = a11F1 + a12 F2
Or Y1 = [3.96 x 250 + 2.79 x 150 ] 2 / (EI) = 1408.5 2 / (EI)
Similarly Y2 = a21F1 + a22F2 = [2.79 x 250 + 0.188 x 150] 2 / (EI)
= 725.7 2 / (EI)
Therefore Y1 : Y2 = 1 : 0.515. This is different from the assumed deflection. Hence
one more trial is required.
Trial 2 :- Assume Y1= 1.0 and Y2 = 0.515.
Then F1 = 2502 and F2 = 150 x 0.515 x 2 = 77.252
Therefore Y1 =[3.96 x 250 + 2.79 x 77.25] 2 / (EI) = 1205.5 2 / (EI).
Similarly Y2 = [2.79 x 250 + 0.188 x 77.25] 2 / (EI) = 712 2/ (EI)
Therefore Y1: Y2 = 1 : 0.590.
Trail 3 :- Assume Y1 = 1.0 and Y2 = 0.590. Then the calculations as shown in trial 2
will give Y1 = 1.0 and Y2 = 0.577.
Trial 4 :- Assume Y1 = 1.0 and Y2 = 0.577. Then Y1 = 1231.5 2/ (EI) and Y2 =
713.8 2 / (EI).
Y1 : Y2 = 1.0 : 0.580 which is same as the assumed deflection within the
acceptable accuracy. Hence iteration may be stopped.
Therefore 1231.52 / (EI) = 1.0 or = 0.028 (EI).
3k k k
4m 2m m
L
M
M
Let 11 be the natural frequency of the uniformly loaded beam by itself and 22 be the
natural frequency of the same beam when a mass M is acting at the end of the beam,
neglecting the weight of the beam.
Example 8.12
For a uniformly distributed load of a cantilever beam we have
112 = 3.515 2 [(EI) / (ML3)]
For the concentrated mass at the end of the mass less cantilever we have
222 = 3.00 [(EI) / (ML3)]
From Dunkerlys equation we have
1/12 = 1/112 + 1/222
112222 3.515 2 x 3.0 (EI)
Or 12 = ----------------- = --------------------------- = 2.41[(EI) / (ML3)]
(112 + 222) (3.515 2 + 3.0 ) (ML3)
Example 8.13
The natural frequency of a given airplane wing -
In torsion is 1600 cpm. What will be the new natural frequency if a 500-kg bomb is hung at a
position one-sixth of the semi span from the centre line of the airplane such that its moment
of inertia about the torsional axis is 1800 N cm s2 ? The torsional stiffness of the wing at
this point is 60 x 10 6 N cm / rad.
Solution: Frequency of the bomb attached to the weightless wing is
(60 x 106)
f22 = (1 / 2) (kt / J) = (1/2)----------------------
(1800)
Or f22 = 29.1 c.p.s. = 1745 c.p.m.
The new natural frequency with the bomb will be
1 1
1 / f12 = 1 / f112 + 1 / f222 = ------------ + -------------
1600 2 1745 2
Or f1 = 1180 c.p.m.
Example 8.13:- The fundamental frequency of a uniform beam of mass M, simply supported
is equal to 2 (EI / ML3). If a lumped mass m0 is attached to the beam at
x = L/ 3, determine the new fundamental frequency.
Solution:-
m0
x L
By Dunkerlys equation we have
1 / 12 = 1 / 112 + 1 / 222.
The above equation can be written as follows:
1 / 12 = 1 / 112 + a22 m2 ...............................(1)
Where m2 is the mass of the concentrated weight or exciter and a22 is the influence
coefficient of the structure at the point of attachment of the exciter. Multiplying Eq. (1)
through by 12 and rearranging we can write
1
(1 / 11)2 = ----------------------- ..(2)
[ 1 + a22m2112]
a22 is the influence coefficient at x = L / 3 due to a unit load applied at the same point and
from the knowledge of strength of materials
a22 = 8L3 / (6 x 81 EI)
7.Vibrations of Continuous Systems
7.1. Introduction:- If in a mechanical system the inertial elements and the elastic forces are
located at discrete points in the system, then such systems are referred to as discrete systems
or lumped mass systems and they are further classified as single degree and multi degree-
of- freedom systems. In these systems a finite number of independent coordinates are
required to completely describe the vibratory characteristics of such systems. The number of
natural frequencies for such systems will be equal to the number of degrees of freedom for
the system. But there are many mechanical systems where in it is not possible to assume that
the inertial elements and the elastic forces are concentrated at discrete points within the
system but they are distributed throughout the system. Cables, rods, beams, plates etc. are
some of the examples and such systems are called continuous systems.
Continuous systems consist of an infinitely large number of particles and therefore require an
infinitely large number of coordinates to study the vibratory characteristics of the system.
The system will therefore have a infinite number of natural frequencies and normal modes of
vibrations. In general, vibrations of continuous systems are governed by partial differential
equations and while analyzing these systems all materials are assumed to be homogeneous
and isotropic and obey Hookes law.
x dx
Position of the rod
at time t
u+du
du = dx + (u /
u x) dx
u(x,t)
A A + [(A) / x] dx
dx
Fig. 7.2 : Free body diagram for an elemental length dx of the bar
Applying Newtons second law for elemental length dx of the bar we have
Adx (2u / t2) = A + [(A) / x]dx A
Since A is constant and assuming that the material of the bar obeys Hookes law ( = E , E
is the modulus of elasticity and is the longitudinal strain), the above equation can be
simplified as :
( 2u / t 2) = E ( /x) ..7.2.1
[dx + (u / x) dx] dx
But = ------------------------------- = u / x
dx
Substituting this in Eq. 7.1 we get
2u / t2 = c2 2u /x2 .7.2.2
Where c= (E / ).
7.2.2. General Solution for Eq.7.2.2 :- Equation 7.2.2 is a linear, homogeneous, second-order,
partial differential equation whose solution can be found by the method of separation of
variables, where the solution is assumed to be a product of two functions, one purely a
function of one independent variable x and the other purely a function of other independent
variable t : that is
u(x, t) = X(x) T(t) ----------------------7.2.3.
Substituting this solution in Eq. 7.2.2 we get
X (d2T / dt2) = c2 T (d2X / dx2)
Dividing throughout by XT, we get
(1 / T) (d2T / dt2) = (c2/ X)(d2X / dx2) .7.2.4.
In Eq. 7.2.4, LHS is a function of t only and RHS is a function of x only.
They can be equal only if they are equal to constant, say 2 , where 2 is a positive real
constant ( Later on it will be shown that is a natural frequency of vibrations) . Now we will
have two second order ordinary differential equations given by
Example 7.2:- Derive an expression for the free longitudinal vibrations of a uniform bar of
length L, one end of which is fixed and the other end is free.
Example 7.3:- A uniform bar of length L is fixed at one end and Connected at the other end
by a spring as shown in Fig. E 7.3. Derive the frequency equation for the bar.
x k
L
Fig. E 7.2 : Schematic for example 7.3.
Where En and Fn are constants which can be evaluated using the initial conditions. To find
the natural frequencies n, boundary condition (ii) is used.
From Eq. (2) (u)x = L = [ En cos nt + Fn sin nt ] sin (nL/c)
=0
Or { k sin(nL / c) + AE (n/c) cos (nL/c)} (En cos nt + Fn sin nt)
x
m
L
Fig. E 7.4
The general solution for longitudinal vibrations of a bar is given by
u(x,t) = [ An cos nt + Bn sin nt ] [ Cn cos(nx/c) + Dn sin (nx/c)]
..(1)
The boundary conditions for the given problem are:
(i) At x = 0, u(x,t) = 0 (fixed end)
(ii) At x = L, m (2u / t2)x = L = AE (u / x)x = L
0 = [ An cos nt + Bn sin nt ] [ Cn + 0]
The above equation is to be satisfied for all values of t.
Therefore Cn = 0 and
u(x,t) = [ En cos nt + Fn sin nt ] sin (nx/c) (2)
Therefore
AE (u / x)x = L = AE (n/c)[ En cos nt + Fn sin nt ] cos (nL/c)
Also m (2u / t2)x = L = mn2 sin (nL/c) [ En cos nt + Fn sin nt ]
This is the frequency equation which can be solved to get the natural
frequencies of the given system.
F0 sin t
7.3.1. Governing Equation :- A flexible string of mass per unit length is stretched under
tension T. Assuming that the lateral deflection y of the string to be small, the change in
tension T is negligible and hence neglected.
x y(x,t)
dx T
x
y(x,t)
T
Fig. 7.3 : String element in lateral vibration.
Where 2 is a positive real constant. Therefore we get two ordinary differential equations,
namely,
(1 / T ) (d2T / dt2) = 2 ,
and (c2 / X ) (d2X / dx2) = 2
Or (d2T / dt2) + 2T = 0 7.3.3.(a)
and (d2X / dx2) + (2/c2) X = 0 .7.3.3.(b)
The solutions to Eqs. 7.3.3.(a) and 7.3.3.(b) are given by
T(t) = A1 cos t + A2 sin t ..7.3.4.(a)
And X(x) = B1 cos (x / c) + B2 sin (x / c) ..7.3.4.(b)
Substituting these solutions in Eq. 7.3.2 we get
y(x,t) = [A1 cos t + A2 sin t ] [B1 cos (x / c) + B2 sin (x / c)]
7.3.5.
Equation 7.3.5 is the general solution for the lateral vibrations of strings and the constants
A1, A2, B1, and B2 can be determined for the given initial and boundary conditions. This is
illustrated in the few examples below.
8.7.HOLZERS METHOD
8.7.1 Introduction:- When only one coordinate is associated with each lumped mass of the
multi-degree-of-freedom system, we have a Holzer-type problem which can be solved by
proceeding numerically from one end of the system to the other. Both the linear spring-mass
and the torsional lumped mass system can be solved by this method.The method
is a trial and error method which can be represented in a tabular form as illustrated in the
examples to follow.
J4n24 = kt3(3 4)
2 = 1 J1n21/ kt1
3 = 2 (J1n21 + J2n22) / kt2
and 4 = 3 (J1n21 + J2n22 + J3n23) / kt3
i-1
Thus in general, i = i 1 (Jkn2k) / kt i 1 ..8.7.4
k =1
The method consists in assuming n and displacement of one of the rotors, say 1. Then,
Eq.8.7.4 is used to find the displacement of the other rotors and hence the sum of the inertia
forces.The condition to be satisfied is Jn2 = 0. A graph of Jn2 vs n is drawn. The
frequency n which gives Jn2 = 0 is the natural frequency.
(ii) Equations for a Fixed-Free System: - If the system is fixed at any point, then the
displacement at that point should be zero. Starting from the free end the displacement at the
fixed end is calculated assuming n. A graph of displacement at the fixed end vs n is
drawn. The frequency at which the displacement of the fixed end is zero is the natural
frequency.
(iii) Fixed-Fixed System: - If both ends of the system are fixed, then the displacement at both
the ends must be zero. Consider a fixed fixed system as shown in Fig. 8.7.2.
Then the equations of motion for the three rotors can be written as
..
J11 = kt11 kt2 (1 2) 8.7.5(a)
..
J22 = kt2 (1 2) kt3(2 3) ..8.7.5(b)
..
J33 = kt3 (2 3) kt43 ..8.7.5(c)
Eq. 8.7.6 can be generalised to a system having n rotors. In that case the displacement of
the nth rotor is given by
n-1
n = n 1 + [kt11 2 Ji i ] / ktn ...................8.7.7
i=1
For a fixed-fixed system with n rotors the displacement at the (n+1)th station should be zero :
that is
n
n+1 = n + [kt11 2 Ji i ] / ktn+1 = 0 ............8.7.8
i=1
8.7.3. Illustrative Examples
1. Using Holzers method determine the natural frequencies of the spring-mass system shown
in Fig. E 8.7.1., if m1 = m2 = m3 = 1kg and k1 = k2 = 1N/m
Fig. E 8.7.1 : Schematic for example 8.7.1 Holzer method is shown in the form of a table.
2J J
4J 3J
Fig. E8.7.2 : Schematic for example 8.7.2
Assume n = 0.2(k / J)
1 0.50
Assume n = 0.3 (k / J)
1 0.02
n / (k / J) 5 n / (k / J) 5 n / (k / J) 5
A graph of 5 versus n is drawn and the values of n at which 5 = 0 are the natural
frequencies. From the plot we find that n1 = 0.3 (k/J)
Using Holzers method determine the natural frequencies for torsional vibrations of the
system shown in Fig. E8.7.3 if J1 = J2 = J3 = J4 = 100 N-cm-s2/rad and kt1 = kt2 = kt3 = kt4
= 10,000 N-cm / rad.
J1 J2 J3
Fig. E8.7.3 : Schematic for example 8.7.3.
The order of magnitude of n can be estimated by Dunkerlys equation.
1 100 1.86
Similar table is constructed for different values of n and the displacement at station 4, i.e.
4 is calculated as follows:
n 4 n 4 n 4
5.00 1.86 16.00 0.95 15.00 0.49
A plot of 4 versus n is drawn and the values of n at which 4 is zero is read from the
graph. These values of n are the natural frequencies. Thus the natural frequencies for the
given system are:
Example 8.7.4 (Branched System) :- Determine the lowest natural frequency of the branched
system shown in Fig. E 8.7.4 if J1 = 10, J2 = 15, J3 = 20, J4 = 10, J5 = 10 , J6 = 20 N-cm-s
and K1 = 100, k2 = 200, k3 = 200, k4 = 100 and k5 =150 N-cm / rad
Example 8.7.4.
J1
k1
k2
J2
k5
k4 J4
J6 J5 k3
J3
A preliminary estimate of n can be made by reducing the given system to a two rotor
system as shown in Fig. E 8.7.4(a) below.
J = 20
J = 10 + 15 +20 + 10 + 10 = 65
____________ ___________________
n = k(J1 + J2) / J1J2 = 150 x[20 + 65] /(20 x 65) =3.2 rad / s
Position J J2 J2 J2 k J2 /k
Assume 2 = 1.0
1 10 10 1.00 10 10 100 0.1
2 15 15 0.90 13.5 23.5 200 0.12
5 20 10 0.78 7.8 31.3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 20 20 1.00 20 20 200 0.10
4 10 10 0.90 9 29 100 0.29
5 10 10 0.61 6.10 35.10
At the junction, disc J5 cannot have amplitudes of 0.78 and 0.61 at the the same time. To
make amplitude of J5 the same, let 0.78 / 0.61= 1.28 be the new amplitude for disc J3
Position J J2
J2 J2 k J2/k
3 20 20 1.28 25.6 25.6 200 0.13
4 10 10 1.15 11.5 37.1 100 0.37
5 10 10 0.78 7.8 68.4 150 0.46
Torque acting on shaft k5 equals the sum of the inertia torques by Discs J1J2, J3J4 and J5
i.e.23.5 + 37.1 + 7.8 = 68.4
6 20 20 0.32 6.4 74.8*
The above procedure is repeated for different values of 2 and the remainder torque J2
is calculated and the results are tabulated as follows.