THE INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS IN ANCIENT CHINA

by

ROBERTO KEH ^ONG

B . A . ( H o n s . ) , M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1976

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Department o f A s i a n S t u d i e s

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming

to the r e q u i r e d standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

May 1981

Roberto Ken Ong, 1981

 In presenting this thesis i n partial f u l f i l m e n t of the
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e University
of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the L i b r a r y s h a l l make
it freely a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I further
agree that p e r m i s s i o n f o r extensive copying of t h i s thesis
for s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d by t h e h e a d o f my
d e p a r t m e n t o r by h i s o r h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . It is
understood that copying or p u b l i c a t i o n of this thesis
for financial gain shall n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my written
permission.

Department o f / T i ' ^xf^-StC*

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia
2075 W e s b r o o k P l a c e
V a n c o u v e r , Canada
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Date

r>r C I O /-7Q \
 ABSTRACT

T h i s work i s an e x e r c i s e i n armchair ethnography.

It aims to show, hy examining c e r t a i n d a t a from the

i n e x h a u s t i b l e t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese l i t e r a t u r e on the

s u b j e c t of dreams and dreaming, some a s p e c t s of the

dream l i f e of the a n c i e n t Chinese.

The first five c h a p t e r s d e a l w i t h the v a r i o u s ways

in which dreams were regarded as s i g n i f i c a n t i n a n c i e n t

China. A l t h o u g h my approach i s primarily thematic,

the data are p r e s e n t e d i n a more o r l e s s chronological

o r d e r , so t h a t some l i g h t may be thrown on the develop-

mental dimension of the t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese thinking on

dreams i n the p r o c e s s .

Chapters s i x and seven are concerned with the

methodology o f Chinese dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Two

d i s t i n c t approaches to t h i s are i d e n t i f i e d , which I

term the c o r r o b o r a t i v e and the a s s o c i a t i v e . The

R i c o e u r i a n n o t i o n of " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as recollection

of meaning," w i t h i t s emphasis on c o n t e x t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,

is found compatible w i t h the u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s of

the Chinese o n e i r o c r i t i c a l practice.

In the f i n a l c h a p t e r , I f u r t h e r l a b e l the c o r r o b o r a t i v e

approach " i c o n i c " and the a s s o c i a t i v e approach "symbolic."

I conclude w i t h the o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t the a n c i e n t

Chinese owed t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n dreams to t h e i r u n r e m i t t i n g

ii
s e a r c h f o r meaning i n the cosmos, o f which man, i n the

t r a d i t i o n a l concept, was an i n t e g r a l p a r t . I find this

interest indicative of the a f f e c t i v e a s p e c t of the

Chinese mind, and c o n j e c t u r e t h a t as l o n g as the Chinese

have hopes, f e a r s , j o y s and sorrows, as do the r e s t of

the w o r l d , they w i l l c o n t i n u e to dream.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I : DREAM AS HARBINGER OF FUTURE EVENTS

1.1 The Dreams o f Huang-ti

1.2 The Dreams o f Other A n c i e n t Emperors

1.3 P r e d i c t i v e Dreams i n the C o n f u c i a n Classics

CHAPTER I I : DREAM AS MESSAGE FROM THE SPIRIT WORLD

2.1 Dreams i n the Shang Oracle-Bone Inscriptions

2.2 Dreams I n v o l v i n g S p i r i t s i n the Tso-chuan
2 . 3 Dream Ghosts and the D u a l i t y of Souls
2 . 4 Message Dreams from the Dead
2.5 Message Dreams from D e i t i e s o f Human O r i g i n
2.6 Dream I n c u b a t i o n
2.7 Dream as Commodity
2.8 The Dream-God
CHAPTER I I I : DREAM AS RESPONSE TO PHYSICAL STIMULI

3.1 The I n t e r n a l Stimuli

3.2 The E x t e r n a l Stimuli
3.3 A Freudian Critique

CHAPTER IV: DREAM AS PROJECTION OF MENTAL STATES

4.1 C o n f u c i u s as Dreamer
4.2 Dream and R a t i o n a l i s m
4.3 C o n f u c i u s as Dreamt
4.4 Dream and S k e p t i c i s m
4.5 Dreams- Come-False

iv
CHAPTER V: DREAM AND REALITY 84

5 . 1 Chuang-tzu and D e s c a r t e s
5.2 The B u t t e r f l y Dream as A l l e g o r y
5 . 3 Dream as F l i g h t
5 . 4 Dream R e a l i s m i n the L i e h - t z u
5.5 The I l l u s i o n o f Time and Space
5.6 The B u d d h i s t V i s i o n
5.7 The K u a n - y i n - t z u on Dream Ambiguity
5 . 8 Dream R e a l i s m from T'ang to Ch'ing
5.9 S p a t i o - t e m p o r a l D i s c r e t e n e s s and C o n t i n u i t y

CHAPTER V I : TOWARD A THEORY OF CHINESE DREAM INTERPRETATION 1 4 3

6 . 1 Meaning and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
6.2 Dream as M u l t i v o c a l Text
6.3 The C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Dreams

CHAPTER V I I : METHODS OF CHINESE DREAM INTERPRETATION 165"

7.1 The C o r r o b o r a t i v e Approach

7.1.1 Oneiromancy and T o r t o i s e - S h e l l S c o r c h i n g

7.1.2 Oneiromancy and Y a r r o w - S t a l k C a s t i n g
7.1.3 Oneiromancy and Sun-Dog Watching

7.2 The A s s o c i a t i v e Approach

7.2.1 Decoding Dream Symbols by D i r e c t Association

7.2.2 Decoding Dream Symbols by P o e t i c L o g i c
7.2.3 Decoding Dream Symbols by L i n g u i s t i c Means

7.2.3.1 Paronomastic Linkage

7.2.3.2 Ideographic A n a l y s i s

CHAPTER V I I I : SUMMARY 197

NOTES 203

BIBLIOGRAPHY 219

APPENDIX: LIST OF TRANSLITERATED CHINESE WORDS 226

v
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks a r e due to P r o f e s s o r D a n i e l L . Overmyer f o r h i s

p a t i e n t guidance as a d v i s o r ; to P r o f e s s o r s J a n W. W a l l s and

Yvonne L . W a l l s o f the U n i v e r s i t y o f V i c t o r i a f o r t h e i r

f r i e n d s h i p , encouragement, and h e l p i n more ways than there

is space to r e c o r d here; to Mr. and Mrs. Thomas W. Mouat,

P. Eng., under whose b l e s s e d r o o f I have had numerous pleasant

dreams i n the l a s t three y e a r s ; and to Mr. Ronald J . B a l d e n ,

soon t o be w i t h the Atomic Energy L i m i t e d o f Canada, f o r

many s t i m u l a t i n g d i s c u s s i o n s and f o r t e l l i n g me, i n p a r t i c u l a r ,

the s t o r y o f August Kekule and h i s hypnagogic v i s i o n .

L a s t l y , i t i s my wish to d e d i c a t e t h i s humble f r u i t o f

l o v e ' s l a b o r to my f r i e n d Miss H o l l y E . R a t c l i f f e o f McMaster

University.

vi
L e r n e n w i r traumen, meine Herren, dann
f i n d e n w i r v i e l l e i c h t d i e Wahrheit.

August Kekule
Ber. 23(1890):1307

vii
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Introduction

1 Rationale

Dreams have always f a s c i n a t e d humankind. They a r e

worthy o f s e r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n simply because, i f f o r no

other reason, they a r e , o r a r e a t l e a s t thought to be,

there.

Dreaming i s a p r i v a t e e x p e r i e n c e . As l o n g as the

dream i t s e l f cannot be o b j e c t i f i e d , i t s o c c u r r e n c e remains

an assumption. Nevertheless, t h i s assumption i s a u n i v e r s a l

one; f o r dream r e p o r t s can be found i n a l l s o c i e t i e s whether

a n c i e n t o r modern and however p r i m i t i v e o r advanced.

Dreams a r e , as a r u l e , r e p o r t e d as events t h a t have

taken p l a c e i n s l e e p . Q u i t e a p a r t from the p h i l o s o p h i c a l

q u e s t i o n whether such events a r e e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from

our waking e x p e r i e n c e s , i t i s l e g i t i m a t e to a s k , a t the

e x p e r i e n t i a l l e v e l , whether they mean a n y t h i n g .

This question often presents i t s e l f because many dreams

v e r g e on the b i z a r r e . F o r people i n the h a b i t o f assuming

t h a t whatever does n o t make immediate sense s h o u l d be

q u i c k l y f o r g o t t e n , such a q u e s t i o n may n o t e x i s t . For

o t h e r s , however, strangeness i t s e l f i s an i n v i t a t i o n to

adventure and d i s c o v e r y , and i n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y an

i n d i c a t i o n of hidden s i g n i f i c a n c e . Hence the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f dreams, an a r t h e l d i n many a n c i e n t s o c i e t i e s to be o f

such importance t h a t no p e r s o n a l , s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , o r

economic q u e s t i o n c o u l d be d e c i d e d upon without first having

recourse to i t .
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In more r e c e n t c e n t u r i e s i n the West, p a r t i c u l a r l y -

a f t e r the advent o f the Age o f Reason, the importance

a s c r i b e d to dreams and dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n had considerably

d e c r e a s e d , so t h a t when Preud r e v i v e d the whole i s s u e with

the p u b l i c a t i o n o f h i s Die Traumdeutung a t the t u r n o f this

century, the event c o u l d j u s t l y be d e s c r i b e d as epoch-

making.

Since then, the s u b j e c t of dreaming has become r e s -

p e c t a b l e i n academic c i r c l e s . I t i s almost f a s h i o n a b l e as

a t o p i c f o r r e s e a r c h i n such, d i s c i p l i n e s as psychology,

sociology, philosophy, anthropology, religion, literature,

and even c l i n i c a l physiology.

T n i s t h e s i s aims to c o n t r i b u t e to the c u r r e n t interest

i n dreams by d e l v i n g i n t o the v a s t s t o r e o f m a t e r i a l on

the s u b j e c t p r e s e r v e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese s o u r c e s . It

attempts to show two t h i n g s ; f i r s t , how dreams were regarded

as s i g n i f i c a n t by the a n c i e n t Chinese, and secondly, the

ways i n which the meaning o f dreams was determined.

2 Sources

T h e o r e t i c a l l y , s i n c e I i n t e n d to pursue the subject

w i t h i n the c o n f i n e s o f China's p a s t , a n y t h i n g w r i t t e n i n

Chinese b e f o r e the modern e r a t o u c h i n g on dreams i s poten-

t i a l p r i m a r y source m a t e r i a l . R e a l i s t i c a l l y , however, i t

behooves me to be selective. Thus, my references are of

three general types. F i r s t , works o f o f f i c i a l standing,

such as the C o n f u c i a n c l a s s i c s and the d y n a s t i c histories.

S e c o n d l y , works by i n d i v i d u a l t h i n k e r s , s c h o l a r s , and writers

 3

throughout the ages, e.g. the Chuang-tzu, L i e h - t z u . Lun heng,

Ch'ien-fu lun t etc. T h i r d l y , works that cater to popular

tastes or of popular o r i g i n , e.g. the numerous p i - c h i hsiao-

shuo (anecdotal f i c t i o n ) and the anonymous Chou-kung chieh-

meng (Duke o f Chou i n t e r p r e t s dreams).

Of the f i r s t group, the Tso-chuan and Chou-li, both

dating back to pre-Ch'in times, are of the greatest impor-

tance f o r my present purpose. Of the second group, a l l the

four works mentioned above are indispensable. In the case

of the Chuang-tzu, I r , r e f e r i n p a r t i c u l a r to the "Ch'i-wu

lun" chapter (2), which, as one o f the s o - c a l l e d "inner

chapters," dates back to the Warring-States period. The

Lieh-tzu as we have i t now, although containing material

from the t h i r d century B.C., was written i n about A.D. 300,

as pointed out by A.C. Graham i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to h i s

t r a n s l a t i o n of the book. I have made extensive use of the

"Chou Mu-wang" chapter ( 3 ) .

Both Lun heng and Ch'ien-fu l u n are indisputably from

Han times. In s p i t e of t h e i r advanced state of corruption,

both texts are mostly readable, thanks to L i u P'an-sui's

Lun heng chi-chieh (prefaced jen-shen, i . e . 1932; r p t .

Peking, 1957) and to Wang Chi-p'ei's annotation and emen-

dation o f the Ch'ien-fu l u n (prefaced Chia-ch'ing 19th year,

chia-hsu, i . e . 1814; r p t . Shanghai, 1978). The relevant

chapters i n the f i r s t book are "Lun ssu," (62) "Chi yao,"

(64) and ".Ting k u i . " (65) In the second, "Meng l i e h " (28)

is invaluable.
 4

As f o r the t h i r d group, I have a v a i l e d m y s e l f o f the

handy c o l l e c t i o n s P i - c h i hsiao-shuo ta-kuan and Wu-ch'ao

hsiao-shuo ta-kuan. The r e s p e c t i v e dates o f the individual

works i n the.se c o l l e c t i o n s w i l l he g i v e n as I r e f e r to them

r

i n the text.

One i m p o r t a n t secondary source i n t h i s c a t e g o r y i s

Chang F e n g - i ' s Meng-chan l e i - k ' a o ( p r e f a c e d Wan-li i - y u ,

i.e. 1585), i n 12 chtian. T h i s work i s a c o m p i l a t i o n o f

dream e p i s o d e s g l e a n e d from a n c i e n t and contemporary sources.

I t a l s o i n c l u d e s one o r two anecdotes p e r s o n a l to the

compiler.

I n h i s p r e f a c e Chang F e n g - i s t a t e s h i s r e a s o n f o r

u n d e r t a k i n g t h i s work t h u s :

Some y e a r s ago I had an i l l n e s s so serious

t h a t "both p h y s i c i a n s and quacks c o u l d do n o t h i n g

about i t . I r e c o v e r e d , however, thanks to a

dream.

Then I thought: A l t h o u g h the s e c r e t a r t o f

the a n c i e n t sages had g o t l o s t i n t r a n s m i s s i o n ,

the proven cases on r e c o r d c o u l d s t i l l he verified.

Thus, I t r a c e d the source to the S i x C l a s s i c s

and searched through the h i s t o r i e s , r e l a t i n g my

f i n d i n g s to v a r i o u s o t h e r t e x t s , tangentially

t o u c h i n g on w r i t i n g s o f a f i c t i v e n a t u r e as w e l l .

No matter how remote o r r e c e n t i t might be,

o r whether the people i n v o l v e d were Chinese or

o u t l a n d i s h , so l o n g as the m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e d some
 5

evidence f o r dreams, I would p i c k and i n c l u d e

it i n t h i s work, which I have e n t i t l e d Meng-chan

l e i - k a o o r A Study o f Dream I n t e r p r e t a t i o n by
f

Categories.

The c a t e g o r i e s ( l e i ) o r s e c t i o n s (jou) were s e t up i n

r e f e r e n c e t o the content o f the m a t e r i a l . Thus, "t ien-

f

hsiang" (heavenly s i g n s ) i s the f i r s t section, "ti-li"

( g e o g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e s ) the second, "sheng-hsien" ( s a i n t s

and sages) the t h i r d , and so on. The f i n a l s e c t i o n i s

"shuo meng" ( s p e a k i n g o f dreams), which c o n t a i n s texts

r e l a t i n g to the t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t o f dreams and dream

interpretation.

T h i s c o l l e c t i o n has served as my key to the whole

subject. I t s h o u l d be used w i t h c a u t i o n , however, f o r

some c i t a t i o n s a r e a b r i d g e d , others slightly altered. Hence,

I have made a p o i n t o f always r e f e r r i n g to the o r i g i n a l

source where a v a i l a b l e .

The Chou-kung c h i e h meng, a s o r t o f dream d i c t i o n a r y ,

i s o f u n c e r t a i n date. I f Chang Peng-i d i d n o t make a snide

remark about i t i n h i s p r e f a c e to h i s own work, I would

have a b s o l u t e l y no i d e a as to i t s v i n t a g e . He says:

Verily, t h e r e was no b e t t e r mantic a r t than

dream ("interpretation} . During the Wei-Chin

p e r i o d , each g e n e r a t i o n s t i l l had i t s famous

specialists. I n Sung-Ytlan times, however, people

had l o s t so much i n t e r e s t i n i t t h a t some c r a f t y

ones i n the book market a p p r o p r i a t e d the name

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"Duke o f Chou." F o r i t was C o n f u c i u s who was

said to have dreamt of the Duke o f Chou, whereas

the duke h i m s e l f had. never had dreams csic7.

How then can he have C w r i t t e n such] a book?

And how can i t have been handed down? ( F o r a

book o f t h i s nature!) to have been t r a n s m i t t e d

n o t through the C h o u - l i but o s t e n s i b l y as one

book, does t h i s stand to reason?

Based on t h i s e v i d e n c e , l e t me tentatively propose t h a t

the Chou-kung c h i e h meng was a l r e a d y i n e x i s t e n c e , and

q u i t e p o p u l a r a t t h a t , i n the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . My own

copy i s found i n another book i n p o p u l a r c i r c u l a t i o n called

Hsiang meng y i l - h s i a c h i (Dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and the r e c o r d

from a jade b o x ) . The Yti-hsia c h i o r , more f o r m a l l y , Hsu

Chen-ehun y t i - h s i a c h i (Record from the jade box o f Hsu the

True L o r d ) , i s by i t s e l f a book o f T a o i s t o r i g i n . Ascribed

to Hsii Hstin of C h i n times, i t c o n t a i n s , among o t h e r t h i n g s ,

a calendar l i s t i n g the f e a s t - d a y s of v a r i o u s T a o i s t deities

and saints. I t i s i n c l u d e d i n the Hsu Tao-tsang (Supplement

to the T a o i s t p a t r o l o g y ) .

3 Methodology

In any study o f dreams and dreaming, one methodological

i s s u e which immediately c o n f r o n t s the s t u d e n t i s the problem

of how a dream r e p o r t can be c o n s i d e r e d genuine, that i s ,

r e g a r d e d as a f a i t h f u l account of an a c t u a l dream experience.

I have addressed myself to t h i s i s s u e i n the opening paragraphs

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paragraphs of S e c t i o n 6.2. Since, i n undertaking this

r e s e a r c h , I saw myself p r i m a r i l y i n the r o l e of a sedentary

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t i n the t r a d i t i o n of James P r a z e r and Edward

Tylor, I f e l t o b l i g e d to make some s o r t of distinction

between " r e a l " and " f a b r i c a t e d " dreams, however tenuous i t

might seem. F o r i t o c c u r r e d to me that, although fictitious

dreams c o u l d c e r t a i n l y t e l l us something about the a l l e g e d

dreamers, as F r e u d i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s t s would g e n e r a l l y acknow-

l e d g e , they belonged i n the p e r s o n a l h i s t o r i e s of their

o r i g i n a t o r s not as dreams b u t , p r o p e r l y , as fabrications.

Owing to t h i s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s c r u p l e , I have had to

e x c l u d e , w i t h much r e g r e t , dream m a t e r i a l from such works

of f i c t i o n as the Hung-lou meng (Dream of the r e d chamber)

and the H s i - y u pu ( S e q u e l to j o u r n e y to the West), to mention

but two n o t a b l e examples. I have a l s o r e f r a i n e d from any

r e f e r e n c e to the d r e a m - l i k e language and symbolism o f the

I ching f o r s i m i l a r reasons.

On the o t h e r hand, I have made e x t e n s i v e use of compar-

a t i v e m a t e r i a l from o t h e r c u l t u r e s , b o t h a n c i e n t and modern,

in the hope t h a t a c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e may be brought

to b e a r upon the s u b j e c t .

F i n a l l y , owing to my c o n v i c t i o n t h a t , as f a r as the

t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese views on dreams a r e concerned, their

i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r r e l i g i o n and p h i l o s o p h y a r e f a r more e x t e n s i v e

than f o r any other f i e l d o f human knowledge, I have a l l o w e d

myself to be guided i n t h i s endeavor by the methodological

p r i n c i p l e s f o r m u l a t e d by M i r c e a E l i a d e and h i s f o l l o w e r s i n
 7+

the f i e l d o f the phenomenology o f r e l i g i o n and those taught

by P a u l R i c o e u r i n t h a t o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l hermeneutics.

N.B.: The word " a n c i e n t " i n the t i t l e o f t h i s work i s

used i n the F r e n c h sense o f a n c i e n regime.

Hence, by " a n c i e n t China" I mean the China b e f o r e

the r e v o l u t i o n o f 1911.
 8

CHAPTER I

DREAM AS HARBINGER OP FUTURE EVENTS

The idea that dreams may come true has found credence
i n many c u l t u r e s . The contents of such dreams may he quite
straightforward and require no further explanation, or they
may consist of symbolic imageiries c a l l i n g f o r the expertise
of a dream i n t e r p r e t e r to decipher.

Although i n our modern s o p h i s t i c a t i o n we can always

explain or explain away precognitive dreams i n terms of
the workings of the unconscious, subconscious, or preconscious
mind, f o r the ancients such dreams had a r e a l i t y of t h e i r own
i

and were often a t t r i b u t e d to supernatural causes. They

were generally believed to have been sent by some deity or

s p i r i t whose message had to be taken s e r i o u s l y . The Old

Testament, f o r example, records the dreams of King Nebuchad-

nezzar or Babylon, Pharaoh of Egypt, Jacob of I s r a e l and h i s

son Joseph, a l l of which foreshadowed future events.

1 . 1 The Dreams of Huang-ti

In ancient"China, legend has i t that Huang-ti or the

Yellow Emperor of high a n t i q u i t y once dreamt that he saw

a great wind blowing away the "dust and d i r t " under heaven.

Then, i n another dream, he saw a man with an extremely

heavy cross-bow herding myriads upon myriads of sheep. Upon

waking, he sighed and interpreted the dreams thus: Feng

(the Chinese word f o r 'wind', which happened to be the clan-

 9

name o f F u - h s i / P ' a b - h s i , one o f the sage-kings o f p r e - h i s -

t o r i c a l China, as w e l l ) , is, one who g i v e s o r d e r s and h o l d s

office. When t ' u , ' e a r t h ' , i s taken away from kou, 'dirt',
2

what remains i s hou, 'leader'. May i t n o t be t h a t t h e r e i s

someone surnamed Feng and c a l l e d Hou under heaven? As f o r

the heavy cross-bow, to handle i t requires extraordinary

li, ' s t r e n g t h ' ; and h e r d i n g myriads upon myriads of sheep

means someone capable o f l o o k i n g a f t e r the people (mu min)

and d o i n g good. S u r e l y t h e r e must be under heaven a p e r s o n

surnamed I i and c a l l e d Mu, 'shepherd'I

Having thus i n t e r p r e t e d h i s own dreams, the Y e l l o w

Emperor had the two persons i n q u e s t i o n sought. Consequently,

Feng Hou was found i n a s e c l u d e d s p o t by the s e a , and L i Mu

in the v i c i n i t y o f a great lake. The former was appointed

3

prime m i n i s t e r and the l a t t e r a g e n e r a l .

Thus, not o n l y d i d the Y e l l o w Emperor s u b j e c t h i s dreams

to a s y m b o l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , but he a l s o r e s o r t e d to an

o n e i r o c r i t i c a l method based on l i n g u i s t i c associations

4

d e r i v e d from dream i m a g e r i e s .

Huang-fu Mi o f Western C h i n times, who recorded t h i s

l e g e n d i n h i s T i wang s h i h - c h i ( P e r i o d i c a l accounts o f emperors

and k i n g s ) , ^ concluded i t w i t h the f o l l o w i n g statement:

"As a r e s u l t , Huang-ti wrote the Chan meng c h i n g ( C l a s s i c

o f dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) i n e l e v e n chtlan." And indeed,

the Han-shu I-wen c h i h ( C h a p t e r on the a r t s and leterature

i n the d y n a s t i c h i s t o r y o f Han) l i s t s a work e n t i t l e d Huang-ti

c h ' a n g - l i u chan-meng (The Y e l l o w Emperor's l o n g - w i l l o w o n e i r o -

 10

mancy) i n e l e v e n chtian, f o l l o w e d "by another c a l l e d Kan Te

c h ' a n g - l i u chan-meng (Kan Te's l o n g - w i l l o w oneiromancy) i n

7
twenty chiian.

1.2 The Dreams o f Other A n c i e n t Emperors

8
A c c o r d i n g to the Chu-shu c h i - n i e n (Bamboo chronicles),
Emperor Yao once dreamt, presumably b e f o r e h i s a c c e s s i o n to
q

the t h r o n e , t h a t he climbed up to heaven. The T i wang s h i h -

c h i has a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n o f Yao's dream; i t

states: "At T'ang, Yao dreamt t h a t he went up to heaven r ;

r i d i n g a dragon. Consequently, he possessed a l l under heaven."

Then Shun, the r i g h t - h a n d man o f Emperor Yao, i s s a i d to

have dreamt t h a t h i s eyebrows were as l o n g as h i s h a i r .

A p p a r e n t l y , t h i s was r e g a r d e d as a good omen. F o r l a t e r he

was to be a p p o i n t e d r e g e n t by Yao and f i n a l l y to succeed him
11
as emperor.
Ytt, the h y d r a u l i c e n g i n e e r , Emperor Chun's protege and
s u c c e s s o r , once dreamt too t h a t he washed h i m s e l f i n a r i v e r
12
and drank from i t .

And the Chu-shu c h i - n i e n r e c o r d s t h a t when T'ang was

about to r e c e i v e the h e a v e n l y mandate and overthrow C h i e h ,

the l a s t emperor o f the dynasty founded by Ytl, he dreamt t h a t

13
he reached up to heaven and l i c k e d i t .
I C h i h / I Y i n , who was to become T'ang's prime m i n i s t e r ,

when he was about to answer T'ang's c a l l to duty, dreamt t h a t

14

he c r u i s e d by the sun and moon i n a s k i f f . I C h i h was said

to be a descendant o f L i Mu, the Y e l l o w Emperor's g e n e r a l

mentioned above.
 11

The T i wang s h i h - c h i r e l a t e s the c i r c u m s t a n c e s under

which I Ghih came i n t o T'ang's employ as f o l l o w s :

P r e o c c u p i e d "by the thought o f p r o c u r i n g

a b l e men, T'ang dreamt t h a t a man came w i t h a

c a u l d r o n on h i s back and h o l d i n g h i g h i n h i s

hands a c h o p p i n g - b l o c k . The man s m i l e d a t him.

T'ang woke up and i n t e r p r e t e d the dream

thus: The c a u l d r o n i s f o r combining the f l a v o r s

and the chopping-block f o r s l i c i n g and c u t t i n g .

S u r e l y t h e r e must be someone under heaven who i s

g o i n g to be my cook C t s a i , which a l s o means

'minister')!

Now, I Ghih was a descendant o f I i Mu. He

took to t i l l a g e i n the w i l d s o f Yu-shen. Having

h e a r d o f him, T'ang s e n t him a p r e s e n t by way o f

invitation. But he was d e t a i n e d by the r u l e r o f

Yu-shen. T'ang t h e r e f o r e made a marriage p r o p o s a l

to the r u l e r , who then s e n t h i s daughter to T'ang.

She was accompanied by I Ghih as a s e r v a n t . When

he a r r i v e d a t Po (T'ang's c a p i t a l ) and saw T'ang,

he was c a r r y i n g a c a u l d r o n on h i s back and h o l d i n g

15
a chopping-block i n h i s hands.

In t h i s i n s t a n c e we have a p r e d i c t i v e dream i n which a pun

16
is involved.
1.3 P r e d i c t i v e Dreams i n the C o n f u c i a n C l a s s i c s

That dreams forebode happenings i n the f u t u r e i s i m p l i e d

 12

i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s from the S h i h - c h i n g (Book o f o d e s ) :

Below, the rush-mats; over them the "bamboo-mats.

Comfortably he sleeps,

He s l e e p s and wakes

And i n t e r p r e t s h i s dreams.

'Your l u c k y dreams, what were they?'

'They were of b l a c k b e a r s and brown,

Of s e r p e n t s and snakes.'

The d i v i n e r thus i n t e r p r e t s i t :

'Black b e a r s and brown

Mean m e n - c h i l d r e n .

Snakes and serpents

17
Mean g i r l - c h i l d r e n .
( A r t h u r Waley's translation)

Whoever wrote these l i n e s was c e r t a i n l y aware o f the symbolic

n a t u r e o f dream i m a g e r i e s , whose meanings would have to be

d e c i p h e r e d through an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the c o n v e n t i o n s

involved. The " d i v i n e r " mentioned here may have been a

p r o f e s s i o n a l dream i n t e r p r e t e r .

The n e x t poem i n the S h i h - c h i n g a g a i n mentions some

dreams and another interpreter:

Your herdsman dreams

Dreams o f l o c u s t s and fish,

Of banners and flags.

A wise man e x p l a i n s the dreams:

'Locusts and fish

 13

Mean f a t y e a r s .

F l a g s and banners
1R
Mean a teeming house and home.

I t i s not a t a l l c l e a r how the " d i v i n e r " or the "wise

man" a r r i v e d a t the meanings g i v e n f o r the dream o b j e c t s

mentioned, a l t h o u g h we can see t h a t some k i n d o f a s s o c i a t i v e

p r i n c i p l e was a t work. There must a l s o have been cultural

f a c t o r s t h a t had to be taken i n t o a c c o u n t .

The Shu-ching (Book o f documents) r e l a t e s how King

Wu-ting o f the Shang dynasty d i s c o v e r e d the r e c l u s e Fu Ytieh,

l a t e r h i s c h i e f a d v i s e r , through a dream. The k i n g dreamt

of the man. Upon waking, he i n s t r u c t e d the c o u r t a r t i s t to

p a i n t a p i c t u r e o f Ytleh based on h i s d e s c r i p t i o n . Then he

despatched a s e a r c h p a r t y to the c o u n t r y s i d e w i t h the p i c t u r e .

19

Fu Ytleh was found i n a cave. T h i s was a fairly literal dream.

The Shu-ching a l s o c o n t a i n s a "pep t a l k " g i v e n by King

Wu, f u t u r e founder o f the Chou dynasty, to h i s t r o o p s i n

p r e p a r a t i o n f o r l a u n c h i n g h i s campaign a g a i n s t Shou/Chou, the

l a s t Shang/Yin k i n g . A f t e r enumerating the e n o r m i t i e s per-

p e t r a t e d by t h i s t y r a n t , K i n g Wu continued, "My dreams are

i n accord with the o r a c l e - b o n e crackings; thus the omen i s

doubly a u s p i c i o u s . We s h a l l triumph f o r sure i n a t t a c k i n g

the Shang." 20

Here K i n g Wu a l l u d e d to an o c c u l t p r a c t i c e r e q u i r i n g the

mutual c o r r o b o r a t i o n of two d i v i n a t o r y techniques. This will

be d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h i n Chapter VII as an approach to dream

interpretation i n classical times.

 14

Next, the Tso-chuan t e l l s the s t o r y o f Y e n - c h i , a lowly

concubine own by Duke W n e o f Cheng. She dreamt t h a t Heaven

sent f o r a lan-flower and gave i t to h e r , s a y i n g , " I am

21
Po-ch'ou, your a n c e s t o r . L e t t h i s be your son's emblem.
As the l a n exudes a s t a t e l y f r a g r a n c e , so s h a l l the people

obey and l o v e him."

L a t e r , i t happened t h a t Duke Wen saw h e r , gave h e r a

lan-flower, and s l e p t w i t h h e r . Wishing to d e c l i n e h i s

advances, she s a i d , "Your m a i d - s e r v a n t i s a w o r t h l e s s p e r s o n .

Even i f by l u c k she should bear a son, she would n o t be

believed. May she make b o l d to use t h i s l a n as e v i d e n c e ,

if t h a t should happen?" The duke consented.

A f t e r w a r d s , she indeed gave b i r t h to a son and named

22
him Lan, who became Duke Mu.

Y e n - c h i ' s dream would l o s e much o f i t s p r e d i c t i v e

character i f one c o u l d show t h a t she had a weakness f o r t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r f l o w e r and t h a t Duke Wen knew about i t . But as

the t e x t s t a n d s , the dream i s meant to be u n d e r s t o o d as

predictive. T h i s , t o o , was a l i t e r a l dream.

The same source r e l a t e s the f o l l o w i n g dream o f Sheng-po,

an o f f i c e r o f Lu. He dreamt t h a t he was c r o s s i n g the r i v e r

Huan, where someone gave him a c a r n a t i o n gem and a f i n e

pearl. He a t e them and wept, shedding t e a r s o f gems and

p e a r l s on h i s bosom, u n t i l i t was f u l l y covered. Then he

began to s i n g :

As I c r o s s e d the r i v e r Huan,

A gem and a p e a r l were g i v e n to me.

 15

Home, home I must go,

Now t h a t my bosom s w e l l s w i t h jewelry.

He woke up and was so s c a r e d t h a t he dared n o t have the dream

interpreted.

Three y e a r s l a t e r , on h i s way back from Cheng, he a r r i v e d

at Li-shen, where he f i n a l l y had the dream i n t e r p r e t e d ,

saying, "I was a f r a i d t h a t the dream p r e f i g u r e d my death,

t h a t ' s why I was r e l u c t a n t to have i t i n t e r p r e t e d . Now that

my f o l l o w e r s have i n c r e a s e d and have stayed w i t h me f o r t h r e e

years, i t should be harmless to t e l l i t . V

23

So he t o l d i t , and d i e d i n the evening o f t h a t v e r y day.

R e f e r r i n g to t h i s dream e p i s o d e , Tu Ytl says i n h i s

commentary t h a t the p e a r l and gem s i g n i f y the h a n - j e w e l r y

placed i n the mouth o f the deceased a t b u r i a l . Hence Sheng-

po's apprehension.

T h i s s t o r y a l s o suggests the i d e a t h a t a p r e d i c t i v e

dream would n o t take e f f e c t u n t i l i t was t o l d . This seems

to agree w i t h the Talmudic d o c t r i n e t h a t "the dream follows

the mouth," t h a t i s , " e v e r y t h i n g happens >in;accordance w i t h the

interpretation.

Another Confucian c l a s s i c , the L i - c h i (Book o f r i t e s ) ,

says t h a t K i n g Wen o f Chou once asked h i s son K i n g Wu, "What

dreams d i d you have l a t e l y ? "

K i n g Wu s a i d , "I dreamt t h a t the Ti-god gave me n i n e
teeth." 2 5

"And what do you t h i n k the dream means?"

"Well, s i n c e there a r e n i n e s t a t e s i n the West, i t c o u l d

 16

mean t h a t you, F a t h e r , w i l l y e t b r i n g them i n t o our fold."

"No," s a i d K i n g Wen, " t h a t ' s not the meaning. In

a n c i e n t times the word f o r t e e t h means 'years' as w e l l .

You may expect to l i v e to be n i n e t y , and I a hundred. I

w i l l g i v e you three years."

T h i s episode ends w i t h the statement t h a t K i n g Wen was

26

ninety-seven when he d i e d and K i n g Wu ninety-three.

I n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f K i n g Wu's dream, K i n g Wen

a p p a r e n t l y r e l i e d on h i s knowledge o f the etymology o f the

word c h ' i h , ' t e e t h ' . Dreams c o n t a i n i n g t h i s type of linguistic

symbolism w i l l a l s o be t r e a t e d i n Chapter V I I .

Finally, the L i - c h i r e l a t e s how Confucius himself,

s e n s i n g h i s a p p r o a c h i n g death, got up e a r l y one morning and

began to s i n g a mournful song.

When Tzu-kung came to see him, he described to this

disciple the way i n which the f u n e r a l r i t e s used to be conduc-

ted i n the p r e c e d i n g two dynasties. He said t h a t under the

Y i n d y n a s t y , o f whose r o y a l house h i s f a m i l y was a branch, the

ceremony took p l a c e between the two pillars o f the h a l l ,

t h a t i s , between the s t p e s f o r the h o s t and those f o r the

guest. The people o f Chou, however, d i d i t a t the top o f the

western s t e p s , thus making the deceased, as i t were, a guest.

"Some n i g h t s ago," the Master went on, "I dreamt t h a t I

was s i t t i n g between the two p i l l a r s , with the sacrificial

o f f e r i n g s i n f u l l view. Since sage-kings do not a r i s e , who

on e a r t h w i l l honor me? I am d y i n g , I suppose." After this,

27
he l a y i l l f o r seven days and died.
 17

And so there went a n o t h e r prophet unhonored i n h i s own

country.

I n sum, I must p o i n t out t h a t the i d e a o f dreams h a v i n g

a p r e d i c t i v e f u n c t i o n can be found n o t o n l y i n such o l d e r

t e x t s as I have adduced i n t h i s chapter, but i n Chinese

w r i t i n g s o f a l l times, i n c l u d i n g the modern e r a .

 18

CHAPTER TWO

DREAM AS MESSAGE PROM THE SPIRIT WORLD

In many a n c i e n t s o c i e t i e s , s p i r i t u a l b e i n g s , such as

gods, demons and g h o s t s , were b e l i e v e d to have a mode o f

e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r own. N e v e r t h e l e s s , they a l s o seemed

capable o f communicating w i t h human b e i n g s .

The a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s , f o r example, regarded dreams

as messages from the gods. The B a b y l o n i a n s and the A s s y r i a n s ,

i
on the o t h e r hand, a t t r i b u t e d dreams to demonic f o r c e s . The

a n c i e n t Greeks, t o o , c o n s i d e r e d a dream to be a v i s i t p a i d
2

to a s l e e p i n g person by a god o r ghost.

Among the examples g i v e n i n the f o r e g o i n g s e c t i o n ,

t h e r e i s one t h a t i n v o l v e d s p i r i t u a l b e i n g s , namely, the

dream o f Y e n - c h i . I n t h i s dream "Heaven" may be r e g a r d e d

as a god o r n a t u r e s p i r i t and Po-ch'ou a g h o s t .

T h i s c h a p t e r d e a l s i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h dreams t h a t show

i n t e r a c t i o n s between the s p i r i t world and t h a t o f the l i v i n g .

2.1 Dreams i n the Shang Oracle-Bone Inscriptions

Pyro-scapulimancy, o r d i v i n a t i o n by i n t e r p r e t i n g cracks

produced by h e a t on bones, m o s t l y s h o u l d e r b l a d e s o f domestic

c a t t l e and a few o t h e r a n i m a l s , as w e l l as on t u r t l e shells,

p a r t i c u l a r l y p l a s t r o n s , was p r a c t i s e d i n China d u r i n g the

Shang and Chou d y n a s t i e s . The d i s c o v e r y o f the i n s c r i b e d

o r a c l e bones i n 1899 was a momentous event i n modern Chinese

4/
archaeology.
The o r a c l e - b o n e i n s c r i p t i o n s r e v e a l to us n o t o n l y such
 19

mundane concerns o f the Shang/Yin people as h u n t i n g , fighting

and weather f o r e c a s t s , but t h e i r r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s as w e l l .

There are a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f o r a c l e - b o n e inscrip-

tions having to do w i t h dreams. These were charges to the

o r a c l e which "sought to determine the p o t e n t i a l l y ominous

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a dream, u s u a l l y the k i n g ' s , t h a t had already

taken p l a c e and to d i s c o v e r which a n c e s t o r o r power had

5

caused the dream."

For example, t h e r e are s e v e r a l i n s c r i p t i o n s r e f e r r i n g

to the dreams o f K i n g Wu-ting mentioned i n the foregoing

chapter. According to these i n s c r i p t i o n s , the k i n g often

dreamt o f h i s c o n s o r t or o f one o f h i s concubines and wanted

to know whether such dreams would b r i n g d i s a s t e r . He also

dreamt o f o t h e r p e o p l e , such as a n c e s t o r s , deceased brothers

and courtiers. A l l these o n e i r i c a p p a r i t i o n s seemed to

d i s t u r b him. He a l s o had r e c u r r e n t g h o s t l y dreams, which

were u n d o u b t e d l y f r i g h t e n i n g .

I n g e n e r a l , the Shang people seemed convinced t h a t dreams

were caused by the dead, i n p a r t i c u l a r the h s i e n - k u n g and
h s i e n - p i , t h a t i s , the p a t r i a r c h a l and matriarchal ancestors,

whose g h o s t s were r e q u i r i n g p r o p i t i a t i o n s by sacrificial

7
offerings.

2.2 Dreams I n v o l v i n g S p i r i t s i n the Tso-chuan

The Tso-chuan has always been n o t o r i o u s f o r i t s accounts

o f the p r o d i g i o u s . I t t e l l s o f the dream, f o r example, o f

Tzu-yli, a g e n e r a l o f the s t a t e o f Ch'u, who had once made

for h i m s e l f a cap o f f a w n - s k i n , which he had not worn. Prior

 20

to a c r u c i a l b a t t l e a g a i n s t the army o f C h i n , he dreamt

t h a t the r i v e r god s a i d to him, "Give me f y o u r capjj , and

I will bestow on;you the marsh o f Meng-chu. He r e f u s e d to

comply.

Knowing about the dream, h i s son T a - h s i n and T z u - h s i ,

another g e n e r a l , sent Jung-huang to remonstrate w i t h him,

but to no a v a i l .

The b a t t l e took p l a c e and Tzu-yil s u f f e r e d d e f e a t .

8
A f t e r w a r d s , he committed suicide.

Apparently, the i l l - f a t e d g e n e r a l s u f f e r e d the conseq-

uences o f r e f u s i n g to g i v e i n to the demands o f a n a t u r e

s p i r i t made known to him i n a dream.

Another passage from the Tso-chuan t e l l s how Duke

Ch'eng o f Wei was f o r c e d by the T i b a r b a r i a n s to move h i s

c a p i t a l to T i - c h ' i u , where H s i a n g , the f i f t h k i n g o f t h e

H s i a dynasty, had r e s i d e d f o r a c e r t a i n l e n g t h o f time.

Soon a f t e r w a r d s Duke Ch'eng dreamt t h a t K'ang-shu, the

f i r s t marquis o f Wei, s a i d to him, "Hsiang has grabbed the

o f f e r i n g s due me." The duke then o r d e r e d t h a t s a c r i f i c e s

a l s o be o f f e r e d Hsiang.

But Ning Wu-tzu, a c o u r t i e r , o b j e c t e d and s a i d , "Spirits

a r e n o t p l e a s e d w i t h the o f f e r i n g s o f those who a r e n o t t h e i r

own k i n . B e s i d e s , what a r e C h ' i and Tseng (two s t a t e s descen-

ded from t h e l i n e o f H s i a ) d o i n g , anyway? H s i a n g has n o t

r e c e i v e d o f f e r i n g s here for, a l o n g time now; i t ' s none o f

our f a u l t . You s h o u l d n o t tamper w i t h the r u l e s made by

K i n g Ch'eng and the Duke o f Chou w i t h r e g a r d t o s a c r i f i c e s .

 21

P l e a s e withdraw y o u r o r d e r about s a c r i f i c i n g to H s i a n g . " 7

Here we have a case o f an a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t t r y i n g to

i n f l u e n c e the b e h a v i o r o f the l i v i n g through dreams. He

would have succeeded, had i t n o t been f o r a r i t u a l tech-

nicality.

I n c o n t r a s t to t h i s , t h e r e i s the anecdote about

Tzu-ch'an, the l e a r n e d prime m i n i s t e r o f Cheng, who once

went on a g o o d - w i l l v i s i t to C h i n , where he was consulted

by Han Hstlan-tzu, who came to meet him.

"Our r u l e r has been i l l i n bed f o r t h r e e months now,"

began the l a t t e r , "and we have scuttled to the mountains

and r i v e r s and o f f e r e d s a c r i f i c e s to them a l l , b u t h i s

i l l n e s s has become worse i n s t e a d o f b e t t e r . Now he has

dreamt o f a y e l l o w b e a r e n t e r i n g the door o f h i s chamber.

What monstrous d e v i l can t h a t be?"

"With the i n t e l l i g e n c e o f y o u r r u l e r and w i t h the

government i n y o u r hands," r e p l i e d Tzu-ch'an, "what mons-

t r o s i t y can t h e r e be? I n the o l d days, when Yao put Kun

to death on Mount Ytl, h i s s p i r i t changed i n t o a y e l l o w

b e a r , which excaped i n t o the abyss o f Ytl. Thus, under the

H s i a dynasty (founded by Kun's son the g r e a t K i n g Ytl), as

w e l l as the two f o l l o w i n g d y n a s t i e s , an a n c i l l a r y sacrifice

was o f f e r e d to Kun, t o o , a t the a n n u a l s a c r i f i c e to Heaven.

May i t be t h a t C h i n , as l e a d e r o f the c o n f e d e r a t e s t a t e s ,

has n o t s a c r i f i c e d to him y e t ? "

So then Han Hstlan-tzu o f f e r e d the p r e s c r i b e d sacrifice

and, as a r e s u l t , the marquis o f C h i n got somewhat b e t t e r .

1
Tzu-ch'an was rewarded w i t h two square c a u l d r o n s from Chti.
 22

Here we see t h a t the marquis o f Chin got s i c k a p p a r e n t l y

"because o f h i s n e g l i g e n c e i n o f f e r i n g the H s i a s a c r i f i c e to

Kun who, a l t h o u g h not h i s a n c e s t o r , was entitled to the s a c -

r i f i c e by p r e c e d e n t . Thanks to the e r u d i t i o n o f Tzu-ch'an;*

who seemed aware o f the common r o o t s o f myth and dream, the

y e l l o w bear i n the marquis' dream was correctly identified.

Otherwise, the outcome would c e r t a i n l y have been d i f f e r e n t .

2.3 Dream Ghosts and the D u a l i t y o f S o u l s

A p p a r e n t l y , Tzu-ch'an had q u i t e a r e p u t a t i o n i n h i s

day as a knowledgeable p e r s o n i n m a t t e r s o f the occult.

The f o l l o w i n g episode c o n t a i n s h i s d i s c o u r s e on the making

of a ghost and on the d u a l i s t i c concept o f the s o u l .

;

The people o f Cheng f r i g h t e n e d one another about Po-yu.

"Here comes P o - y u i " they would say and then r a n o f f w i t h o u t

11
knowing where they were g o i n g .

In the second month o f the y e a r when the document on

punishment was cast ( i . e . the p r e c e d i n g y e a r ) , someone

dreamt t h a t Po-yu s t a l k e d i n armor, s a y i n g , "On the jen-tzu

day I w i l l k i l l T a i , and next y e a r on the ,jen-yin day I w i l l

kill Tuan."

When S s u - t a i d i d d i e on the day j e n - t z u , the people

were even more t e r r i f i e d .

In the month t h a t the s t a t e s o f C h ' i and Yen made peace

(i.e. the f i r s t month o f the c u r r e n t y e a r ) , when Kung-sun

Tuan d i e d on the day j e n - y i n , the p e o p l e ' s h o r r o r knew no

bounds. I t came to an end o n l y when the next month Tzu-ch'an

12
a p p o i n t e d Kung-sun H s i e h and L i a n g - c h i h to calm the p e o p l e .
 23

Tzu-ta-shu asked him the r e a s o n f o r making the a p p o i n t -

ments. Tzu-ch'an s a i d , "When a ghost has a p l a c e to go t o ,

then i t won't do e v i l . I have p r o v i d e d such a p l a c e f o r

the ghost."

"But why d i d you a p p o i n t Kung-sun H s i e h as w e l l ? "

prusued Ta-shu.

"To assuage the p e o p l e , " e x p l a i n e d Tzu-ch'an. "Since

Po-yu was n o t r i g h t e o u s , I had to t h i n k o f a way to p l e a s e

them. I n governmental affairs, t h e r e are times when mea-

s u r e s must he taken which r u n c o u n t e r to the normal proced-

u r e s , so as to pander to the p e o p l e . I f you don't do so,

they won't t r u s t you, and d i s t r u s t l e a d s to d i s o b e d i e n c e . "

When Tzu-ch'an went to C h i n , Chao C h i n g - t z u asked

him, " I s i t the case t h a t Po-yu c o u l d s t i l l become a g h o s t ? "

" C e r t a i n l y , " r e p l i e d Tzu-ch'an. "When a human b e i n g

is b o r n , what f i r s t takes shape i s the p ' o - s o u l . When

t h i s i s produced, the Y a n g - f o r c e which i t c o n t a i n s g i v e s

rise to the n u n - s o u l . By employing t h i n g s the v i t a l elements

are increased. The hun- and p ' o - s o u l s a r e thus fortified.

Consequently, they become r e f i n e d and b r i g h t , to the p o i n t

of attaining divine luminosity.

"Even when an o r d i n a r y man or woman d i e s a v i o l e n t

death, h i s o r h e r s o u l c o u l d s t i l l hang around people and

cause e x c e s s i v e havoc. What more L i a n g H s i a o (= Po-yu), a

s c i o n o f our former r u l e r Duke Mu, grandson of T z u - l i a n g

and son o f Tzu-erh, a l l m i n i s t e r s o f our s t a t e , h a v i n g

pursued p o l i t i c a l careers f o r three,generational

 24

"Although Cheng i s not well-endowed and, as the phrase

goes, 'a wisp o f a s t a t e ' , i n the case o f a f a m i l y whose

members had "been a t the helm o f government f o r t h r e e gener-

a t i o n s , the t h i n g s employed were indeed e x t e n s i v e and the

vital elements e x t r a c t e d t h e r e f r o m p l e n t e o u s . Moreover,

the c l a n i s a g r e a t one, and what the s o u l draws on i s ample.

Is i t not i n d e e d f i t t i n g t h a t our L i a n g - h s i a o , who died a

13

v i o l e n t death, was capable o f becoming a ghost?"

In l a t e r t i m e s , the d u a l - s o u l t h e o r y as expounded by

Tzu-ch'an h e r e , when f u l l y developed, became i n t e g r a t e d

14

w i t h the c o s m o l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f Yin-Yang. The p'o-soul

was then s a i d to be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the sensory f u n c t i o n s

of the eyes and e a r s , the c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n o f the mind,

the motor a c t i v i t i e s of the l i m b s , and the p r o d u c t i o n o f

v o c a l sound. The n u n - s o u l , on the o t h e r hand, seemed r a t h e r

ill-defined; i t s a t t r i b u t e s were d i f f u s e d and impalpable;

i t s presence was a t t e s t e d by v i t a l i t y itself.

Tzu-ch'an's statement on the s u b j e c t c o u l d be taken

as i m p l y i n g t h a t the p ' o - s o u l e x i s t e d b e f o r e the hun. But

t h i s statement s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d i n a conceptual sense

r a t h e r than i n terms of temporal sequence. In t h i s regard,

K'ung Y i n g - t a ' s commentary states:

Liu Hsttan says t h a t when a man i s endowed w i t h

life, h i s body must possess v i t a l force (ch'j),

and t h a t the u n i o n of v i t a l f o r c e and body does

not p o s i t the p r i o r i t y o f one or the o t h e r . Yet

it i s s t a t e d here LTby Tzu-ch'anJ t h a t 'what first
takes shape i s c a l l e d p'o, and the Yang element
 25

c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n hun. 1
T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t the

body e x i s t s b e f o r e the v i t a l f o r c e and, hence,

p o
1
precedes hun. That t h e r e i s a temporal order

for the coming i n t o b e i n g o f hun and p'o i s based

on the o b s e r v a t i o n that, the body has substance,

w h i l e the v i t a l f o r c e does n o t . From lithe e x i s t e n c e

of 0 the body i s the v i t a l f o r c e known; hence p o

1

is s a i d to precede hun. I n r e a l i t y , however,

15
they come i n t o b e i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

A f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n on t h i s s o u l t h e o r y was that there

were t h r e e hun-souls and seven p ' o - s o u l s , and t h a t the former

would ascend to heaven a t the demise o f t h e i r p o s s e s s o r , as

the l a t t e r sank i n t o the e a r t h . But i t i s not c l e a r to me

whether each o f the t h r e e hun o r o f the seven p'o was assigned

a specific function. > ru

Working on an enormous amount of e t h n o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l

p e r t a i n i n g to the n o r t h American I n d i a n n o t i o n s o f the soul,

Ike H u l t k r a n t z d i s t i n g u i s h e s between the f r e e - s o u l and the

body-soul. The f r e e - s o u l i s the s p i r i t u a l p r i n c i p l e which

i s a c t i v e w h i l e the body i s i n a p a s s i v e s t a t e , whereas the

body-soul m a n i f e s t s the l i f e o f the waking i n d i v i d u a l . The

f r e e - s o u l f u n c t i o n s p r i m a r i l y as a d e t a c h a b l e , e x t r a - p h y s i c a l

s o u l , hence i d e n t i c a l w i t h the dream-soul. When i t g i v e s

e x p r e s s i o n to the e g o - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , then i t m a n i f e s t s

i t s e l f as the e g o - s o u l . The b o d y - s o u l , on the o t h e r hand,

may e a s i l y be s p l i t up i n t o a number of f u n c t i o n a l s o u l s

bound to d i f f e r e n t organs whose v i t a l p r i n c i p l e s they a r e .

 26

Each b o d y - s o u l , however, may be t e m p o r a r i l y c o n v e r t e d i n t o

an e x t r a - p h y s i c a l s o u l and, as such, may e x h i b i t the p r o p e r -

'S ties t h a t a r e combined w i t h a s p e c i f i c f r e e - s o u l . r

If t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n i s c o r r e c t , then the North American

I n d i a n f r e e - s o u l would seem to c o r r e s p o n d to the Chinese

h u n - s o u l , and the b o d y - s o u l to the p ' o - s o u l ; f o r the Chinese

s o u l concept a l s o has a p h y s i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t .

The N e i - c h i n g su-wen, f o r example, s t a t e s t h a t the

p ' o - s o u l i s s t o r e d i n the l u n g s and the hun-soul i n the

liver. 1 8

The C h ' i e n - c h i n pao-yao, a n o t h e r m e d i c a l work, c l a i m s

19

t h a t i n j u r i e s to the l i v e r provoke dreams. I f so, i t

would f o l l o w t h a t i t i s the h u n - s o u l t h a t i s i n v o l v e d i n the

p r o c e s s o f dreaming. T h i s would f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t e i t s

i d e n t i t y w i t h the N o r t h American Indian free-soul.

But the Shu-chfl-tzu, a Ming p h i l o s o p h i c a l work w r i t t e n

by Chuang Yuan-ch'en, g i v e s a d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n :

The h u n - s o u l o f a p e r s o n d w e l l s i n the h e a r t

and wanders i n the eyes, hence a l l waking situat-

i o n s are c r e a t e d by i t . The p ' o - s o u l o f a p e r s o n

wanders i n the k i d n e y s and d w e l l s i n the liver,

hence a l l dreaming s i t u a t i o n s a r e c r e a t e d by i t .

But then why i s i t t h a t waking s i t u a t i o n s

are p a l p a b l e , whereas dreaming s i t u a t i o n s are

ephemeral? W e l l , because the h u n - s o u l i s t r a n s -

m i g r a t e d from k a l p a to k a l p a , i t s s e t h a b i t s are

i n g r a i n e d and i t s i d e a t i o n a l complex hard-bound;

 27

hence the s i t u a t i o n s i t c r e a t e s are h a r d to rarefy

or d e s t r o y . The p ' o - s o u l grows w i t h the body, i t s

set habits are s u p e r f i c i a l and i t s ideational

complex t r a n s i e n t ; hence the situations that i t

c r e a t e s no sooner a r i s e than they v a n i s h .

All cognitions e f f e c t e d by the hun-soul,

though d i s t i n c t , go to make up the same Ocean o f

Reality (hsing-hai, 'the Sea of B h u t a t a t h a t a ) .

As a r e s u l t our waking s i t u a t i o n s are generally

alike. Every a f f e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n o r i g i n a t i n g

w i t h the p ' o - s o u l i s e v o l v e d from a p a r t i c u l a r

embryonic v i t a l f o r c e ; hence our dreaming situations

20
d i f f e r from p e r s o n to p e r s o n .

At this point, i t i s hard to say to what e x t e n t B u d d h i s t

notions influenced Chuang Yiian-ch' en' s thinking.

With r e g a r d to the N o r t h American I n d i a n n o t i o n o f the

p l u r a l i t y of the s o u l , H u l t k r a n t z has also said that the

f r e e - s o u l , n o r m a l l y a c t i v e , may become p a s s i v e as an ego-

s o u l , and that the b o d y - s o u l , p a s s i v e as a r u l e , may become

a c t i v e when i t t e m p o r a r i l y t u r n s i n t o a disembodied soul

assuming the q u a l i t i e s p r o p e r to a s p e c i f i c f r e e - s o u l . In

t h i s l i g h t , perhaps the hun-p'o dichotomy s h o u l d likewise

be u n d e r s t o o d as r e p r e s e n t i n g two facets of a s i n g l e psychic

e n t i t y , even i f a t the phenomenological l e v e l each stands

as a u n i t a r y concept i n i t s own right.

The following passage from the Shu-chtl-tzu seems conducive

to t h i s speculation:

The l u n g s , k i d n e y s , and s p l e e n are the p a l a t i a l

 28

chambers o f the p ' o - s o u l ; the l i v e r and the

h e a r t a r e the c a p i t a l abodes o f the h u n - s o u l .

The e a r s , nose and mouth a r e the p ' o - s o u l ' s

courtyards, whereas the eyes and tongue a r e the

hun's o u t b u i l d i n g s . D u r i n g daytime, they wander

about i n the c o u r t y a r d s and o u t b u i l d i n g s . At

n i g h t they, r e t u r n to the p a l a t i a l chambers and

c a p i t a l abodes. Hence, w h i l e awake we a r e

21
conscious and when i n bed we dream.

Note t h a t i n t h i s passage the f u n c t i o n s o f the hun- and

p* o - s o u l s are not d i f f e r e n t i a t e d with respect to e i t h e r

the waking s t a t e o r the dream s t a t e , a l t h o u g h they a r e

said to occupy d i f f e r e n t v i s c e r a l r e s i d e n c e s a t n i g h t and

to l o i t e r round the v i c i n i t i e s o f d i f f e r e n t sense organs

during the day.

But i f we t u r n to the q u e s t i o n of their destinations

a f t e r death, then i t i s c l e a r t h a t the two s o u l s go separate

ways. The t r a d i t i o n o f t h i s i d e a may be t r a c e d to the

f o l l o w i n g passage from the " C h i - i " (The meaning o f s a c r i f i c e s )

chapter i n the L i - c h i ;

Tsai-wo s a i d , " I have h e a r d the terms kua ( g h o s t )

and shen ( s p i r i t ) , b u t I don't know what they

mean."

The Master s a i d , "The v i t a l f o r c e i s the shen

n a t u r e i n i t s f u l l n e s s , and the: p?o .the kugL n a t u r e

in i t s fullness. The h i g h e s t teaching consists

i n the u n i o n o f kueL and shen. A l l the l i v i n g

 29

must d i e and, when dead, r e t u r n to the ground.

T h i s i s what i s known as kueL. The hones and

f l e s h decay down t h e r e ; under c o v e r , they turn

into f i e l d soil. But the v i t a l force springs

upward and becomes a g l o r i o u s s p l e n d o r . The

odors and v a p o r s which induce melancholy a r e

the r e f i n e d essences o f a l l t h i n g s as w e l l as
22
manifestations o f the shen n a t u r e .

The vital f o r c e ( c h i ) mentioned h e r e , as the element

1

which v i v i f i e s the body when u n i t e d w i t h i t , i s e a s i l y

i d e n t i f i a b l e w i t h the h u n - s o u l . When death o c c u r s , i t

escapes from the body and ascends to heaven where i t

p a r t a k e s o f the shen n a t u r e . I t i s then c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

luminosity. The p h y s i c a l remains go under the ground,

where they r o t and a r e termed kueL, i n t o which the p' o-

s o u l i s s a i d to c o n v e r t .

T h i s statement on the n a t u r e o f c h i and p o i s f 1

s u s c e p t i b l e to v a r i o u s interpretations. Wang Ch'ung (A.D.

27-97?) f o r example, p a r o n o m a s t i c a l l y equates kuei, 'ghost ,1

w i t h kueL. ' r e t u r n ' , meaning the r e t u r n o f the p h y s i c a l

remains t o e a r t h . I n the "Lun s s u " (On death) c h a p t e r o f

the Lun heng he s t a t e s :

What makes a p e r s o n l i v e i s the s u b t l e vital

f o r c e ( c h i n g - c h * i ) , which e x p i r e s when death

occurs. The s u b t l e v i t a l f o r c e i s produced

i n the b l o o d vessels. When a p e r s o n d i e s ,

the b l o o d v e s s e l s a r e emptied, and the s u b t l e

 30

v i t a l f o r c e i s spent. T h i s causes the body-

to decay and turn i n t o dust. By what means

23
can he become a kuei?

Then he adds:

When a man dies, his subtle s p i r i t (ching-shen)

ascends to heaven and h i s s k e l e t a l remains

r e t u r n to e a r t h . Hence kueL, which means

OA
'return . 1

Wang Ch'ung's m a t e r i a l i s m does n o t make a l l o w a n c e f o r the

p o s s i b i l i t y o f post-mortem s u r v i v a l o f p e r s o n a l i t y nor of

i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n whatever form. T h i s view had

25
a number o f s u p p o r t e r s i n the subsequent ages.

In c o n t r a s t to t h i s , the Shu-chtl-tzu again provides

the t h e i s t i c view, as follows:

When a man d i e s , h i s hun goes up and his

p'o goes down. Not t h a t the h u n - s o u l i s capable

of r i d i n g the clouds and a s c e n d i n g to heaven,

but t h a t i t s e f f i c a c i o u s element ( l i n g ) can

(fraake it^rj move upward and f l o a t wherever i t wants

to go. I t may enjoy the s a c r i f i c i a l o f f e r i n g s ,

or i t may sneak i n t o a womb C^01" re-birthj. Its

mutations are u n l i m i t e d . Hence the s a y i n g [from

the I - c h i n g 3 t h a t the wandering s o u l e f f e c t s

transformations.

Not t h a t the p ' o - s o u l i s to submerge w i t h o u t

a t r a c e i n the s u b t e r r a n e a n s p r i n g s , but that i t s

 31

e f f i c a c i o u s element adheres to the corpse and

hovers round the c o f f i n and does n o t l e a v e

the s e c l u s i o n o f the g r a v e . Thus, when the

descendants f o f the deceased} come t o s a c r i f i c e

at the grave, i t may enjoy the o f f e r i n g s .

When the corpse decomposes and the grave

d e t e r i o r a t e s ^ , , then the p o - s o u l t u r n s i n t o
1

nothingness. F o r i t was composed o f the f a t h e r ' s

sperm and the mother's "blood. Now t h a t i t has

r e t u r n e d t o i t s o r i g i n , i t does n o t come back

to life again. Hence the s a y i n g fcfrom the

I - c h i n g } t h a t the e s s e n t i a l v i t a l f o r c e becomes

matter.

Now, t h i s "matter" r e f e r s to the p ' o - s o u l .

Life comes from the u n i o n o f hun and p'o, and

death i s the r e s u l t o f t h e i r s e p a r a t i o n . But

the h u n - s o u l e x i s t i n g and the p ' o - s o u l n o t y e t

dissipated are s t i l l l i n k e d and sympathetic to

each o t h e r when they encounter dangers o r

difficulties, i n much the same way as t h e branches

and l e a v e s a r e r e l a t e d t o the r o o t s . This

e x p l a i n s why geomancers c o n s i d e r b u r i a l sites

so important. '*' 2

To demonstrate the l a s t p o i n t , Chuang t e l l s a s t o r y :

Huang Shan-ku once s u f f e r e d from a d i s e a s e

in the r i b cage. Then a woman appeared i na

dream and s a i d to him, " I am your p r e v i o u s

 32

incarnation. Where I am now "buried i s i n f e s t e d

with ants. They have burrowed through my w a i s t -

bone ( i . e . lower p o r t i o n o f the s p i n e ) . That's

why you a r e h a v i n g t r o u b l e i n the r i b cage.

R e b u i l d my grave and your a i l m e n t s h a l l be cured."

Shan-ku complied and i t happened a c c o r d i n g l y .

Chuang's t h e o r y i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i s t h a t

Owing to the wandering s o u l ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ,

Shan-ku came i n t o b e i n g . The woman t h a t appeared

i n h i s dream was the p ' o - s o u l o f h i s p r e v i o u s life

which had been r e s t o r e d t o the ground w i t h the

bones and f l e s h . When the p ' o - s o u l i s i l l , so

is the body; and when the p ' o - s o u l i s w e l l , so

is the body. Now, when a person i s b o r n w i t h a

d e f o r m i t y , i t i s because the p ' o - s o u l o f h i s / h e r

27
p r e v i o u s s e l f has n o t r e t u r n e d completely.

The e t i o l o g y o f c o n g e n i t a l handicaps as Chuang would 1*

have i t may y e t o f f e r some h i n t to the avant-garde science

of genetic engineering.

2.4 Message Dreams from the Dead

The first t h i n g t o be noted about the dead i n dreams

is t h a t they do n o t appear dead b u t a r e , as a r u l e , alive

and sometimes k i c k i n g . A Hittite t e x t t e l l s o f a queen

reporting: " I n a dream something l i k e my f a t h e r has r i s e n

28
again, alive,..."
The dead may appear i n dreams f o r any r e a s o n . A
 33

u s u a l one i s to ask the dreamer a f a v o r .

Some o f the t h i n g s most f r e q u e n t l y r e q u e s t e d by the dead

in dreams a r e new g r a v e s , b e t t e r b u r i a l s i t e s , and the l i k e .

T h i s i s a r e c u r r e n t m o t i f i n the l i t e r a t u r e . According to

A. Leo Oppenheim, i t was f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d i n t o Western

l i t e r a t u r e by A c h i l l e s ' s dream o f P a t r o c l u s ( I l i a d 2 3 : 6 2 f f . ) .

Dreams f e a t u r i n g the dead c o n s t i t u t e a c a t e g o r y o f

s p e c i a l importance because n o t o n l y do they r e v e a l a s i g -

n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f dream concept i n g e n e r a l , b u t they shed

l i g h t on such m a t t e r s as s o u l t h e o r y and the s t r u c t u r e o f

the underworld. To a s t u d e n t o f p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n , the v a l u e

of such i n f o r m a t i o n cannot be o v e r s t a t e d .

I propose, then, t o examine a few dreams o f t h i s n a t u r e

from Chinese s o u r c e s d a t i n g back, t h i s time, t o the Wei-Chin

p e r i o d and a f t e r .

The I ytlan (Garden o f o d d i t i e s ) by L i u Ching-shu o f the

Liu-Sung dynasty (A.D. 420-478), f o r example, t e l l s the

s t o r y o f a young widow who l i v e d w i t h h e r two sons. She

was a d d i c t e d to t e a . There was an a n c i e n t grave i n t h e i r

quarters. Whenever she made t e a , she never f a i l e d to make

an o f f e r i n g o f i t f i r s t a t the g r a v e .

Her two sons were d i s t u r b e d by t h i s p r a c t i c e . "Does

the o l d grave have any c o n s c i o u s n e s s , " they s a i d to h e r one

day, "so t h a t you a r e o b l i g e d t o make the o f f e r i n g s ? "

They i n t e n d e d to d i g i t up, b u t had to d e s i s t from

d o i n g so because t h e i r mother p e r s i s t e n t l y forbade them.

That n i g h t the mother dreamt t h a t a p e r s o n s a i d to

 34

h e r , "I have s t a y e d i n t h i s grave f o r more than two hundred

y e a r s , and you have been v e r y k i n d i n t r y i n g to quench my

thirst. Not o n l y have you p r o t e c t e d my grave from b e i n g

d e s e c r a t e d by your sons, but you have r e g a l e d me with your

excellent tea. A l t h o u g h I am but a bunch o f r o t t e n bones

under the ground, can I f o r g e t to repay your k i n d n e s s ? "

Then she awoke.

The next morning she found i n the c o u r t y a r d a huge sum

of c o i n s , amounting to one hundred-thousand. They l o o k e d

l i k e h a v i n g been b u r i e d f o r a l o n g time, except t h a t the

s t r i n g s which s t r u n g them t o g e t h e r were a l l new.

She r e t u r n e d to t e l l h e r sons about the f i n d , and they

were r e m o r s e f u l . From then on she was even more c o n s c i e n -

29
t i o u s i n h e r p r a y e r s and libations.

In t h i s s t o r y the deceased d i d not so much appear i n

the woman's dream to make a r e q u e s t as to g i v e thanks f o r

u n s o l i c i t e d favors received. On h i s own a d m i s s i o n , he was

a bunch o f r o t t e n bones t h a t had been i n t e r r e d f o r o v e r two

hundred years. Y e t he appeared i n the dream as a "person."

The same source mentions Ssu-ma T ' i e n , a general., o f

the C h i n d y n a s t y . D u r i n g an i l l n e s s , he saw i n a dream an

old man.

"I am Teng A i ( a g e n e r a l d u r i n g the Three-Kingdoms

e r a ) , " he s a i d . "One o f my houses i s i n d i s r e p a i r . Fix

it f o r me, s i r . "

Ssu-ma made i n q u i r i e s a f t e r w a r d s and found out that

at the temple o f Teng A i t h e r e was a straw hut which had

 35

l o n g "been run-down. He had a t i l e - r o o f e d house e r e c t e d in

30
its stead.

Then there i s the t a l e about H s i K'ang, the Taoist

philosopher. As a young man, he was t a k i n g a nap one day

when an extremely t a l l man appeared i n dream who introduced

h i m s e l f as a m u s i c i a n a t the c o u r t of the Y e l l o w Emperor.

"My remains were b u r i e d i n the woods l o c a t e d t h r e e l i

e a s t o f your house," s a i d he. "Someone has unearthed them

and left them exposed. Please be so k i n d as to bury them,

and I w i l l send a sumptuous reward."

H s i K'ang went to the s i t e mentioned and indeed found

twoJ b l e a c h e d l e g - b o n e s , each to the l e n g t h o f t h r e e ch'ih.

He buried them a t once. That n i g h t he dreamt a g a i n of the

t a l l man, who came to teach him the music o f remote anti-

q u i t y known as the K u a n g - l i n g san. No sooner had he woke

up than he began to p l a y the w o n d e r f u l music w i t h p r e c i s i o n ,

31

without a s i n g l e f a l s e note.

All the three dream s t o r i e s j u s t c i t e d suggest t h a t

the dead were s o l i c i t o u s about the c o n d i t i o n of their

p h y s i c a l remains f o r a l o n g time a f t e r t h e i r demise, ranging

from a few hundred to thousands o f y e a r s , and t h a t they were

able to e n l i s t , through dreams, the h e l p of the l i v i n g for

the maintenance and improvement o f t h e i r p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n .

The Sou-shen h o u - c h i , ( L a t e r r e c o r d of s e e k i n g after

s p i r i t s ) , a work a s c r i b e d to the E a s t e r n - C h i n poet T'ao

Ch'ien (A.D. 372-427), r e l a t e s the f o l l o w i n g s t o r y i n the

same v e i n .
Ch'eng Chien, a n a t i v e of Tung-kuan, d i e d o f illness
 36

and was b u r i e d somewhere on the county b o r d e r . Ten y e a r s

l a t e r , he u n e x p e c t e d l y appeared t o the county m a g i s t r a t e

i n a dream one n i g h t and said to him, "I am Ch'eng Chien,

a r e s i d e n t now dead. A t t h i s v e r y moment some people are

t r y i n g to rob me. P l e a s e h u r r y and h e l p me, Your HonorI"

Thereupon the m a g i s t r a t e o r d e r e d h i s i n t e r n a l and

e x t e r n a l p e r s o n n e l to g i r d up and get o r g a n i z e d i n t o a

p l a t o o n c o n s i s t i n g of one hundred men. They were then

despatched horseback to the g r a v e - s i t e .

When they reached t h e r e , the sun was j u s t about to

rise. But a l l of a sudden i t became so foggy t h a t even

a t c l o s e range they c o u l d not see each o t h e r , but c o u l d

o n l y hear the c r e a k i n g sound coming from w i t h i n the grave,

where the c o f f i n was p r i e d open. There were two men on

the mound k e e p i n g watch, b u t , thanks to the b l i n d i n g f o g ,

they d i d not n o t i c e the a p p r o a c h i n g p a r t y .

When the m a g i s t r a t e h i m s e l f a r r i v e d , a l l the hundred

men gave a l o u d c r y a t the same time. Three men i n the

grave were a r r e s t e d , w h i l e the two on the mound escaped.

The c o f f i n was not too b a d l y damaged. The m a g i s t r a t e im-

m e d i a t e l y had i t r e p a i r e d .

That n i g h t he dreamt a g a i n o f Ch.'.eng C h i e n , who said

to him, "I can r e c o g n i z e to the l a s t d e t a i l the two who

got away. One has on h i s f a c e a dark b i r t h m a r k which

looks l i k e a bean-leaf. The o t h e r has two chipped front

teeth. I f Your Honor but f o l l o w these c l u e s i n your s e a r c h ,

they w i l l s u r e l y be found."
 37

The m a g i s t r a t e d i d what he s a i d and "both f u g i t i v e s

32
were caught a c c o r d i n g l y .

I n t h i s case, the l a p s e between the death and the

dream was t e n y e a r s , a much s h o r t e r l e n g t h o f time compared

w i t h the above. B u t the d r e a m - a p p a r i t i o n ' s concern was

the same: the repose o f h i s e a r t h l y remains. Here he

appealed to the l o c a l c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s f o r p r o t e c t i o n and

h e l p e d to c a t c h the c u l p r i t s . T h i s d e t a i l makes the s t o r y

sound l i k e a p r o t o t y p e f o r some courtroom p l a y s o f the

Yuan p e r i o d . I n such p l a y s the r o l e o f a ghost, which may

or may n o t appear i n dream, o f t e n l e a d s to the r e s o l u t i o n

33
o f the mystery.

The f o l l o w i n g s t o r y from the same source t e l l s o f the

dream-apparition o f someone n o t so dead. Cheng Mao l i k e w i s e

d i e d o f an u n s p e c i f i e d d i s e a s e . When a l l the l a s t rites

had been performed s h o r t o f i n t e r m e n t , h i s w i f e and o t h e r

f a m i l y members s i m u l t a n e o u s l y dreamt t h a t he s a i d h i s a p o i n -

t e d time had n o t y e t come and t h a t h i s b r e a t h had j u s t been

cut o f f by chance through suffocation.

"You may open the c o f f i n , " he i n s t r u c t e d them, "then

ignite the c a r r i a g e l a n t e r n and a p p l y i t to the t o p o f my

34

head." They d i d so and he was indeed r e v i v e d .

I n t h i s case the i n t e r v a l between the apparent death

and the o n e i r i c v i s i t a t i o n was even s h o r t e r : j u s t a few days,

presumably. B e a r i n g the Chinese d u a l i s t i c s o u l theory i n

mind, we may say t h a t Cheng Mao's h u n - s o u l , which must

have been h o v e r i n g about h i s c o f f i n a l l the w h i l e , frantically

 38

s e e k i n g means to r e u n i t e w i t h h i s i n e r t body, was responsible

f o r the dreams h i s f a m i l y had.

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f the l i g h t e d l a n t e r n to h i s crown

was s i g n i f i c a n t , f o r l i g h t s i g n i f i e s the Yang p r i n c i p l e ,

and the head, as the head-dress of Taoist p r i e s t s accentuates,

i s where a l l the Yang f o r c e s i n the body c u l m i n a t e . This

p o t e n t c o n j u n c t i o n was designed by Cheng Mao h i m s e l f to l u r e

h i s v a g r a n t hun-soul back to i t s former d o m i c i l e .

Another p o i n t o f i n t e r e s t i n t h i s episode i s the phen-

omenon o f simultaneous dreaming, a f a m i l i a r theme i n the

dreamlore o f many c u l t u r e s . When two or more people r e p o r t

an i d e n t i c a l dream, i t s s u p e r n a t u r a l o r i g i n i s thought h i g h l y

plausible.

A p a r t from a s k i n g f a v o r s , ghosts may a l s o appear i n

dreams to do the dreamer a good t u r n . The Hsu sou-shen c h i

(Sequel to the r e c o r d o f s e e k i n g a f t e r s p i r i t s ) t e l l s of a

f i s h e r m a n who moored h i s boat a t the e s t u a r y i n H o - f e i

one n i g h t . Then he heard music from an ensemble o f l u t e s ,

f l u t e s , and o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s , and dreamt t h a t someone was

d r i v i n g him away and t e l l i n g him, "Don't come near where

o f f i c i a l s and courtesans are." I t turned out t h a t , a c c o r d i n g

to l o c a l h e a r s a y , L o r d Ts'ao once took some c o u r t e s a n s aboard

35

h i s boat and i t capsized at this spot.

Sometimes dream messages from the dead may not be

explicitly s t a t e d and therefore require interpretation. The

f o l l o w i n g passage from a vignette entitled "Shuo meng"

(Speaking o f dreams) i n the Y u n g - h s i e n - c h a i pi-chi (Notebook

 39

from the S t u d i o o f P l a i n I n d o l e n c e ) hy Ch'en Ch'i-ytian o f

l a t e Ch'ing times i s an example:

The C h o u - l i speaks o f an o f f i c e r f o r

oneiromancy, who i n t e r p r e t s good and bad dreams

i n many ways. It i s a pity t h a t t h i s a r t i s now

lost.

I dream r e a d i l y whenever my head h i t s the

pillow. I n a s i n g l e n i g h t I may have several

dreams, a l l coming to naught. My late father,

however, o f t e n d i d not have any dream throughout

the y e a r . But whenever he had one, i t i n v a r i a b l y

came t r u e , sure as an echo. This sort of thing

is certainly d i f f i c u l t to r a t i o n a l i z e .

I n the y e a r p i n g - c h ' e n o f H s i e n - f e n g r e i g n

period (1856), my l a t e w i f e Madame Wen became ill

d u r i n g the e p i d e m i c . Then my f a t h e r unaccountably

dreamt o f my l a t e mother. He took the o c c a s i o n to

t e l l h e r , "Do you know t h a t our d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w

i s dying?"

"Good f o r h e r , " s a i d my mother.

On waking, my f a t h e r s a i d to me, "Your w i f e

i s d y i n g and your mother says t h a t ' s good f o r h e r .

I am a f r a i d the ravages o f the war w i l l soon r e a c h

our p r o v i n c e . "

And i n d e e d , i n the f o l l o w i n g y e a r Chin-hua

was a t t a c k e d by the b a n d i t s ( r e f e r r i n g t o the

T ' a i - p ' i n g r e b e l s ) , and two y e a r s l a t e r the whole

 40

of Chekiang f e l l . Our f a m i l y had to evacuate and

d i s p e r s e , r e s u l t i n g i n nine deaths. They were a l l

c u r s o r i l y i n t e r r e d , w i t h o u t ceremony. It was

indeed good f o r t u n e t h a t my w i f e had died before-

hand. 3 6

If, i n h i s f a t h e r ' s dream, the remark o f the writer's

mother sounded ominous, the o l d man's i n s t a n t r e c o g n i t i o n

o f the message s t i l l depended l a r g e l y on h i s awareness of

and pre-occupation w i t h the current s o c i a l upheaval now

known as the T'ai-p'ing Revolution. From t h i s we may infer

the o n e i r o c r i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e t h a t i n i n t e r p r e t i n g a dream,

the dreamer's p e r s o n a l cirmumstances a t the time o f dreaming

should be taken i n t o a c c o u n t . T h i s p o i n t w i l l be further

discussed i n Chapter V I . The reference to the Chou-li will

be f u l l y t r e a t e d i n Chapter V I I .

2.5 Message Dreams from D e i t i e s o f Human O r i g i n

So f a r I have shown t h a t c e r t a i n s p i r i t s , whether

benevolent or malevolent, are reported to have appeared

i n some a n c i e n t Chinese dreams. Nature s p i r i t s , such as

"Heaven" i n S e c t i o n 1.3 and the r i v e r god i n Section 2.2,

were among them.

Ancestral s p i r i t s , too, are prominent i n Chinese dream-

lore. Of the t w e n t y - e i g h t dream e p i s o d e s r e c o r d e d in the

Tso-chuan, I found e i g h t h a v i n g to do w i t h t h i s k i n d of

spirits (not n e c e s s a r i l y the dreamer's own ancestors'

though). 3 7

S i n c e human b e i n g s d e i f i e d a f t e r t h e i r deaths constitute

 41

an important category of d e i t i e s i n the Taoist pantheon as

well as i n that of Chinese popular r e l i g i o n , t h i s section
i s devoted to dreams r e l a t i n g to them. 38

The Chi-shen l u (An account of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of

s p i r i t s ) by Hsu Hsuan (A.D. 916-991) t e l l s of a butcher
named Cheng Chiu whoilived i n Shou-ch'un i n d i r e poverty.
Once he dreamt that a man introduced himself as L i e n P'o
and said to him, "You may d i g up my sword. I t i s buried
i n the eastern part of the v i l l a g e . I w i l l make you r i c h
on condition that you do not give up your job. Chiu followed
h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s and indeed found the sword. The following
year he became r i c h . * But when he subsequently revealed the
matter, the sword was l o s t .

Now, h i s t o r i c a l l y , L i e n P'o was a general of the state

of Chao during the Warring-States period. He was d e i f i e d

presumably f o r the same reason that Kuan Ytl (popularly

known as Kuan-ti, 'Emperor Kuan', or Kuan-kung, 'Lord Kuan')

of the Three-Kingdoms period or Ytleh F e i of Southern Sung

times was: they were a l l stalwart warriors who met v i o l e n t

deaths.

Among a l l Chinese d e i t i e s of human o r i g i n , Lord Kuan

was undoubtedly the most popular, owing to h i s a l l e g e d

readiness to lend a helping hand to whoever needed i t . To

give an example:
During the Chia-ching reign-period (A.D. 1522-1566),
i n Lin-chiang county there was a Buddhist temple
which housed an image of Lord Kuan. When M i n i s t e r
Chang Ch'un was s t i l l an undergraduate, he used to
 42

study i n t h i s temple. Whenever he passed i n

f r o n t o f the L o r d ' s s t a t u e , he never f a i l e d to

how i n r e v e r e n c e . Come new moon o r f u l l moon,

he always made a p o i n t o f b u r n i n g some i n c e n s e

and praying i n silence.

I t happened t h a t some bees b u i l t a h i v e i n

one o f the e a r s o f the L o r d ' s statue. When

Chang Ch'un n o t i c e d the messy ear, he took the

t r o u b l e to c l e a n i t .

That n i g h t he dreamt t h a t the L o r d came

i n t o h i s study. He f e l l on h i s knees to welcome

the august guest.

"I owe you one f o r t a k i n g care o f my e a r , "

s a i d the L o r d , "and I s h a l l r e c i p r o c a t e . Say,

when you r e a d the Ch'un-ch'iu, do you u n d e r s t a n d

its h i d d e n meaning?" Then he began e x p l a i n i n g

a few passages.

As he l i s t e n e d on, Chang Ch'un came t o

r e a l i z e t h a t h i s e x p o s i t i o n was such as he

had never heard from anyone e l s e . From then on

he dreamt o f the L o r d ' s v i s i t every n i g h t .

One day, some f r i e n d s o f h i s who specialized

in t h i s c l a s s i c met w i t h him to p r a c t i s e writing

essays on i t . Ch'un p u t t o g e t h e r a composition

based on what the L o r d had expounded to him. They

r e a d i t and c o u l d n o t r e f r a i n from h e a v i n g sighs

39
in admiration. J
 43

A c c o r d i n g t o p o p u l a r t r a d i t i o n , L o r d Kuan, a p a t r o n saint

o f the l i t e r a t i among o t h e r t h i n g s , was a g r e a t r e a d e r o f the

Ch'un-ch'iu ( S p r i n g and autumn a n n a l s ) . He i s i n v a r i a b l y -

r e p r e s e n t e d , i n p a i n t i n g and s c u l p t u r e , as h o l d i n g a volume

o f the c l a s s i c i n one hand and p o r i n g over i t i n a dramatic

stance. Hence, i n t h i s case, i t was o n l y f i t t i n g t h a t he

chose to impart to h i s b e n e f a c t o r i n a s e r i e s o f dreams h i s

own i n s i g h t s i n t o t h i s work.

Even i n Buddhism, monks o f g r e a t s a n c t i t y a r e s a i d to

have appeared i n dreams to d e l i v e r messages. The f o l l o w i n g

e p i s o d e , which took p l a c e i n the e a r l y Ch'ing p e r i o d , i s

recounted i n the Jen-wu f e n g - s u c h i h - t u ts-'-ung-t'an (Collected

anecdotes on p e r s o n a l i t i e s , customs, and i n s t i t u t i o n s ) , a

modern work:

The Monastery o f L o n g e v i t y i s the p r e s e n t

abode o f the Reverend S h i h L i e n . I n this;?;^.?"

monastery t h e r e used to be an e l d e r who passed

on f o u r t e e n y e a r s ago, was n i c h e d i n a c e l l ,

and had n o t been p l a c e d i n a pagoda.

S h i h L i e n a t one time was u n d e r t a k i n g such

a c o n s t r u c t i o n and had a l r e a d y chosen a date

f o r the removal when the e l d e r appeared i n a

dream, s a y i n g , "My f l e s h - b o d y i n the n i c h e i s

i n t a c t and u n c o r r u p t . Some day i t w i l l come

out, t h e r e f o r e i t s h o u l d n o t be cremated. Please

open the n i c h e and show i t to a l l the f a i t h f u l . "

Torn between doubt and b e l i e f , S h i h L i e n

 prayed "before the n i c h e : " I f I alone s a i d s o ,

i t might sound absurd and f r i v o l o u s . I f Your

Reverence has s p i r i t u a l e f f i c a c y ; p l e a s e show

Y o u r s e l f to the c o n g r e g a t i o n i n a dream."

That day the whole c o n g r e g a t i o n i n d e e d had

a dream, which they conveyed to a l l the e l d e r s

and s u p e r i o r s i n the o t h e r mountains as w e l l

as t o a l l l a i t y .

Then they a l l g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r t o open

the n i c h e . CJThe dead monk's 3 f a c e l o o k e d as i f

he was a l i v e . He s a t i n a solemn p o s t u r e w i t h

h i s hands c l a s p e d . H i s n a i l s were v e r y l o n g ,

b u t on h i s neck and one cheek t h e r e were two

s m a l l h o l e s c o r r o d e d by i n s e c t s .

He was i n s t a l l e d on a h i g h s e a t f o r
40
veneration.

Although i t i s a b a s i c t e n e t i n Buddhism t h a t the

phenomenal world i s maya, t h a t i s , an i l l u s i o n (of this

more i n Chapter V) a n d t h a t ,1
i n s o f a r as i t p a r t a k e s o f the

n a t u r e o f the phenomenal, the body i s t o be c o n s i d e r e d as

n o t h i n g b u t a " s t i n k i n g l e a t h e r bag (ch'ou p ' i - n a n g ) , "

the corpse o f a monk i n a s t a t e o f n o n p u t r e f a c t i o n i s always

r e g a r d e d , as i n C a t h o l i c i s m , as a mark o f s a n c t i t y . It is

not c l e a r , however, whether i t i s a l s o the case t h a t the

s o u l i s b e l i e v e d t o remain init. A t any r a t e , i n t h i s

e p i s o d e o u r monk seemed t o v a l u e h i s l e a t h e r bag so h i g h l y

t h a t he was p r e v a i l e d upon t o cause simultaneous dreaming.^

 45

2.6 Dream I n c u b a t i o n

If s p i r i t u a l b e i n g s may on t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e manifest

themselves i n dreams f o r whatever r e a s o n , i t i s a l s o the case

t h a t they may be d e l i b e r a t e l y induced to appear i n dreams

through p r a y e r and/or some form o f p r o p i t i a t i o n .

In some a n c i e n t c u l t u r e s , dream i n c u b a t i o n was insti-

tutionalized. I n Egypt, f o r i n s t a n c e , temples d e d i c a t e d to

S e r a p i s , the god o f dreams, were l o c a t e d throughout the l a n d .

These temples, c a l l e d serapeums, were managed by p r o f e s -

s i o n a l dream i n t e r p r e t e r s known as the Learned Men o f the

Magic L i b r a r y . The Serapeum a t Memphis, c o n s t r u c t e d about

3000 B.C., was one o f the most i m p o r t a n t . The t e c h n i q u e o f

i n c u b a t i o n c o n s i s t e d i n p r a y i n g , f a s t i n g and s l e e p i n g i n

these temples. I t was a l s o p o s s i b l e to induce dreams i n

such a temple by proxy i n case the a c t u a l s u p p l i a n t c o u l d

42
not make the -journey.

In a n c i e n t Greece dream i n c u b a t i o n became a h i g h l y

developed a r t . I n c u b a t i o n c e n t r e s had t h e i r b e g i n n i n g s

around the f i f t h c e n t u r y B.C., and t h e r e were more than

t h r e e hundred o f them f u n c t i o n i n g throughout Greece and

the Roman Empire i n the second century. Visitors came as

a r u l e to seek answers to m e d i c a l problems. The god would

i n d i c a t e i n a dream what t y p e j o f medicine s h o u l d be t a k e n .

L a t e r i t was the o r a c l e s o r i n t e r p r e t e r s who would specify,

on the b a s i s o f the dream r e c o u n t e d to them, the a p p r o p r i a t e
43
remedy.
The a n c i e n t Hebrews, t o o , b e l i e v e d t h a t dreams c o u l d
 46

be provoked a r t i f i c i a l l y , although the Rabbis forbade the

use of i n c u b a t i o n . Nevertheless, i t was p r a c t i s e d : the

Temple of A e s c u l a p i u s was v i s i t e d by Greeks, Romans, and

Hebrews a l i k e . The t r a c t a t e S a n h e d r i n goes so f a r as to

say t h a t one may s l e e p on the grave o f a dead p e r s o n so as

to r e c e i v e some message from the dead. Moreover, according

to the Talmud, i t i s p o s s i b l e to pray f o r good dreams and

f o r the n u l l i f i c a t i o n or changing o f bad dreams. The

B e r a k o t h s t a t e s : " I f a dream s p i r i t t e l l s a man 'Tomorrow

you will die, 1

he should not d e s p a i r . Prayer and good

deed help." 4 4

Finally, dream i n c u b a t i o n was a l s o p r a c t i s e d , as a

r o y a l p r i v i l e g e and as a p r i e s t l y f u n c t i o n , by the Babylon-

i a n s , H i t t i t e s , A s s y r i a n s and Akkadians i n a n c i e n t Near

East. 4 5

In a n c i e n t China, too, t h e r e used to be s h r i n e s famous

f o r dream i n c u b a t i o n i n v a r i o u s l o c a l i t i e s . One such s h r i n e

i n Fukien p r o v i n c e was d e s c r i b e d i n the f o l l o w i n g passage

from the Min h s i a o - c h i ( L i t t l e notes on Min) by Chou L i a n g -

kung:

Everyone knows about p r a y i n g f o r dreams a t

Chiu-li (Nine C a r p ) , but not about the Hsien-men

Tung (Cave o f the Immortals' Gate) p r e s i d e d by

Lord Chiu-ho (the t i t u l a r d e i t y ) . I t i s located

twenty-two l i west o f the Hsien-yu county CseatJ.

CHereU the cliff on e i t h e r s i d e stands like

a w a l l and a t t a i n s a h e i g h t o f t e n or so ,jen (one

 47

.jen i s e i g h t c h ' i h , the Chinese f o o t ) . Going i n

z i g z a g f a s h i o n toward the west, one finds Taoist

temples and B u d d h i s t monasteries.

Around the c a v e s 1
e n t r a n c e and a l o n g the

creek, b o u l d e r s f l a n k the banks i n such a way that

an avalanche o f w a t e r f a l l s c o n s i s t i n g o f more than

ten terraces i s created. Where the banks come to

an end the l a n d i s more c u l t i v a t e d . The presence

o f f o w l , dogs, mulberry t r e e s and hemp crops marks

it out as a d i s t i n c t a r e a .

F i v e l i beyond t h i s p o i n t stands a watershed

which i s a l r e a d y w i t h i n the boundary o f C h i n - c h i a n g

county. The dreams p r o c u r e d E a t t h i s site*} are as

46
m a r v e l o u s l y e f f i c a c i o u s as those a t Carp Lake.

T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the s h r i n e suggests t h a t , though s i t u a t e d

amidst s u r r o u n d i n g s o f g r e a t n a t u r a l beauty, owing to i t s

f a r - f l u n g l o c a t i o n and rugged t e r r a i n , i t was visited only

by those who were s i n g u l a r l y motivated.

F o r t u n a t e l y f o r dream s e e k e r s , some o t h e r dream d i s p e n -

s a r i e s were more a c c e s s i b l e . The temple o f ch'eng-huang t

'god o f w a l l s and moats', i n a town or c i t y , f o r i n s t a n c e ,

was a v e r y p o p u l a r one. T h i s d e i t y was a kind of guardian

s p i r i t who l o o k e d a f t e r the g e n e r a l w e l l f a r e as w e l l as

p a r t i c u l a r needs o f the people w i t h i n h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n . He

was as a r u l e a d e i f i e d personage who during h i s l i f e t i m e

had d i s t i n g u i s h e d h i m s e l f by v i r t u e o f h i s exemplary conduct.

There i s a l e g e n d about Yii Ch'ien, M i n i s t e r o f M i l i t a r y

 48

A f f a i r s o f the Ming dynasty d u r i n g the r e i g n o f Emperor

Ying-tsung (A.D. 1436-1449) who was wrongly accused and

o r d e r e d executed "by the emperor. A f f l i c t e d by remorse,

however, the emperor r e i n s t a t e d him posthumously i n h i s

o f f i c a l p o s i t i o n and gave him the o f f i c e o f Arch-God o f

W a l l s and Moats o f A l l - u n d e r - H e a v e n . S i n c e Ytl C h ' i e n was

a n a t i v e o f Hangchow, i t was decreed that h i s residence

i n t h a t c i t y be c o n v e r t e d i n t o a temple i n h i s honor.

T h i s temple soon became a c e n t r e f o r dream i n c u b a t i o n .

I n an a r t i c l e , Wang Yung-ch'tlan, a modern w r i t e r , d e s c r i b e d

it as f o l l o w s :

On the eve o f w i n t e r s o l s t i c e each y e a r ,

a t about n i g h t f a l l , people s e e k i n g a f t e r dreams

move toward the temple o f the Arch-God o f W a l l s

and Moats o f A l l - u n d e r - H e a v e n w i t h i n c e n s e and

c a n d l e s i n t h e i r hands and b l a n k e t s and bedding

on t h e i r s h o u l d e r s .

O r d i n a r i l y , t h i s temple i s a l l d e s e r t e d

and q u i e t . B u t on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r day lamps

and candles are l i g h t e d , causing a l o t o f fuss

that i s hard to t o l e r a t e .

un e n t e r i n g the temple, the dream s e e k e r s

l i g h t up t h e i r i n c e n s e and c a n d l e s . After going

through t h e p r e s c r i b e d r i t u a l o f k n e e l i n g t h r i c e

and kowtowing n i n e times, they spread o u t the'ir

b l a n k e t s and beddings and f a l l a s l e e p i n a peace-

f u l frame o f mind. When a late-c;omer cannot find

 49

f i n d a bed-space, he w i l l v o l u n t a r i l y spend the

night outdoors.

The c l i m a t e i n our p r o v i n c e o f Chekiang i s

such t h a t a t the w i n t e r s o l s t i c e i t i s a l r e a d y

very cold. I f snow does not come, t h e r e i s bound

to be f r o s t . I n s p i t e of t h i s , some people choose

to go to Ytt Ch'ien's tomb and sleep beside i t i n

the o p e n - a i r , i n o r d e r to p r o c u r e dreams.

On the eve o f w i n t e r s o l s t i c e , a t dusk, one

never fails to see f a i t h f u l dream seekers along

the road w i t h l a n t e r n s i n t h e i r hands and blankets

and bedding on t h e i r s h o u l d e r s . (Yu Ch'ien's

tomb i s l o c a t e d a t Mao-chia Pu i n the West Lake

r e g i o n , ten-odd ljL from Hangchow.) Generally,

they go to pray f o r dreams a t an e a r l y hour. V/hat

is the r e a s o n f o r t h i s ? Perhaps the dream-seeking

faithful s u b s c r i b e to the n o t i o n t h a t "When the

. 47
n i g h t i s l o n g , dreams come i n p l e n t y ; "

I n the f o r e g o i n g d e s c r i p t i o n , some dream s e e k e r s a t this

particular temple were w i l l i n g to undergo some form of

o f a s c e t i c i s m as evidence for their sincerity.

I t appears, however, t h a t w i t h r e g a r d to dream i n c u b a t i o n

the ch'eng-huang c o u l d o c c a s i o n a l l y be i n f l u e n c e d by means

o t h e r than s p i r i t u a l , as can be seen i n the f o l l o w i n g episode

from the Chin-hu lang-mo ( B a b b l i n g s from a Bronze Urn) by

Huang Chtin-tsai of the Ch'ing p e r i o d :

C h ' i n Chung-ytlan of C h i a n g - n i n g had a series of

 50

"bad dreams. D i s g r u n t l e d , he got ready a l o t o f

s a c r i f i c i a l money and burned i t a t the temple o f

the ch'eng-huang, t o g e t h e r w i t h a p r a y e r f u l essay,

the g i s t o f which r e a d : "Amidst the sundry glitters

of t h i s w o r l d , human f o r t u n e s a r e p r e d e t e r m i n e d .

The momentariness o f a dream s u r e l y does n o t

matter one way o r a n o t h e r . T h i s sum o f money i s

hereby o f f e r e d i n paymentf&h a u s p i c i o u s dreams."

When t h i s p r a y e r was over, g h o s t l y v o i c e s were

heard s q u e a l i n g , as i f d i s p u t i n g f o v e r the moneyjj.,

, Aft
From then on h i s dreams became r a t h e r a g r e e a b l e l ^ j ^

The r e f e r e n c e to ghosts q u a r r e l i n g n o i s i l y over the

s a c r i f i c i a l money o f f e r e d a t the temple seems to i n d i c a t e

t h a t the god d i d n o t keep the money f o r h i m s e l f b u t t u r n e d

it over to the ghosts d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the o c c u r r e n c e

of the bad dreams as a b r i b e o r p r o p i t i a t i o n . T h i s would

imply t h a t he was n o t the d i s p e n s e r o f dreams, b u t a c t e d

r a t h e r l i k e a monitor o r a m e d i a t o r .

2.7 Dream as Commodity

The c o n c e p t i o n o f dream as something t r a n s f e r a b l e can

be found i n some c u l t u r e s . A. Leo Oppenheim c i t e s the

famous epigram o f J u v e n a l ( S a t i r e s V I : 546-547) c o n c e r n i n g

the Jews o f Rome who s o l d customers f o r l i t t l e money the

k i n d o f dream they wanted: "A few coppers purchase, where

Jews a r e concerned, f u l f i l m e n t o f dreams and f a n c i e s , " ^ r ^ *

In t h i s r e g a r d , A r t h u r Waley t e l l s the s t o r y o f the

two daughters o f Regent Masatoki o f Japan (12th c e n t . ) .

 51

The younger dreamt t h a t the sun and moon f e l l i n t o her lap.

The e l d e r , c a l l e d Masako, t a l e n t e d and v e r s e d i n oneirology.,

cozened her s i s t e r i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h a t i t was a terribly

u n l u c k y dream. Then she o f f e r e d to buy i t , explaining that

a dream bought or s o l d had no potency. She paid f o r i t with

an a n c i e n t Chinese m i r r o r which her s i s t e r had always wanted.

The l a t t e r was to r e a l i z e what she had l o s t by selling her

dream o n l y l o n g a f t e r w a r d s when Masako became the virtual

50
r u l e r of Japan.

The Chln-hu lang-mo c i t e d i n the p r e c e d i n g section

recounts the s t o r y of the c o n s o r t of Chin Ch'un-ch'iu, k i n g

of H s i n - l o (one of the t h r e e a n c i e n t kingdoms of Korea) as

follows. When s t i l l a maiden, she heard her e l d e r Pao-ehi

mention t h a t she had a dream i n which she ascended the

West Mountain and sat there. Before l o n g she found h e r s e l f

a d r i f t a l l over the c o u n t r y . Upon waking, she told the

future^ queen about i t . The latter said, " I ' l l buy your

dream, s i s t e r . " l a t e r , taking!) Ch'un-ch'iu took her i n .

-Sir

Thus the good omen indeed came t r u e . - j^r /

2.8 The Dream-God

In d i s c u s s i n g the J e w i s h p r a c t i c e of b u y i n g and selling

dreams i n a n c i e n t Rome, Oppenheim m a i n t a i n s that t h i s was

an outcome of the Talmudic concept of the dream which

p o s t u l a t e s "the e x i s t e n c e of a r u l e r of dreams who could

be induced by p r a y e r s or magic to provoke c e r t a i n dreams i n

certain individuals."
P a r a l l e l to the H e b r a i c n o t i o n of a s u p e r n a t u r a l d i s -
 52

penser o f dreams, Mesopotamia!! r e l i g i o n a l s o knows o f s e v e r a l

gods o f dreams, v a r i o u s l y d e s i g n a t e d as Mamu, Anzaqar o r

Anzaggar, and Zaqiqu or Ziqiqu.

The semantics as w e l l as t h e o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f

these names a r e f u l l y d i s c u s s e d hy Oppenheim. As he p o i n t s

out, the d e s i g n a t i o n "god o f dreams" may mean a number o f

things i n various contexts. F o r example, the c o n n o t a t i o n s

of the term z a q i q u , A s s y r i a n i n o r i g i n , range from 'storm'

53

to 'evil spirit' and even to 'nothingness'. Hence, when

the Mesopotamian dream-god i s d e s i g n a t e d by t h i s term (some-

times used to r e f e r t o the s o u l s o f the dead as w e l l ) , we

may sleep assured t h a t the f l i g h t y , chthonic, d e s t r u c t i v e ,

54-

or even demonic a s p e c t o f dreams i s a t i s s u e .

The demonic c o n c e p t i o n o f the dream e n t a i l s i t s b e i n g

regarded as an o b j e c t i v e event. I n t h i s view, e v i l dreams

remain o p e r a t i v e even i f t h e dreamer happens t o f o r g e t

t h e i r content. Perhaps t h i s was t h e . i d e a behind the a p o t r o -

p a i c r i t u a l o f i n v o k i n g P o - c h ' i , a m y t h i c a l b e a s t , t o devour

the unwanted dreams d u r i n g Han times when the annual ceremony

55

of _ta nuo (grand exorcism) was b e i n g h e l d .

Was t h e r e a dream-god i n a n c i e n t China comparable to

the B a b y l o n i a n Mamu, the Sumerian Manu, the E g y p t i a n S e r a p i s ,

or the G r e c i a n Hermes o r A e s c u l a p i u s , who c o u l d be invoked

to g r a n t c e r t a i n types o f dreams? W e l l , the S h i h - l e i t'ung-

p i e n (Compendium o f L i t e r a r y A l l u s i o n s ) mentions a dream-god

called Chih-li. T h i s source a l s o mentions a mantra t o be

t^

r e c i t e d seven times b e f o r e r e t i r i n g , as f o l l o w s : yuan chou

 ' 56
tsang kuan chtl chu mi t ' i . Evidently, this incantation

i s of f o r e i g n o r i g i n .

The dream-god's name does not sound Chinese e i t h e r .

 54

CHAPTER THREE

DREAM AS RESPONSE TO PHYSICAL STIMULI

I n the f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r s I have shown t h a t i n

a n c i e n t China, as i n some o t h e r p a r t s o f the a n c i e n t world,

dreams were thought o f as h a v i n g divinatory significance

and as o r i g i n a t i n g from the s p i r i t w o r l d . Both notions

implied t h a t the dream was a supernormal event. This

concept was the n a t u r a l outcome o f the m a g i c o - r e l i g i o u s

world-view e n t e r t a i n e d by the a n c i e n t s .

As human knowledge about the world i n c r e a s e d , the

processes o f nature were u n d e r s t o o d i n more d e t a i l . And,

f o r the e n l i g h t e n e d , the time soon came when a l l phenomena

observed by our f o r e b e a r s had t o be e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f

n a t u r a l cause and e f f e c t . The somatic b a s i s o f the dreaming

process was thus sought a f t e r .

3.1 The I n t e r n a l S t i m u l i

We know t h a t i n many a n c i e n t s o c i e t i e s , m e d i c i n e was

a b r a n c h o f r e l i g i o n , and the p r i e s t o r shaman o f t e n doubled

as a h e a l e r . With the p r o g r e s s o f human knowledge, science

and r e l i g i o n parted company; and m e d i c i n e , shedding i t s

s a c e r d o t a l t r a p p i n g s , came i n t o i t s own.

Thus, H i p p o c r a t e s was a b l e t o teach t h a t e p i l e p s y ,

referred to by the Greeks o f h i s day as the Sacred Disease,

was n o t d i v i n e i n o r i g i n . On the c o n t r a r y , i t had a n a t u r a l

cause: e i t h e r phlegmatic o r b i l i o u s a t t a c k s on the b r a i n .

 55

He noted the i n f l u e n c e on b o d i l y h e a l t h o f such elements

i n nature as the p r e c a i l i n g winds, the water s u p p l y , and

the soil. He observed the e f f e c t o f food and d r i n k , o f

1

occupation, and o f the h a b i t s o f people i n c a u s i n g disease.

As w e l l , H i p p o c r a t e s wrote a t r e a t i s e on the m e d i c a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f dreams. Without denying t h a t some dreams

were sent by the gods to a p p r i s e people o f f u t u r e events,

he considered dreams p r i m a r i l y as d i a g n o s t i c i n d i c a t o r s

of b o d i l y c o n d i t i o n s . Dreams c o n s i s t i n g o f a c t i o n s and

thoughts s i m i l a r to those e x p e r i e n c e d by the dreamer during

the day i n d i c a t e d a h e a l t h y s t a t e , whereas dreams t h a t r a n

counter to daytime e x p e r i e n c e and t h a t i n v o l v e d some s t r u g -

g l e o r triumph s i g n i f i e d b o d i l y d i s t u r b a n c e , the s e r i o u s n e s s

of which was i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n to the degree o f v i o l e n c e

2
i n the s t r u g g l e .

I n the mid-seventeenth c e n t u r y , Thomas Hobbes was to

echo the H i p p o c r a t i c view on dreams as f o l l o w s :

And s e e i n g dreams a r e caused by the distemper

of some o f the inward p a r t s o f the Body, diverse

3
distempers must needs cause d i f f e r e n t Dreams.

Hobbes managed to g i v e an account o f the psychosomatic

mechanism i n v o l v e d i n dreaming. I n h i s view, an emotion

t h a t we e x p e r i e n c e i n our waking l i f e produces a c e r t a i n

physical sensation, so t h a t when t h i s s e n s a t i o n i s aroused

by some p h y s i c a l s t i m u l u s when we a r e s l e e p i n g , the c o r r e s -

ponding p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e ensues, t h i s time accompanied

 56

"by an a p p r o p r i a t e imagery (Hobbes termed i t " i m a g i n a t i o n " )

a r i s i n g from the b r a i n . ^

A t about the same time, Jeremy T a y l o r wrote:

Dreams f o l l o w the temper o f the body, and commonly

proceed from trouble or disease, business or care,

an a c t i v e head and a r e s t l e s s mind, from fantastic

remembrances, o r from some common demon, good o r

bad. 5

Although T a y l o r acknowledged the demonic o r i g i n o f dreams,

he n o n e t h e l e s s emphasized t h e i r p h y s i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t as

follows:

The dream o f the y o l k o f an egg i m p o r t e t h g o l d

( s a i t h A r t e m i d o r u s ) , and they t h a t use to remember

such f a n t a s t i c i d o l s , a r e a f r a i d to l o s e a f r i e n d

when they dream t h e i r t e e t h shake, when n a t u r a l l y

it w i l l r a t h e r s i g n i f y a scurvy; f o r a n a t u r a l

i n d i s p o s i t i o n and an i m p e r f e c t sense o f the

b e g i n n i n g o f a d i s e a s e , may vex the f a n c y into

a s y m b o l i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; f o r so the man t h a t

dreamed he swam a g a i n s t a stream o f b l o o d , had

a p l e u r e s y b e g i n n i n g i n h i s s i d e ; and he t h a t

dreamt he dipped h i s f o o t i n t o water, and t h a t

^ i t was turned i n t o a marble, was e,n'ticed i n t o

the f a n c y by a b e g i n n i n g dropsy; and i f the

events do answer i n one i n s t a n c e , we become

c r e d u l o u s i n twenty.
 57

T a y l o r , a churchman, exhorted the r e a d e r not to be impressed

by dreams w i t h r e g a r d to t h e i r a l l e g e d p r e d i c t i v e f u n c t i o n ,

f o r i n so doing he or she might be f o o l e d by the devil into

accepting "a f a l s e p r o p o s i t i o n upon a ground weaker than the

7
discourse of a waking child."

W r i t i n g i n 1896, Wilhelm Wundt o f f e r e d a p s y c h o - p h y s i o -

l o g i c a l theory of dreams. He thought the dreaming p r o c e s s

to be conditioned by what he called "the s p e c i a l l y modified

3

dospositions to s e n s a t i o n s and volitional reactions."

InWundt's view, w h i l e the e x t e r n a l motor a c t i v i t i e s were

i n h i b i t e d i n ordinary s l e e p and dreams, the sensory functions

became more e x c i t a b l e . While a d m i t t i n g t h a t these changes

had not been i n v e s t i g a t e d d i r e c t l y , he assumed from the

psychological symptoms t h a t the p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s

generally consisted " i n the i n h i b i t i o n o f a c t i v i t y i n the

regions connected w i t h p r o c e s s e s of v o l i t i o n , and appercep-

t i o n , and i n the i n c r e a s e d e x c i t a b i l i t y of the sensory

Q
centers."

The concept of dreams as i n d i c a t i v e of i n t e r n a l b o d i l y

conditions can be found i n the Chinese m e d i c a l literature

as w e l l . Even to t h i s day, i t i s nothing unusual f o r a

Chinese p h y s i c i a n p r a c t i s i n g t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e , when

making a thorough d i a g n o s i s , to ask the p a t i e n t what dreams

he or she has been h a v i n g lately.

A f t e r a lengthy passage e x p l a i n i n g the cosmological

theories ( v i z . the b i p o l a r complementarity of Y i n and Yang,

and the c i r c u l a r p e r i o d i c i t y of the F i v e Agents) underlying

 58

the Chinese m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e , t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s , and how

they correspond to the f o u r seasons, the human body and so

f o r t h , the Huang-ti n e i - c h i n g su-wen' (The Y e l l o w Emperor's

c l a s s i c on i n t e r n a l medicine: p l a i n questions) states:

Thus do we know t h a t when the Y i n f l o u r i s h e s ,

one dreams o f wading through great tbodies o f !

water i n f e a r . When the Yang f l o u r i s h e s , one

dreams o f g r e a t f i r e b u r n i n g and s c o r c h i n g . And

when b o t h Y i n and Yang f l o u r i s h , then dreams o f

killing and maiming each o t h e r o c c u r . When the

upper [^pulse^l f l o u r i s h e s , one dreams o f f l y i n g .

When the lower f p u l s e i f l o u r i s h e s , one dreams o f

falling.' O v e r f e d , one dreams o f g i v i n g . Famished,

one dreams o f t a k i n g . When the b r e a t h o f the l i v e r

flourishes, one dreams o f b e i n g angry. When the

b r e a t h o f the lungs f l o u r i s h e s , one dreams o f c r y -

ing. An abundance o f s h o r t worms in the bowels'!)

r

b r i n g s about dreams o f g a t h e r i n g a t h r o n g . An
12
abundance o f l o n g worms causes dreams o f b e a t i n g
13
and h u r t i n g each o t h e r .

In t h i s passage we see what s o r t o f b o d i l y excess or d e f i c i e n -

cy t r i g g e r s what dream imagery.

The L i n g - s h u c h i n g ( C l a s s i c on the v i t a l axis) has

a passage i n the same v e i n . A f t e r mentioning a l l the above

dream i m a g e r i e s , i t c o n t i n u e s the l i s t thus:

When the b r e a t h o f the h e a r t f l o u r i s h e s , one dreams

 59

of b e i n g prone to l a u g h t e r o r o f f e a r and t i m i d i t y .

When the b r e a t h o f the s p l e e n f l o u r i s h e s , one

dreams o f song and music, o r o f one's body growing

heavy and unwieldy. When the b r e a t h o f the k i d n e y s

f l o u r i s h e s , one dreams t h a t the w a i s t and backbone

/T5r
are l o o s e and d i s j o i n t e d . "

That Y i n i s equated w i t h water and Yang w i t h f i r e h a r d l y

needs any comment. Under normal c o n d i t i o n s , the f o r c e o f

Yang waxes a s t h a t o f Y i n wanes and v i c e v e r s a ; the b a l a n c e

of n a t u r e i s thus m a i n t a i n e d . I t f o l l o w s t h a t when b o t h

f o r c e s i n c r e a s e a t the same time, then, i n s t e a d o f complemen-

t i n g each o t h e r , they c l a s h . Hence dreams o f " k i l l i n g and

maiming each o t h e r . "

S i n c e the "upper" p u l s e i s l o c a t e d i n the neck and the

"lower" a t the w r i s t , each t r i g g e r s o f f a dream e x p e r i e n c e

corresponding to i t s l o c a t i o n . That when we a r e w e l l - f e d

our dreams a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by g e n e r o s i t y and when s t a r v i n g

by greed stands to r e a s o n even i n our waking t h o u g h t s . I

s u s p e c t , however, t h a t the n o t i o n o f Yin-Yang complementarity

a l s o p l a y s a p a r t i n these two e q u a t i o n s . As to why hookworms

suggest g r e g a r i o u s n e s s and tapeworms a r e a n t i s o c i a l i s

anybody's guess.

The symbolism i n v o l v e d i n dreams brought about by an

excess o f " b r e a t h " i n each o f the f i v e v i s c e r a ( i . e . heart,

liver, s p l e e n , l u n g s , k i d n e y s ) can e a s i l y be e x p l a i n e d i f

we bear i n mind how these f i v e i n t e r n a l organs a r e c o r r e l a t e d

w i t h , among o t h e r t h i n g s , the emotions, o s t e n s i b l y based on

 60

the theory of the F i v e Agents.

The Ling-shu c h i n g , f o r example, s t a t e s t h a t when the

subtle breath or v i t a l f o r c e ( c f . S e c t i o n 2.3) binds itself

to the l i v e r , then one i s worried; to the h e a r t , happy; to

the l u n g s , sad; to the k i d n e y s , f e a r f u l ; and to the spleen,

16

timid. Thus each of these emotions i s found to have a

specific physiological correlate.

With r e s p e c t to dream symbolism, the L i n g - s h u ching

further states:

When the impeding b r e a t h (chtleh-ch'i) d w e l l s

i n the h e a r t , one dreams o f h i l l s , mountains,

smoke and fire; i n the l u n g s , of f l y i n g about and

s e e i n g strange o b j e c t s of g o l d and i r o n ; i n the

l i v e r , of f o r e s t s and t r e e s ; i n the s p l e e n , of

h i l l s and g r e a t marshes, and o f winds and rains

d e s t r o y i n g houses; i n the;.kidneys, of v e r g i n g on

a chasm, or o f b e i n g submerged i n water; i n the

bladder, of t r a v e l l i n g ; i n the stomach, of d r i n k -

i n g and e a t i n g ; i n the l a r g e i n t e s t i n e s , of fields

and the w i l d s ; i n the s m a l l i n t e s t i n e s , of v i l l a g e s

and towns, and of roads h i g h and low; i n the gall

bladder, of f i g h t s and l i t i g a t i o n s , or o f dis-

embowelling o n e s e l f ; i n the g e n i t a l i a , o f accep-

t i n g or r e c e i v i n g ; i n the nape, of b e i n g beheaded;

i n the l e g s , of w a l k i n g but not b e i n g a b l e to

move forward, and of l i v i n g i n a c a v e d - i n place

or a sunken garden; i n the t h i g h s and forearms,

 61

of p e r f o r m i n g ceremonies which i n v o l v e k n e e l i n g

and r i s i n g ; and i n the mucous membrane o f the

17
bladder, of u r i n a t i n g .

Here, n o t o n l y a r e the f i v e v i s c e r a mentioned again, but

s i x o t h e r i n t e r n a l organs, the l i u f u , ' s i x bowels", and

some o t h e r e x t e r n a l body p a r t s a r e i n c l u d e d as w e l l .

A g a i n , i n c o r r e l a t i n g the dream i m a g e r i e s w i t h their

r e s p e c t i v e p h y s i c a l s o u r c e s , the c o s m o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s

u n d e r l y i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese concept o f the human

body a r e a p p l i e d . F o r example, the h e a r t i s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h the element o f f i r e , hence dreams o f smoke and f i r e

when t h i s organ i s impeded by the noxious b r e a t h . The l i v e r

has the a t t r i b u t e o f wood, t h e r e f o r e dreams about forests

and t r e e s o c c u r when i t i s s i m i l a r l y affected.

3.2 The E x t e r n a l Stimuli

The statement about dreams o f d e c a p i t a t i o n i n the

passage from the L i n g - s h u c h i n g l a s t c i t e d found a p a r a l l e l

c e n t u r i e s l a t e r , and i n Europe to boot, i n the case o f

A l f r e d Maury, the F r e n c h p s y c h o l o g i s t , who dreamt t h a t he

was t r i e d and executed by a t r i b u n a l d u r i n g the F r e n c h

R e v o l u t i o n and was then g u i l l o t i n e d . I n r e a l i t y , however,

a p i e c e o f the wooden molding from the canopy o f h i s bed

fell on h i s neck and woke him up, a t the v e r y moment when

18

the b l a d e descended i n h i s dream.

Dream a c c o u n t s o f t h i s type have o f t e n been adduced

-bcuf.c of-te-jo-bocm addiwod) by proponents o f the t h e o r y t h a t

 62

dreaming i s a p h y s i o l o g i c a l mechanism t r i g g e r e d hy sensory

stimuli. The Po-wu c h i h (Record o f v a r i o u s t h i n g s ) hy Chang

Hua o f Han times c l a i m s t h a t when one s l e e p s on a b e l t , one

dreams o f a snake; and t h a t when a b i r d h o l d s one's h a i r i n

i t s beak (however t h i s may happen), one dreams about flying.^

In h i s Yu-yang t s a - t s u (Mixed chops from Yu-yang), Tuan

Ch'eng-shih o f T'ang times c o n f i r m s t h i s view thus:

Since the b l i n d do n o t dream, we know t h a t

dreaming i s Da matter ofl7 h a b i t (hsi). My m a t e r n a l

c o u s i n Lu Yu-tse dreamt t h a t he saw someone b e a t i n g

the drum. When he awoke, h i s k i d b r o t h e r was a t

p l a y pounding the door i n s i m u l a t i o n o f s t r e e t -

drums. A l s o , my p a t e r n a l aunt's husband P ' e i

Ytian-yii s a i d t h a t among h i s r e t a i n e r s t h e r e was

one who took a fancy to the g i r l next door. He

dreamt t h a t the g i r l gave him two c h e r r i e s to e a t .

Upon waking, Che f o u n d j c h e r r y p i t s d r o p p i n g onto

20
either side of h i s pillow.

That the b l i n d do n o t dream i s o f course a m i s c o n c e p t i o n .

T h i s statement, however, does n o t d e t r a c t from the p l a u s i b i l i t y

of the two i n s t a n c e s t h a t Tuan g i v e s i n s u p p o r t o f h i s view.

F i n a l l y , the K u a n - y i n - t z u from l a t e T'ang times t h i n k s o f

the weather c o n d i t i o n s as p o s s i b l e i n s t i g a t o r o f dreams. It

a s s e r t s t h a t when the day i s g e t t i n g cloudy, one w i l l dream

21
of water; when i t i s g e t t i n g sunny, o f f i r e .
 63

3 . 3 A Freudian Critique

I n the West, the view t h a t dreams a r i s e from physiological

causes, whether e x t e r n a l or i n t e r n a l , was widely accepted

among educated people toward the end of the n i n e t e e n t h century.

I t i s no l o n g e r countenanced by a good number of modern

psychologists, particularly those of the F r e u d i a n persuasion.

E r n e s t Jones puts i t t h i s way:

I t i s commonly b e l i e v e d i n s c i e n t i f i c circles that

the mental p r o c e s s e s of which dreams are composed

a r i s e , without any p s y c h i c a l antecedent, as the

r e s u l t of i r r e g u l a r e x c i t a t i o n of v a r i o u s elements

i n the c e r e b r a l c o r t e x by p h y s i o l o g i c a l processes

occurring during sleep. This, i t i s maintained,

accounts f o r the confused and b i z a r r e n a t u r e o f the

mental p r o d u c t , and any apparently l o g i c a l connec-

t i o n and o r d e r t h a t f r e q u e n t l y appear to some

e x t e n t i n dreams are e x p l a i n e d by the s u p p o s i t i o n

t h a t the mental p r o c e s s e s i n question are represented

i n c o r t i c a l elements t h a t stand i n c l o s e , anatomical

or p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n to one another, and so

are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s t i m u l a t e d by the p e r i p h e r a l

stimuli. Hence any problem as to the p s y c h i c a l

o r i g i n o f the mental p r o c e s s e s , s t i l l more as to

the meaning of the dream as a whole, i s by the nature

of t h i n g s excluded as b e i n g n o n e x i s t e n t , and any

i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l o n g such l i n e s i s condemned as

s a v o u r i n g of a n t i q u a t e d s u p e r s t i t i o n about the
 64

'reading of dreams' unworthy of educated p e o p l e .

While not denying t h a t the source of some dream m a t e r i a l i s

to he found i n somatic s t i m u l i d u r i n g s l e e p , Jones adamantly

h o l d s t h a t they are i n no case the whole cause of the dream,

but are merely woven i n t o i t s f a b r i c i n e x a c t l y the same

way as any p h y s i c a l m a t e r i a l , and o n l y when they f u l f i l cer-

t a i n requirements. Sometimes somatic s t i m u l i may serve as

the e f f e c t i v e i n s t i g a t o r of a dream, but i t can r a r e l y e x p l a i n

the whole o f it. 2 5

To b r i n g h i s p o i n t home, Jones g i v e s the following

example:

A man saw i n f r o n t of him i n a dream a Greek a l t a r

composed of a s o l i d mass of w r i t h i n g snakes. There

were n i n e of them, and they f i n a l l y assumed the

shape of a pyramid or t r i a n g l e . He awoke a t this

p o i n t s u f f e r i n g from severe c o l i c k y p a i n s in the

abdomen, and, being a m e d i c a l man, the resemblance

a t once f l a s h e d a c r o s s h i s mind between the idea

of c o n t r a c t i n g c o i l s of i n t e s t i n e s and that of
24

writhing snakes.

Jones p o i n t s out t h a t , i n t h i s case, there was no doubt a

genetic r e l a t i o n between the somatic s t i m u l u s and the dream,

the

and .that f o r those who u p h o l d p h y s i o l o g i c a l theory of dreams

t h i s was a good i l l u s t r a t i o n f o r i t . But the psychologist

t h i n k s t h i s e t i o l o g y inadequate: i t f a i l s to account f o r

such o t h e r features i n the dream as the a l t a r , the number

 65

n i n e , and the t r i a n g u l a r form.

I t happened t h a t , a t a banquet on the p r e c e d i n g day,

a young l a d y had asked the dreamer why the number n i n e was

so prominent i n Greek mythology. He r e p l i e d t h a t i t was

because n i n e , b e i n g t h r e e times t h r e e , possessed i n a high

degree the p r o p e r t i e s of the s a c r e d number t h r e e . He was

spared the embarrassment of h a v i n g to e x p l a i n to h e r why

t h r e e , a number h a v i n g p h a l l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e (with i t s

r e l a t i o n to r e l i g i o u s worship i n g e n e r a l and to snake-worship

i n p a r t i c u l a r ) , was s a c r e d , as her a t t e n t i o n was somehow

diverted at this point.

I n Jones' view, the dream was plainly a narcissistic

and e x h i b i t i o n i s t i c one, for.-the dreamer i d e n t i f i e d himself

w i t h the god P r i a p u s who was adored for his masculine

25
a t t r i b u t e s , symbolized i n h i s dream by the snakes.

I t i s c l e a r t h a t the F r e u d i a n r e a d i n g of dream-symbols

is culture-specific. I t s c l a i m to u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a t i o n

is therefore questionable. N e v e r t h e l e s s , Jones's critique

of the view of dream as caused by p h y s i c a l s t i m u l i i s i n c i s i v e .

H i s i n s i s t e n c e t h a t dreams have meaning and t h a t t h e i r meaning

has to be u n r a v e l l e d through symbolic interpretation i s

commendable.

I t remains f o r me to p o i n t out t h a t , i n a n c i e n t China,

except f o r a few members o f the l i t e r a t i , the physiological

theory of dreams was never popular.

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CHAPTER POUR

DREAM AS PROJECTION OF MENTAL STATES

Any n o n - s p e c i a l i s t who has o c c a s i o n to wonder why a l l

t h i s a t t e n t i o n f o c u s e d on dreams i n modern psychology will

soon f i n d , even w i t h minimal p r o b i n g , t h a t a l l the major

s c h o o l s i n t h i s d i s c i p l i n e agree t h a t there i s a meaningful

r e l a t i o n s h i p between the dream s t a t e and the waking state.

Moreover, t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p o b t a i n s on the p s y c h i c a l plane.

Thus, dreaming i s a mental p r o c e s s which we experience i n

s l e e p , j u s t as t h i n k i n g , remembering, i m a g i n i n g , decision-

making a r e mental p r o c e s s e s which take p l a c e when we are

awake. In t h i s l i g h t , the s u b j e c t of dreaming i s c l e a r l y

under the purview of psychology.

T h i s p o s i t i o n d i f f e r s r a d i c a l l y from t h a t h e l d by the

l a t e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p s y c h o l o g i s t s , such as Maury and

Wundt mentioned i n the p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , who theorized

about dreams from a r a t i o n a l i s t i c , m e c h a n i s t i c world-view.

F o r them, the dream was e x p l a i n e d as soon as i t s p h y s i c a l

s o u r c e , whether e x t e r n a l or i n t e r n a l , was identified.

Over a g a i n s t t h i s m a t e r i a l i s t approach, Freud's

impassioned p l e a was l o u d and clear:

Dreams are not to be l i k e n e d to the u n r e g u l a t e d

sounds t h a t r i s e from a m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t struck

by the blow o f some e x t e r n a l f o r c e i n s t e a d o f by

a p l a y e r ' s hand; they are not meaningless, they

are not absurd; they do not imply t h a t one p o r t i o n

 67

of our s t o r e of ideas i s a s l e e p w h i l e another

p o r t i o n i s b e g i n n i n g t o wake. On the contrary,

they a r e p s y c h i c a l phenomena o f complete v a l i d i t y

fulfillments of wishes; they can be i n s e r t e d i n t o

the c h a i n o f i n t e l l i g i b l e w a k i n g m e n t a l a c t s ; they
a r e c o n s t r u c t e d by a h i g h l y c o m p l i c a t e d a c t i v i t y
1
o f the m i n d .
Thus F r e u d s t a r t e d i t a l l . Although h i s theory of dreams
s u b s e q u e n t l y underwent m o d i f i c a t i o n s even i n the hands o f
his faithful followers, the major p r e m i s s e s , that dreams
a r e m e a n i n g f u l , t h a t they a r e v a l i d p s y c h i c a l phenomena, and

t h a t t h e y can be i n t e g r a t e d t h r o u g h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h

d i u r n a l m e n t a t i o n s , have n o t changed.
A C h i n e s e p r o v e r b s a y s , "What you t h i n k by d a y , that

you dream a t n i g h t . " T h i s summarizes F r e u d ' s t e a c h i n g on

Tagereste, 'day r e s i d u e s ' , w h i c h c o n s i s t o f memories o f

very recent experiences, p a r t i c u l a r l y experiences from the

day i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g the dream. Day r e s i d u e s , according

2

t o F r e u d , a r e b a s i c elements i n dream f o r m a t i o n .

I n the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s I s h a l l adduce instances

from t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e s o u r c e s i n support of t h i s view.

I t i s n o t my i n t e n t i o n to s u g g e s t , I h a s t e n to a d d , t h a t such

i n s t a n c e s may be d e s c r i b e d as " F r e u d i a n " w i t h a l l the nuances

o f the t e r m .
4.1 C o n f u c i u s as Dreamer

If C o n f u c i u s i s s a i d t o have a n t i c i p a t e d h i s own d e a t h
 68

through a dream v i s i o n (see S e c t i o n 1.3), he i s a l s o known

to have been r e t i c e n t about m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g to the uncanny

or t h i n g s n o t o f immediate c o n c e r n to the p r a c t i c a l side of

life.

For example, when asked about the problem o f death,

he s a i d , " I f we still don't know about l i f e , how can we know

about death?" And when asked how to serve the s p i r i t s , he

said, " I f we still cannot serve the p e o p l e , how can we serve

the spirits?" 5

C o n f u c i u s ' s a g n o s t i c i s m may have been more apparent

than r e a l , but the q u e s t i o n a t hand i s why, i n subsequent

ages, no C o n f u c i a n worth h i s s a l t would v e n t u r e to d i s c o u r s e

on supernormal phenomena w i t h o u t hedging h i m s e l f w i t h some

s k e p t i c a l comments o r a d v a n c i n g some m o r a l i s t i c justifica-

tions .

To g i v e an example: the A n a l e c t s r e c o r d s C o n f u c i u s as

s a y i n g , " I must be growing weak; I have not dreamt o f the

Duke o f Chou f o r a l o n g time now."4 What f o l l o w s i s a selec-

t i o n o f comments on t h i s passage by some l a t t e r - d a y Confu-

cians .

Kung An-kuo (Han):

In h i s d e c r e p i t u d e , C o n f u c i u s never dreamt o f

the Duke of Chou a g a i n . This indicates that,

in h i s prime o f l i f e , he used to dream o f the

duke, whose t e a c h i n g s he i n t e n d e d to implement.5

H s i n g P i n g (Sung):

Here C o n f u c i u s s i g h e d f o r h i s f a i l i n g health,
 69

. s a y i n g t h a t i n h i s heyday, he used to dream o f

the Duke of Chou, whose t e a c h i n g s i t had been h i s

a m b i t i o n to p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e ; b u t t h a t s i n c e , f o r

some time now, he 'had not dreamt o f the duke a g a i n ,

he must have grown weak and senile.

Chang S h i h (Sung):

The mind which caused the Master to dream o f the

Duke o f Chou was i d e n t i c a l w i t h the mind which

made the l a t t e r t h i n k o f the t h r e e s a g e - k i n g s .

I n the heyday o f h i s l i f e , e x p e c t i n g t h a t the

Way would soon be r e a l i z e d , and t h a t the measures

i n i t i a t e d by the Duke of Chou would soon a p p l y to

the whole realm, the Master k e p t p o n d e r i n g on the

m a t t e r even as he l a y i n bed and dreamt. When he

became o l d and f e e b l e , however, knowing t h a t the

Way c o u l d not be r e a l i z e d a f t e r a l l , he ceased

to dream o f s e e i n g the duke a g a i n . But i f we were

to suppose t h a t i t was owing to h i s t h i n k i n g and

p o n d e r i n g t h a t the sage saw the Duke o f Chou i n

dream, then we would be Cfound mentally)impeded

and c o n s t i p a t e d , f o r the s a g e l y mind i s i n c a p a b l e

7
of delusive dreams.

All the three commentators c i t e d above c o r r e l a t e Con-

f u c i u s 's dream o f the Duke o f Chou w i t h the f a c t t h a t he was

then young and a m b i t i o u s . Chang S h i h f u r t h e r a l l u d e s to the

e r r o r of the s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t somehow C o n f u c i u s was deluded

by the dream. He makes i t c l e a r t h a t the s a g e l y mind i s a l l

 70

p e n e t r a t i n g and may n o t succumb to any form o f d e l u s i o n .

T h i s p o i n t was a m p l i f i e d by Wei Hsiang-shu o f C h ' i n g times

thus:

The moment our mind t h i n k s o f e v i l , a demon i s

present t h e r e i n to b e g u i l e and p l a y upon i t , so

that during the day i t appears i n d i s c e r n i b l e

shape and a t n i g h t i n our dreams, and . t h i s

demon ) won't r e s t u n t i l
1
damage has been done.

Hence an e v i l mind i s the demon i t s e l f . What

is so odd, then, about one demon b e i n g i n cahoots

w i t h another? The moment our mind i s r i g h t e o u s ,

a god i s found t h e r e i n to p r o t e c t and keep watch

over i t , and r t h i s god^t won't r e s t u n t i l both

our p a r e n t s and our o f f s p r i n g have earned i t s

blessing. Therefore a r i g h t e o u s mind i s i t s e l f

a god. Now, what i s so q u e s t i o n a b l e about one

g

god consorting with another?

Here we see t h a t gods and demons a r e n o t spoken o f as

b e i n g s i n t h e i r own r i g h t , b u t r a t h e r as p r o j e c t i o n s o f our

mental s t a t e s w i t h e t h i c a l overtones: they a r e no things'tou-1

good and e v i l o b j e c t i f i e d , the b e t t e r f o r us to r e c o g n i z e

them f o r what they a r e . I t f o l l o w s t h a t , i n t h i s view,

bad dreams a r e n o t h i n g b u t the n a t u r a l p r o d u c t o f a m o r a l l y

depraved mind, as Wei s a i d f u r t h e r :

I f our mind i s a t ease, so w i l l be our speech and

action. I f our speech and a c t i o n a r e a t ease, so

w i l l be our dream s o u l . And i f our dream s o u l i s

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at ease, so w i l l be our l i f e and our death. If,

however, one i s i l l a t ease i n l i f e and i n death,

the r e a s o n i s to be found i n one's mind.^

And elsewhere he added:

To be a b l e to h o l d one's own w h i l e dreaming i s a

s i g n of consummate s c h o l a r s h i p . Such an ability-

ensures o r d e r l i n e s s i n the management o f i m p o r t a n t

affairs. My own e x p e r i e n c e has a t t e s t e d to this. 1 0

In Wei's o p i n i o n , then, our mental d i s p o s i t i o n i s the b e - a l l

and e n d - a l l of dreaming. The l a s t c i t a t i o n suggests the

i d e a t h a t i f we but had the r i g h t frame of mind, i t might

even be p o s s i b l e f o r us to manipulate the content of our

dreams.

A p a r a l l e l to t h i s i d e a can be found i n the book C r e a t i v e

Dreaming by P a t r i c i a G a r f i e l d , who m a i n t a i n s t h a t our psycho-

l o g i c a l -jproblems can be d e a l t w i t h a t t h e i r source i n our

minds. One e f f e c t i v e way to do t h i s , she s u g g e s t s , i s dream

control. She argues f o r the " s h a p a b i l i t y " of dreams as

follows:

P a t i e n t s i n therapy d e s c r i b e h a v i n g Freudian-type

dreams t h a t i s , dreams w i t h predominant s e x u a l

and a g g r e s s i v e symbols, when they c o n s u l t a

Freudian analyst. The same p a t i e n t , when he :

switches to a J u n g i a n t h e r a p i s t , b e g i n s to have

Jungian-type dreams of mandalas and archetypes.

T h i s change i s not merely a s h i f t of emphasis i n

 72

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b u t a s h i f t i n a c t u a l dream c o n t e n t .

The p a t i e n t has l e a r n e d to shape h i s dreams a c c o r -

d i n g to the wishes and e x p e c t a t i o n s o f h i s t h e r a p -

ist.

The p o i n t i s t h a t i f p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s can a l t e r the con-

t e n t s o f t h e i r dreams to s u i t t h e i r t h e r a p i s t s ' purposes, so

can we t a i l o r our dreams to s u i t o u r s . As a matter o f ethno-

graphic f a c t , t h i s i s r o u t i n e l y done by the Senoi t r i b e i n

M a l a y s i a , who teach t h e i r c h i l d r e n , from the time they can

12

t a l k , to dream i n a p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n .

A c c o r d i n g to G a r f i e l d , t h e r a p i s t s who a r e c o n v i n c e d

t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s can shape dreams have used t h i s knowledge

to h e l p t h e i r p a t i e n t s improve by d e l i b e r a t e l y influencing
1 "5

t h e i r p a t i e n t s ' dreams. ^ S i n c e , i n t h i s view, the c o n s c i o u s

mind i s b e l i e v e d to be capable o f l o r d i n g i t over dream con-

t e n t , the dream i s robbed o f i t s mystery. We can take our

dreams i n our own hands, so to speak, and do whatever we

l i k e w i t h them. Thus, a l l hideous denizens o f the n i g h t

world a r e made to cower i n the l i g h t ; o f human c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

Now, to the orthodox C o n f u c i a n , the human mind i s by n a t u r e

rational. I t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t we behave a c c o r d i n g to the

d i c t a t e s o f r e a s o n and l e a d a v i r t u o u s l i f e , f o r reason cannot

d i v o r c e i t s e l f from moral c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
4.2 Dream and R a t i o n a l i s m

A g a i n , from the C o n f u c i a n p e r s p e c t i v e , the r e a s o n that

r e s i d e s i n us i s an e x t e n s i o n o f the u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e o f
 73

the universe i t s e l f . Reason, then, i s the b a s i s upon which

correspondences between the human sphere and the w o r l d o f

nature are e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s m e t a p h y s i c a l concept may be

e x e m p l i f i e d by the f o l l o w i n g s t o r y i n the H s i n hsti (New o r d e r )

a s c r i b e d to L i u H s i a n g ( 7 7 B.C.-A.D. 6 ) :

Duke Wen o f Chin was on a h u n t i n g t r i p and

the guide r e p o r t e d to him, "There i s a huge snake

ahead! I t s body i s as t h i c k as a dyke, and so

the road i s c o m p l e t e l y b l o c k e d . "

"I have heard," s a i d the duke, " t h a t the p r i n c e s

fortify t h e i r v i r t u e s , the o f f i c e r s improve t h e i r

s e r v i c e s , and the s c h o l a r s c u l t i v a t e themselves,

when they have had bad dreams, i n an e f f o r t to

thwart the advent o f c a l a m i t y . I have e r r e d , and

Heaven has sent t h i s to warn me." Then he turned

round h i s c h a r i o t and was s e t on h i s way back.

The guide s a i d , "Your s e r v a n t has heard i t

s a i d t h a t a happy man should n o t o f f e r rewards and

t h a t an angry man s h o u l d n o t impose p e n a l t i e s . But

now i t ' s e i t h e r e v i l o r good l u c k t h a t l i e s before

us and Dthe course o f events'] cannot be changed.

Why don't we j u s t chase i t away?"

"Not so," s a i d the duke, " f o r the g h o s t l y cannot

overcome the Way, nor can the p r o d i g i o u s overcome

Virtue. No e v i l o r good has come about y e t , hence

it can s t i l l be a l t e r e d . " Then he headed h i s

c a r r i a g e back to h i s abode.
 74

Having f a s t e d f o r t h r e e days, the duke con-

f e s s e d i n the temple t h u s , "The a n i m a l s I used as

s a c r i f i c e s were n o t f a t and the o f f e r i n g s were n o t

ample: s i n number one. My fondness f o r h u n t i n g

knew no r e s t r a i n t : s i n number two. I have l e v i e d

many taxes and d u t i e s and meted out heavy p u n i s h -

ments and p e n a l t i e s : s i n number t h r e e . I ask that

from now on, l e t no t a r i f f s be c o l l e c t e d a t the

c i t y gates and markets, l e t no d u t i e s be imposed

a t the marshes and dams, l e t c r i m i n a l s be pardoned,

let the taxes on o l d farmlands be reduced by half

and l e t no tax be l e v i e d on new ones."

These o r d e r s were c a r r i e d out and w i t h i n five

days, the o f f i c e r a s s i g n e d to guard the snake

dreamt t h a t the h e a v e n l y T i - g o d slew i t , saying,

"For what r e a s o n d i d you b l o c k the way o f the s a g e l y

ruler?"

Awakened from the dream, he saw t h a t the snake

had decomposed, e m i t t i n g a stench. He r e p o r t e d i t

to Duke Wen, who remarked, "Right! I t did turn

out t h a t the g h o s t l y c o u l d not overcome the Way,

and the p r o d i g i o u s c o u l d not overcome V i r t u e . How

can people r e f r a i n from s e e k i n g a f t e r Reason and

l e t Heaven be r e s p o n s i b l e ? A l l we s h o u l d do i s
14
counter i t ( i . e . the monstrous) with V i r t u e .

I f , i n t h i s view, i n a u s p i c i o u s p o r t e n t s and dreams a r e

to be r e g a r d e d as i n d i c a t i v e o f moral shortcomings on the

 75

dreamer's p a r t , then, c o n v e r s e l y , good dreams may he attributed

to the dreamer's s u p e r i o r c h a r a c t e r . T h i s b r i n g s out the

c o m p a t i b i l i t y of dream w i t h r a t i o n a l i t y w h i c h , i n the
: Confucian

vision, i s the o n l y b a s i s f o r moral thought and action.

4.3 C o n f u c i u s as Dreamt

J u s t as C o n f u c i u s had dreamt of the Duke of Chou, h i s

intellectual as w e l l as moral exemplar, so a l s o d i d h i s

admirers i n subsequent ages dream about him.

In h i s famous work, the Wen-hsin t i a o - l u n g (The literary

mind and the c a r v i n g of d r a g o n s ) , L i u H s i e h ( c . A.D. 4 6 5 -

5 2 2 ) t o l d us the f o l l o w i n g dreams t h a t he had dreamt:

As a c h i l d o f seven I dreamt o f c o l o r e d c l o u d s

l i k e brocaded s i l k and t h a t I climbed up and picked

them. When over t h i r t y y e a r s of age, I dreamt I

had i n my hand the p a i n t e d and l a c q u e r e d ceremonial

v e s s e l s and was f o l l o w i n g C o n f u c i u s and travelling

toward the s o u t h . I n the morning I awoke happy

and deeply a t ease. The d i f f i c u l t y of s e e i n g the

Sage i s g r e a t i n d e e d , and y e t he appeared i n the

15
dream o f an i n s i g n i f i c a n t f e l l o w l i k e me I

Such u p l i f t i n g and i n s p i r i n g dreams were no doubt a cause f o r

joy to a d e d i c a t e d w r i t e r . I n f a c t , L i u H s i e h mentioned them

as a p r e l u d e to e x p l a i n i n g why he wanted to w r i t e about lit-

erature.

Wu Ytl-pi o f the Ming dynasty, p r o b a b l y the g r e a t e s t

dreamer i n the C o n f u c i a n f o l d , claimed t h a t he had on separate

 76

occasions dreamt of C o n f u c i u s and K i n g Wen of Chou; o f

Chu H s i , the Sung N e o - c o n f u c i a n master; of Confucius's

grandson Tzu-ssu; and of Chu H s i ' s f a t h e r and w i f e . Wu

had the a u d a c i t y to say he had even dreamt t h a t Confucius

16
came w i t h two f o l l o w e r s to pay him a visitI

Wang Ming-ytleh of Ch'ing times, too, r e p o r t e d that he

once dreamt o f p e e k i n g a t K i n g Wen and the Duke o f Chou

through a window, as they passed hy r i d i n g two chariots

4- A
1
7

m tandem.

A f t e r c i t i n g these and other instances i n h i s essay

e n t i t l e d "Shuo meng" (Speaking of dreams), Yii Ytteh (A.D.

1821-1906), the eminent Ch'ing s c h o l a r , remarked, "Whether
such t h i n g s may or may not have happened should he determined
18

on a p e r s o n a l b a s i s . " B l u n t l y put: some such r e p o r t e d

dreams may have been pure f a b r i c a t i o n s , r e g a r d l e s s of whether

the dreamer was an honest-to-goodness C o n f u c i a n . Could we

blame Yii Ytleh f o r sounding s k e p t i c a l ?

4.4 Dream and S k e p t i c i s m

Apart from the more s p e c i f i c meaning of r a t i o n a l i s m i n

Western p h i l o s o p h y as an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r y opposed to

empiricism, the term i s a l s o used to c h a r a c t e r i z e :that a t t i t u d e

o f mind which makes l i g h t o f o p i n i o n s d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y from

a u t h o r i t y , t r a d i t i o n , or r e v e l a t i o n . Reason i n s t e a d i s the

o n l y b a s i s f o r the f o r m a t i o n of opinion. I t i s i n the latter

sense t h a t the term has been used i n S e c t i o n 4.2. It is in

t h i s sense, too, t h a t s k e p t i c i s m , as sworn-enemy of dogmatism,

conformism, and t r a d i t i o n a l i s m , may be regarded as r a t i o n a l e :

 77

ism's blood-brother.

Of the not too numerous doubters and debunkers i n the

h i s t o r y of Chinese thought, Wang Ch'ung, a l r e a d y referred

to i n S e c t i o n 2 . 3 , c e r t a i n l y ranked among the greatest.

We know t h a t he was not c r a z y about gods and demons. Nor

about dreams:

The meaning of dreams i s dubious. Some say

t h a t dreams are I caused byilthe s u b t l e spirit

which l i n g e r s by itself i n the body, thus produc-

ing good and evil signs. Others say that the

subtle s p i r i t a c t s and intermingles w i t h people

and things.

Now, suppose t h a t i t indeed l i n g e r e d i n the

body, then the subtle s p i r i t of the dead would

do so as w e l l . And suppose t h a t i t i n d e e d acted,

y e t when one dreamt t h a t one killed or hurt

others, and t h a t the one who killed and hurt others

was also k i l l e d by others; having looked over one's

p e r s o n and examined one's body the next day, one

would not find evidence f o r wounds i n f l i c t e d by

sword-blade. -:-^:% /

Granted t h a t dreams make use of the subtle

spirit, still t h i s s u b t l e s p i r i t f i n dreams3 i s

f a k i n to'} the subtle s p i r i t o f the dead. If the

subtle s p i r i t of dreams cannot h u r t p e o p l e , then

19
how can the subtle s p i r i t o f the dead hurt,?
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In t h i s passage Wang Ch'ung a r g u e s , by a n a l o g y from

dreams, t h a t the moment one d i e s , one's s u b t l e s p i r i t loses

i t s power. Thus, a dead person does not have the wherewithal

to become a ghost. S i n c e c o n s c i o u s n e s s does not persist

a f t e r death, the dead can do no harm.

In the " C h i yao" (An account o f the monstrous) c h a p t e r

(64) of the Lun heng, Wang Ch'ung r e l a t e s the s t o r y of Chao

C h i e n - t z u , who had been i l l and i n a coma f o r seven and a

h a l f days. When he came t o , he t o l d h i s c o u r t i e r s t h a t he

had gone up to the abode of the T i - g o d , had roamed the

middle heaven w i t h a h o s t of d e i t i e s , and had been t r e a t e d

to c e l e s t i a l music and dance.

Then a b l a c k bear attempted to s e i z e him, and the T i -

god commanded him to shoot i t . He d i d and i t d i e d . Then

came a brown b e a r . A g a i n he took a s h o t , h i t t i n g and

killing i t .

The T i - g o d was so p l e a s e d t h a t He gave him two caskets

containing jewelries. Then he saw a c h i l d a t the T i - g o d ' s

side. And the T i - g o d e n t r u s t e d to him a Mongolian dog,

t e l l i n g him to g i v e i t to h i s son when he grew up. The

T i - g o d a l s o made c e r t a i n p r o p h e s i e s to him w i t h r e g a r d to

the f u t u r e o f the C h i n s t a t e as w e l l as some o t h e r events

yet to take p l a c e .

Wang Ch'ung comments on the dream thus:

How do we know t h a t the T i - g o d which Chao C h i e n - t z u

saw was not the r e a l Ti-god? We know i t from the

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f dreams. Mansions, terraces,

mountains, and r i d g e s are not o f f i c i a l positions.

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Thus do we know t h a t the T i - g o d t h a t C h i e n - t z u

saw i n h i s dream was n o t the T i - g o d i n h e a v e n .

If t h i s was n o t the T i - g o d i n h e a v e n , t h e n the

m i d d l e heaven t h a t he c l a i m e d to have roamed w i t h

the h o s t o f s p i r i t s cannot he h e a v e n .

Shu-sun M u - t z u dreamt t h a t heaven weighed

down upon him ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 5 ) . I f t h i s had

been r e a l , t h e n heaven must have descended and

r e a c h e d the e a r t h . Upon r e a c h i n g the e a r t h , it

would have met the b a r r a g e o f mansions and t e r r a c e s .

Hence i t c o u l d n o t have t o u c h e d h i m . For i f it

h a d , t h e n t h e mansions and t e r r a c e s would have

been c r u s h e d . That t h e y r e m a i n e d i n t a c t i n d i c a t e s

t h a t heaven d i d n o t r e a c h e d the e a r t h . If it

d i d n o t r e a c h e d the e a r t h , t h e n i t d i d n o t w e i g h

down upon the man. I f i t d i d n o t weigh down upon

h i m , t h e n what d i d weigh down upon him was n o t

heaven i t s e l f b u t r a t h e r the image o f h e a v e n . From

the f a c t t h a t the heaven w h i c h weighed down upon

S h u - s u n M u - t z u i n h i s dream was n o t h e a v e n , we

know t h a t the heaven w h i c h Chao C h i e n - t z u had

roamed was n o t h e a v e n .

Wang C h ' u n g was n o t t r y i n g t o be f u n n y . L i k e a good l a w y e r ,

he p r e s e n t e d h i s argument i n l o g i c a l f a s h i o n and by a p p e a l

t o common s e n s e . He c o n t i n u e s :

Some say t h a t p e o p l e may a l s o have l i t e r a l dreams.

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One saw A ( i n dream'j and the next day one i n d e e d

saw A. One saw Mr. X t i n dreamD and the next day

one indeed saw Mr. X. Yes, people may a l s o have

literal dreams. B u t such dreams c o n s i s t i n images.

It i s t h e i r imageries that are l i t e r a l . How do

we demonstrate t h i s ?

When a l i t e r a l dreamer saw A o r Mr. X i n a

dream, and the next day he indeed saw A o r Mr. X,

t h i s L t y p e o f dreanTQ i s l i t e r a l . I f we asked A

or Mr. X however, n e i t h e r o f them would (fsay they

had} seen fthe dreamer} .. I f n e i t h e r o f them saw

the dreamer, then the A and Mr. X seen i n dream

were n o t h i n g b u t images t h a t l o o k e d l i k e them.

If t h i s was a matter o f the images l o o k i n g like

them, then we know t h a t the T i - g o d seen by C h i e n -

20
t z u was an image t h a t l o o k e d l i k e the T i - g o d .

It would be i n t e r e s t i n g t o know what Wang Ch'ung would have

21
s a i d about p a r a l l e l o r r e c i p r o c a l dreams.

Wang Ch'ung has more t o say about the u n r e a l i t y o f

dreams:

Moreover, the o n e i r o c r i t i c s say t h a t when one

dreams, one's s o u l t r a v e l s . When one dreams o f

the T i - g o d , i t i s one's s o u l t h a t ascends t o heaven.

A s c e n d i n g t o heaven i s l i k e a s c e n d i n g a mountain.

When we dream t h a t we a r e a s c e n d i n g a mountain,

our feet climb the mountain and our hands c l u t c h

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at the t r e e s ; o n l y thus can we go up. But to go

up to heaven, t h e r e i s n o t h i n g to r e l y on; how

can we get up t h e r e ? Heaven i s ten thousand l i

away from us I A person walks a hundred l ia day.

With s o u l and body t o g e t h e r , y e t one cannot go

f a s t ; how then can one expect the s o u l to go fast

t r a v e l l i n g alone? Suppose t h a t the s o u l c o u l d

t r a v e l as f a s t as the body, then i t would have '

taken s e v e r a l y e a r s f o r C h i e n - t z u to ascend to

and descend from heaven b e f o r e he awoke. And

yet i t was only a f t e r seven days when he came t o .

22
How c o u l d the time be so s h o r t ?

Wang Ch'ung's whole argument was based on the t h e o r y

t h a t the s o u l had no s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e and could act with

efficiency o n l y when r e s i d i n g i n the body. Hence any n o t i o n

about dream r e a l i s m was u n t e n a b l e because dream events were

irreconcilable w i t h our e x p e r i e n c e s of the p h y s i c a l w o r l d .

Other than t h i s , he acknowledged the e x i s t e n c e o f dreams

as dreams.

4.5 Dreams Come F a l s e

Now, one r e a s o n f o r s k e p t i c i s m to r e a r i t s q u i z z i c a l

head, wherever the q u e s t i o n of the r e a l i t y o f dreams arises,

i s because t h e r e are n o t a b l e dreams on r e c o r d t h a t d i d not

come t r u e . The dream o f Shu-sun Mu-tzu mentioned by Wang

Ch'ung j u s t c i t e d i s a case i n p o i n t .

Earlier in his l i f e , Shu-sun l e f t h i s f a m i l y i n Lu

and went to C h ' i . On the way he met a woman a t Keng-tsung,

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who cooked f o r him and s h e l t e r e d him. She asked where he

was g o i n g . When t o l d , she c r i e d and saw him o f f .

He a r r i v e d i n C h ' i and l a t e r m a r r i e d a l a d y o f the Kuo

f a m i l y , who bore him two sons.

One n i g h t , Shu-sun dreamt t h a t the sky weighed down

upon him, and he was unable to bear i t . At that critical

moment he t u r n e d round and saw a man, dark and hump-backed,

w i t h deep-set eyes and a p i g g i s h mouth.

"Niu ('Ox')," he c r i e d o u t , " h e l p me!" After this he

was a b l e to w i t h s t a n d the p r e s s u r e .

) The next day he summoned a l l h i s f o l l o w e r s , b u t c o u l d

not f i n d such a man among them. So he t o l d them to remember

his dream.

A f t e r w a r d s , upon h i s countrymen's i n v i t a t i o n , he r e -

turned to Lu, where he was made a m i n i s t e r . Then the woman

of Keng-tsung and p r e s e n t e d him w i t h a pheasant. He asked

her whether she had a son and she r e p l i e d , "My boy i s q u i t e

big now; he was a b l e to come w i t h m e . c a r r y i n g the pheasant."

When the boy was summoned, whom d i d Shu-sun see b u t the

p e r s o n he had seen i n h i s dream. Without a s k i n g what h i s

name was, Shu-sun c a l l e d out, "Niu!" and the boy answered,

"Aye." Then Shu-sun summoned a l l h i s f o l l o w e r s to l o o k a t

the boy and made him a w a i t i n g - b o y .

Shu-sun l o v e d the boy and had h i g h hopes f o r him. But

N i u grew up to become the main source o f h i s g r i e f . When

a t l a s t Shu-sun became v e r y i l l , N i u denied him food and

23
d r i n k , thus s t a r v i n g him to death.
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Another famous dream which proved m i s l e a d i n g was that

of Emperor Wen o f Han, who once dreamt t h a t he wanted to

climb up to heaven hut c o u l d n o t . Then an i m p e r i a l oarsman

(identified i n the dream by h i s y e l l o w cap) pushed him up to

it. The emperor turned round and n o t i c e d t h a t the man:'-s

garment had a h o l e i n the lower p o r t i o n between the g i r d l e

and the s m a l l o f h i s back.

Upon waking, Emperor Wen went to Chien-t'.ai ( T e r r a c e o f

G r a d a t i o n ) l o c a t e d i n the middle o f a l a k e on the p a l a c e

grounds, on purpose to l o o k f o r the man he saw i n h i s dream.

There he found Teng T'ung, whose garment had the t e l l - t a l e .

hole. On l e a r n i n g t h a t the man's surname was Teng, which

he took to mean t i n g , 'to ascend', the emperor was very

pleased indeed.

Prom then on, i m p e r i a l honors and f a v o r s showered upon

Teng T'ung day by day. F i n a l l y , he was a p p o i n t e d a first-

c l a s s m i n i s t e r (shang t a i - f u ) , a l t h o u g h he had no t a l e n t to

speak o f , a p a r t from h i s impeccable p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r .

All t o l d , Teng T'ung d i d n o t amount to much, except

perhaps h i s a c t i n g l i k e a sycophant on o c c a s i o n . 2 4
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CHAPTER FIVE

DREAM AND REALITY

Do dreams have a r e a l i t y o f t h e i r own?

For those who b e l i e v e t h a t dreams have a p r e d i c t i v e

f u n c t i o n and f o r those who b e l i e v e t h a t they a r e messages

from the s p i r i t w o r l d , the answer would be Yes. On the

o t h e r hand, those who t h i n k t h a t dreams can be s u f f i c i e n t l y

explained i n e i t h e r p h y s i o l o g i c a l or p s y c h o l o g i c a l terms

alone would c e r t a i n l y say No.

But j u s t what makes o r d i n a r y people c a l l waking

e x p e r i e n c e s r e a l and dream e x p e r i e n c e s u n r e a l ? If, in .

d e f e r e n c e to the seeming t a n g i b i l i t y o f our waking life,

we f e e l o b l i g e d to c h a r a c t e r i z e our dream l i f e as u n r e a l ,

then we may be s a i d to be capable o f e x p e r i e n c i n g the u n r e a l .

In such a case, the term " u n r e a l " would r e f e r to the o b j e c t

of our e x p e r i e n c e , and n o t to the e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f . In

o t h e r words, a t the e x p e r i e n t i a l l e v e l , the dream i s s t i l l

real.

At l e a s t i t was and s t i l l i s c o n s i d e r e d so i n some

preliterate s o c i e t i e s , ' where t h i n g s and events seen i n dreams

are e i t h e r thought to be i d e n t i c a l w i t h those o f the waking

s t a t e o r r e g a r d e d as b e l o n g i n g to another world where they

are r e a l i t i e s i n t h e i r own r i g h t .

There a r e , however, o n t o l o g i c a l and e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

issues involved i n this question. S i n c e some o f the b e s t

minds i n the h i s t o r y o f both E a s t e r n and Western thought

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have a d d r e s s e d themselves to such i s s u e s , I propose to

p r e s e n t t h e i r views i n t h i s chapter.

5.1 Chuang-tzu and D e s c a r t e s

The f i r s t t h i n k e r i n a n c i e n t China who spoke o f dreams

from a p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n g l e was Chuang-tzu ( c . 4 t h c e n t . B.C.).

In the "Ch'i-wu l u n " ( D i s c u s s i o n on making a l l t h i n g s equal)

chapter o f the hook a s c r i b e d to him, he s t a t e s :

He who dreams o f d r i n k i n g wine may weep when :;.

morning comes; he who dreams o f weeping may i n the

morning go o f f to hunt. While he i s dreaming he

does n o t know i t i s a dream, and i n h i s dream he

may even t r y to i n t e r p r e t a dream. Only a f t e r

he wakes does he know i t was a dream. And

someday t h e r e w i l l be a g r e a t awakening when we

know t h a t t h i s i s a l l a g r e a t dream. Y e t the

s t u p i d b e l i e v e they a r e awake b u s i l y and b r i g h t l y

assuming they u n d e r s t o o d t h i n g s , c a l l i n g t h i s man

ruler, t h a t one herdsman how dense! Confucius

and you a r e b o t h dreaming! And when I say you

2
are dreaming, I am dreaming t o o .
( B u r t o n Watson's t r a n s l a t i o n )

T h i s essay i n i t s e n t i r e t y d e v e l o p s the i d e a t h a t i f

all s t a t e s o f b e i n g seem so c u t o f f from one a n o t h e r as to

r e s u l t i n such p o l a r c o n t r a s t s as s e l f and t h i n g s , t h i s and

t h a t , g r e a t and s m a l l , r i g h t and wrong, good and bad, h i g h

and low, and even l i f e and death, i t i s because we, as f i n i t e

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b e i n g s , tend to d i s c r i m i n a t e e n t i t i e s and their attributes

from a p o i n t o f view determined by our contigent spatio-

temporal c i r c u m s t a n c e s . To Chuang-tzu's mind, a l l c a t e g o r i e s

are a r t i f i c i a l and a l l distinctions relative. Hence, u l -

timately, i n t h e i r n a t u r a l , u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s t a t e , a l l things

p a r t a k e of the same p r i m o r d i a l s t u f f , whose p r i n c i p l e of

organization, or apparent l a c k of i t , i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as

the Way. Prom t h i s o u t l o o k , nothing i n the world i s to be

considered more a c c e p t a b l e than any other. And i t would be

a c o l o s s a l d e l u s i o n i n d e e d , i f one should prefer l i f e to

death. Chuang-tzu puts i t t h i s way, "How do I know i n h a t i n g

death I am not l i k e a man who, h a v i n g l e f t home i n h i s y o u t h ,

3
has f o r g o t t e n the way back?"

In the passage c i t e d above, the p o l a r i t y o f the dream

and the waking s t a t e i s used to i l l u s t r a t e this idea. The

apparent d i s j u n c t i o n between the two states i s t a c i t l y ac-

knowledged. But the f a c t remains t h a t , as dreams go, there

i s no i n t e r n a l evidence on the b a s i s of which they may be

known as such. Granted t h a t sometimes we experience lucid

dreams, t h a t i s , dreams i n which we realize t h a t we are

dreaming, t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n i t s e l f more o f t e n than not turns v. ;,

out to be p a r t o f the dream: we could even dream t h a t we

had awakened from a dream and started interpreting i t ! Only

when we f i n a l l y wake up does i t dawn upon us t h a t we have

dreamt i n a dream. The t a n t a l i z i n g question i s , of course,

whether we ever r e a l l y wake up.

Two m i l l e n i u m s l a t e r and across the oceans, D e s c a r t e s

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was to express the same s k e p t i c i s m in his "First Meditation,"

i n which he described himself as a t f i r s t feeling certain

t h a t he was "here, s i t t i n g by the f i r e , wearing a w i n t e r

cloak,..." but then as b e i n g puzzled when he r e c a l l e d :

How o f t e n , i n the s t i l l o f the n i g h t , I have the

f a m i l i a r c o n v i c t i o n t h a t I am h e r e , wearing a

cloak, s i t t i n g by the f i r e when r e a l l y I am

undressed and lying i n bedl"^

D e s c a r t e s h e l d the d e c e i t f u l n e s s of the senses r e s p o n -

s i b l e f o r h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l doubt. His claim that there is

no i n t e r n a l c r i t e r i o n f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between dreams

and waking e x p e r i e n c e s has repeatedly been brought to task

by thinkers i n recent decades, p a r t i c u l a r l y the followers

of Ludwig Wittgenstein.

Arthur Danto, f o r example, reduces to a paradox Descartes'

c l a i m t h a t the senses can always deceive him by p o i n t i n g out

t h a t t h i s c o u l d have been d i s c o v e r e d i n no o t h e r way save

on the b a s i s of the evidence p r o v i d e d by the senses themselves.

He r e f u t e s the C a r t e s i a n Dream Argument thus:

One must be awake no l e s s to argue than to sense.

So, i f the argument i s to be taken s e r i o u s l y , i t

must be presupposed t h a t he who o f f e r s i t i s awake.

Or e l s e he i s not a r g u i n g but only talking i n his

sleep. I f he i s r e a l l y arguing, he i s awake, and

i f he i s awake, he i s sensing and not seeming to

sense, and so the Dream Argument cannot be sound.

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But i f he i s not awake, he i s not r e a l l y arguing,

and. s i n c e t h e r e i s no argument, t h e r e i s n o t h i n g

to r e f u t e I So e i t h e r there i s no Dream Argument,

or e l s e the Dream Argument i s r e f u t e d through i t s

... 6
very presuppositions.

But, as Danto immediately p o i n t s out, i n p r e s e n t i n g

h i s Dream Argument, D e s c a r t e s was not so much concerned

w i t h f a c t s about dreams per se as w i t h a t h e o r y of p e r c e p t i o n .

T h i s t h e o r y h o l d s t h a t the c o n t e n t s of our e x p e r i e n c e are

n o t h i n g but " p i c t u r e s " whose r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l v a l u e i s a t

b e s t dubious. I t may w e l l be t h a t they do not stand f o r

a n y t h i n g i n the r e a l w o r l d . S i n c e t h e r e i s no conceivable way

o f comparing these p i c t u r e s w i t h t h e i r supposed counterparts

i n the r e a l w o r l d , the v e r y e x i s t e n c e o f such counterparts

i s q u e s t i o n a b l e , and the r e a l world i t s e l f becomes a mere

hypothesis. Consequently, there i s no way of t e l l i n g whether

the p i c t u r e s we have are r e a l or i m a g i n a r y . A l l we can say

7
is t h a t our p e r c e p t i o n of them i s r e a l .

5.2 The B u t t e r f l y Dream as A l l e g o r y

To the e x t e n t t h a t the p e r c e p t u a l or e x p e r i e n t i a l aspect

of human e x i s t e n c e i s accorded v a l i d i t y i n Descartes' medit-

a t i o n on the s u b j e c t , we may say t h a t h i s i d e a s are i n a c c o r d

w i t h Chuang-tzu's musings. But, as a m e t a p h y s i c i a n i n the

Western p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n , D e s c a r t e s had to work out h i s

i d e a s by d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g . Chuang-tzu, f o r h i s p a r t , was

a poet who had not much use f o r d i s c u r s i v e thought. Rather,

 89

lie r e l i e d on an i n t u i t i v e grasp o f t h i n g s to a c h i e v e h i s

unique v i s i o n e p i t o m i z e d by the o f t - q u o t e d dream-story with

which he concludes the "Ch'i-wu l u n " :

Once Chuang Chou dreamt he was a b u t t e r f l y , a

b u t t e r f l y f l i t t i n g and f l u t t e r i n g around, happy

w i t h h i m s e l f and doing as he p l e a s e d . He d i d n ' t

know he was Chuang Chou. Suddenly he woke up

and t h e r e he was, s o l i d and unmistakable Chuang

Chou. But he d i d n ' t know i f he was Chuang Chou

who had dreamt he was a b u t t e r f l y , o r a b u t t e r f l y

dreaming he was Chuang Chou. Between Chuang Chou

and a b u t t e r f l y t h e r e must be some d i s t i n c t i o n !

8
This i s c a l l e d the T r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f T h i n g s .
( B u r t o n Watson's translation)

O s t e n s i b l y , t h i s charming s t o r y i s i n t e n d e d to d r i v e

home the burden o f the whole essay, namely, t h a t from a

supra-mundane s t a n d p o i n t , where a l l r e l a t i v i t y does n o t

o b t a i n and a l l c o n t e n t i o n - c e a s e s , the v a r i o u s modes o f b e i n g

w i l l be p e r c e i v e d i n t h e i r e s s e n t i a l oneness. I n such a s t a t e

they a r e m u t u a l l y convertible. Hence, dream experiences

p a r t a k e o f the same n a t u r e as waking e x p e r i e n c e s , and the

dreamt b u t t e r f l y i s every i n c h as r e a l as the dreaming

philosopher. Thus p u t , the a l l e g o r i c a l v a l u e o f Chuang Tzu's

dream i s o b v i o u s .

To b e g i n w i t h , the image o f the b u t t e r f l y i t s e l f i s

f r a u g h t w i t h symbolic meaning. P a r t l y owing to Chuang Tzu's

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dream, the b u t t e r f l y as p o e t i c imagery i n Chinese literature

is o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a sense o f ease, g a i e t y and abandon.

F r e e d from the bondage o f i t s p u p a l s t a g e , i t " f l i t s and

f l u t t e r s around" a t w i l l and w i t h o u t aim, b e i n g t h o r o u g h l y

absorbed i n the c e l e b r a t i o n o f l i f e . T h i s , I take i t , i s

the i d e a l way to l i v e as Chuang-tzu saw i t .

In our myopic v i s u a l f i e l d brought about by our i n g r a i n -

ed h a b i t o f making d i s t i n c t i o n s upon d i s t i n c t i o n s , however,

all e x i s t e n c e i s compartmentalized and appears to us i n the

form o f i n f i n i t e c a t e g o r i e s : form, substance, time, space,

r e l a t i o n , number, and so on. T h i s b e i n g the case, between

Chuang Chou and the b u t t e r f l y , as between dream-time and

waking moments, some d i s t i n c t i o n i s no doubt i n o r d e r .

A g a i n , the winged i n s e c t i n a l l i t s s p l e n d o r owes i t s

e x i s t e n c e to a puny, c r e e p i n g l a r v a which, qua l a r v a , ceases

to e x i s t as soon as the metamorphosis takes p l a c e . This

wonder o f n a t u r e accounts f o r the f a c t t h a t i n many cultures

the b u t t e r f l y i s a symbol o f the s o u l r e l e a s e d from the body

at the hour o f death. I n c l a s s i c a l Greek, f o r example, the

word psyche may mean ' l i f e ' , 'departed s p i r i t ' , o r 'the

immortal s o u l ' . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , i t a l s o means ' b u t t e r f l y ' o r

'moth'. And i n C h r i s t i a n iconography the b u t t e r f l y figures

in the E a s t e r symbolism o f the r e s u r r e c t i o n .

W e l l , we cannot expect Chuang-tzu to have known c l a s s i c a l

Greek and C h r i s t i a n symbolism to boot, b u t must we suppose

t h a t he was a l s o unable to see the analogy between the dormant

c h r y s a l i s and the b e n i g h t e d human ego shrouded i n i t s spatio-

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temporal s t r a i t j a c k e t , and t h a t between the g l o r i o u s b u t t e r l y

and the l i b e r a t e d s o u l ; immersed i n the b e a t i f i c s t a t e o f total

awareness, or what he c a l l s t a chtieh, 'the Great Awadening ? 1

5.3 Dream as Plight

With the above c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n mind, Chuang-tzu's

b u t t e r f l y dream may be regarded as a paradigm, as f a r as

Chinese dreamlore i s concerned, of what M i r c e a E l i a d e terms

"the symbolism o f a s c e n s i o n . " T h i s s i g n i f i e s the ecstatic

m y s t i c a l experience of escaping from the c l u t c h e s o f Death

q

i n t o a new mode o f e x i s t e n c e . I t i s comparable to the

shamanic f l i g h t i n t r a n c e d e s c r i b e d i n g r e a t d e t a i l by E l i a d e

i n h i s book Le Chamanisme, where he mentions t h a t shamans i n

v a r i o u s p a r t s o f the world c l a i m to be capable o f f l y i n g away

10
l i k e b i r d s , or mounted upon a horse or a b i r d .

In t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , E l i a d e a l s o takes as examples some

Chinese legends about emperors f l y i n g through the a i r . He

d w e l l s i n p a r t i c u l a r on the term " f e a t h e r e d sage" or "feathered

v i s i t o r , " which r e f e r r e d to a T a o i s t adept.

E l i a d e notes t h a t the m o t i f o f m a g i c a l f l i g h t i s very

a n c i e n t i n f o l k l o r e and i s of u n i v e r s a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . What

c h a r a c t e r i z e s the c o u n t l e s s myths and legends embodying this

theme " i s the f a c t t h a t weight i s a b o l i s h e d , t h a t an onto-

.11
l o g i c a l m u t a t i o n has occurred i n the human b e i n g himself."*

This weightless c o n d i t i o n i s i m p l i e d , I b e l i e v e , i n Chuang-

t z u ' s e x p r e s s i o n hstl-hsu-.jan, which Watson m i m e t i c a l l y and

i m a g i s t i c a l l y renders as " f l i t t i n g and fluttering around."

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A g a i n , a c c o r d i n g to E l i a d e , the images of " f l i g h t " and

"wings" s i g n i f y the s p i r i t u a l life and, i n a d d i t i o n , the power

of i n t e l l i g e n c e which seeks to understand s e c r e t t h i n g s and

metaphysical truths. Such s e c r e t s and t r u t h s are d i s c o v e r e d

12

m the course o f new awakenings o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . At this

p o i n t our eminent h i s t o r i a n of r e l i g i o n s h i m s e l f takes flight

from h i s chosen f i e l d and r o v e s i n the r a r e f i e d sphere of

p h i l o s o p h i c anthropology. Thus, he states:

Now, i f we c o n s i d e r the " f l i g h t " and a l l the

related symbolism as a whole, t h e i r significance

i s a t once apparent: they a l l express a break

w i t h the u n i v e r s e o f everyday experience; and

a dual purposivenessi-is evident i n t h i s rupture:

b o t h transcendence and, a t the same time, freedom

13
are to be o b t a i n e d through the " f l i g h t . "

It i s certainly t r u e t h a t the n o t i o n s of transcendence

and freedom c o n s t i t u t e the dominant theme of a l l symbolic

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the " f l i g h t , " be they myths, l e g e n d s , or

dreams. I t a l s o seems r e a s o n a b l e t h a t these two essential

m o t i f s are e x p r e s s i v e of an o n t o l o g i c a l change i n man, in

the sense t h a t a r u p t u r e of the plane of everyday experience

has taken p l a c e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the s p e c i f i c content of

e i t h e r s t a t e v a r i e s i n k i n d and degree w i t h r e s p e c t to the

p e r s o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s of the i n d i v i d u a l concerned and, more

i m p o r t a n t l y , i n accordance w i t h the c u l t u r a l and spiritual

t r a d i t i o n which s e r v e s as h i s frame of r e f e r e n c e . A poet's

flight of f a n c y may not take him b o d i l y out of the attic,

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but i t c e r t a i n l y c r e a t e s f o r him, i f o n l y f o r a f l i t t i n g

moment, the v i s i o n o f a b e t t e r world where bread and b u t t e r

do n o t c o n s t i t u t e a problem. I n any event, the f l i g h t itself

represents progress toward a h i g h e r r e a l i t y .

I n Buddhism, f o r example, the f l i g h t o f an a r h a t

s i g n i f i e s h i s transcendence o f the human c o n d i t i o n . The

Buddha h i m s e l f i s s a i d to have reached the summit o f the

Cosmic system even a t h i s n a t i v i t y , when he p l a c e d h i s f e e t

flat on the ground, took seven s t r i d e s towards the North

and proclaimed, " I am a t the top o f the w o r l d , I am the

b e s t i n the world; t h i s i s my l a s t b i r t h ; f o r me, there will

14
never a g a i n be another e x i s t e n c e . "

F o r Chuang-tzu, however, transcendence on the s p i r i t u a l

plane c o n s i s t s i n the m y s t i c a l awareness t h a t the Tao, the

primordial v i t a l p r i n c i p l e underlying a l l existence, i s

immanent. Once t h i s transcendence i s a c h i e v e d , a l l distinc-

t i o n a t the phenomenal l e v e l i s a b o l i s h e d .

In an essay entitled "Chuang Chou meng h u - t i e h l u n "

(On Chuang Chou's dreaming o f the b u t t e r f l y ) , L i Yiian-cho,

a p r o f e s s o r a t the I m p e r i a l Academy d u r i n g Southern Sung

times, wrote:

All t h i n g s s p r i n g from the same r o o t ; I s and

I s - n o t partake o f one essence. What i s t h i s that

we c a l l Chou and what i s t h i s t h a t we c a l l butter-

fly? I f we c o n s i d e r Chou to be no b u t t e r f l y , then

we f a i l to f o r g e t selfhood. I f we r e g a r d the

b u t t e r f l y as no Chou, then we f a i l to f o r g e t
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thinghood.

Things and s e l f depend on each o t h e r , and a l l

appearances are c h a o t i c a l l y i n t e r t w i n e d . Hence,

to say t h a t they are unequal i s simply false

description.

Don't we know t h a t t h i n g s are of themselves

n o - t h i n g , hence even a " b u t t e r f l y i s naught; and

t h a t s e l f i s of i t s e l f n o - s e l f , hence even Chou

is illusory?

Moreover, g r a n t e d t h a t there i s a distinction:

f l i t t i n g and f l u t t e r i n g , one dreams and becomes

a b u t t e r f l y and l o , t h e r e i s the b u t t e r f l y and

no Chou! B r i s t l i n g and b u s t l i n g , one wakes and

becomes Chou and p r e s t o , there i s Chou and no

butterfly! But t h i s ^ p o i n t s uptl the exclusivity

1 5
of our p e r c e p t i o n and the e q u a l i t y of t h i n g s .

I f t h i s t e x t i s shot w i t h B u d d h i s t terminology, the

mode of thought remains b a s i c a l l y T a o i s t . Chou s l e e p s and

dreams t h a t he i s a b u t t e r f l y ; upon waking, he then wonders

whether he i s b e i n g dreamt by the b u t t e r f l y . But, i n his

human c o n d i t i o n , he cannot have i t both ways a t the same

time. I t ' s l i k e l o o k i n g a t one of those optical illusions,

o f which the viewer can get o n l y one p i c t u r e a t a time. It

a l s o seems l i k e the dilemma suggested by the s a y i n g : You

cannot eat the cake and have i t . B e s i d e s , t h e r e i s the

possibility t h a t as you eat the cake, i t eats i n t o you as

well.
 95

By the same token, as we dream, we are a l s o dreamt.

Whoever r e a l i z e s t h i s t r u t h a t the e x i s t e n t i a l l e v e l , i t

may he s a i d of him t h a t the f l i g h t i s accomplished: the

dream i s over, he i s now f u l l y awake.

L i Yiian-cho f u r t h e r argues t h a t s i n c e the s t a t e s o f

dreaming and of waking r e s i d e i n the same s u b j e c t , there

must be some p o i n t of c o n t a c t between them. But, i n s o f a r

as e i t h e r s t a t e c o n s t i t u t e s a world of i t s own, one i s as

false (wang) and as r e a l (chen) as the o t h e r . He wrote:

Now, we l o o k a t our one body and consider

it our own; we g l u e o u r s e l v e s to t e n thousand things

and become a t t a c h e d to them. With our p h y s i c a l form

we open o u r s e l v e s to ( i . e . the phenomenal w o r l d ) ;

thus, i n our wakefulness we deal with the reality

of events. With our h u n - s o u l we come i n t o contact

w i t h i t ; thus, i n o u r * s l e e p we deal with the v a c u i t y

of dreams.

We do not know t h a t the waking and dreaming

of a s i n g l e n i g h t i s the opening and c l o s i n g of one

p h y s i c a l form, and the opening and c l o s i n g of one

p h y s i c a l form i s the g o i n g and coming of one nature.

Once turned i n t o a t h i n g , one i s woefully disgusted;

once r e v e r t e d to a human, one i s buoyantly happy.

J u s t what makes thinghood so u n p l e a s a n t and

humanhood so g r a t i f y i n g ? T h i s o n l y shows t h a t the

myriad t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s have never come to an end.

Once the p h y s i c a l form i s shaped, one stealthily

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considers i t one's own. What delusion!

Only when the Great Awakening o c c u r s can we

know the G r e a t Dream; o n l y when the R e a l Person

appears can we have R e a l Knowledge.

Since i n dream one i s n o t aware o f the waking

s t a t e , the dream i s n o t taken to be d e l u s i v e .

l i k e w i s e , w h i l e awake one does n o t know about the

dream s t a t e , hence wakefulness i s not r e g a r d e d as

real. Since Chou d i d not know the b u t t e r f l y , the

b u t t e r f l y was n o t c o n s i d e r e d false. L i k e w i s e , the

b u t t e r f l y d i d n o t know Chou, hence Chou was n o t

1 5
thought to be t r u e .

Thus, i f we want to know and a t t a i n the Way, then we

must aim a t r i d d i n g o u r s e l v e s of self-attachment as w e l l as

attachment to e x t e r n a l t h i n g s . F o r the two a r e e s s e n t i a l l y

the same. J u s t as our i n n e r s e l f r e l a t e s to e x t e r n a l things,

so does dreaming r e l a t e to waking. They m i r r o r each other.

Both a r e e q u a l l y a s p e c t s o f the Way, the U l t i m a t e Reality.

5 . 4 Dream-Realism i n the L i e h - t z u

The L i e h - t z u i s another major T a o i s t book t h a t makes

copious r e f e r e n c e to dreams. Ascribed^to L i e h Yu-k'ou, a

^ble.C-iieved- 1

t h i n k e r t r a d i t i o n a l l y to have f l o u r i s h e d a century b e f o r e
Chuang-tzu, the book i t s e l f as we have i t now was p r o b a b l y
16

forged i n the f o u r t h century A.D. The t h i r d chapter enti-

tled "Chou Mu-wang" ( K i n g Mu o f Chou) i s p a r t i c u l a r l y rich

i n dream m a t e r i a l . I t says:
What the s p i r i t encounters makes a dream;
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what the body c o n t a c t s makes an event. Thus, our

thoughts d u r i n g the day and our dreams a t n i g h t a r e

the encounters o f our s p i r i t and body. Consequently,

when the s p i r i t i s r e c o l l e c t e d , thoughts and dreams

will d i s a p p e a r o f themselves.

What we don't t a l k about w h i l e t r u s t i n g our

waking moments and don't understand w h i l e trusting

our dreams i s the d e p a r t u r e and a r r i v a l o f the

Transformation of Things. The R e a l Men of yore

f o r g o t themselves when awake and d i d not dream

17
when r e t i r i n g i s this idle talk?

T h i s passage a s s e r t s the u n i t y of body and s p i r i t . As

a c o r o l l a r y , the homogeneity o f dreams and wakeful thoughts

i s assumed. The m o t i f s o f s e l f - f o r g e t t i n g and o f not dream-

ing o c c u r i n the Chuang-tzu as w e l l .

The theme o f dream-realism e x e m p l i f i e d by Chuang-tzu's

b u t t e r f l y dream takes a d r a m a t i c t u r n i n the f o l l o w i n g story

from the L i e h - t z u :

Mr. Y i n of Chou managed a l a r g e e s t a t e . Those

who worked f o r him s c u t t l e d about from dawn to dark

without respite.

There was an o l d s e r v a n t whose muscular strength

was a l l spent, y e t he was put to work a l l the h a r d e r .

By day, whining and .groaning, he went about h i s j o b .

At n i g h t , g i d d y and t i r e d , he f e l l sound a s l e e p .

Then h i s s p i r i t was s e t a f i e l d , and every n i g h t

he dreamt t h a t he was a r u l e r , l o r d i n g i t over the

 98

people and i n c o n t r o l of a l l a f f a i r s of state.

He roamed about and gave b a n q u e t s - i n h i s mansions

and p a l a c e s , d o i n g as he p l e a s e d . H i s joy was

beyond compare.

Upon waking, however, he was on the treadmill

again. When someone expressed sympathy f o r h i s

hard l o t , the s e r v a n t s a i d , "A man's l i f e may

l a s t a hundred y e a r s , which a r e d i v i d e d i n t o days

and n i g h t s . In the daytime I s l a v e i t out and,

speaking of wretchedness, t h i s i s wretched indeed.

But a t n i g h t I become a r u l e r , and my joy i s i n -

comparable. What's t h e r e to carp about?"

Mr. Y i n ' s mind was p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h mundane

affairs. H i s concern r e v o l v e d around the f a m i l y

inheritance. Thus he wore h i m s e l f out body and

mind.

Now, every n i g h t he dreamt t h a t he was a

bondsman. He s c u r r i e d about, d o i n g a l l k i n d s of

m e n i a l work. Abused, r e v i l e d , caned and whipped,

he s u s t a i n e d a l l manner o f i l l - t r e a t m e n t . He

muttered, mumbled, whined and groaned i n h i s s l e e p ,

and found peace o n l y a t daybreak.

S i c k of i t a l l , Mr. Y i n went to see a f r i e n d ,

who t o l d him, "With a s o c i a l p o s i t i o n h i g h enough

to make you d i s t i n g u i s h e d , and w i t h enough a s s e t s

and to s p a r e , you are f a r b e t t e r than o t h e r s . If

a t n i g h t you dream t h a t you are a s l a v e , t h i s

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r e v e r s i o n from ease to s u f f e r i n g proves the constan-

cy of f a t e . How can you j u s t i f i a b l y crave the b e s t

of both dream and waking w o r l d s ? "

Having l i s t e n e d to h i s f r i e n d , Mr. Y i n reduced

his s e r v a n t s * workload and h i s own w o r r i e s as well.

18
Consequently, h i s a i l m e n t was somewhat r e l i e v e d .

T h i s s t o r y suggests t h a t dreams have a compensatory or

r e t r i b u t o r y f u n c t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to the dreamer's c i r c u m -

stances i n l i f e . The moral i s t h a t , taken i n t o t o , the ups

and downs i n our e x p e r i e n c e tend to c a n c e l each o t h e r out,

so t h a t no p a r t i c u l a r way of l i f e i s to be c o n s i d e r e d s u p e r i o r

to any o t h e r .

5.5 The I l l u s i o n of Time and Space

The s t o r y from the L i e h - t z u c i t e d above b r i n g s out ano-

t h e r i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f the dream, namely, i t s s p a t i o - t e m -

p o r a l dimension. I n the dream w o r l d , as i n our waking experi-

ence, time i s s e q u e n t i a l ( e . g . n i g h t f o l l o w s day) and space

comes i n chunks ( e . g . the e s t a t e , mansions, and palaces).

Thus the dream c o n s t i t u t e s another world p a r a l l e l to our

everyday w o r l d . Moreover, they m i r r o r each o t h e r i n c o n t e n t .

W i t h i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l framework, both

worlds a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c o n t i n u i t y , which i s c r u c i a l to

our p e r c e p t i o n o f r e a l i t y .

But i f the two a r e mirror-images o f each o t h e r and r u n

parallel, they cannot i n t r u d e i n t o each o t h e r . A line of

demarcation must e x i s t between them. I s t h i s the case w i t h

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all dreams i n r e l a t i o n to the waking s t a t e ? The a u t h o r o f

the L i e h - t z u seems to t h i n k o t h e r w i s e , as can be seen i n the

next s t o r y from the same c h a p t e r :

A man o f Cheng was g a t h e r i n g f i r e w o o d i n

the w i l d e r n e s s when he came upon a s t a r t l e d deer.

He approached it, h i t and k i l l e d i t .

F o r f e a r t h a t people might see the poor thing,

he h a s t i l y h i d i t i n a d i t c h and covered i t w i t h

brushwood. He was overwhelmed w i t h "joy. B u t soon

a f t e r w a r d s he f o r g o t where he had h i d d e n the deer,

and thought t h a t i t must have been a dream.

He walked a l o n g the road r h a p s o d i z i n g about

the i n c i d e n t . A wayfarer heard him and, l e d by

what he s a i d , found the deer.

When he got home, the man t o l d h i s w i f e , "A

w h i l e ago some woodcutter dreamt he had got a d e e r ,

but had no i d e a where i t was. Now I have found i t .

H i s dream was p l a i n l y a t r u e one."

" I s n ' t i t r a t h e r , " s a i d h i s w i f e , " t h a t you

dreamt and saw the woodcutter find the deer? But

must t h e r e be a woodcutter? Now t h a t the deer has

r e a l l y been found, i s n ' t i t y o u r dream t h a t has

come t r u e ? "

" E v i d e n t l y , I've got a deer," s a i d the man;

"why s h o u l d I care which one o f us was dreaming?"

When the woodcutter reached home, he was

d i s q u i e t e d by the l o s s o f the deer. And t h a t

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n i g h t he a c t u a l l y dreamt o f the p l a c e where he had

h i d d e n i t and o f i t s p r e s e n t owner as w e l l .

The next morning, a c t i n g on h i s dream, he

found the deer and, i n c l a i m i n g i t , embroiled

himself i n a dispute. A s u i t was f i l e d w i t h the

m a g i s t r a t e , who pronounced:

"At first you (woodcutter) r e a l l y g o t the

deer, b u t f a l s e l y took i t to be a dream. Then

you r e a l l y dreamt t h a t you found the deer, b u t

f a l s e l y took i t to be r e a l i t y .

"He f o r h i s p a r t r e a l l y took your deer, and

is now d i s p u t i n g w i t h you over i t . What's more,

his w i f e s a i d t h a t i n a dream he saw the deer as

b e l o n g i n g to somebody, b u t t h a t t i n r e a l i t y ] n o b o d y

had it. Now t h a t t h i s deer i s h e r e , I suggest you

d i v i d e i t between y o u r s e l v e s . "

The case was r e p o r t e d to the r u l e r o f Cheng,

who remarked: "0 dear, i s the m a g i s t r a t e g o i n g to

divide that 'somebody's deer' i n a dream t o o ? "

The M i n i s t e r o f S t a t e was i n t e r v i e w e d and he

s a i d : "Dream o r no dream, t h i s i s something your

humble s e r v a n t cannot t e l l apart. To d i s t i n g u i s h

between waking and dreaming, t h e r e was o n l y the

Y e l l o w Emperor o r C o n f u c i u s . S i n c e b o t h the Y e l l o w

Emperor and C o n f u c i u s a r e now gone, who i s t h e r e

to make the d i s t i n c t i o n ? L e t us f o r the moment

a b i d e by the m a g i s t r a t e ' s d e c i s i o n and t h a t s h o u l d

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' be f a i r enough.."

This i s a short-short story i n v o l v i n g s i x characters,

f i v e male and one female, and each i n t e r e s t i n g i n i t s own

way. The woman's remark, when t o l d by her husband about the

deer, was remarkable i n i t s i m p l i c a t i o n o f the i d e a t h a t

the o n l y r e a l i t y , whether i n the dream or waking s t a t e , i s

whatever the s e l f e x p e r i e n c e s . Hence, i t was her husband's

dream, i f t h e r e had been one, t h a t came t r u e , as evidenced

by the f a c t t h a t i t was he who found the deer. No, the

woodcutter d i d not dream i t . As a matter of solipsistic

f a c t , t h e r e was no woodcutter i n the f i r s t place.

More i m p o r t a n t l y , t h i s s t o r y touches upon one of the ; :

g r e a t e s t enigmas of our everyday l i f e : how t h i n g s get lost,

and how, i f we a r e l u c k y , they a r e r e c o v e r e d . The question-

word "how" i n most cases of t h i s nature i s superfluous, i f

we but r e a d the l o s t - a n d - f o u n d column i n the c l a s s i f i e d ads.

A t y p i c a l announcement r e a d s : " P l e a s e r e t u r n to owner i f

found. No questions asked."

But how people a c q u i r e t h i n g s i s j u s t as mysterious,

i f not more so. Of course t h e r e a r e many success stories

t e l l i n g us, f o r example, how Andrew Carnegie made h i s first

million. W e l l , we were t o l d how he d i d i t . But would the

formula work f o r each one of us?

Anyhow, the p o i n t of the dream-deer s t o r y , as I see i t ,

is t h a t i t makes no sense f o r us to be a c q u i s i t i v e and pos-: !

s e s s i v e , because t h i n g s a r e i l l u s o r y , and so are we. The

deer murdered i n broad d a y l i g h t was as dead as the one appear-

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i n g i n the dream. The Solomonic wisdom o f the m a g i s t r a t e

was amply demonstrated by h i s r e c o g n i t i o n o f and r e s i g n a t i o n

to the f a c t t h a t t h e r e was no way to u n r a v e l the t a n g l e d

s k e i n s o f dream and r e a l i t y .

5.6 The B u d d h i s t V i s i o n

I have j u s t shown t h a t i n the s t o r y l a s t c i t e d from the

L i e h - t z u , the b o r d e r l i n e between dream and r e a l i t y once again

dissolves. The r e l a t i v i t y o f the t a n g i b l e and the i l l u s o r y

is thus brought out i n s t a r k relief.

I f the a n c i e n t T a o i s t t h i n k e r s seemed to take a dim view

of the r e a l i t y as o r d i n a r i l y p e r c e i v e d , so d i d t h e i r B u d d h i s t

colleagues. The Surangama s u t r a (rendered i n t o Chinese as

Leng-yen c h i n g by Master P a r a m i t i of Central North India i n

A.D. 705 a t Canton, C h i n a ) , f o r example, c o n t a i n s a gatha

d w e l l i n g on t h i s p o i n t p r e c i s e l y , from which I quote' the

first eight lines:

Of R e a l i t y a l l phenomenon i s d e v o i d ,

F o r , born o f c o n d i t i o n s , i t i s l i k e an i l l u s i o n .

And noumenon, h a v i n g n e i t h e r i n c e p t i o n nor e x t i n c t i o n ,

I s as u n r e a l as f l o w e r s i n the s k y .

Words, w h i l e false, reveal realities;

But falsehood and r e a l i t y make two f a l s e h o o d s .

When even the r e a l - u n r e a l i s denied,

20
Wherefore any mention o f s e e r and seen?

The " R e a l i t y " ( c h e n - h s i n g ) i n the f i r s t l i n e i s the immutable,

unconditioned Bhutatathata as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the c o n d i t i o n e d

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and ever-changing world of phenomena. The former i s to the

l a t t e r as the ocean i s to the waves or r i p p l e s . In Mahayana

philosophy Bhutatathata i s the sum of a l l things. In this

p e r s p e c t i v e , our everyday r e a l i t y i s no d i f f e r e n t from the

dream world.

The n o t i o n of R e a l i t y i s conceivable, insofar as we

are aware of the u n r e a l i t y , by comparison, o f the phenomenal

world. Owing to the l i m i t a t i o n s of human language, though,

Reality cannot but be f a l s e l y r e p r e s e n t e d . How, indeed, then,

can we tell the r e a l from the u n r e a l ?

si- - ,

The va.jracchedika pra.jnaparamita (translated into

Chinese as Chin-kang c h i n g , 'The diamond s u t r a ' , i n the fifth

c e n t u r y a t Ch'ang-an by Kumarajlva, a monk from E a s t e r n

Turkestan, d e p i c t s the ephemeral q u a l i t y of the phenomenal

world w i t h a s t r i n g of imageries:

As s t a r s , a f a u l t o f v i s i o n , as a lamp,

A mock show, dew drops, or a bubble,

A dream, a l i g h t n i n g f l a s h , or c l o u d ,
21
So should one view what i s c o n d i t i o n e d .

But i f the phenomenal world i s comparable to a dream

and the r e s t , i t does not mean t h a t phenomena i n g e n e r a l ,

including dreams, are i n s i g n i f i c a n t . On the c o n t r a r y , they

are i n s t r u m e n t a l to our u n d e r s t a n d i n g and eventual attainment

of R e a l i t y . For i t i s through the appearance t h a t the under-

l y i n g r e a l i t y i s perceived. Hence, the phenomenal world i s

i n e f f e c t the embodiment of the ebb and flow i n the ocean of

Samsara ( b i r t h s and deaths). Precisely because i t i s born of

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" c o n d i t i o n s " ( y u a n ) , we may not take i t l i g h t l y , hut must

t i p t o e our way through i t , so t h a t our l i f e may result i n

good karma, t h a t i s , m e r i t o r i o u s deeds.

Whether awake or dreaming, good deeds produce good

f r u i t and bad deeds bad. Such i s the i n e l u c t a b l e law o f

Karma. T h i s p o i n t i s the s u b j e c t of the f o l l o w i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n

between two c h i e f d i s c i p l e s of the Buddha r e c o r d e d i n the

Pancavim s a t i s a h a s r i k a p r a j n a p a r a m i t a (Mo-ho p o - j e h po-lo-mi

ching):

Thereupon S a r i p u t r a asked S u b h u t i , " I f , i n a

dream, a B o d h i s a t t v a - M a h a s a t t v a ( i . e . a perfected

B o d h i s a t t v a ) gets i n t o the samadhi m e d i t a t i o n on

the t h r e e s u b j e c t s of Emptiness (k'ung), Formless-

ness (wu-hsiang), and Absence of D e s i r e (wu-tso),

would t h i s be conducive to the P e r f e c t i o n of Wis-

dom (prajna paramita)?

" I f the B o d h i s a t t v a e n t e r s by day i n t o the

t h r e e samadhis," s a i d S u b h u t i to S a r i p u t r a , "and

t h i s i s conducive to the P e r f e c t i o n of Wisdom,

then i t s h o u l d be j u s t as b e n e f i c i a l i f he does

so i n a dream. Why? Because whether i t happens

by day or a t n i g h t i n dreams, i t makes no differ-

ence. S a r i p u t r a , i f the Bodhisattva-Mahasattva

p r a c t i s e s the P e r f e c t i o n of Wisdom by day and this

i s good, then i t s h o u l d be j u s t as good i f he does

it i n dreams."
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S a r i p u t r a then asked S u b h u t i , "The karma p e r -

p e t r a t e d by a B o d h i s a t t v a - M a h a s a t t v a i n a dream

does n o t t h i s karma accumulate? As the Buddha s a y s ,

' A l l dharma a r e as dreams.' Hence, i t s h o u l d n o t

accumulate. Why, Because i n a dream t h e r e a r e no

t h i n g s to cause such a c c u m u l a t i o n s , which happen

o n l y when we t h i n k , ponder, and d i f f e r e n t i a t e w h i l e

awake."

Subhuti then s a i d to S a r i p u t r a , " I f a man

dreamt t h a t he k i l l e d someone o r something, would

i t be p l e a s a n t f o r him when he woke up to r e c a l l

and ponder, to h o l d on t o s the appearances and

d i s t i n g u i s h between h i s ' s e l f and the k i l l e d ?

S a r i p u t r a , what would you say to t h i s ? "

" I f t h e r e a r e no a c c e s s o r y causes ( y u a n ) , "

said the l a t t e r , "then n e i t h e r karma n o r thoughts

will arise. I f such causes a r e p r e s e n t , however,

they w i l l g i v e r i s e to both karma and t h o u g h t s .

22
"Quite so, S a r i p u t r a , q u i t e so..."

T h i s d i a l o g u e r e v o l v e s around the d o c t r i n e t h a t a l l

e n t i t i e s , whether m a t e r i a l o r o t h e r w i s e , owe t h e i r e x i s t e n c e

to a c h a i n o f c o n t r i b u t o r y causes which, i n turn, spring

from our attachment to the appearance o f o b j e c t s i n the

phenomenal .world. T h i s b o i l s down to the dictum t h a t the

i m m a t e r i a l i s i d e n t i f i a b l e w i t h the m a t e r i a l (k'ung c h i s h i h

se, 'sunya i s r u p a ' ) . I t accounts f o r the importance Bud-

d h i s t s , i n the same way as the p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f most o t h e r

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r e l i g i o n s , a t t a c h to r i t u a l and r e l i g i o u s a r t and symbolism,

which a r e "form" and "appearance" a t t h e i r b e s t .

In the case o f Chinese Buddhism, a t l e a s t the Pure Land

s e c t seems to make use o f the dream i n p a r t i c u l a r as a means

to a c h i e v e c e r t a i n d e v o t i o n a l aims, as can be seen i n the

f o l l o w i n g account from the Lang-huan c h i (An account o f

Lang-huan)by I Shih-chen o f Yilan times:

R e c e n t l y my f r i e n d Wang C h i u - l i e n the l a y

B u d d h i s t was engaged i n c u l t i v a t i n g the Pure Land,

on which he m e d i t a t e d s i n g l e - m i n d e d l y . A t n i g h t

he dreamt t h a t he saw the Buddha, b u t always as

a s c u l p t e d image, n o t the l i v i n g Buddha. He c o u l d

do n o t h i n g about i t .

One day he met Master C h i the monk and t o l d

him the matter.

" T h i s i s easy to d e a l w i t h , " s a i d the monk.

"When you t h i n k o f your l a t e f a t h e r , can you h o l d

f i n your m i n d i h i s u s u a l demeanor?"

"Yes."

"Can you see him i n your dreams i n such a

way t h a t he i s no d i f f e r e n t from when he was l i v -

ing?"

"There i s no d i f f e r e n c e . "

"The Buddha i n h i m s e l f has no appearance,"

said the monk; "the appearance i s manifested only

i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the way o f t h i n g s . From now

on, you s h o u l d t h i n k o f your l a t e f a t h e r as

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Amitabha. L i t t l e by l i t t l e , imagine t h a t there

are white s t r e a k s o f l i g h t i n between h i s brows,

t h a t h i s f a c e i s as o f r e a l g o l d , and that he

s i t s on a l o t u s - f l o w e r . You can even imagine that

h i s body grows l a r g e r and larger. Then your late

f a t h e r j_s h i m s e l f the l i v i n g Buddha."

Mr. Wang a p p l i e d the method as prescribed.

From then on, whenever he dreamt of h i s f a t h e r ,

he m e n t a l l y s a i d to h i m s e l f , " T h i s i s the Buddha."

Then, sometime l a t e r , h i s f a t h e r l e d him to

s i t on the l o t u s , and explained to him the essence

of the teaching. He learned something, and became

even more devout i n h i s s p e c i a l e x e r c i s e .

Then i t happened t h a t a c e r t a i n Mr. Ma of

h i s father's generation who, p r i o r to the latter's

death, had been a merchant i n Szechuan and had not

returned i n the p a s t ten y e a r s , came k n o c k i n g a t

the door and asked to see him. T h i s man said

t h a t one day he contracted a dangerous d i s e a s e and

d i e d of i t f o r h a l f a day. T i e d up, he was taken

by an o f f i c e r to the h e l l s . In f e a r and anxiety,

he suddenly saw a l i g h t of g o l d b r i g h t l y s h i n i n g .

In the m i d s t of i t was the image of a p e r s o n sitting

cross-legged upon a lotus-flower.

"He c a l l e d me by name. I s t a r e d a t him and

saw t h a t i t was your v e n e r a b l e f a t h e r . He ordered

the o f f i c e r to take me home, and I came t o . For

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t h i s r e a s o n I have not spared t h i s l o n g journey

hack here to express my gratitude."

Having s a i d t h i s , he asked, "What d i d your

v e n e r a b l e f a t h e r do to a c h i e v e this?"

Mr. Wang t o l d him the whole s t o r y . Amazed,

he vowed to do l i k e w i s e i n the hope t h a t he, too,

might a t t a i n the Pure Land.

The w r i t e r appends the f o l l o w i n g comment:

J u d g i n g from t h i s e p i s o d e , not only i s t h i s

technique of Master C h i ' s conducive to personal

s a l v a t i o n , but i t a l s o works f o r the s a l v a t i o n

of o t h e r s . Thus, h i t t i n g two b i r d s w i t h one stone

23
as i t were, what he r e v e a l e d was unprecedented.

The devotional technique of c o n j u r i n g up v i v i d mental

images i n m e d i t a t i o n i s a l s o employed i n o t h e r religious

traditions. Witness, f o r example, the S p i r i t u a l Exercises

of S a i n t I g n a t i u s L o y o l a . Nevertheless, the specific content

of such m e d i t a t i o n s i s determined by the dogmatic r e q u i r e m e n t s

of the t r a d i t i o n concerned. Imagine a C a t h o l i c s p i r i t u a l

d i r e c t o r c o u n s e l l i n g h i s charges to t h i n k of t h e i r own

e a r t h l y f a t h e r s as so many C h r i s t s hanging upon the cross 1

That would be s a c r i l e g e , to say the l e a s t . In Mahayana

Buddhism, however, s i n c e Buddha-nature i s b e l i e v e d to be

immanent i n a l l b e i n g s , s a c r e d and profane a l i k e , there i s ,

nothing out of c h a r a c t e r , i n p o i n t o f dogma, w i t h imagining

one's own f a t h e r to be the Buddha himself.

Also i m p l i c i t i n the s t o r y i s the n o t i o n t h a t dream-

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events a r e r e a l even from the p e r s p e c t i v e o f the t r a n s c e n d e n t .

Hence, i t i s p o s s i b l e to a c h i e v e the s a l v a t i o n o f o n e s e l f and

o t h e r s through dreaming.

The m o t i f o f the importance a t t a c h e d t o the s i z e o f the

contemplated image i s found i n y e t another anecdote from the

same s o u r c e :

There was a woman who had d i s p e n s e d with

adornment and who worshipped the g r e a t B o d h i s a t t v a

Kuan-yin w i t h much f e r v o r . The nuns o f t e n urged

her to c u l t i v a t e the Pure l a n d , t e l l i n g h e r t o

meditate on Kuan-yin by v i s u a l i z i n g h e r dharma-

body, the l a r g e r the b e t t e r .

T h e r e a f t e r she f r e q u e n t l y dreamt o f the

Bodhisattva a t night. But i t was v e r y s m a l l and

i n the form o f a j a d e Buddha, l o o k i n g l i k e a

woman w i t h h e r h a i r done up.

One day she r e c e i v e d from h e r husband a jade

Kuan-yin which l o o k e d l i k e the one she saw i n h e r

dreams. Prom then on she was a l l the more f e r v e n t

24
i n h e r d e v o t i o n to the B o d h i s a t t v a .

The e f f i c a c y of s p i r i t u a l journeys and dream t r a v e l s to

the Never-Never Land under the guidance o f a monk who possessed

e x t r a o r d i n a r y powers i s d e s c r i b e d i n the f o l l o w i n g s t o r y from

the Lang-huan c h i as w e l l :

Master Teng e x h o r t s people to study the Pure

Land t e a c h i n g . He c o n s i d e r s f a i t h e s s e n t i a l f o r
 111

the n o v i c e . Otherwise, he does n o t even d i s a l l o w

any w o r l d l y l i f e s t y l e , beyond s a y i n g t h a t one should

not t a l k about o t h e r p e o p l e ' s f a u l t s , n o r d r i n k to

get drunk, n o r e a t n o n - v e g e t a r i a n food involving

slaughter of animals, nor indulge i n i l l i c i t sexual

relations. [/People a r e advised } to pursue

7
their

t h e i r v o c a t i o n s , and i n t h e i r spare time to c l o s e

t h e i r eyes and s i t properly,' whereever they can,

w h i l e r e c i t i n g by h e a r t the Buddha's name and con-

t e m p l a t i n g h i s countenance. A f t e r a year or so,

when they have g a i n e d f a c i l i t y i n the t e c h n i q u e ,

then they can do i t whether w a l k i n g , s t a n d i n g still,

sitting, or l y i n g down. Even i n dreams they will

be a b l e to see the Buddha. T h i s i s evidence f o r

c e r t a i n success.

T h i s monk a l s o p o s s e s s e s some arcane t e c h n i q u e s .

S i t t i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h someone i n a q u i e t room, he

can e x t r a c t h i s companion's s p i r i t f o r a n . e x c u r s i o n

in the Realm o f Peace and Nurture (an-yang ching-

c h i e h , ^another; .name.'forthe".Pure Land) which i s

somewhat s i m i l a r to what the Amitabha s u t r a des-

cribes. When a p e r s o n has undertaken such a j o u r n e y

once o r t w i c e , then what he sees i n h i s dreams a r e

o f t e n o f the same d e s c r i p t i o n . When such dream-

t r i p s accumulate, then a t the hour o f death h i s

s p r i t u a l essence w i l l c e r t a i n l y n o t go t o anywhere

e l s e except the West (where P a r a d i s e i s ) .

 112

Because of t h i s , he has had many f o l l o w e r s

who have a l l been a b l e to go to be r e b o r n ( i n the

Pure Land). t'His techniques.!!;are u n c a n n i l y effec-

tive. There are even cases of t^the d e p a r t e d ^ r e v e a l -

i n g themselves b o d i l y to i n f o r m t h e i r f a m i l i e s t o f

t h e i r present s t a t e U . T h i s b e i n g the case, can

we a f f o r d not to have f a i t h i n the d o c t r i n e of the

25- 5>~~
Pure l a n d 7 ^

The d o c t r i n a l b a s i s of the dream-realism e x e m p l i f i e d by

these stories l i e s i n the Mahayana c o n c e p t i o n of the "fun-

damental, a b s o l u t e , and p e r f e c t mind of the T a t h a g a t a " ( j u -

l a i - t s a n g pen-miao yuan-hsin) as i d e n t i c a l w i t h both worldly

mind and a l l phenomena but a t the same time as b e i n g n e i t h e r

the one nor the o t h e r , as expounded i n the Surangama s u t r a .

It t h e r e f o r e embraces both the mundane and the supramundane,

and goes beyond e i t h e r i d e n t i t y or d i f f e r e n c e ( l i c h i l i f e i

26

shih chi f e i c h i ) .

Thus, d e l u s i o n i s simply our f a l s e awareness, i n our

samsaric s t a t e , of t h i n g s as r e a l o b j e c t s , whereas i n the

p e r s p e c t i v e o f the Supreme Bodhi ( e n l i g h t e n m e n t ) , they a r e
merely i l l u s i o n s a r i s i n g from the s i x organs ( e y e s , e a r s ,
27

nose, tongue, body, i n t e l l e c t ) and sense data.

But the e x i s t e n c e of the d e l u s i v e presupposes t h a t o f

the r e a l , j u s t as the f i v e - c o l o r e d c i r c l e round the l i g h t of

a lamp seen by a person w i t h i n f l a m e d eyes i n d i c a t e s the

28

presence o f the b u r n i n g lamp. By the same token, d e l u s i o n

a r i s e s from our d e f e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Nevertheless, i t

 113

points up the existence of at least the Basic Bodhi (pen-chtieh).

Again, to say that d e l u s i o n has its roots in our faulty

consciousness is to say that delusion begets delusion. If i t

has causes, then these are also under delusion. If so, can

they be real?

The B u d d h a s a y s that such causes are not real. Rather,

they are comparable to the eyes and eyebrows of the madman

Yajnadatta of Sravasti who took pleasure in seeing them i n a

mirror but who thought himself bedevilled when one morning

he attempted to see them i n h i s own h e a d and failed:

A person who h a s attained Bodhi i s like one who,

when a w a k e , relates what he saw in a dream. Even

if he is clever, by what means c a n he take anything

out of it? Much l e s s tcan he make anything out ofJ

a state which has no real cause and does not exist

in the first place. Take that C f e l l o w j Yajnadatta

who lived in a city for example. D i d he have cause

to be h o r r i f i e d by the flight of his head? If his

madness suddenly came to an end, his head could

not be had from elsewhere; and i f he remained

29
unhinged, i t was not lost.either.

Here the Buddha teaches us that once we r e a l i z e the baseless-

ness of delusion, and low its falsity intermingles with

Reality, then i t will vanish of itself, then the madness of

the Yajnadatta i n our mind will cease of itself.

The idea that illusion is ingrained in Reality may be

traced back to the Madhyamika or Middle School tradition

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i n i t i a t e d by Nagarjuna ( c . 2nd c e n t . A.D.). The D o c t r i n e o f

the Mean (chung tao) expounded i n the Madhyamika-sastra

(Chung-kuan l u n , a t t r i b u t e d to Nagarjuna and t r a n s l a t e d into

Chinese by Kumarajlva A.D. 409) p o s t u l a t e s a r e a l i t y beyond'

such a n t i t h e s e s as m a t e r i a l i t y ( j i a ) and i m m a t e r i a l i t y (k'ung),

c r e a t i o n (sheng) and e x t i n c t i o n (mieh), b e i n g (vu) and nonbeing

(wu) > e t c . The p o i n t i s t h a t none o f these terms i s a b s o l u t e .

Rather, each i s d i a l e c t i c a l l y r e l a t e d to i t s o p p o s i t e , and the

u n i o n o f the two r e s u l t s i n a s y n t h e s i s which i s thought to be

a more adequate e x p r e s s i o n o f the mystery of Ultimate R e a l i t y .

T h i s the Madhyamika a p o l o g i s t s choose to c a l l the Madhya,

'Mean', (chung).

Thus,.> i n the l a t e r Mahayana l i t e r a t u r e , the dream becomes

the exemplary metaphor o f t h i s d o c t r i n e . The f o l l o w i n g story

from the Mahaprajnaparamita s a s t r a (Ta c h i h - t u l u n , a n o t h e r

major Mahaylna work a s c r i b e d to Nagarjuna and t r a n s l a t e d into

Chinese by Kumarajlva A.D. 397-415) i s an example:

When the Buddha was s t i l l i n the w o r l d , t h e r e

were t h r e e b r o t h e r s . They heard t h a t i n V a i s a l i

(an a n c i e n t s t a t e i n C e n t r a l I n d i a ) t h e r e was a

d e s i r a b l e woman by the name o f A m r a p a l l , t h a t i n

S r a v a s t i ( a c i t y ) t h e r e was another named Sumana,

and t h a t i n Rajagrha ( a n o t h e r c i t y ) t h e r e was y e t

another c a l l e d Utpala-vandana.

These t h r e e men had each heard people extol

the m a t c h l e s s i n t e g r i t y o f the t h r e e women. They

thought o f them w i t h such a b s o r p t i o n and i n t e n s i t y

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t h a t l i a i s o n s happened i n t h e i r dreams.

Upon waking, they pondered, "The l a d i e s didn't

come to u s , n e i t h e r d i d we go to them, and y e t t h i s

illicit a f f a i r took p l a c e ! " Thence i t o c c u r r e d to

them t h a t a l l dharma might w e l l he j u s t l i k e that.

To r e s o l v e t h i s prohlem, they went to see the

B o d h i s a t t v a B h a d r a p a l a , who s a i d , "Such i s indeed

the case w i t h a l l dharma. I t a l l arises, i n a l l

i t s v a r i e t y , from our thoughts."

Then he took the o p p o r t u n i t y to e x p l a i n , w i t h

t a c t , the v a c u i t y o f a l l dharma. And so the men

a c h i e v e d A v i v a r t i n ( t h e s t a t e o f no r e t r o g r e s s i o n ) .

The Chinese B u d d h i s t concept o f the dream and i t s r e l a t i o n

to r e a l i t y i s b e s t summed up by L i e n - c h ' i h T a - s h i h (Master o f

the L o t u s Pond) o f Ming Times i n an essay e n t i t l e d " S h i h meng"

(Mundane dreams) thus:

The o l d s a y i n g goes: L i v i n g i n t h i s world i s

l i k e h a v i n g a b i g dream. And S c r i p t u r e says: When

we come to l o o k a t the w o r l d , i t i s comparable to

t h i n g s i n a dream.

Such terms as " l i k e " and "comparable" a r e used

because t h e r e i s no b e t t e r way o f p u t t i n g i t than

by way o f comparisons. U l t i m a t e l y , however, i t

may he s a i d t h a t i t i s a r e a l dream, n o t j u s t a

comparison.

F o r our l i f e commences from youth through

a d u l t h o o d , from a d u l t h o o d through age, and from

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age u n t i l death. No sooner have we e n t e r e d one

womb than we come o u t o f another, and soon enough

we s h a l l have been i n and out o f i t a g a i n ad

infinitum.

And as when we a r e born we do n o t know where

we come from, so when dead we do n o t know w h i t h e r

we a r e g o i n g . W i l l y - n i l l y , a f t e r one thousand

b i r t h s and t e n thousand k a l p a s , we a r e s t i l l as

i g n o r a n t of o u r s e l v e s as ever. No sooner have we

sunk to h e l l than we become g h o s t s , b r u t e s , humans,

devas. We r i s e and s i n k , and s i n k and r i s e a g a i n .

H e l t e r - s k e l t e r , a f t e r one thousand b i r t h s and t e n

thousand k a l p a s , we a r e s t i l l as i g n o r a n t o f our-

s e l v e s as e v e r . I s n ' t t h i s a r e a l dream?

An o l d poem says:

On a p i l l o w f o r a moment i n a s p r i n g dream,

One t r a v e r s e s so many thousand l i south o f the Yangtze I

Now, t h e r e a r e people so l e d by p r o f i t and fame t h a t

they s c u r r y t e n thousand l i _ back and f o r t h . Does

t h i s have to take p l a c e on a p i l l o w o n l y ?

Thus do we know t h a t Master Chuang dreamt o f a

b u t t e r f l y , b u t t h a t p r i o r to the dream, i t was a

dream too; C o n f u c i u s dreamt o f The Duke o f Chou, b u t

p r i o r to the dream, i t was a dream t o o . Throughout

the G r e a t K a l p a s , t h e r e i s n o t a s i n g l e moment when

we a r e n o t i n a dream.

When we break through our benightedness and

b r i l l i a n t l y a c h i e v e the Great Awakening and say,

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"Up i n heaven and underneath i t , I a l o n e am exalted,"

51
then s h a l l we he c a l l e d the Awakened.

Hence, the whole message of Buddhism to somnolent humanity

is t h i s : Wake up!

5.7 The K u a n - y i n - t z u on Dream Ambiguity

From what I have d i s c u s s e d so f a r , i t can r e a d i l y be seen

t h a t t h e r e i s some a f f i n i t y between the B u d d h i s t view o f dreams

and t h a t o f the T a o i s t . S m a l l wonder t h a t , i n the Chinese

p o p u l a r mind, the cliche" " L i f e i s but a dream" i s i n d i f f e r e n t l y

attributed to B u d d h i s t or T a o i s t origin.

Rather than embark,-, on the h a i r - s p l i t t i n g e n t e r p r i s e o f

making a t e d i o u s comparison between the two t r a d i t i o n s on the

s u b j e c t , I s h a l l p r e s e n t i n t h i s s e c t i o n the dream t h e o r y

found i n the T a o i s t book K u a n - y i n - t z u a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d to i n .

1

Section 3.2, hoping t h a t , i n the p r o c e s s , more s i m i l a r i t i e s

and perhaps some d i f f e r e n c e s between the two l i n e s o f thought

w i l l be made be apparent.

To b e g i n w i t h , the K u a n - y i n - t z u speaks o f the n a t u r e of

time and space i n dreams thus:

What i s dreamt a t n i g h t may sometimes be l o n g e r

than the n i g h t : mind has no time. To one h o r n i n

Ch'i, e v e r y t h i n g h i s mind p e r c e i v e s i s o f C h ' i .

When l a t e r t h i s person goes to Sung, to Ch'u, to

C h i n , and to L i a n g , the c o n t e n t o f h i s mind differs

32

i n each case: mind has no space.

With r e s p e c t to the problem of time, t h i s t e x t i s

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a p p a r e n t l y t a l k i n g about our e x p e r i e n c e , on o c c a s i o n , of time

b e i n g compressed i n dreams. T h i s can be e x p l a i n e d i n terms

of the F r e u d i a n dream-work mechanism o f c o n d e n s a t i o n : an

e d i t i n g process. Maury's dream c i t e d i n S e c t i o n 3.2 was a

famous example of t h i s phenomenon. L a t e r we s h a l l see a few

Chinese examples.

As to the problem of space, the t e x t s a y s , i n e f f e c t ,

t h a t mind cannot be s t r u c t u r e d i n such a way t h a t replicas

of g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s i n the e x t e r n a l world can be found i n

it. B e i n g no r e s p e c t e r o f a r t i f i c i a l b o u n d a r i e s , mind roams

untrammelled.

A l t h o u g h i n the second case the t e x t makes no explicit

r e f e r e n c e to the dream s t a t e , t h e r e seems no r e a s o n why the

statement cannot a p p l y to i t as w e l l . A f t e r a l l , the d i s -

i n t e g r a t i o n o f space b o u n d a r i e s , as w e l l as the compression

of time, i s a common f e a t u r e i n the dream r e p o r t s from many

33

cultures.

Next, i n genuine T a o i s t f a s h i o n , the book d i s c u s s e s the

futility o f making d i s t i n c t i o n s :

People of the world who d i s t i n g u i s h between

" o t h e r s " and "us," on the ground t h a t our thoughts

d i f f e r from t h e i r s and t h e i r s from o u r s , certainly

do n o t understand t h a t i n dreams people also

f t h i n k " ) : "Our thoughts d i f f e r from t h e i r s and

t h e i r s from o u r s . " So, who a r e we and who a r e

they? People o f the world who d i s t i n g u i s h between

" o t h e r s " and "us," on the ground t h a t our p a i n s

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differ from t h e i r s and t h e i r s from o u r s , certainly

do n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t i n dreams people also

think}:; "Our p a i n s d i f f e r from t h e i r s and t h e i r s

from o u r s . " So, who a r e we and who a r e they? Nails

and h a i r a r e n o t s u s c e p t i b l e to p a i n , hands and f e e t

are n o t capable o f thought, y e t they a r e "us"; how

can we a l i e n a t e them on such grounds?

People o f the world who c o n s i d e r what they see

by themselves a l o n e as dreams and what they see i n

common w i t h o t h e r s as waking e x p e r i e n c e s certainly

don't u n d e r s t a n d t h a t , on account o f some spiritual

l i n k s , a p e r s o n may a l s o p e r c e i v e something alone

by day; and on account o f some p s y c h i c a f f i n i t i e s ,

two persons may have the same dream a t n i g h t . Both

cases a r e C^accountable by} our s p i r i t u a l or psy-

chical ^conditions}. So, what i s dream and what

i s wakefulness? People o f the world who take what

they see ('for a moment^ as dreams and what they see

for a l o n g w h i l e as waking s t a t e s c e r t a i n l y don't

understand t h a t as momentary p e r c e p t i o n s a r e due

to the f o r c e s o f Y i n and Yang, so a r e p r o t r a c t e d

perceptions. S i n c e b o t h a r e due to our Y i n and

34
Yang, what i s dream and what i s wakefulness?

Once a g a i n , the i d e a t h a t U l t i m a t e R e a l i t y i s m o n i s t i c and

hence n o t s u b j e c t to any k i n d o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s e l o q u e n t l y

argued f o r . The d u a l a s p e c t s o f t h i s R e a l i t y , namely, Y i n and

Yang, a r e then s a i d to account f o r dream and waking v i c i s - i v. ,r

 120

situdes alike.

As b e i n g s - i n - t h e - w o r l d , we cannot but be influenced,

whether awake or i n s l e e p , by the workings of these two

a l t e r n a t e f o r c e s , e s p e c i a l l y when they are m a n i f e s t e d as

the F i v e Agents. Only the s a g e l y mind, unencumbered by

matter, w i l l be a b l e to r i s e above such i n f l u e n c e s . In

t h i s t e n o r , the K u a n - y i n - t z u states:

Those prone to Benevolence dream mostly of p i n e s ,

c y p r e s s e s , peaches and plums. Those prone to

R i g h t e o u s n e s s dream mostly o f swords, weapons,

metal, i r o n . Those prone to I n t e l l i g e n c e dream

m o s t l y of r i v e r s , l a k e s , streams, and marshes.

Those prone to F i d e l i t y dream mostly o f h i l l s ,

mountains, p l a i n s and f i e l d s . E n s l a v e d by the

F i v e Agents, they do so w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n . But

as soon as one h e a r s something or t h i n k s o f some-

t h i n g i n a dream, the dream changes a c c o r d i n g l y ,

n o t to be impeded by the F i v e Agents. The sage

b r i d l e s matter w i t h h i s mind and controls his

mind w i t h h i s n a t u r e , hence h i s mind i s coterminous

w i t h C r e a t i o n , not to be impeded by the F i v e Agents

either. 5 5

The f i v e C o n f u c i a n v i r t u e s , c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the F i v e

Agents s i n c e Han times by Tung Chung-shu i n h i s e c l e c t i c

p h i l o s o p h y known as the Union o f Heaven and Humankind (t'ien

j e n h o - i ) , a r e p r e s e n t e d here as i n s t i g a t o r s o f certain

dream c o n t e n t s . The p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f such c o n t e n t s i s an

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indication that the dreamer's mind i s b e i n g impeded. Never-

theless, the mind n a t u r a l l y seeks to f r e e itself of such

impediment and i s able t o do s o , as i n d i c a t e d by t h e v o l a t i l i t y

of dream c o n t e n t s . The m i n d o f a T a o i s t s a g e , as suggested hy

this passage, is one w h i c h h a s transcended all encumbrance.

Hence i t s creative capacity is i d e n t i c a l with that of nature

at large.

This creativity, whether as a f u n c t i o n of n a t u r e or of

t h e human m i n d , is so p o w e r f u l that it sometimes results in

anomalies. Hence t h e following counsel:

When y o u s e e something w i t h a snake's head and a

human b o d y , o r s o m e t h i n g w i t h t h e arms ( s i c ) of

a n ox a n d s c a l e s of a f i s h , or something w i t h the

shape o f a demon a n d w i n g s of a b i r d , don't be

shocked. For such t h i n g s are n o t as shocking as

dreams, a n d dreams a r e n o t a s s h o c k i n g as waking

experiences. To h a v e ears, eyes, hands and arms,

these are e v e n more s h o c k i n g l Great speech is

unspeakable, g r e a t wisdom u n t h i n k a b l e .

Mind, then, as p a r t and p a r c e l of n a t u r e , is the source of

all creation, anomalous or otherwise. B u t how, o r by what

means, does i t work? The b o o k says:

There are perhaps countless m i l l i o n s and billions

of people under heaven. Each p e r s o n has different

dreams, and each n i g h t the dreams vary.- There are

heaven and e a r t h and p e o p l e and t h i n g s C i n themj

;
.
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All these, c r e a t e d by t h o u g h t , a r e perhaps as

i n n u m e r a b l e as d u s t . How do we know t h a t the

37
p r e s e n t heaven and e a r t h were n o t t h o u g h t up?

I t t e l l s us t h a t whether dreaming o r awake, our mind works

by t h i n k i n g , t h u s c r e a t i n g a l l the t h i n g s t h a t we see i n
either state.
B u t the a b i l i t y to t h i n k e n t a i l s c o g n i t i o n . H e n c e , our
c o g n i t i v e power u n d e r l i e s the phenomenal w o r l d . It follows
t h a t , i n o r d e r to r i d o u r s e l v e s o f the impediment o f this
w o r l d , a l l we have to do i s r e l i n q u i s h t h i s power:

I n dreams, m i r r o r s , and w a t e r s , there e x i s t heavens

and e a r t h s . Those who w i s h t o r e l i n q u i s h t h e heaven
and. e a r t h i n dreams do n o t s l e e p when i n b e d . Those
who w i s h to r e l i n q u i s h t h e heaven and e a r t h i n the

m i r r o r do n o t have t h e i r appearance r e f l e c t e d t i n
1

it?. Those who w i s h to r e l i n q u i s h the heaven and

e a r t h i n w a t e r do n o t f e t c h i t when i t b r i m s . The

r e a s o n f o r t h e i r b e i n g l i e s h e r e f / i n u s ^ and n o t

there C i n t h e m } . , Hence, the sage does n o t g i v e up

38
heaven and e a r t h ; he g i v e s up c o g n i t i o n .
B u t i f the s a g e l y mind i s c a p a b l e o f c r e a t i n g i t s own

heaven and e a r t h a t w i l l and i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f the ministration

o f the F i v e A g e n t s , t h e n even a t t h i s s t a g e i t has a l r e a d y

t r a n s c e n d e d the phenomenal w o r l d t o some d e g r e e . I f so, the

a c t o f r e n o u n c i n g mind and c o n s e q u e n t l y s e l f can o n l y mean a

h i g h e r o r perhaps the u l t i m a t e s t a g e o f transcendence:

I f one knows t h a t t h i s body i s l i k e the body

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i n dreams p e r c e i v e d i n accordance w i t h the cir-

cumstances, then one can take the v o l a r s p i r i t as

o n e s e l f and roam the P u r e s t Heaven. I f one knows

t h a t these t h i n g s are l i k e the t h i n g s i n dreams

p e r c e i v e d i n accordance w i t h the circumstances,

then one can c o n c e n t r a t e one's v i t a l essence to

become a t h i n g and t r a v e r s e the f r o n t i e r wilds.

T h i s t e a c h i n g enables us to p e r c e i v e our

s u b t l e s p i r i t and prolong life, to f o r g e t the

s u b t l e s p i r i t and transcend life. As metal produces

water, so we inhale breath to n o u r i s h our vital

essence. And as wood produces f i r e , so we inhale

wind to n o u r i s h our s p i r i t u a l being. T h i s i s the

way to s u s t a i n our s u b t l e s p i r i t by e x t e r n a l means.

We r i n s e w i t h water to n o u r i s h our vital

essence, which then becomes i n e x a u s t i b l e . And we

stroke f i r e to n o u r i s h our s p i r i t u a l being, which

a l s o becomes i n e x a u s t i b l e . T h i s i s the way to

s u s t a i n our s u b t l e s p i r i t by i n t e r n a l means.

As r e g a r d s the f o r g e t t i n g of our subtle spirit

so as to t r a n s c e n d life, I have a l r e a d y t a l k e d about

it before. 5 9

The statements about n o u r i s h i n g the s p i r i t by external

and i n t e r n a l means p r o b a b l y r e f e r to the arcane p r a c t i c e

known as i n t e r n a l alchemy ( n e i t a n ) . I t i s a t such a stage,

when one i n p u r s u i t o f the Tao is still concerned with

physical immortality, t h a t what one p e r c e i v e s i n dreams may

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intrude i n t o waking r e a l i t y and blend with i t . To the adept

who i s capable of e f f e c t i n g such a c o n d i t i o n a t w i l l , the

borderline between the dream and waking s t a t e s i s o b l i t e r a t e d .

He i s thus a b l e to f l y i n s p i r i t and t r u l y becomes a " f e a - -

thered" one ( c f . Section 5.3). In t h i s c o n n e c t i o n the dream

becomes more than j u s t a .metaphor. I t i s on a par w i t h and

inseparable from waking r e a l i t y .

But the T a o i s t i d e a l o f s p i r i t u a l p e r f e c t i o n demands

t h a t the seeker of the Way ignore and f o r g e t t h i s amorphous

s t a t e , however e x h i l a r a t i n g i t may be. In^iso d o i n g , he may

hope to f i n d and lose himself a t l a s t i n the elusive and

inexpressible Tao which, i n i t s u t t e r i n e f f a b i l i t y , is like

a dream. The K u a n - y i n - t z u puts i t t h i s way:

To speak o f the Tao is like t a l k i n g about dreams.

For the dream-speaker s a y s , "Such g o l d and jade,

such u t e n s i l s and v e s s e l s , such b i r d s and beasts

..." The t a l k e r can t a l k about these but cannot '

take them and give them away, and the l i s t e n e r

may l i s t e n to h i s t a l k but cannot r e c e i v e and pos-

sess the things. The good l i s t e n e r , however, i s

40
not muddled and does not argue.

T h i s , then, i s the p h i l o s o p h i c a l u n d e r p i n n i n g of dream-

realism according to a t l e a s t one Neo-taoist work. The idea

was to c a t c h on, as evidenced by more and more s t o r i e s w i t h

dream-realism as theme d u r i n g the T'ang p e r i o d and thereafter.

Many o f these s t o r i e s are perhaps mere f i g m e n t s o f poetic

imagination, others claim to be v e r i t a b l e a c c o u n t s , still

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o t h e r s seem.a mixture of f a c t and fancy.

5.8 Dream-Realism from T'ang to Ch'ing

D u r i n g the T'ang dynasty t h e r e was a p l e t h o r a of f a n -

t a s t i c t a l e s concerned w i t h dream-realism. Pai Hsing-chien

(A.D. 776-827), younger b r o t h e r of the c e l e b r a t e d poet P a i

Chtl-i and a w r i t e r i n h i s own r i g h t , wrote a p i e c e entitled

"San meng c h i " (An account o f t h r e e d r e a m s ) . ^ It tells of

a case i n which a dream-event i n the making was chanced upon

and r e a c t e d to by a waking p e r s o n . The second s t o r y had to

do w i t h the a c t i v i t i e s o f waking i n d i v i d u a l s which were

observed by a man i n h i s dream. The third involved reciprocal

dreams c o r r o b o r a t e d by subsequent events i n the waking w o r l d .

I t i s a moot q u e s t i o n whether s t o r i e s o f t h i s nature

f l o u r i s h i n g d u r i n g T'ang times were i n f l u e n c e d by Buddhist

philosophy. F o r a l t h o u g h i t i s t r u e t h a t by then Buddhism

was w e l l entrenched i n mainstream Chinese thought, and

a l t h o u g h i t i s w e l l known t h a t the P a i b r o t h e r s were adherents

to the f a i t h , T a o i s t i n f l u e n c e s i n the l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t s of -.:>.

t h i s p e r i o d cannot be g a i n s a i d e i t h e r . P a i Chtl-i h i m s e l f

admitted t h a t h i s mind had e a r l y found repose i n Buddhism, but

t h a t he had wandered w i t h abandon i n the t e a c h i n g s of L a o - t z u

and Chuang-tzu as w e l l .

The t a l e "Nan-k'o t ' a i - s h o u chuan" (Governor of the

Southern Branch) w r i t t e n by L i Kung-tso ( c . 770-850), who knew

P a i H s i n g - c h i e n p e r s o n a l l y , l e a v e s no doubt as to whether i t

stands on the B u d d h i s t or T a o i s t s i d e , i d e o l o g i c a l l y speaking.

I t r e l a t e s how Ch'un-yti Fen, an i d l e - r i c h young man of

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the Yangtze R i v e r r e g i o n , l i v e d through more than twenty-

y e a r s i n a dream as the son-in-law of the k i n g of a c o u n t r y

c a l l e d Huai-an (Peace i n an Ash Tree) and as governor of a

southern t r i b u t a r y s t a t e . When he woke up, the two friends,

w i t h whom he had been c a r o u s i n g under a huge, o l d ash tree

south of h i s house and who had c a r r i e d him back home when

he got drunk, were s t i l l there washing t h e i r f e e t by the

couch. He t o l d them the dream, on the c l u e of which they

found a c h a i n of a n t - h i l l s i n a h o l l o w under the ash tree.

The t o p o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l s of these a n t - h i l l s , as w e l l as

the comportmentgof the a n t s themselves, coincided with a l l

t h a t he had e x p e r i e n c e d i n h i s dream. He ordered that the

a n t - h i l l s be p r e s e r v e d . But a sudden storm ensued that

n i g h t , and when he examined the h o l e s i n the morning, the

ants had gone. Ten days l a t e r , one of h i s two friends

d i e d suddenly and the o t h e r was taken i l l . Realizing that

all was v a n i t y whether one was dreaming or awake, he became

a T a o i s t and l e d an a u s t e r e l i f e . He died three years later

at the age of f o r t y - s e v e n , as p r e d i c t e d i n the dream.

The s t o r y ends w i t h the f o l l o w i n g poem:

His r e p u t a t i o n r e a c h e s to the skies,

His i n f l u e n c e can make a kingdom fall,

And y e t t h i s pomp and power, a f t e r all,

42
Are but an ant-heap i n the wise man's eyes.
(Ohi-chen Wang's t r a n s l a t i o n )

W e l l , i s n ' t i t s a i d i n the Chuang-tzu t h a t the Way is in

the ant?
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The "Chen-chung c h i " (An account o f what happened inside

a p i l l o w ) by Shen C h i - c h i (c.750-800), i s patently Taoist.

Prom t h i s t a l e was d e r i v e d the legend o f the -!'Huang-liang

meng" ( Y e l l o w m i l l e t dream) which concerns Lu Tung-pin o f

E i g h t Immortals fame. T h i s legend was i n t u r n done i n t o the

Ming p l a y "Han-tan meng" (Dream a t Han^tan) by T'ang H s i e n -

tsu (1550-1617).

It t e l l s o f a young man who became a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a

T a o i s t p r i e s t a t an i n n by the road to Han-tan ( i n modern

Hopei p r o v i n c e ) . The young man c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f a f a i l u r e

in terms o f w o r l d l y achievement and t o l d the T a o i s t s o . As

they t a l k e d , the i n n - k e e p e r was steaming a pot of m i l l e t .

Then the young man grew drowsy. The T a o i s t gave him a p i l l o w

made o f green p o r c e l a i n and w i t h an opening a t each end. The

young man somehow manages to crawl i n t o i t and found h i m s e l f

back home.

What f o l l o w s was the s t o r y o f h i s l i f e f o r the next

f i f t y years. He m a r r i e d the b e a u t i f u l daughter o f a good

f a m i l y and became r i c h . He passed the examinations, was

a p p o i n t e d an o f f i c a l and promoted from one p o s t to another

u n t i l he became one o f the most i n f l u e n t i a l p o l i t i c a l figures

in the empire.

T h e r e a f t e r , he was twice banished to the f r o n t i e r w i l d s

thanks to the s l a n d e r o u s a t t a c k s from h i s p o l i t i c a l enemies.

F i n a l l y v i n d i c a t e d however, g r e a t e r honors and more m a t e r i a l

rewards were heaped upon him.

Then he f e l l i l l and d i e d one n i g h t . Waking up w i t h a

s t a r t , he found h i m s e l f l y i n g i n the r o a d s i d e i n n . The

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T a o i s t p r i e s t was s i t t i n g by b i s s i d e as b e f o r e and the m i l l e t

still cooking.

The s t o r y concludes w i t h the young man s a y i n g to h i s

companion:

I know now at l a s t the way o f honor and d i s g r a c e

and the meaning o f p o v e r t y and f o r t u n e , the reci-

p r o c i t y of g a i n and l o s s and the mystery of life

and death, and I owe a l l t h i s knowledge to you.

S i n c e you have thus deigned to i n s t r u c t me i n the

v a n i t y of a m b i t i o n , dare I r e f u s e to p r o f i t t h e r e -

from? " 4 5

The theme o f t h i s s t o r y , as w e l l as t h a t o f the p r e c e d -

i n g one, i s the u n i v e r s a l lament: L i f e i s but an empty

dream, and a l l w o r l d l y p u r s u i t comes to naught. Each story

ends w i t h the p r o t a g o n i s t a c h i e v i n g some degree of e n l i g h t e n -

ment. In t h i s l i g h t one may j u s t l y wonder i f such stories

were not w r i t t e n p a r t l y f o r d i d a c t i c purposes.

Another common m o t i f i n the two dreams i s compression

of the time t h a t e l a p s e d i n each as opposed to the a c t u a l

time spent i n dreaming it. What the K u a n - y i n - t z u says about

mind h a v i n g no time a p p l i e s i n these two stories. The relat-

i v i t y o f a l l o p p o s i t e s cannot be more e f f e c t i v e l y dramatized

than when s e t i n a f l u i d temporal framework which makes a

mockery o f our e n n u i , our i m p a t i e n c e w i t h the slow rhythm of

our humdrum e x i s t e n c e .

F o r a s t o r y i n a l i g h t e r mood f e a t u r i n g dream-realism,

t h e r e i s the f u (prose-poem) by Su S h i h (1036-1101), entitled

 129

"Hou c h ' i h - p i f u " (The second fu-poem on the Red C l i f f ) , i n

which the poet recounts:

The time was about m i d n i g h t . I looked into

the quietude and emptiness around me. At this

p o i n t a l o n e crane appeared. I t came from a c r o s s

the r i v e r , heading east. With wings l i k e chariot

wheels and a t t i r e d i n m y s t i c b l a c k and s i l k y white,

it gave a l o n g , p i e r c i n g c a l l , swept past=my boat

and headed west.

S o o n s a f t e r , my v i s i t o r s took l e a v e , and I

slept. Then I dreamt t h a t a T a o i s t p r i e s t i n a

f e a t h e r y garment a i r i l y s t r o l l e d by L i n - k a o . He

j o i n e d h i s hands i n s a l u t a t i o n and s a i d to me,

"Did you enjoy your t r i p to the Red C l i f f ? " I

asked what h i s name was. He lowered h i s head

and d i d n o t answer.

" A l a s , ahal Now I know! Earlier this evening,

wasn't i t you, s i r , who f l e w p a s t me and s h r i e k e d ? "

The T a o i s t p r i e s t l o o k e d a t me and s m i l e d , and I

woke up w i t h a s t a r t . Then I opened the door and

44
l o o k e d o u t , h u t c o u l d n o t see where he was.

Su S h i h was o f course w r i t i n g p o e t r y , b u t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g

i m p l a u s i b l e about the dream as he t o l d i t . Moreover, the

T a o i s t m o t i f s o f f e a t h e r i n e s s and o n t o l o g i c a l change a r e

v e r y much i n e v i d e n c e .

I n c o n t r a s t to t h i s , the Yuan work Lang-huan c h i c i t e d

e a r l i e r r e l a t e s the s t o r y o f Hsiieh Sung, who was s a i d to be

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a m e r c i f u l man by n a t u r e . He abstained from k i l l i n g , and

would not h u r t even a bug.

One n i g h t he dreamt t h a t there was a swarm o f bugs on

his blanket. They g r a d u a l l y turned i n t o t i n y human b i e n g s

and s a i d to him, "We have p r o f i t e d from your k i n d n e s s f o r

some time now. At t h i s v e r y moment you are i n danger, and

it i s f o r us to r e c i p r o c a t e . " Having s a i d this, they a l l

l i n e d up on the b l a n k e t and dropped dead instantly.

Alarmed, Sung woke up. The lamps were s t i l l shining.

He summoned h i s s e r v a n t , and saw t h a t the b l a n k e t had a

s t r e a k of b l o o d s t a i n spreading across to the l e n g t h of one

f o o t or so. I t c o n s i s t e d of dead bugs. Sung g r i e v e d over

them f o r a l o n g time, without knowing why they had died.

It turned out t h a t t h a t n i g h t there was an a s s a s s i n who

had been p a i d a hundred c a t t i e s ( s i c ) of g o l d by someone to

kill Sung. T h i s man had an o l d sword so keen t h a t upon

c o n t a c t b l o o d would s p u r t and the v i c t i m would d i e a t once.

And so t h a t n i g h t , as the man lowered h i s sword, he saw blood

instantly. Under the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t death had indeed occur-

r e d , the man went back to r e p o r t to h i s master. Both were

jubilant.

Only the next day when they had sent someone to spy on

Sung's household d i d they f i n d out t h a t he was unharmed.

When they heard of the massacre of the bugs, they came to

realize t h a t these i n s e c t s had d i e d f o r Sung.

The theme of o n t o l o g i c a l change i s a g a i n p r e s e n t i n this

s t o r y , which a l s o smacks o f the B u d d h i s t n o t i o n of karmic

retribution. I t s moral i s u n m i s t a k a b l e .
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But dream r e a l i s m a l s o o c c u r s i n s t o r i e s o f a l e s s

sombre c h a r a c t e r . The H s i a o - f u (House o f l a u g h t e r ) by the

Ming p o p u l a r n o v e l i s t Feng Meng-lung (?-1646) c o n t a i n s the

f o l l o w i n g gem:

A i g r e a t d r i n k e r dreamt t h a t he possessed some good

wine. He was about to heat and d r i n k i t when he

suddenly woke up. Remorseful, he s a i d , " I s h o u l d

have taken i t c o l d ! "

A joke l i k e t h i s one i s i n t e n d e d to e l i c i t e a good laugh

from the audience and n o t h i n g more. T h i s type o f a n e c d o t a l

t i d b i t s , w i t h i t s r a c y , sometimes raucous sense o f humor,

has always been p o p u l a r w i t h the Chinese common f o l k . Some

modern l i t e r a r y critics c o n s i d e r i t a genre worthy o f s p e c i a l

47
attention.

The f o l l o w i n g , taken from the H s i a o - t a o ( L a u g h t e r t h a t

b r i n g s the house down) by Ch'en Kao-mo o f Ch'ing t i m e s , i s

another example:

A man dreamt t h a t he was i n v i t e d to an opera p a r t y .

He had b a r e l y taken h i s s e a t when h i s w i f e disturb-

ed and woke him up. As he was b a w l i n g h e r o u t , she

s a i d , "Don't r a n t .
Go back to s l e e p w h i l e t h e r e i s
48
still time; the opera i s n ' t half-way through y e t !

As a f i n a l example o f the dreaming-waking a m b i g u i t y , I

take the f o l l o w i n g account from the Mo-yii l u (Record from

r e s i d u a l i n k ) by Mao H s i a n g - l i n o f the Ch'ing p e r i o d :

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Life i s , after a l l , l i k e a dream. W i t h i n the

span of a hundred y e a r s we h u s t l e and h u s t l e , unable

to d e c i d e f o r o u r s e l v e s when to l a u g h and when to

cry. T h i s i s sad enough. But what I have heard

from my u n c l e L o r d T an-yuan i s even more amazing.

1

D u r i n g the K'ang-hsi r e i g n p e r i o d (1662-1722),

i n our home-town Sung-chiang ( i n present Kiangsu

p r o v i n c e ) t h e r e was a c e r t a i n Wei Ch'eng-chi, whose

f o r e b e a r s were n a t i v e s of Chekiang province. At

t h a t time he r a n a pharmacy on the west s i d e of

the L e v e l b r i d g e ( P ' i n g - c h ' i a o ) . L e a d i n g a frugal

and simple l i f e , he accumulated wealth and became

rather prosperous.

He had two sons. Meng-hsiang, the elder,

c a r r i e d on the f a m i l y b u s i n e s s . Yao-p'u, the

younger, was endowed w i t h f i n e q u a l i t i e s and by

i n c l i n a t i o n s o l i t a r y and chaste. He was a biblio-

p h i l e , and i n h i s youth a t t e n d e d the provincial

academy.

Yao-p'u m a r r i e d a l a d y nee Ch'ien, and the

f o l l o w i n g y e a r they had a son. The boy was named

49

Tuan, because he was born i n F i f t h month.

The two b r o t h e r s l o v e d each o t h e r , and f o r

t h i s r e a s o n they d i d not l i v e separately after

their father's death.

Then Yao-p'u was engaged as a t u t o r by the

Feng f a m i l y of E a s t v i l l a g e , l o c a t e d f i v e or s i x
 133

li away from the c i t y . He o f t e n s t a y e d o v e r n i g h t

i n the study.

One evening, owing to some s a c r i f i c i a l m a t t e r s ,

he made known h i s i n t e n t i o n to go home. But i t

turned out t h a t h i s employer wanted to entertain

some d i s t i n g u i s h e d guests and so i n s i s t e d that he

s t a y f o r the banquet. It lasted u n t i l the second

watch ( n i n e through eleven o'clock). Three other

guests l e f t t o g e t h e r w i t h him, and t h e i r h o s t sent

a s e r v a n t to see them home.

They t a l k e d a l o n g the way, and soon reached

the E a s t g a t e . They had b a r e l y e n t e r e d the city

when Yao-p'u suddenly s t o o d immobile. Everybody

asked what happened but he d i d not respond. So

they took him home, and when they reached there

his f a c e was as white as paper and h i s limbs cold

as i c e . He b r e a t h e d h i s l a s t b e f o r e daybreak.

Ten y e a r s or so a f t e r h i s death, H s i Y l i -

c h i e h , c o u r t e s y name P i - c h ' i n g , a s c h o l a r from the

same town, t r a v e l l e d to C h i n - l i n g ( p r e s e n t Nanking)

to take the F a l l examinations. He lodged w i t h a

f a m i l y surnamed Lu i n the West Lane c l o s e to the

Wu-ting b r i d g e .

On the eve of the exams, h i s l a n d l o r d r e g a l e d

all the t e n a n t s w i t h f o o d and wine. A t the p a r t y

they t o l d each o t h e r where they came from. When

H s i ' s t u r n came, he s a i d , "Sung-chiang."

Thereupon Lu asked, " S i r , a r e n ' t you H s i

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P i - c h ' i n g of Hua-t'ing?"

"Yes, I am," s a i d H s i .

Lu lowered h i s head and, overcome by sadness,

heaved a s i g h . Everybody was a s t o n i s h e d and asked

what the matter was.

"My f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Mr. H s i has l a s t e d f o r

two l i f e t i m e s now," he began. "My a n c e s t o r s were

originally from P'ei-chou ( a county i n p r e s e n t

K i a n g s u p r o v i n c e ) , b u t we l i v e d here f o r t h r e e

g e n e r a t i o n s now. My f a t h e r ' s name was Y i n g - l u n g .

He was a s a t i n - w e a v e r , and s e t up a m i l l i n Hstian-

-tzu Lane a t the s o u t h e r n g a t e . My name i s Mao-fang.

I l e a r n e d my f a t h e r ' s t r a d e from c h i l d h o o d , and was

m a r r i e d to my w i f e , nee Hu, a t the age o f twenty-

four. Nine y e a r s l a t e r , my f a t h e r passed away.

That f a l l , I fell i l l d u r i n g an epidemic and n e a r l y

died. When my i l l n e s s took a c r i t i c a l t u r n , I was

in a coma and h a l f a s l e e p , and, don't ask me how,

was r e b o r n as a son o f the Wei f a m i l y o f Sung-chiang.

Prom then on I c o u l d no l o n g e r remember the events

at Chiang-ning. I went t o s c h o o l i n Sung-chiang,

got m a r r i e d , and had a son. I can s t i l l vividly

r e c a l l a l l these t h i n g s . I still remember taking

the j u n i o r examinations one y e a r , i n which I ranked

t h i r d and Mr. H s i seventh."

"Were you Mr. Wei Yao-p'u i n your p r e v i o u s

life then?" asked H s i .

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"Well, not i n a previous l i f e , b u t i n a dreami"

s a i d Lu, and a l l p r e s e n t c l i c k e d t h e i r tongues i n

amazement.

"I heard," c o n t i n u e d H s i , " t h a t on your way

home from s c h o o l t h a t day you g o t s i c k , and d i e d

the same n i g h t . D i d you know the cause o f your

illness?"

"I remember h o l d i n g a t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n a t the

Fengs o f E a s t v i l l a g e . That evening my employer

f e a s t e d some g u e s t s . When the banquet was over,

I l e f t f o r home i n the company o f such and such and

a servant. A few s t e p s a f t e r we e n t e r e d the c i t y ,

all o f a sudden I saw a g i a n t coming from the westi

He wore a l o o s e garment, h e l d a club i n h i s hand

and walked very s w i f t l y . He gave me a blow, which

t e r r i f i e d me extremely and s e n t me s c u r r y i n g like

mad f o r more than two h o u r s . Then, as my f r a y e d

nerves calmed down a b i t , d a z e d i l i k e a l o s t soul,

I l o o k e d around and r e a l i z e d t h a t I was n o t on the

accustomed road o f former days. I n f r o n t o f me

lay a creek, w i t h s e v e r a l w i l l o w t r e e s s t a n d i n g by.

Gazing yonder, I saw some s i l h o u e t t e d v i l l a g e huts

on the f a r s i d e o f the c r e e k . As I was t h i n k i n g o f

s e e k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n from some v i l l a g e r as to where

the f o r d was, I saw l y i n g i n the moonlight directly

toward the west and a l o n g s i d e the w i l l o w s a little

boat. I rushed forward and found t h a t the boat was

about ten f e e t off-bank. I h e l d on to a twig and

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jumped i n h a s t e . But my f e e t s l i p p e d , and I fell

i n t o the water.

"When I opened my eyes, I found myself i n bed,

w i t h my h e a r t p a l p i t a t i n g and c o l d sweat o o z i n g

forth. I thought i t was a nightmare, and asked

whether my son Tuan was asleep. A t the bedside

was my p r e s e n t w i f e , who said, 'Your son? What

dream-talk i s this? You have been s l e e p i n g f o r a

day and a n i g h t ! Stay awake f o r a w h i l e and then

have some p o r r i d g e . '

" G r e a t l y i n t r i g u e d upon h e a r i n g t h i s , I s a t

up, l o o k e d around c a r e f u l l y , and saw none o f the

old things. I was extremely s c a r e d and dared not

t a l k about i t . Only a f t e r w a r d s d i d I r e a l i z e t h a t

t h i s body had become a c e r t a i n Lu of Chiang-ning.

When I t h i n k of the events a t Sung-chiang, however,

they seem r e a l and not a dream. Otherwise, how

c o u l d a dream i n Chiang-ning correspond to thirty

y e a r s i n Sung-chiang? I have always i n t e n d e d to

go to Sung-chiang to r e t r a c e my past l i f e . But

ever s i n c e my f a t h e r ' s death, the f a m i l y f o r t u n e s

have g r a d u a l l y d e c l i n e d . B e s i d e s , I have no bro-

t h e r s , sons, or nephews. That's why I can.'t make

the l o n g t r i p . Now t h a t I have met you, i t is

c l e a r t h a t t h i s p r o d i g i o u s event d i d happen. I

wonder how the Wei f a m i l y are doing lately?"

"Owing to Meng-hsiang's u n r e m i t t i n g e f f o r t s , "

s a i d H s i , "the f a m i l y f o r t u n e s have p r o s p e r e d even

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more. And Madame has brought up the c h i l d p r o p e r l y .

He passed l a s t y e a r ' s exams and was a d m i t t e d to the

county academy. I remember how, when we were

school-mates, I used to admire the ease w i t h which

you w i e l d e d the w r i t i n g - b r u s h and t u r n e d out a f r e e -

f l o w i n g essay i n j u s t a j i f f y . I s your literary

genius s t i l l t h e r e ? "

"I can s t i l l remember a l l the happenings a t

Sung-chiang," s a i d Lu, "but when i t comes to p o e t r y

and p r o s e , I am a t a l o s s . "

When H s i had w r i t t e n the examinations and was

r e t u r n i n g to h i s home-town, Lu made him a p r e s e n t

of a v a r i e t y of p r o d u c t s n a t i v e to the c a p i t a l and

s a i d , " I f I don't wake too soon from my p r e s e n t

dream, I might still make i t to Y i i n - c h i e n (ancient

name f o r Sung-chiang) eventually."

H s i r e t u r n e d and t o l d Wei's son about the

matter. Owing to the d u b i e t y o f the f a t h e r - s o n

r e l a t i o n s h i p , however, the young man d i d n o t f i n d

it a p p r o p r i a t e to pay Lu a v i s i t , and Lu never

went to Sung-chiang either.

The i d e a t h a t one may be aware o f the events

of a p r e v i o u s l i f e frequently occurs i n f i c t i o n ,

but i t i s c e r t a i n l y unheard of t h a t a dream may

encompass a l i f e t i m e , as i n Lu's case.

T h i s account has been o b t a i n e d from Chao

S h i h - f u , the l i c e n t i a t e , of H u a - t ' i n g . He i s Wei's

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first c o u s i n , and i s a protege o f L o r d T'an-ytian.

SO
Hence, I suppose, i t i s not fictitious.

It a p p e a r s - t h a t , as f a r as Lu Mao-fang was concerned,

the l i f e of t h i r t y dream-years t h a t he had l e d as Wei Yao-p'u

was more r e a l than h i s p r e s e n t l i f e . He seemed to know no-

thing f i r s t hand about h i m s e l f p r i o r to the i l l n e s s that

occasioned the dream. T h i s i s i m p l i e d by h i s statement that

i t was o n l y some time a f t e r h i s awakening t h a t he came to

r e a l i z e who he then was. I f t h i s was the case, he must have

reconstructed h i s l i f e b e f o r e the dream from what o t h e r s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s w i f e , s a i d about him, as w e l l as from h i s

own o b s e r v a t i o n of what was g o i n g on around him. On the

o t h e r hand, h i s w i f e and the o t h e r people concerned must have

thought t h a t he was s u f f e r i n g from a severe case o f amnesia

brought about by the illness.

A g a i n , i t i s the s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l a s p e c t o f t h i s dream

t h a t proves most i n t r i g u i n g . I t g i v e s me a chance to e l a b -

o r a t e , i n the next and f i n a l s e c t i o n of t h i s c h a p t e r , on

what I have d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 5.5.

5.9 Spatio-temporal D i s c r e t e n e s s and C o n t i n u i t y

In the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s own account of the dream l a s t cited

( a c c o r d i n g to the s t o r y as w r i t t e n of c o u r s e ) , i t o c c u r r e d

when he was t h i r t y - t h r e e years o l d . He a l s o s a i d that h i s

life as Wei Yao-p'u i n the dream l a s t e d more than thirty

years. Hence a r e t r o g r e s s i o n was i n v o l v e d which made them

virtual contemporaries. T h i s b e i n g the case, one wonders

whether t h e i r paths had ever c r o s s e d , l i v i n g i n r e l a t i v e l y

?
139

c l o s e p r o x i m i t y ( i n the same p r o v i n c e ) as they were.

Such a q u e s t i o n may sound n a i v e o r even i d l e , h u t a t

l e a s t i t s e r v e s a h e u r i s t i c purpose, f o r i t touches on the

v e r y n a t u r e o f time and space a s we p e r c e i v e them.

In our everyday e x p e r i e n c e , time i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d hy

linear continuity. As such, i t i s segmented i n t o s m a l l e r

or g r e a t e r p e r i o d s such as hours, days, months, seasons,

y e a r s , and so on. These p e r i o d s a r e thought o f as s u c c e e d i n g

each o t h e r i n s i n g l e f i l e and p r o c e e d i n g i n o n l y one d i r e c t i o n ,

so t h a t time appears t o he an i r r e v e r s i b l e f l o w . In this

c o n c e p t i o n , events t h a t o c c u r i n time cannot r e p e a t them-

s e l v e s : what happens, happens once f o r a l l .

A c c o r d i n g t o Joseph Needham, the i d e a o f l i n e a r , con-

t i n u o u s time i s found i n European as w e l l as Chinese culture.

I t i s from t h i s i d e a t h a t people i n both c u l t u r e s derive

51
t h e i r sense o f h i s t o r y .

Moreover, i n h i s book L a pensee c h i n o i s e , M a r c e l Granet

p o i n t s o u t t h a t the Chinese " p r e f e r e n t v o i r dans l e Temps

un ensemble d ' e r e s , de s a i s o n s e t d'epoques, dans l ' E s p a c e

un complexe de domaines, de c l i m a t s e t d ' o r i e n t s ; " t h a t they

" n ' a v a i e n t aucune d i s p o s i t i o n a c o n c e v o i r , comme deux m i l i e u x

independants e t n e u t r e s , un Temps a b s t r a i t , un Espace

abstrait;" t h a t " l e Temps e t l ' E s p a c e ne sont jamais concus

independamment des a c t i o n s c o n c r e t e s . . . ; " t h a t the Chinese

"decomposent l e Temps en p e r i o d e s comme i l s decomposent

l ' E s p a c e en r e g i o n s ; " and, f i n a l l y , t h a t the Chinese "ne

se sont p o i n t s o u c i e s de c o n c e v o i r l e Temps e t l ' E s p a c e

comme deux m i l i e u x homogenes, aptes a l o g e r des concepts

 c

HO

abstraits. 1 , 5 2

These o b s e r v a t i o n s c e r t a i n l y throw l i g h t on t h a t aspect

of the Chinese mind c h a r a c t e r i z e d by secularism, by a this-

worldness, a down-to-earth concern f o r p r a c t i c a l i t y . Need-

ham, too, wrote:

For the a n c i e n t C h i n e s e , time was not an abstract

parameter, a s u c c e s s i o n of homogeneous moments,

but was d i v i d e d i n t o concrete separate seasons

53
and their subdivisions.

He added, as d i d Granet, t h a t "the i d e a of s u c c e s s i o n as such

was subordinated to t h a t of a l t e r n a t i o n and interdependence."

The l a t t e r i d e a r e f e r s to the cosmological theory of the

School of Yin-Yang l e d by Tsou Yen ( c . 350-270 B.C.) of the

Warring S t a t e s period. Even i n h i s day t h i s theory was

already i n t e g r a t e d w i t h the theory of the F i v e Agents (see

Sections 3.1 and 5.7 above).

Needham was quick to p o i n t out that t h i s , though a s s u r e d -

ly t r u e , was not the whole s t o r y . For the Yin-Yang School-

men (Needham c a l l s them N a t u r a l i s t s ) had to contend w i t h the

competing s c h o o l s o f M o h i s t s and L o g i c i a n s , who were never

interested i n their theories. Moreover, the h i s t o r i a n s and

other s c h o l a r s u n d e r t a k i n g long-term s o c i o l o g i c a l studies

and s p e c u l a t i o n had no use f o r the i d e a of '.'packaged" time.

Needham t h e r e f o r e came to the f o l l o w i n g conclusion:

There was b o t h compartmentalized time and continuous

time i n Chinese t h i n k i n g . Both were i m p o r t a n t i n

d i f f e r e n t ways, the former f o r some of the sciences

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and technology, the l a t t e r f o r h i s t o r y and

55
sociology.

To r e c a p i t u l a t e : J u s t as temporal infinity i s an i n f e r r e d

a b s t r a c t i o n , so.-.also i s the i d e a o f an immense, boundless

space. As f a r as our a c t u a l p e r c e p t i o n i s concerned, space,

t o o , c o n s i s t s o f a s e r i e s o f p a r t i t i o n s which, owing to t h e i r

i n t e r l o c k i n g s , n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n s t i t u t e a continuum. As do

the d i s c r e t e p e r i o d s o f time, the separate u n i t s o f space flow

i n t o each o t h e r as w e l l .

As c i v i l i z e d human b e i n g s , we a r e thus pinned down i n

a spatio-temporal s t r a n g l e h o l d from which there i s no n a t u r a l

release. I f on o c c a s i o n we f a i l to n o t i c e the passage o f a

c e r t a i n l e n g t h o f time, such an event i s conslrued as p u r e l y

subjective. F o r example, Robinson Crusoe d i d n o t know, w h i l e

marooned on h i s " i s l a n d o f D e s p a i r , " t h a t he had " l o s t " a

day by f a l l i n g sound a s l e e p f o r two days i n a row, u n t i l he

r e t u r n e d to c i v i l i z a t i o n and, presumably, checked h i s "account"

56

w i t h the c a l e n d a r .

With r e g a r d to space, we n o r m a l l y t h i n k we know where

we stand and, when moving around, where our next step i s

g o i n g to l a n d . We do n o t expect to tumble wide-eyed into

a sort of t e r r e s t r i a l "black hole."

To r e t u r n to the dream l a s t c i t e d : I t was i t s s p a t i o -

temporal s t r u c t u r e t h a t made i t seem so r e a l to the dreamer.

P r e c i s e l y a t the moment when he jumped and f e l l i n t o the

water, though, a c o n f l a t i o n o f t h i s s t r u c t u r e and t h a t o f the

world i n t o which he was g e t t i n g took p l a c e . As a r e s u l t , he

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c o u l d not r e a l l y t e l l which was dream and which r e a l i t y .

On the o t h e r hand, had Lu Mao-fang/Wei Yao-p'u a c c e p t e d

e i t h e r the T a o i s t i d e a t h a t a l l o p p o s i t e s were complementary

p a i r s or the B u d d h i s t n o t i o n t h a t a l l time and space were

n o t h i n g hut s c a f f o l d i n g of the i l l u s i v e phenomenal world,

then the d i s t i n c t i o n would not have been n e c e s s a r y i n the ' I

first place.
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CHAPTER SIX

TOWARD A THEORY OP CHINESE DREAM INTERPRETATION

I n the f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r s , I have shown t h a t dreams

were s i g n i f i c a n t to the a n c i e n t Chinese one way or another.

T h i s c h a p t e r i s concerned w i t h the t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t of

dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as p r a c t i s e d i n a n c i e n t C h i n a .

6.1 Meaning and Interpretation

I f the use of language i s s p e c i e s - s p e c i f i c to humans,

so i s the s e a r c h f o r meaning.

When we ask what the meaning of a word i s , we want to

know what i t s i g n i f i e s . But ambiguity, whether a t the lexical

or s y n t a c t i c l e v e l , i s a f a c t of n a t u r a l language. Any

l i t e r a t e p e r s o n knows t h a t to get the meaning o f a word as

used i s not a simple matter of l o o k i n g i t up i n a dictionary.

More i m p o r t a n t l y , one has to examine i t s c o n t e x t , AS a

f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n , many people tend to use words i n t o t a l

d i s r e g a r d o f t h e i r d i c t i o n a r y meanings. Prom a c e r t a i n p o i n t

of view, t h i s c o n s t i t u t e s a misuse or even abuse of language.

I n .any.:event, where ambiguity i s p r e s e n t , meaning i s u n c e r t a i n ,

and hence i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c a l l e d f o r .

But where does meaning come from? One p o s s i b l e answer

is, "From n a t u r e . " I n the West, the medieval metaphor of

"the book o f n a t u r e " conveys the i d e a t h a t our u n i v e r s e i s

of i t s e l f m e a n i n g f u l . I t s meaning i s m a n i f e s t e d by the

r e g u l a r i t y of i t s o p e r a t i o n s , e.g. p e r i o d i c i t y of the seasons,

constancy of the movement of heavenly bodies, c y c l i c i t y of

 H4

the t i d a l ebb and flow, the l u n a r waxing and waning, the vegetal

growth and decay, e t c . The t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese b e l i e f that

the w r i t i n g system was d e r i v e d from the forms and patterns

found i n nature seems to have sprung from the same i d e a .

And y e t , the same n a t u r a l phenomena can be p e r c e i v e d in

d i f f e r e n t ways. Thus, a s u b j e c t i v e element i s i n t r o d u c e d

i n t o our conception of the f a c t s of n a t u r e . To my mind, any

d e f i n i t i o n of c u l t u r e i s wanting which does not take i n t o

account the human c a p a c i t y f o r p e r c e i v i n g t h i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t

ways under d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s e n t a i l s the notion

t h a t human c u l t u r e i s an e v o l u t i o n a r y , dynamic process.

In t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , the human a c t of p e r c e i v i n g t h i n g s

i n d i f f e r e n t ways under v a r y i n g s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l circumstances

cannot but r e s u l t i n the d i s c o v e r y of new meanings and

sometimes i n the r e c o v e r y of o l d ones. Hence, i f we ask the

question "Where does meaning come from?" a second time, the

answer may w e l l be, "Prom c u l t u r e . " T h i s answer i m p l i e s

t h a t meaning, so f a r from b e i n g i n h e r e n t i n the o b j e c t , i s

what we read i n t o i t . Thus, the " r e a d i n g - i n t o " i s what

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a l l about.

The two contrastive notions of meaning and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

as d i s c u s s e d above, when a p p l i e d to a theory of dream inter-

p r e t a t i o n , b o i l down to the q u e s t i o n whether meaning i s

intrinsic to the dream or i t i s r a t h e r a f u n c t i o n of inter-

pretation.

In my o p i n i o n , as f a r as the p r a c t i c e of dream i n t e r p r e t -

a t i o n i s concerned, the f i r s t view seems to have been tacitly

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accepted by the a n c i e n t Chinese o n e i r o c r i t i c s . F o r them,

r a t h e r than " r e a d i n g - i n t o , " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was a m a t t e r o f

"reading-out-of."

I t i s a l s o c l e a r to me t h a t the a n c i e n t s were aware o f

the problem o f m u l t i v o c i t y i n dream symbolism. Thus, the

same dream imagery may have d i f f e r e n t s i g n i f i c a t i o n s i n

accordance w i t h i t s changing c o n t e x t s . Consequently, a dream

d i c t i o n a r y i s o n l y as u s e f u l and l i m i t e d i n i t s u s e f u l n e s s as

any language d i c t i o n a r y ( s e e S e c t i o n 7.2.2 i n the n e x t chap-

ter) .

A t any r a t e , as p r a c t i s e d i n a n c i e n t China, the a r t o f

dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n s i s t e d i n r e c o v e r i n g the meaning

h i d d e n i n dreams. I t was t h e r e f o r e , i n i t s i n t e n t and purpose,

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h what P a u l R i c o e u r calls " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as

i

r e c o l l e c t i o n ; ; o f meanings," i n s o f a r as i t s u n d e r l y i n g

assumption was t h a t dreams were m e a n i n g f u l i n themselves and

t h a t t h e i r messages, though o f t e n v e i l e d , were never false.

6.2 Dream as M u l t i v o c a l Text

We know o f o u r own dreams o n l y as r e c o l l e c t i o n s , and

of o t h e r p e o p l e ' s dreams o n l y as e i t h e r o r a l o r w r i t t e n

r e p o r t s , f i r s t - h a n d or otherwise. T h i s p o i n t s up the s u b j e c -

t i v e nature o f dreaming, and i s the source o f a p e c u l i a r type

of skepticism concerning the r e a l i t y o f dreaming as an event.

I t poses the q u e s t i o n whether we ever r e a l l y dreamt. For

all t h a t can be v e r i f i e d i s the f a c t t h a t sometimes, when

we wake up from s l e e p , we t e l l others t h a t we had such and

such dreams. But there i s no w a y v a t - a l l f o r us to prove to

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our own or to our l i s t e n e r s ' s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t the reported

dreams d i d o c c u r , a p a r t from our subjective f e e l i n g that

they d i d . Thus Norman Malcolm, f o r one, argues t h a t our con-

cept of dreaming i s d e r i v e d from "a queer phenomenon," namely,

2

dream-telling. Nevertheless, t h i s remarkable phenomenon

has been observed i n a l l known human s o c i e t i e s , from the

crudest to the most s o p h i s t i c a t e d .

The f a c t t h a t a dream e x i s t s o n l y as a p r i v a t e experience

leads C a l v i n H a l l and Robert Van de C a s t l e to d e f i n e i t

o p e r a t i o n a l l y as " t h a t which a p e r s o n r e p o r t s when he is

asked to r e l a t e a dream, e x c l u d i n g statements which are comments

upon or i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the dream."- 5

Thus, u n t i l the day

comes when t e c h n o l o g i c a l advances w i l l make i t p o s s i b l e to

monitor the content of dreams as they are b e i n g dreamt, any

v e n t u r e to t r e a t the dream as an o c c u r r e n c e i n i t s own right

i s an e x e r c i s e i n futility.

I t i s c l e a r , then, t h a t a l l we are d e a l i n g w i t h i s dreams

as r e p o r t e d . Nevertheless, i t i s l e g i t i m a t e to ask whether

a dream r e p o r t i s based on an a c t u a l dream e x p e r i e n c e , i f

any, or i f i t i s a mere f a b r i c a t i o n .

When we come a c r o s s a reported dream i n a book p u r p o r t e d

to be f a c t u a l , say, a h i s t o r y or a b i o g r a p h y , we are expected

to a c c e p t the account as i s , f o r the simple r e a s o n that

v e r i f i c a t i o n i s out o f the q u e s t i o n . To suspect that the

reported dream might not be t r u e , i n whole or i n p a r t , i n the

sense t h a t the r e p o r t e d dreamer d i d not dream i t or d i d not

dream i t t h a t way, would amount to compromising the writer's

 147

integrity.

On the o t h e r hand, dream s t o r i e s can of course he

fabricated. A l l dreams of f i c t i t i o u s characters, such as

Finnegan or Chia Pao-yii f o r example, are sheer f a b r i c a t i o n s

because the a l l e g e d dreamers themselves are invented. One

would be h a r d put to i t though, to t r y to prove t h a t a dream

reported by a r e a l p e r s o n i s f a l s e or i n a c c u r a t e , short,of

c a l l i n g him or her a l i a r . Hence, dream i n t e r p r e t e r s as a

matter of p r i n c i p l e do not question the v e r a c i t y of a dream.

In the F r e u d i a n t r a d i t i o n , m a t e r i a l produced by free associa-

t i o n i s r e g a r d e d as h a v i n g as much p s y c h i c a l v a l u e as the

dream itself.

In the p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , I mentioned the problem of

m u l t i p l e meaning as b e i n g known to the a n c i e n t Chinese

oneirocritics. The f o l l o w i n g account, taken from the San-kuo

c h i h ( H i s t o r y of the three kingdoms), t e l l s of an episode i n

the career o f Chou Hsiian, a c e l e b r a t e d dream i n t e r p r e t e r o f

the Three Kingdoms e r a :

Once, someone asked Hsiian, " L a s t n i g h t I

dreamt of straw dogs; what does t h a t mean?"

"You are about to have good f o o d , " .Hsiian

answered. Soon a f t e r , t h i s man went out and was

a c t u a l l y regaled w i t h a sumptuous meal.

Some time l a t e r , the same man came back to

ask Hsiian, " L a s t n i g h t I dreamt of straw dogs again,

why?"

Hsiian s a i d to him, "You are going to f a l l from

 H8

a c a r r i a g e and break your l e g s . P l e a s e be c a r e - ;

full" And i t soon happened as he had s a i d .

Still later, the man came to ask Hstlan a

third time, " L a s t n i g h t I dreamt o f straw dogs a g a i n ,

why?" Hstlan s a i d , "Your house w i l l have a f i r e ;

you s h o u l d watch i t c l o s e l y I " And the f i r e broke

out before long.

Then the man t o l d Hsuan, "You know,-I d i d n ' t

r e a l l y dream on any o f those o c c a s i o n s ; I j u s t

wanted to t e s t you. How c o u l d they have a l l come

true?"

Hstlan answered, " I t was the s p i r i t s t h a t moved

you and made you say those t h i n g s ; t h a t ' s why they

were no d i f f e r e n t from r e a l dreams."

"But all the t h r e e dreams," pursued the man,

"were about straw dogs, and y e t t h e i r interpretations

were a l l d i f f e r e n t ; how's that?"

"Straw dogs," Hstlan e x p l a i n e d , "are s a c r i f i c i a l

o f f e r i n g s to the gods. Hence, y o u r f i r s t dream

meant you would g e t food and d r i n k . When the

s a c r i f i c e i s over, the straw dogs a r e crushed under

wheel, thus your second dream p r e f i g u r e d your f a l l

from a c a r r i a g e , ending i n broken l e g s . When the

straw dogs have been crushed, they a r e bound to be

c a r t e d away as f i r e w o o d . And so the l a s t dream

warned you o f f i r e . " '

Ch'en Shou (A.D. 2 3 3 - 2 9 7 ) , the h i s t o r i a n , concludes Chou

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Hstlan's biography w i t h the remark t h a t i n i n t e r p r e t i n g dreams,

he s c o r e d an e i g h t y to n i n e t y p e r c e n t accuracy.

Chou Hstlan c e r t a i n l y operated on the premise that a

symbol may have s e v e r a l meanings, and t h a t i t has to be

i n t e r p r e t e d a t any p a r t i c u l a r moment w i t h c o n t e x t u a l under-

standing. F i r s t of a l l , t h e r e was no d i f f i c u l t y f o r him to put

the straw dogs i n t h e i r proper c o n t e x t and i d e n t i f y them w i t h

sacrificial objects. T h i s meaning may w e l l have been listed

i n some p o p u l a r dream book. But an e x p e r i e n c e d dream inter-

p r e t e r would n o t be content w i t h j u s t what the book s a y s , even

i f he had o c c a s i o n to c o n s u l t i t . He would p r o b a b l y use the

i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d from such a source i n the same way t h a t

an e x p e r i e n c e d w r i t e r o r h a b i t u a l r e a d e r would use an o r d i n a r y

dictionary. J u s t as a s c r u p u l o u s u s e r o f words would always

make a p o i n t o f t a k i n g the l i n g u i s t i c environment o f a word

i n t o account when p o n d e r i n g on i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e , so a l s o would

the e x p e r t o n e i r o c r i t i c a s c e r t a i n the meaning o f a p a r t i c u l a r

dream symbol i n terms o f i t s c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t among o t h e r

things. I n the case j u s t c i t e d the time frame i n which each

dream was r e p o r t e d to have o c c u r r e d was o f c r u c i a l importance

to the dream i n t e r p r e t e r i n u n r a v e l l i n g i t s meaning.

As w e l l , Chou Hstlan's a t t i t u d e toward f a b r i c a t e d dreams

was noteworthy. When t o l d t h a t the dreams had n o t r e a l l y

been dreamt, he e x p l a i n e d t h a t they remained n o n e t h e l e s s valid

because i t was the s p i r i t s t h a t moved the " f a l s e " dreamer to

say what he had s a i d . I n o t h e r words, f a b r i c a t e d dreams had

the same o r i g i n as dreamt ones. Again, t h i s anticipated

 150

F r e u d i a n dream t h e o r y . I t implies t h a t to dream i s to

f a b r i c a t e , t h a t i s , to manipulate symbols i n a capricious

way. I t follows t h a t a l l dreams, whether dreamt o r invented,

are by n a t u r e d e c e i t f u l , and can become t r u e o n l y when c o r -

5
rectly interpreted.

On another o c c a s i o n , i t took such an august personage

as Emperor Wen of Wei to f a b r i c a t e a dream and have Chou

Hsiian i n t e r p r e t i t . I t was o n l y when Chou Hsiian came up

w i t h a n e g a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t the emperor s a i d to

him, "But I was o n l y f o o l i n g youl" Not to be put o u t , Chou

Hsiian s a i d i n r e p l y , "The dream i s n o t h i n g b u t i d e a t i o n ( i ) .

When r e v e a l e d i n words, then i t s good or bad import i s

predictable." b y

So then, beware; f o r no matter what you say about your

dreams, the s i n g l e - m i n d e d dream i n t e r p r e t e r i s p r e p a r e d to

take y o u r word f o r i t l

6.3 The C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Dreams

B e f o r e a dream can be i n t e r p r e t e d , i t has to be iden-

tified i n terms o f i t s g e n e r a l characteristics. Hence the

numerous l i s t s of dream types c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g to v a r i o u s

c r i t e r i a i n many c u l t u r e s by as many a u t h o r i t i e s throughout

the ages.

To g i v e an example: A r t e m i d o r u s o f D a l d i s ( c . 2nd c e n t .

A.D.) made a d i s t i n c t i o n , i n the f i r s t p l a c e , between what

he c a l l e d enhypnion and o n e i r o s . The enhypnion i n d i c a t e s a

p r e s e n t s t a t e of a f f a i r s . F o r example, a l o v e r dreams that

he i s w i t h h i s b e l o v e d . Dreams t r i g g e r e d by p h y s i c a l stimu-
 151

li a l s o belong i n t h i s c l a s s . I t i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of this

type o f dreams t h a t i t s o p e r a t i o n i s l i m i t e d to the d u r a t i o n

of the dreamer's s l e e p , and does n o t c o n t a i n a p r e d i c t i o n of

a f,uture s t a t e o f a f f a i r s . The o n e i r o s , on the o t h e r hand,

i n d i c a t e s f u t u r e events; i t i s i t s n a t u r e to induce active

7

u n d e r t a k i n g s when the dreamer awakes.

Artemidorus f u r t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d two k i n d s o f o n e i r o s

or p r e d i c t i v e dreams. One he c a l l e d t h e o r e m a t i c and the

other a l l e g o r i c a l . He d e f i n e d them as f o l l o w s :
V
Theorematic dreams a r e those which correspond *

e x a c t l y to t h e i r own dream v i s i o n . F o r example, a

man who was a t sea dreamt t h a t he s u f f e r e d ship-

wrecked, and i t a c t u a l l y came t r u e i n the way t h a t

i t had been p r e s e n t e d i n s l e e p . - . . . A l l e g o r i c a l

dreams, on the o t h e r hand, a r e those which signify

one t h i n g by means o f another: t h a t i s , through ,

them the s o u l i s conveying something o b s c u r e l y by

p h y s i c a l means. 8

In t h i s system o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , a type o f dreams l a b e l e d

as enhypnion d i d n o t r e q u i r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n because non-

significative. Another type o f dreams c a l l e d theorematic also

did not c a l l f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n because they were to be under-

stood l i t e r a l l y . I t was mainly on the type o f p r e d i c t i v e

dreams r e g a r d e d by Artemidorus as a l l e g o r i c a l t h a t he p r a c -

tised h i s art.

One would expect t h a t t h e r e was a s e t o f c r i t e r i a by

which to i d e n t i f y the d i f f e r e n t types o f dreams b e f o r e any

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t . F o r i t would be d i s a s t r o u s
 152

i n some cases to take a t h e o r e m a t i c dream f o r an a l l e g o r i c a l

one, and v i c e v e r s a . But I have f a i l e d to f i n d any such

c r i t e r i a provided i n Artemidorus s. O n e i r o c r i t i c a
1
(Interpre-

t a t i o n o f dreams). Are we to understand t h a t t h i s matter was

e n t i r e l y up to the i n t e r p r e t e r ' s acumen, depending on h i s

past experiences?

I n the C h o u - l i , a C o n f u c i a n c l a s s i c d a t i n g hack to the

q

b e g i n n i n g o f the Warring S t a t e s e r a , s i x types o f dreams

are d i s t i n g u i s h e d . The a r e : 1) cheng meng r e g u l a r or

p o s i t i v e dreams ( i . e . dreams t h a t occur p e a c e f u l l y o f them-

s e l v e s , n o t b e i n g induced o r i n f l u e n c e d by a n y t h i n g ) , 2) 6

meng h o r r i b l e dreams ( i . e . dreams caused by f r i g h t ) ,

3) s s u meng y e a r n i n g dreams ( i . e . dreams r e s u l t i n g from

y e a r n i n g thoughts w h i l e awake), 4) wu meng wakeful dreams

( i . e . dreams t r i g g e r e d by something s a i d w h i l e awake), 5)

h s i meng happy dreams ( i . e . dreams brought about by j o y

or d e l i g h t ) , and 6) chft m e h g : f e a r f u 1 dreams (i.-e.."dreams

10

a r i s i n g from fear).

I f we go by Cheng Hsiian's a n n o t a t i o n s ( g i v e n above i n

p a r e n t h e s e s ) , t h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s apparently

based on the p s y c h o l o g i c a l causes o f dreams r a t h e r than

their contents.

There a r e two o t h e r n o t a b l e l i s t s o f dream types from

a n c i e n t Chinese sources. The l i s t o f s i x dream types .

g i v e n i n the t h i r d chapter o f the L i e h - t z u i s i d e n t i c a l with

t h a t i n the C h o u - l i j u s t g i v e n , except t h a t i n the L i e h - t z u

they a r e r e f e r r e d to as the l i u hou: s i x 'symptoms' o r 'marks'

of the dream.
 153

The other l i s t i s found i n the C h ' i e n - f u l u n ( E s s a y s by a

r e c l u s e ) by Wang Fu ( c . A.D. 85-163) o f E a s t e r n Han t i m e s .

In Chapter 28 o f t h i s book e n t i t l e d "Meng l i e h " (Dream pageant)

ten types o f dreams a r e d i s c u s s e d . They a r e the c h i h lit-

e r a l , hsiang symbolic, ching earnest, hsiang pensive,

jen p e r s o n a l , kan climatic, shih seasonal, fan

paradoxical, ping p a t h o l o g i c a l , and h s i n g affective.

The essay goes on to e x p l a i n these terms as f o l l o w s :

In the o l d days, when I - c h i a n g , c o n s o r t o f

K i n g Wu o f Chou, c o n c e i v e d T ' a i - s h u , she dreamt

t h a t the T i - g o d t o l d h e r , "Name your son Ytl and

r r ^
g i v e him T'ang 'as a f i e f ,.
1

L a t e r , the c h i l d was born w i t h the c h a r a c t e r

f o r Yil on h i s palm, and t h a t was the name g i v e n

him. And when K i n g Ch'eng conquered T'ang, the

l a n d was e n f e o f f e d to him. T h i s was a dream t h a t

literally came t r u e .

The Shih-ching states:

B l a c k bears and brown
Mean m e n - c h i l d r e n
Snakes and s e r p e n t s
Mean g i r l - c h i l d r e n

L o c u s t s and f i s h
Mean f a t y e a r s
F l a g s and banners ^^
Mean a teeming house and home

These a r e symbolic dreams.

Living i n an e r a o f chaos, Confucius dwelt

on the b e n e f i c e n c e o f the Duke o f Chou by day and

dreamt o f him a t n i g h t . Such dreams were induced

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by earnest thinking.

When one t h i n k s o f something and then dreams

t h a t i t happens, o r when one i s w o r r i e d and dreams

about h i s w o r r i e s , such a dream comes from memory

or pensiveness.

There a r e t h i n g s which, when dreamt of by a

noble, are considered a u s p i c i o u s , and when dreamt

of by a nobody, a r e c o n s i d e r e d p e r n i c i o u s ; and there

are t h i n g s which, when o c c u r r i n g i n a gentleman's

dream, a r e regarded as h o n o r a b l e , and when they

t u r n up i n a mean person's dream, a r e thought to

be disgraceful. These a r e dreams tfto be "under-

stood^ according to the p e r s o n a l s t a t u s l/of the

dreamer]}.

On the eve o f the b a t t l e o f Ch'eng-p'u, Duke

Wen o f Chin dreamt t h a t the V i s c o u n t o f Ch'u l a y

on top o f him and sucked out h i s b r a i n . T h i s was

v e r y bad i n d e e d . When the b a t t l e took p l a c e ,

however, i t turned out to be a g r e a t v i c t o r y f o r

him. T h i s was an extremely p a r a d o x i c a l dream.

Dreams o f c l o u d and r a i n make people feel

bored and p e r p l e x e d . Sunny o r a r i d dreams cause

c o n f u s i o n and a l i e n a t i o n . Dreams o f g r e a t c o l d

l e a d to doldrums, and dreams o f h i g h winds s e t

people a d r i f t . These a r e dreams brought about by

climatic conditions.

I n s p r i n g one dreams o f coming f o r t h and

growing, i n summer o f e x a l t a t i o n and b r i l l i a n c e ,

 155

i n autumn and w i n t e r o f m a t u r i t y and storage.

These a r e dreams i n harmony w i t h the seasons.

Afflicted by Y i n d i s e a s e we dream o f cold,

and s u f f e r i n g from Yang d i s e a s e we dream o f warmth.

I n t e r n a l a i l m e n t s b r i n g dreams o f c o n f u s i o n and

e x t e r n a l ones b r i n g dreams o f e x p a n s i o n . Dreams

caused by d i s e a s e a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r/images o f J

e i t h e r d i s p e r s i o n or cohesion. These a r e known as

pathological dreams.

I n the r e a l m o f human e m o t i o n s , we speak of

different l i k e s and d i s l i k e s . The same feeling

may cause good l u c k t o one and bad l u c k t o another.

Hence, a l l o f us s h o u l d watch o u t f o r ourselves

and make a p o i n t o f i n t e r p r e t i n g ( o u r d r e a m s j i n

accordance w i t h our p r o p e n s i t i e s . These, then,

12
a r e known as a f f e c t i v e dreams.
Wang F u ' s " l i t e r a l " dreams c o r r e s p o n d to A r t e m i d o r u s s 1

13

theorematic dreams. A l t h o u g h the example he gave f o r this

type o f dreams smacks o f a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c y , this

does n o t d e t r a c t from i t s l i t e r a l n e s s . The f o l l o w i n g story

from the Meng-chan l e i - k ' a o (see " I n t r o d u c t i o n " ) may s e r v e as

another example:

L i u C h ' a o - l i n was a man o f s t e r l i n g character.

One n i g h t he dreamt t h a t he came to a p l a c e w i t h

two pomegranate t r e e s , under w h i c h he found one
r~ v
thousand s t r i n g s o f c a s h . V On w a k i n g upjj he pondered

t h a t t h r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e he had n e v e r entertained
 156

thoughts o f greed, and wondered how he c o u l d have

had such a dream.

Soon a f t e r , a townsman surnamed T a i h i r e d him

as a r e s i d e n t tutor. I n the c o u r t y a r d o f h i s study

t h e r e s t o o d two pomegranate t r e e s , j u s t l i k e what

he had seen i n h i s dream. A f t e r w a r d s , he received

a s a l a r y i n the amount o f e x a c t l y one thousand

s t r i n g s o f cash.
14-
Eventually, he o b t a i n e d h i s degree.

But a literal dream need n o t i n v o l v e a p r e d i c t i o n about

the r e l a t i v e l y d i s t a n t f u t u r e . I t may a l s o be concerned w i t h

the immediate p r e s e n t , as the f o l l o w i n g s t o r y from the same

source i n d i c a t e s :

A man was s u f f e r i n g from a f r a c t u r e . His physician

a d v i s e d him to t r e a t i t w i t h a l i v e turtle. He

soon found one and was ready to k i l l it. One

n i g h t , however, he dreamt t h a t the t u r t l e s a i d to

to him, "Don't harm me; I have an u n u s u a l formula

for i t s cure. J u s t g e t one c a t t y o f f r e s h Rehmahhia

l u t e a I t i - h u a n g ) and f o u r t a e l s o f f r e s h g i n g e r and

have them u n i f o r m l y h e a t e d . Then wrap them round

the p o i n t o f f r a c t u r e w i t h s a c k c l o t h and you w i l l g e t

well." The man woke up and t r i e d out the p r e s c r i p -

15
tion. I t worked.

One might q u e s t i o n the p r o p r i e t y of using this eerie

s t o r y as example o f what Wang Pu c a l l e d l i t e r a l dreams on the

ground t h a t , l i k e h i s c e l e b r a t e d near contemporary Wang Ch'ung,

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though k e e n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n the i r r a t i o n a l , he too had the

i n v e t e r a t e tendency to e x p l a i n them away i n r a t i o n a l i s t i c

terms, w i t n e s s h i s essays on d i v i n a t i o n ( 2 5 ) , on shamanism

(26), and on physiognomy ( 2 7 ) .

Be t h a t as i t may, the f a c t remains that, i n matters

r e l a t i n g to the p r e d i c t i v e f u n c t i o n of dreams, Wang Fu d i d

not r u l e out the p o p u l a r t h e o r y t h a t dreams were s e n t by the

gods. He wrote:

Some dreams may be q u i t e s t r i k i n g but predict

nothing. Others may seem r a t h e r i n s i g n i f i c a n t y e t

consequential. Why so? W e l l , what we call dream

r e f e r s i n the f i r s t p l a c e to a p e r p l e x i n g , incom-

p r e h e n s i b l e phenomenon; the term i t s e l f suggests

a nebulous s t a t e of a f f a i r s . Hence, i n making

d e c i s i o n s , one does not depend s o l e l y on i t . In

the management of one's a f f a i r s , one makes p l a n s

and g e t s on one's f e e t to c a r r y them out; y e t

t h e r e are times when t h i n g s don't f o l l o w through.

How then can one be c e r t a i n about dreams, which

are i m p a l p a b l e and mixed i n c h a r a c t e r ? I t i s only

when they are induced by e a r n e s t n e s s of purpose or

when they comprise messages from the gods t h a t they

16
may be - p r o g n o s t i c a t e d .

A r t e m i d o r u s , r o u g h l y contemporary w i t h Wang Fu, was more

guarded w i t h r e s p e c t to the q u e s t i o n of the d i v i n e o r i g i n of

dreams. I t seems, however, t h a t he too was inclined to g i v e

it the b e n e f i t of the doubt, e s p e c i a l l y i n the case of dreams

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whose s i g n i f i c a n c e was of immediate concern. Even so, in

keeping with h i s generally r a t i o n a l , e m p i r i c a l approach to

dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , he put the g r e a t e r emphasis on the mind

17

as the source of the p r e d i c t i v e c h a r a c t e r of dreams. In

his explanation of the oneiros he stated:

O n e i r o s i s a movement or c o n d i t i o n of the mind that

takes many shapes and s i g n i f i e s good or had things

that w i l l occur i n the f u t u r e . Since this i s the

case, the mind p r e d i c t s e v e r y t h i n g that w i l l happen

in the f u t u r e , whether the l a p s e of time i n between

i s great or s m a l l , by means of images of i t s own,

called elements, t h a t are n a t u r a l p r o d u c t s . It

does t h i s because i t assumes t h a t i n the interim

we can be taught to l e a r n the f u t u r e through

reasoning. But whenever the a c t u a l occurrences

admit of no postponement whatsoever, because whoever

it i s t h a t guides us causes them to happen w i t h o u t

delay, the mind, t h i n k i n g t h a t p r e d i c t i o n s e r v e s no

purpose to us u n l e s s we grasp the t r u t h immediately

before h a v i n g to l e a r n i t through e x p e r i e n c e , shows

these t h i n g s d i r e c t l y through themselves, w i t h o u t

waiting f o r anything t h a t i s extraneous to show us

17
the meaning of the dream.

I find the p a r a l l e l between A r t e m i d o r u s ' s i d e a s and those

o f Wang Pu on this subject striking. J u s t as A r t e m i d o r u s

spoke of the p r e d i c t i v e c h a r a c t e r of dreams b e i n g a function

of the'mind, so a l s o Wang Fu wrote t h a t " e a r n e s t n e s s of pur-

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pose" (ching-ch'eng) was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c e r t a i n dreams con-

t a i n i n g messages. Moreover, as A r t e m i d o r u s h i n t e d a t the pos-

sibility of such dreams b e i n g caused by some unknown b e i n g ,

"whoever i t i s , " so d i d Wang Pu state unequivocally t h a t dreams

brought by the s p i r i t s were p r e d i c t i v e .

Again, what Wang Fu termed h s i a n g or symbolic dreams

bear some semblance to A r t e m i d o r u s ' s a l l e g o r i c a l dreams, which

he d e f i n e d as "those which s i g n i f y one t h i n g by means o f

another: t h a t i s , through them, the s o u l i s conveying some-

18

t h i n g o b s c u r e l y by p h y s i c a l means." I take i t t h a t by

" p h y s i c a l means" i s meant symbolic images p e r c e i v e d i n dreams.

Wang Fu, f o r h i s p a r t , d i d not g i v e any definition for

what he called symbolic dreams. He d i d , however, c i t e the

two stanzas from the S h i h - c h i n g as examples. On the strength

of these examples I f e e l j u s t i f i e d i n assuming t h a t h i s i d e a

of the symbolic corresponds to A r t e m i d o r u s ' s i d e a of the

allegorical.

Another p o i n t of i n t e r e s t i s t h a t A r t e m i d o r u s mentioned

five c l a s s e s of a l l e g o r i c a l dreams s e t up by some o n e i r o c r i t i c s

o f h i s day. First, there are " p e r s o n a l " dreams, i n which the

dreamer e x p e r i e n c e s something bound to happen to him alone.

Secondly, there are " a l i e n " dreams, i n which the dreamer sees

a n o t h e r p e r s o n known to him experiencing something t h a t w i l l

happen to the l a t t e r a l o n e . T h i r d l y , there are "common"

dreams i n v o l v i n g the dreamer h i m s e l f and others. Fourthly,

there a r e " p u b l i c " dreams t h a t i n v o l v e such t h i n g s as the

harbors and w a l l s , the market p l a c e s and gymnasia and the

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public monuments of the city. Lasty, dreams that predict

cosmic -coomic-conditions, such as the total eclipse of the

sun, the moon, and the other stars as well as the upheavals

of earth and sea are texmed "cosmic."

At first blush, one would think that the first three

classes may a l l be subsumed under Wang F u ' s category of

"personal" dreams. B u t Wang F u d i d make i t clear in this case

that by personal he meant the dreamer's status as a person

(jen-wei) or personal circumstances such as being "highborn

or lowbred, intelligent of slow-witted, male or female,

19

and old or young. J

Here Wang F u was obviously talking about

something h a v i n g ^more to do w i t h the dreamer than the dream

itself. This i n f o r m a t i o n about the dreamer would substan-

tially affect the meaning of the dream, i n much t h e same way

that i t would alter the significance of his/her waking be-

havior. For instance, when a soldier kills enemy- soldiers

in the battlefield, i t is generally considered to be a feat

of valor; but when a m e r c h a n t shoots r i v a l -merchants in the

market-place, i t may b e construedas a matter of his compet-

itive instinct gone haywire.

That the social status and personal circumstances of the

dreamer should be taken into consideration was an oneirocrit-

ical p r i n c i p l e not unknown to Artemidorus either. I n Book I,

Section 9 of his O n e i r o c r i t i c a he states:

It is profitable indeed, not only profitable

but necessary for the dreamer as well as for

the person who is interpreting that the dream

interpreter know the dreamer's identity, occupation,

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2 0
birth, f i n a n c i a l s t a t u S i , s t a t e o f h e a l t h , and age.

What u n d e r l i e s t h i s p r i n c i p l e , I g a t h e r , i s the assumption

t h a t dream symbols a r e p l u r i v o c a l and t h a t , therefore, to
d e c i p h e r t h e i r meanings, contextual understanding i s neces-
sary. Such u n d e r s t a n d i n g e n t a i l s a d e t a i l e d knowledge of the
dreamer's s o c i a l s t a n d i n g and p e r s o n a l affairs.

If t h i s i s the c a s e , t h e n Wang F u ' s c a t e g o r y of personal

dreams s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as a s u b - c l a s s o f the general

category o f " s y m b o l i c " dreams, f o r the r e a s o n t h a t the
dreamer's s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s are e x t r i n s i c to

the dream itself.

Wang Pu d i d n o t say s o , b u t t h e r e seems - ..noi - r e a s o n why
not *
a p e r s o n a l dream may/sometimes be u n d e r s t o o d l i t e r a l l y . This

o b s e r v a t i o n a p p l i e s t o a l l the r e m a i n i n g seven t y p e s o f

dreams i n Wang P u ' s system o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as w e l l .

B e i n g a G r e e k , A r t e m i d o r u s was l o g i c a l l y - m i n d e d enough

t o l i s t a l l the t h r e e c l a s s e s o f dreams h a v i n g to do w i t h

the d r e a m e r ' s personal circumstances as s u b - c l a s s e s of

a l l e g o r i c a l dreams. In fairness to Wang F u , however, I must

p o i n t out t h a t the t e x t o f the C h ' i e n - f u l u n as we have it

now i s c o r r u p t . It i s a textual curiosity, for instance,

that immediately a f t e r the examples g i v e n f o r a l l the types

o f dreams, we f i n d s i m p l e d e f i n i t i o n s f o r the e i g h t types

b e g i n n i n g from the t h i r d down to the t e n t h , b u t no d e f i n i t i o n s

f o r . the f i r s t two: the l i t e r a l and the s y m b o l i c . There are

at least two p o s s i b l e ways to e x p l a i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n . One

i s t o suppose t h a t Wang Fu d i d d e f i n e " l i t e r a l " and " s y m b o l i c , "

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but t h a t the l i n e s a r e m i s s i n g from the t e x t e x t a n t . The

other hypothesis i s t h a t Wang Fu d i d n o t d e f i n e them a t a l l ,

e i t h e r because he thought t h a t these two types o f dreams were

easily recognizable to h i s r e a d e r s a f t e r he had g i v e n the

examples; or because, l i k e A r t e m i d o r u s , he i n t e n d e d the f i r s t

two types to be two g e n e r a l , e x h a u s t i v e categories with repect

to properties i n t r i n s i c to the dream, which c o u l d o n l y be

interpreted either l i t e r a l l y or symbolically. I n s h o r t , the

literal-symbolic dichotomy was a c a t c h - a l l classificatory

device. I f so, then the r e m a i n i n g eight types, partially

f o l l o w i n g A r t e m i d o r u s s treatment, should be c o n s i d e r e d
1
sub-

classes of e i t h e r l i t e r a l o r symbolic dreams, as shown i n

the f o l l o w i n g two diagrams:

A. A r t e m i d o r u s s C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Dreams
1

Dreams
l 1
Enhypnion .. i G h e i r o s
(non-predictive) (predictive)
i ^
Theorematic Allegoric
i 1 S 1 <
P e r s o n a l A l i e n Common P u b l i c Cosmic

B. Wang Fu's C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Dreams

Dreams

Direct Symbolic
(predictive) (predictive)

I r-l 1 1 1 L-i 1 1
Earnest Pensive Personal C l i m a t i c Season- Patho- P a r a - Affec-
al logical doxical tive

If none o f the above c o n j e c t u r e s h o l d s water, then we

have no o t h e r c h o i c e , as f a r as I can see, b u t to a c c e p t the

t e x t as i t stands and say t h a t Wang Fu, t r u e to the c h a r a c t e r

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o f the s t e r e o t y p i c a l Chinese s c h o l a r , was " u n s c i e n t i f i c . "

As a p a r t i n g shot to t h i s c h a p t e r , l e t me c i t e the

f o l l o w i n g anecdote about Ytleh Kuang (A.D. 252-304) o f the

Western Chin dynasty and h i s f u t u r e son-in-law Wei Chieh

(286-312) from the Shih-shuo h s i n - y t i (A new account o f t a l e s

of the world) by L i u I - c h ' i n g (403-444):

When Wei Chieh was a young l a d w i t h h i s h a i r

i n t u f t s , he asked Ytleh Kuang about dreams.

Ytleh s a i d , "They're thoughts (hsiang)."

Wei c o n t i n u e d , "But dreams o c c u r when body

and s p i r i t aren't i n contact. How can they be

thoughts?"

Ytleh r e p l i e d , "They're the r e s u l t o f causes

(yin). No one's ever dreamed o f e n t e r i n g a r a t

h o l e r i d i n g i n a c a r r i a g e , o r o f e a t i n g an i r o n

pestle after pulverizing i t , because i n both cases

t h e r e have never been any such thoughts o r causes."

Wei pondered over what was meant by "causes"

f o r days w i t h o u t coming to any u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and

e v e n t u a l l y became i l l . Ytleh, h e a r i n g o f i t , made

a p o i n t o f o r d e r i n g h i s c a r r i a g e and g o i n g to v i s i t

him, and thereupon proceeded to make a d e t a i l e d

e x p l a n a t i o n o f "causes" f o r Wei's b e n e f i t . Wei

immediately began to r e c o v e r a l i t t l e .

S i g h i n g , Ytleh remarked, " I n t h i s l a d ' s b r e a s t

21
t h e r e w i l l never be any i n c u r a b l e sickness."
( R i c h a r d Mather's translation)
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E x h i b i t i n g h i s prowess as a " p u r e - t a l k e r , " Ytleh Kuang

reduced dreams to two t y p e s : those r e s u l t i n g from "thoughts"

and those from "causes." A l t h o u g h he d i d not e l a b o r a t e on

what he meant by "thoughts," from the o b j e c t i o n r a i s e d by

Wei Chieh we may i n f e r t h a t he meant p s y c h i c a l causes.

Wei, Chieh's remark was r e m i n i s c e n t of Wang Ch'ung's

t h e o r y t h a t the s o u l c o u l d f u n c t i o n as such o n l y as l o n g as

i t was bound to the body ( c f . S e c t i o n 4.4). Thoughts were

the n a t u r a l outcome of such a u n i o n . H i s o b j e c t i o n may be

paraphrased as f o l l o w s : While dreaming, the s p i r i t i s be-

lieved to be wandering away from the body, how can thoughts

then be possible?

T h i s l e d to Ytleh Kuang's second answer, namely, "causes,"

by which he a p p a r e n t l y meant p h y s i c a l s t i m u l i which triggered

"thoughts" which i n t u r n gave r i s e to dreams.

like a l l o t h e r p r o d u c t s of r e d u c t i o n i s t t h i n k i n g , the

charm of t h i s theory l i e s i n i t s simplicity, i t s shortcoming

i n i t s tendency to d i s t o r t i f not i g n o r e c e r t a i n f a c t s and

make unwarranted assumptions. Eor example, how d i d Ytieh

Kuang know t h a t no one had ever dreamt of the two dreams he

mentioned? Granted t h a t the f e a s i b i l i t y of these two dream

scenarios was n i l , y e t , s i n c e they were c o n c e i v a b l e i n

"thoughts" (and even e x p r e s s i b l e i n words), by h i s own theory

t h e r e should be no r e a s o n why they were undreamable.

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CHAPTER SEVEN

METHODS OP CHINESE DREAM INTERPRETATION

The b e l i e f i n the p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f f u t u r e events, o r

i n the p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e v e a l i n g the unknown through o b s e r -

v a t i o n o f the known, e n t a i l s acceptance o f the n o t i o n that

our w o r l d , f o r a l l i t s apparent chaos, has a h i d d e n design.

Hence, n o t h i n g ever r e a l l y happens a t random o r by chance.

In t h i s view, n a t u r e may be l i k e n to an open book r e p l e t e

w i t h h i d d e n meanings and messages.

D i v i n a t i o n i s the i n t e r p r e t i v e process by which the

unknown i s made known. The methods o f d i v i n a t i o n a r e many

i n number and i n k i n d , b u t each c u l t u r e seems to have i t s

preferences.

D i v i n a t i o n by a s t r o l o g y , f o r example, was p r e f e r r e d by

the a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s . I n a n c i e n t Rome, a c l a s s o f p r i e s t s

c a l l e d augurs was s e t a p a r t to i n t e r p r e t the s i g n s i n the

sky. Among the A r a b s , p r e d i c t i o n s a r e o f t e n made on the ba-

s i s o f the shapes seen i n sand. Other p o p u l a r methods

p r a c t i s e d i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f the world i n c l u d e palmistry,

crystal-gazing, shell-hearing, haruspicy o r the i n s p e c t i o n

of e n t r a i l s , the c a s t i n g o f l o t s , the use o f c a r d s , e t c .

In p r e - C h ' i n China, the p r e f e r r e d method o f d i v i n a t i o n

was p y r o - s c a p u l i m a n c y , which I have b r i e f l y discussed i n

S e c t i o n 2.1. Then there was d i v i n a t i o n by c o n s u l t i n g the

I - c h i n g hexagrams which i n v o l v e d the c a s t i n g of y a r r o w - s t a l k s .

The observation of meteorological phenomena, such as s o l a r

hues, vapors and coronas, c o n s t i t u t e d a t h i r d method. Other

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than these, oneiromancy, o r d i v i n a t i o n by dream, was o f

utmost importance.

There i s t e x t u a l evidence showing t h a t these mantic

a r t s were sometimes combined to p r o g n o s t i c a t e the same d a t a .

Dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r seems to have been p r a c -

tised c o n j o i n t l y with each o f the o t h e r three techniques

mentioned above. Whether t h i s p r a c t i c e i m p l i e d misgiving

on the dream i n t e r p r e t e r ' s p a r t as to i t s a c c u r a c y or t r u s t -

w o r t h i n e s s i s n o t f o r me to say. My c o n j e c t u r e i s t h a t the

i d e a behind i t was to o b t a i n an e x t e r n a l c o n f i r m a t i o n o r

c o r r o b o r a t i o n o f the dream omen. Hence, I term t h i s the

c o r r o b o r a t i v e approach to the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of dreams.

Apart from the c o r r o b o r a t i v e approach, dreams were a l s o

i n t e r p r e t e d i n t e r n a l l y with reference to t h e i r imageries,

the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f which was determined by one way o f a s s o -

c i a t i o n or another. T h i s I c a l l the a s s o c i a t i v e approach.

These two approaches to t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese dream

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i l l be d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y i n the f o l l o w i n g

sections.

li1 The C o r r o b o r a t i v e Approach

The prominence o f dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as a d i v i n a t o r y

technique i n pre-Ch'in China i s d e s c r i b e d i n the Han-shu

i-wen c h i h as f o l l o w s :

There a r e many mantic a r t s , b u t the g r e a t e s t o f

r
them a l l i s dream I i n t e r p r e t a t i o n } . Thus, d u r i n g
Chou times, o f f i c i a l s were a p p o i n t e d to take

charge o f i t . The Shih-ching also records dreams

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of b l a c k and brown b e a r s , of l o c u s t s and fish,

amd o f f l a g s and banners, showing how p r o g n o s t i -

c a t i o n s of the g r e a t men ( i . e . dream interpreters!

were conducive to the v e r i f i c a t i o n o f good and

bad omens.

Then i t goes on to say:

T h i s was p r o b a b l y f c a r r i e d outp i n c o n j u n c t i o n

w i t h pyro-scapulimancy and d i v i n a t i o n by yarrow

2
stalks.

The statement t h a t d u r i n g Chou times dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

had o f f i c i a l s t a n d i n g i s based on a passage i n the C h o u - l i ,

a C o n f u c i a n c l a s s i c d a t i n g back, a c c o r d i n g to Bernhard

K a r l g r e n and Ch'ien Mu, to a t l e a s t the b e g i n n i n g o f the

3

Warring States era. The f i n a l statement about the combination,

i n p r a c t i c e , of dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h the two o t h e r

d i v i n a t o r y t e c h n i q u e s a l s o comes from this source.

As a C o n f u c i a n work, the C h o u - l i p u r p o r t s to g i v e a

comprehensive account o f the i n t r i c a t e b u r e a u c r a t i c system

designed by the Duke of Chou himself.. The "Ch'un-kuan tsung-po"

c h a p t e r o f t h i s book mentions two o f f i c i a l s h a v i n g something

to do w i t h dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . One i s the T'ai-pu,'Grand

Augur', who i s i n charge o f matters relating to the san-chao

or t h r e e types of s i g n i f i c a n t c r a c k s produced on t o r t o i s e

s h e l l s or s h o u l d e r b l a d e s o f c a t t l e f o r purposes of d i v i n a t i o n ,

the s a n - i or t h r e e v e r s i o n s of the I - c h i n g which s e r v e s as the

b a s i s f o r y a r r o w - s t a l k d i v i n a t i o n , and the san-meng or t h r e e

methods o f dream d i v i n a t i o n . These three mantic arts, each
i n i t s e l f c o m p r i s i n g a three-way d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , a r e coor-
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d i n a t e d by the pa-ming, ' e i g h t o r d i n a n c e s ' , t h a t i s , e i g h t

types of r o u t i n e q u e s t i o n s put to the oracles. 4

Another passage i n the same c h a p t e r mentions the Chan-

meng, 'Dream I n t e r p r e t e r ' , whose o f f i c e i t was to d i v i n e the

good and i l l omens of the s i x - types of dreams ( c f ; S e c t i o n

6.3) i n the f o l l o w i n g ways. F i r s t , by s c r u t i n i z i n g the i n ^

s t a n c e s of the u n i o n of heaven and e a r t h throughout the f o u r

seasons. Secondly, by d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the Y i n and Yang modes

of the v i t a l force. T h i r d l y , by r e f e r r i n g to the c o n d i t i o n s

or p o s i t i o n s of the sun, the moon, and the s t a r s . In winter,

it was h i s duty to i n q u i r e about the 'king's dreams and to

p r e s e n t to him a u s p i c i o u s dreams, which the k i n g r e c e i v e d

with courtesy. Next, the Dream I n t e r p r e t e r would o f f e r the

sacrifice of she-meng i n the f o u r q u a r t e r s , thus s e n d i n g o f f

bad dreams. Only then would the annual Ceremony of P u r i f i c -

a t i o n (nan = nuo) be i n i t i a t e d , the purpose of which was to

5
d r i v e away a l l p e s t i l e n c e .

I f we a c c e p t the d e s c r i p t i o n g i v e n i n these two passages

as h a v i n g some h i s t o r i c a l v a l i d i t y , then dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

may have been i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d and p r a c t i s e d d u r i n g Chou

times i n combination w i t h pyro-scapulimancy and y a r r o w - s t a l k

c a s t i n g as w e l l as the o b s e r v a t i o n of cosmic phenomena.

7.1.1 Oneiromancy and T o r t o i s e - S h e l l Scorching

As mentioned i n S e c t i o n 2.1, the Shang o r a c l e - b o n e s

r e c o r d e d a good number of r o y a l dreams. I f the a r t of dream

d i v i n a t i o n i n China indeed dates back to p r e h i s t o r i c times,

as the l e g e n d of the Y e l l o w Emperor i n t e r p r e t i n g h i s own

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dreams (see S e c t i o n 1.1) seems to suggest, then perhaps i t

i s not e n t i r e l y g r o u n d l e s s to surmise t h a t the Shang people

too p r a c t i s e d d i v i n a t i o n by dreams and, by way of double-

check, s u b j e c t e d t h e i r dreams to o r a c l e - b o n e prognostication

as w e l l .

B e s i d e s , i n S e c t i o n 1.3 we quoted K i n g Wu of Chou, i n

his long-winded harangue to h i s t r o o p s as to why they should

march on the t y r a n t K i n g Chou of Shang, as s a y i n g : "My dreams

are i n a c c o r d w i t h the o r a c l e - b o n e p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n s I" This

was a c l e a r r e f e r e n c e to the p r a c t i c e of combining divination

by dreams w i t h t h a t by o r a c l e - b o n e s .

7.1.2 Oneiromancy and Y a r r o w - S t a l k C a s t i n g

As f o r combining dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h d i v i n a t i o n by

yarrow s t a l k s , a good example may be taken from the Tso-chuan,

Chao 7. I t r e l a t e s t h a t Lady Chiang, the w i f e of Duke H s i a n g

of Wei, was childless. The duke's concubine Chou-ko, however,

gave b i r t h to a c r i p p l e d son named Meng-chih.

Then K'ung Ch'eng-tzu, a m i n i s t e r , dreamt t h a t K'ang-shu,

the f i r s t marquis of Wei, t o l d him to s e t up a c e r t a i n Yuan

as s u c c e s s o r to the d u c a l t i t l e , and t h a t he, K'ang-shu,

would make Y1i and S h i h Kou m i n i s t e r s to Yuan. Now Ytl was

the g r e a t - g r a n d s o n of K'ung Ch'eng-tzu, the dreamer, and Shih

Kou the son of S h i h Ch'ao, another minister.

It happened t h a t S h i h Ch'ao had the same dream, and told

Ch'eng-tzu about i t . Moreover, both dreams had occurred before

the concubine bore a second son, who was to be named Yuan.

When t h i s f i n a l l y took p l a c e , K'ung Ch'eng-tzu c o n s u l t e d the

 170

I - c h i n g hy p o s i n g to the d i v i n i n g s t a l k s the q u e s t i o n whether

Ytian would enjoy the b o u n t i e s of Wei and p r e s i d e over the

sacrifices to the Gods of E a r t h and M i l l e t . The hexagram ob-

t a i n e d was Chun, the t h i r d i n the I - c h i n g as we have i t today,

which Wilhelm/Baynes t r a n s l a t e d as " D i f f i c u l t y a t the Begin-

ning. "

Then K'ung Ch'eng-tzu put another q u e s t i o n to the o r a c l e

as to whether i t would be commendable f o r him to s e t up Meng-

chih. In answer to t h i s he got the Chun hexagram a g a i n .

T h i s was f o l l o w e d by P i , the e i g h t h hexagram, t r a n s l a t e d by

Wilhelm/Baynes as " H o l d i n g Together." He showed the results

to S h i h Ch'ao, who remarked, "Ytian succeeds; i s there any

doubt?"

Now, the phrase "Ytian succeeds," or i n Chinese "ytian

heng," (Wilhelm/Baynes' r e n d i t i o n : "supreme s u c c e s s " ) i s the

first statement.-in the "judgment" appended to the hexagram

Chun. But i n the I - c h i n g the word yuan, meaning f i r s t or

foremost, i s a t e c h n i c a l term. Here S h i h Ch'ao took i t to

mean the p e r s o n a l name of the p r o s p e c t i v e h e i r . So Ch'eng-

t z u q u e s t i o n e d him, "Doesn't t h a t mean the e l d e s t ? "

S h i h Ch'ao s a i d i n r e p l y , "Since Marquis K'ang so named

him, he may be regarded as the e l d e s t . Meng Chih i s d e f e c t i v e

as a person, and may not have a p l a c e i n the a n c e s t r a l temple,

t h e r e f o r e he may not be considered e l d e s t . B e s i d e s , the judg-

ment on t h i s hexagram a l s o s t a t e s , " I t i s good to a p p o i n t a

prince." ( l i c h i e n hou) Now, i f the h e i r were a u s p i c i o u s , why

would there be any mention o f a p p o i n t i n g another? S u r e l y the

term " a p p o i n t " must r e f e r to somebody o t h e r than the heir.

 171

Since "both h e x a g r a m s indicate the same thing, you had better

set Yuan up i n accordance with the behest of Marquis K'ang

and the indications of the two hexagrams. The divining stalks

reinforce the dream p o r t e n t s , and even King Wu {of Chou^j*

abided by this principle. What w i l l you do, i f you don't

comply w i t h it?"

Convinced, K'ung Ch'eng-tzu accordingly set Y u a n up as

successor to the ducal title of Wei.'"'

7.1.3 Oneiromancy and Sun-Dog Watching

Auguries obtained i n dreams may f u r t h e r be corroborated

by a fourth method of divination. In the Chou-li passage

about the T-'ai-pu or Grand Augur, three methods of dream divin-

ation are named, corresponding to the three types of cracks

in oracle-bone d i v i n a t i o n and the three versions of the I-ching.

They are called chih-meng, chi-men^, and h s i e n - c h i h . According

to Cheng Hstlan, the first means "that which the dream arrives

at," a n d was devised during Hsia times, the second and third

both mean "what the dream o b t a i n s , " and were devised by the
g

people of Y i n and of Chou respectively.

The Chou-li text goes on to say that each of these three

methods has ten basic ytin. Again, Cheng Hsuan e q u a t e s ytln

with hui, 'brightness , 1

and takes i t to refer to the method

of observing the ten kinds of vaporous illuminations occurring

in close proximity to the sun, a symbol of the king, who was

said to resort to this mantic art to obtain the good or evil

portents of dreams that he had d u r i n g the previous night.

Now, immediately after mentioning the office of the Chan-

 172

meng or Dream I n t e r p r e t e r , the Chou-li describes the duties

of another b u r e a u c r a t c a l l e d S h i h - c h i n , 'Ominous-Vapor Watcher'.

He practises the a r t of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the shih hui or ten

vaporous i l l u m i n a t i o n s mentioned above. The usual gloss for

q

h u i i s ' l i g h t and vapor around the sun'. Professor Ho Ping-

y i i , i n a l e c t u r e g i v e n to the Astronomy Club of the University

of Hong Kong two y e a r s ago, proposed the theory t h a t the shih

hui r e f e r r e d to i n the Chou-li are i n f a c t what are known i n

meteorological o p t i c s as p a r h e l i a , a l s o called i n English

10
mock suns or sun-dogs. If this i s correct, then we may say

that i n ancient China the observation of meteorological

phenomena was also thought to have a b e a r i n g on divination by

dreams.
7 . 2 The A s s o c i a t i v e Approach

The a s s o c i a t i v e approach to dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s char-

a c t e r i z e d by the interpreter's absorption i n the symbolic

a s p e c t of the dream i t s e l f . The meaning of a dream i s

determined by e s t a b l i s h i n g a s s o c i a t i v e l i n k s between the dream

i m a g e r i e s and their referents. This can be done i n three:ways:

f i r s t , by direct association; s e c o n d l y , by poetic logic; and

t h i r d l y , by l i n g u i s t i c means.

7.2.1 Decoding Dream Symbols by D i r e c t Association

T h i s method i s s i m i l a r to what J u n g i a n psychologists

11
call "amplification." I t i s resorted to when dream symbols

are given culturally-based meanings a c c e p t a b l e to a p a r t i c u l a r

c u l t u r e group. For example, f o r the Chinese, the dragon, the

sun, and sometimes the moon as w e l l , are royal symbols.

 173

Legend has i t t h a t K i n g Wen o f Chou once dreamt t h a t the

12

l i g h t o f sun and moon came i n touch w i t h h i s body. The mother

o f Emperor Yuan o f L i a n g , p r i o r to h i s b i r t h , had dreamt t h a t

the moon f e l l into her lap. She was s a i d to have become

13

pregnant r i g h t a f t e r the dream. Hsiao Tao-ch'eng (A.D. 429-

482) dreamt, a t seventeen, t h a t he went up i n the sky r i d i n g

a b l u e dragon which t r a v e l l e d westward c h a s i n g the sun. Even-

t u a l l y , he usurped the throne o f Southern Sung and founded

the Southern C h ' i dynasty.

Meanings o f dreams g i v e n i n p o p u l a r dream-books a r e

m o s t l y o f t h i s type. The f o l l o w i n g passage on the symbolism

of 'heaven' o r 'sky' i s taken from the f i r s t paragraph o f the

"Chou-kung c h i e h meng" s e c t i o n i n the Y i i - h s i a c h i (see I n t r o -

duction) :

When Cone dreams t h a t ? t h e gate o f heaven opens,

( i t means some3 i l l u s t r i o u s p e r s o n w i l l make recom-

mendations and i n t r o d u c t i o n s Con the dreamer's

behalf?.

When cone dreams that} heavenly l i g h t i s s h i n i n g ,

it s i g n i f i e s t h a t i l l n e s s w i l l be e l i m i n a t e d .

When rone dreams that3 the sky i s c l e a r and r a i n

has d i s s i p a t e d , C i t means t h a t ] a hundred worries

w i l l go away.

When cone dreams t h a t J the sky b r i g h t e n s , some

woman w i l l bear an i l l u s t r i o u s s o n .

When Cone dreams that7 the heavenly gate t u r n s

red, i t s i g n i f i e s a great r i s i n g .
 174

When tone dreams t h a t 3 one l i f t s up one's f a c e

r
toward heaven, tit s i g n i f i e s ! } g r e a t enrichment

and h i g h p o s i t i o n .

When tone dreams o f } r i d i n g a dragon and g o i n g up

to heaven i n s e a r c h f o r a w i f e , t t h i s means^ h i s

sons and daughters w i l l a t t a i n h i g h p o s i t i o n s .

rr \ i-

When tone dreams t h a t J heaven s p l i t s open, f t h i s

means} t h e r e w i l l be the sorrow o f a d i v i d e d nation.

a . .

.1 ~-w

When tone dreams t h a t 2 the h e a v e n l y s t a r s a r e b r i g h t ,

it signifies t h a t dukes and m i n i s t e r s w i l l arrive/^/

S i n c e the sky o r heaven above us i s immense and sends the

r a i n t h a t we need, and i s something people everywhere can

see b u t cannot r e a c h , i t s a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h such i d e a s as

bounty and p r e s t i g e a r e e a s i l y e s t a b l i s h e d and r e c o g n i z e d

across cultures. But t h e r e a r e a l s o dream symbols whose

meanings a r e c u l t u r e - s p e c i f i c , as the f o l l o w i n g examples from

the same source demonstrate:

When tone dreams t h a t J i n the h a l l the f l o o r caves

in, i t s i g n i f i e s t h a t one's mother i s i n d i s t r e s s .

When fone dreams that") excrement and d i r t p i l e up,

f i t means^ money and r i c h e s w i l l g a t h e r .

tWhen one dreams o f ) l o s s o f cap o r h a t ,

1
i t means

l e a v i n g o r withdrawing from office.

 175

r
When lone dreams of} s h a r i n g an u m b r e l l a w i t h -
d
someone, i t s i g n i f i e s s e p a r a t i o n or d i s p e r s i o n . / 1 Q

In the f i r s t example, the image of a h a l l suggests

"mother" because, t r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h a t i s where mother i s to

be found when she i s a t r e s t . The word t'ang, ' h a l l * , i s

i n f a c t a synonym f o r 'mother'. One might say t h a t this

synonymy i s metonymically d e r i v e d . F u r t h e r , I must add that

the word vju, 'worry, d i s t r e s s ' , i s a euphemism f o r 'death'.

In the second example, money c o n j u r e s up the r e p u l s i v e

images of dung and d i r t because, p r o v e r b i a l l y , i t stinfc^Ty

This a s s o c i a t i o n r e f l e c t s the r e p u t e d h a u t e u r , or hignminded-

ness i f you w i l l , on the p a r t of the t r a d i t i o n a l scholar class

toward p e c u n i a r y m a t t e r s , as was expressed by Y i n Hao (A.D.

306-356) i n the f o l l o w i n g anecdote from the Shih-shuo hsin-

Jl IV, 49:

Someone once asked Y i n Hao, "Why i s i t that

About to get o f f i c e ,
One dreams o f c o f f i n s ;
About to get w e a l t h ,
One dreams o f f i l t h ? "

Yin replied,

" O f f i c e (*kuan) i s , b a s i c a l l y ' s t i n k i n g decay,

So someone about to get i t
Dreams o f c o f f i n s (*kuan) and c o r p s e s .
Wealth i s b a s i c a l l y 'feces and c l a y , '
So someone about to get i t
Dreams o f f o u l d i s a r r a y . "

( R i c h a r d Mather's translation)

In h i s r e p l y , Y i n Hao c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w e a l t h w i t h dung and

dirt. , H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of c o f f i n dreams w i l l be discussed

i n Section 7 . 2 . 3 . 1 .
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In h i s a n a l y t i c a l way, A r t e m i d o r u s has the f o l l o w i n g to

say about dreams o f dung:

Cow dung means good l u c k o n l y f o r f a r m e r s , which

i s a l s o t r u e o f horse dung and a l l o t h e r k i n d s o f

excrement except f o r human f e c e s . But f o r o t h e r

men i t s i g n i f i e s sorrows and i n j u r i e s , and, i f

it s t a i n s , i t means s i c k n e s s as w e l l . I t signifies

b e n e f i t s and has been observed to i n d i c a t e s u c c e s s

o n l y f o r those who a r e engaged i n l o w l y p r o f e s -

17
sions.

The l a s t p o i n t agrees w i t h the s i g n i f i c a t i o n g i v e n f o r dung

and d i r t i n the "Chou-kung c h i e h meng" and makes e x p l i c i t

the c l a s s o f people to whom dreams o f such a c o n t e n t may be

auspicious.

The cap i n the t h i r d example i s a s t a t u s symbol, being

p a r t o f the i n v e s t i t u r e o f a mandarin. Hence, the symbolism

i s of a synecdochic nature. The c u l t u r e - s p e c i f i c i t y

of t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n can be brought out by c o n t r a s t i n g i t

w i t h the meanings a s s i g n e d t o cap dreams i n G.H. M i l l e r ' s

Ten Thousand Dreams I n t e r p r e t e d :

F o r a woman to dream o f s e e i n g a cap, she w i l l be

i n v i t e d t o take p a r t i n some f e s t i v i t y . For a

girl to dream t h a t she sees h e r sweetheart w i t h

a cap on, denotes t h a t she w i l l be b a s h f u l and shy

i n h i s presence.

To see a p r i s o n e r ' s cap denotes t h a t your courage

i s f a i l i n g you i n time o f danger.

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To see a miner's cap, you will inherit a substantial

18
competency.

None of these a s s o c i a t i o n s would have o c c u r r e d to a t r a d i t i o n a l

Chinese dream i n t e r p r e t e r .

The fourth example i s t e c h n i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the

preceding three. The a s s o c i a t i o n of "umbrella" (san) with

"dispersion" (san) i s based on homophony. That i s to say,

a pun i s involved. This type of a s s o c i a t i o n has been noted

by dream i n t e r p r e t e r s everywhere throughout the ages. Both

Freud and Jung have p a i d special attention toiit. Since

a s s o c i a t i o n by l i n g u i s t i c means has i t s own rules and

constitutes an important type of symbolism by itself, i t i=.

deserves a separate treatment (see Section 7.2.3).

7.2.2 Decoding Dream Symbols by P o e t i c l o g i c

This d i f f e r s from the p r e c e d i n g method i n t h a t the

a s s o c i a t i o n of the dream symbol w i t h i t s supposed meaning

i s more u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e . I t i s , as a r u l e , established

by such r h e t o r i c a l d e v i c e s as p a r a l l e l i s m , analogy, metaphor,

19

me tonymy, syne cSp ch.e,. e t c . -

An i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by t h i s method may sometimes appear

p l a i n l y r e a s o n a b l e and a t o t h e r times tenuous or a t b e s t

far-fetched, depending on the w i t and e x p e r i e n c e of the

interpreter. After a l l , metaphor, as Monroe B e a r d s l e y puts

it, i s but "a poem i n m i n i a t u r e . " ^ H e n c e the term "poetic

l o g i c , " which s h o u l d not be taken to imply any disparagement

on poets.
To g i v e an example. T'ao K'an, the famous g e n e r a l
 178

o f the E a s t e r n Chin, once dreamt, when young, t h a t h i s hody

had e i g h t wings. Thus' equipped, he f l e w up to heaven and

saw t h a t i t had nine gates, one enclosed within another.

He managed to get i n as f a r as the e i g h t h hut failed to enter

the l a s t one, where the gatekeeper h i t him w i t h a cane. As

a r e s u l t , he f e l l hack down to earth, and broke a l l h i s left

wings i n the p r o c e s s . Upon waking, he still f e l t pain i n

h i s l e f t arm pit. Subsequently, he became the v i c e r o y of

eight prefectures. He o f t e n r e f l e c t e d on h i s youthful

dream about the broken wings, which made him content with

h i s l o t and deterred him from g e t t i n g i n v o l v e d i n court

21

politics.

In i n t e r p r e t i n g h i s own dream, T'ao K'an seems to have

a s s o c i a t e d both the e i g h t wings t h a t he had and the eight

c e l e s t i a l gates t h a t he entered i n h i s dream w i t h the eight

p r e f e c t u r e s under h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n a f t e r w a r d s . But there is

no conceivable r e a s o n as to why "wings" or "gates" should

mean " p r e f e c t u r e s . " The p a r a l l e l i s m i s perceived purely on

the b a s i s of the n u m e r i c a l sameness between the dream images

and t h e i r purported r e f e r e n t s i n r e a l i t y . On the other hand,

the e q u a t i o n of " r e a c h i n g up to heaven" w i t h the i d e a of

success and t h a t of " f a l l i n g down to e a r t h " w i t h t h a t of

failure seem self-explanatory.

The Wu-ch'ao hsiao-shuo ta-kuan. a c o l l e c t i o n o f fictive

w r i t i n g s from the Wei-Chin down to the Ming p e r i o d , contains

fragments from an o n e i r o c r i t i c a l work simply e n t i t l e d Meng-

shu (Dream book, c. 6 t h c e n t . ) , from which I take the following^

to demonstrate the i n t e r p r e t i v e method under d i s c u s s i o n :

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Whoever dreams of dwarfs w i l l not succeed i n

his undertakings. He will stop i n the middle

of an e n t e r p r i s e and subsequently fail to a t t a i n

renown, thus becoming the o b j e c t of p e o p l e ' s

l a u g h t e r and scorn.

When one dreams of combs,, i t means t h a t one's

anxiety w i l l disappear.

r
LDreaming that3 one has l u s t r o u s h a i r means one's

mind i s a t ease.

(Dreaming t h a t } mites and l i c e are a l l gone

means one w i l l r e c o v e r from a l l a i l m e n t s .

[Dreaming t h a t } mites and l i c e are causing

t r o u b l e means one w i l l be gnawed b o d i l y .

When one sees m i t e s and l i c e i n a dream, i t

means t h a t t r o u b l e i s i n the offing.

tDreaming o f ^ q u a i l f i g h t i n g means one i s at

enmity with o t h e r s . Seeing q u a i l i n a dream

means one i s worried about f i g h t s .

Y a r s t i c k s are the means by which we determine

lengths. Hence, dreaming t h a t one has got a

y a r d s t i c k means one wants to r e c t i f y others.

LDreams of}) c u r t a i n s and s c r e e n mean one is

22
h i d i n g one's s e l f .

In my d i s c u s s i o n of the straw-dog dreams as i n t e r p r e t e d

by Chou Hstlan i n S e c t i o n 6.2, I remarked t h a t an expert

dream i n t e r p r e t e r a t work would r e l y more on h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l

experience and good sense than on the i n f o r m a t i o n obtained

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from p o p u l a r dream books, because they o f t e n g i v e o n l y the

most l i k e l y meaning or meanings f o r a p a r t i c u l a r dream

symbol. T h i s i s borne out by the above examples from the

Meng-shu. F o r the n o v i c e dream i n t e r p r e t e r , such i n f o r m a t i o n

might be h e l p f u l to some e x t e n t as h i n t s or l e a d s ; to become

adept a t h i s b u s i n e s s , however, he was expected to draw from

h i s own knowledge about the w o r l d and h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

human a f f a i r s .

A g a i n , the problem of m u l t i p l e meaning comes to the fore.

I t i s i n the nature of a symbol to have what R i c o e u r calls

"a s u r p l u s of meaning,"'such t h a t i t s s p e c i f i c signification

i n a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t has to be determined by c o n t e x t u a l

understanding.

Owing to the f l u i d i t y of the s i g n i f i c a t o r y p r o c e s s o f

symbols, no dream d i c t i o n a r y , whether a n c i e n t or modern, can

really c l a i m to be e x h a u s t i v e i n any of i t s d e f i n i t i o n s of

dream i m a g e r i e s . As C h a r l e s R y c r o f t p o i n t s out, "Dreamers

use images of o b j e c t s w i t h which to make m e t a p h o r i c a l state-

ments about themselves," hence, " l i s t i n g s t a n d a r d meanings

of o b j e c t s 'appearing' i n dreams i s a p o i n t l e s s , methodo-

23
l o g i c a l l y unsound, a c t i v i t y . "

For purposes of comparison, however, a g a i n I take the

f o l l o w i n g examples from M i l l e r ' s book:

To see your f r i e n d s dwarfed, denotes their

h e a l t h , and you w i l l have many p l e a s u r e s

through them.

Ugly and hideous dwarfs, always forbode distres-

sing states, (p.209)

 181

To dream o f combing one's h a i r , denotes the

illness or death o f a f r i e n d or r e l a t i v e .

Decay of f r i e n d s h i p and l o s s o f p r o p e r t y i s a l s o

i n d i c a t e d by t h i s dream, (p.156)

I f you see w e l l kept and n e a t l y combed h a i r ,

your f o r t u n e w i l l improve, (p.272)

To see t a n g l e d and unkempt h a i r , l i f e w i l l be a

v e r i t a b l e burden, b u s i n e s s w i l l f a l l o f f , and

the m a r r i a g e yoke w i l l be t r o u b l e s o m e to c a r r y ,

(p.273)

To see q u a i l i n your dream, i s a v e r y f a v o r a b l e

omen, i f they are a l i v e ; i f dead, you w i l l under-

go s e r i o u s i l l l u c k .

To shoot q u a i l , f o r t e l l s that i l l f e e l i n g s will

be shown by you to your b e s t f r i e n d s .

To eat them, s i g n i f i e s extravagance i n your

personal l i v i n g , (pp.463-464)

To dream of a y a r d s t i c k , f o r t e l l s much a n x i e t y

w i l l possess you, though your a f f a i r s assume

unusual a c t i v i t y , (p.613)

To dream of c u r t a i n s , f o r e t e l l s t h a t unwelcome

visitors will cause you worry and unhappiness.

S o i l e d o r t o r n c u r t a i n s seen i n a dream means

d i s g r a c e f u l q u a r r e l s and r e p r o a c h e s , (p.180)

A p p a r e n t l y , both M i l l e r and the anonymous a u t h o r of

Meng-shu took the image o f a dwarf to be symbolic of n e g a t i v e

mental s t a t e s , such as d i s t r e s s and f r u s t r a t i o n . The sight

of a n y t h i n g s t u n t e d never f a i l s to e l i c i t from the u n r e f l e c -

 182

t i v e p u b l i c a mixed sense of the l u g u b r i o u s and the l u d i c r o u s .

In t h i s l i g h t , the dwarf may be seen as a symbol o f h o p e l e s s

f a i l u r e f o r which the s u b j e c t cannot be h e l d responsible.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n some f o l k l o r i c t r a d i t i o n s , the dwarf appears

as a b e n e v o l e n t , i f sometimes m i s c h i e v o u s , imp, as e v i n c e d by

v a r i o u s S c a n d i n a v i a n and German l e g e n d s . M i l l e r seems to

have taken t h i s i n t o account i n h i s p o s i t i v e r e a d i n g o f

d w a r f i s h dreams.

Combs are the means by which t a n g l e d h a i r i s s e t i n o r d e r .

The a c t of combing i s t h e r e f o r e analogous to t h a t o f problem-

s o l v i n g , as i s i m p l i e d by the Meng-shu i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of comb

dreams. M i l l e r , however, i n t e r p r e t s a n t i p h r a s t i c a l l y i n t h i s

case; hence h i s n e g a t i v e r e a d i n g .

As f o r l i c e and o t h e r r e l a t e d bugs, both a u t h o r i t i e s agree

t h a t nobody ( e x c e p t s o f t i e s l i k e Hstieh Sung mentioned in

S e c t i o n 5.8) l o v e s p a r a s i t e s , e s p e c i a l l y the b l o o d - s u c k i n g

variety. The f a c t t h a t both works i n t e r p r e t the presence of

l i c e i n dreams as meaning p h y s i c a l maladies i n r e a l i t y i s

s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t the metaphor i s d e r i v e d from literal

24
similarities.

I t would h e l p to understand the meaning g i v e n f o r o n e i r i c

q u a i l i n the Meng-shu i f one knew t h a t these b i r d s were known

i n a n c i e n t China to be prone to b e l l i g e r e n c e and were r a i s e d

a c c o r d i n g l y as game f o w l . A p a r t from t h i s , L i Shih-chen (1518-

1593), the noted Ming p h y s i c i a n and h e r b a l i s t , i n h i s annota-

t i o n o f the Pen-ts'ao kang-mu (Compendium o f m e d i c i n a l h e r b s ) ,

25
mentioned t h a t q u a i l s were monogamous. I f this i s universally
 183

t r u e , then M i l l e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n shows awareness of i t i n

taking the q u a i l to s i g n i f y f r i e n d l i n e s s .

In t a k i n g measurements, we aim at p r e c i s i o n . The yard-

s t i c k i s a norm or standard f o r measuring l e n g t h s . Since we

a l s o conceive of our p e r s o n a l conduct as h a v i n g to conform

to a c e r t a i n norm, the y a r d s t i c k i s an apt metaphor f o r i t .

T h i s i s as f a r as the Meng-shu i n t e r p r e t a t i o n goes. Miller's

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n goes one step farther. By way of m e t a p h o r i c a l

d e d u c t i o n , the y a r d s t i c k becomes f o r him a symbol of anxiety

presumably f o r the r e a s o n t h a t i t i s not always p l e a s a n t or

easy to t r y to l i v e up to a r i g i d standard.

With r e g a r d to dreams about c u r t a i n s , to say that such

dreams imply a d e s i r e to h i d e one's s e l f , as the Meng-shu

does, i s to s t a t e one o f the obvious purposes c u r t a i n s are

hung up for. A g a i n , t h i s metaphor i s a f a i r l y l i t e r a l one.

M i l l e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h i s case merely i n d i c a t e s one of

the p o s s i b l e i m p l i c a t i o n s of the meaning g i v e n i n the Meng-

shu.

Thus we see t h a t , i n s p i t e of t h e i r apparent differences

the meanings g i v e n to the dream images found i n two popular

dream books, which d i f f e r i n both the time and the c u l t u r a l

m i l i e u i n which they were w r i t t e n , share some b a s i c assump-

tions. In view o f t h i s , perhaps i t i s not too wide of the

mark to g e n e r a l i z e t h a t dream i n t e r p r e t e r s everywhere have

always e n t e r t a i n e d s i m i l a r no.tions of the p r o c e s s e s of sym-

bolic representation.

So f a r I have shown t h a t , to some a n c i e n t Chinese dream

 184

i n t e r p r e t e r s , metaphorical imagery was the s t u f f dreams were

made o f . Hence, f o r them, the f i r s t step i n dream i n t e r p r e t -

a t i o n was to a s c e r t a i n the s u b j e c t o r theme to which the dream

images m e t a p h o r i c a l l y applied.

Now, i n our waking l i f e , we use metaphor c o n s c i o u s l y as

a f i g u r e of speech, when the metaphor used i s a l i v e one, i n

p l a c e of d i r e c t statement. I n a dream, however, one i s not

aware o f the s u b s t i t u t i v e nature of i t s m e t a p h o r i c a l imagery.

The meaning o f such imagery i s r e a l i z e d o n l y upon waking, i f

at all. C h a r l e s R y c r o f t puts i t s thus:

Imagery i n dreams f u l f i l s a f u n c t i o n the r e v e r s e o f

t h a t f u l f i l l e d by metaphor i n waking speech. Meta-

phor i n waking speech adds to or d e f i n e s more p r e -

c i s e l y and v i v i d l y a meaning a l r e a d y and c o n s c i o u s l y

intended; imagery i n dreaming l a c k s as y e t the mean-

ing t h a t w i l l t u r n i t i n t o metaphor. I t i s , as i t

were, a thought t h a t has y e t to a c q u i r e the a u t h o r

who w i l l g i v e i t m e t a p h o r i c a l meaning. 26

Doesn't t h i s echo, i f somewhat o b s c u r e l y , the Talmudic adage

r e f e r r e d to i n S e c t i o n 1.3, t h a t a dream i s o n l y as t r u e as

its interpretation? The s i t u a t i o n o f the dreamer who, while

dreaming, does not comprehend the m e t a p h o r i c a l meaning o f h i s

dream i s analogous to t h a t o f a poet who l e t s h i s fancy soar

h i g h and, i n h i s moment o f i n s p i r a t i o n , does not c a r e , l e t

alone u n d e r s t a n d , what he w r i t e s . Hence, e n t e r the o n e i r o -

critic or the l i t e r a r y critic, as the case may be.

But, as we know, c r i t i c s of whatever s t r i p e a r e n o t o r i o u s

 185

for t h e i r extravagance and, i n s p i t e of the a u t h o r i t a t i v e

stance they g e n e r a l l y assume, are q u i t e capable o f making

u n s u b t a n t i a t e d statements about the o b j e c t of t h e i r critic-

ism. In short, c r i t i c s are not i n f a l l i b l e . Oneirocritics

are no e x c e p t i o n , as the f o l l o w i n g episode from the S u i - s h u

( D y n a s t i c h i s t o r y of S u i ) about the s c h o l a r Wang Shao i l l u s -

trates:

His Majesty fjEmperor Wen of SuT^ dreamt t h a t

he wanted to climb up a h i g h mountain but c o u l d

not, u n t i l he got T s ' u i P'eng to h o l d h i s f e e t

from below and L i Sheng to support h i s elbows.

Then H i s Majesty s a i d to P'eng, "In l i f e and i n

death, I s h a l l be w i t h you."

Shao remarked iTwhen t o l d of the dream^, " T h i s

dream i s h i g h l y a u s p i c i o u s . C l i m b i n g up a h i g h

mountain i n d i c a t e s supreme l o f t i n e s s and great

s e r e n i t y , f o r ever as the mountains. For 'P'eng'

suggests P a t r i a r c h P'eng tP?eng-tsu, the Chinese

Methuselah, who legend says l i v e d to be eight

thousand y e a r s o l d } , and L i r e f e r s to L i the Old

One ( i . e . L a o - t z u , regarded as an Immortal by

TaoistsJ. To be supported and attended to by these

two men i s indeed a s i g n of l o n g e v i t y . "

Upon h e a r i n g t h i s , H i s Majesty c o u l d not h i d e

his pleasure. That y e a r , however, he d i e d , and

soon a f t e r T s ' u i P'eng a l s o d i e d .

B e n e f i t i n g ^ f r o m h i n d s i g h t , even an amateur should be a b l e to

say t h a t the mountain the emperor dreamt of s i g n i f i e d h i s
 186

e t e r n a l d o m i c i l e , and t h a t T s ' u i P'eng h o l d i n g the emperor's

f e e t from below meant the former would f o l l o w r i g h t behind

the l a t t e r on h i s way there.

In sum, metaphorical imagery i n dreams i s a t b e s t ambiguous.

Hence i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by a n t i p h r a s e s o r o p p o s i t e s , an oneirocrit-

i c a l principle attested i n various traditions. Such ambiguity

may be r o o t e d i n language ( s e e , f o r example, "The Antithetical

Meaning;of P r i m a l Words," i n The Complete P s y c h o l o g i c a l Works

o f Sigmund Freud, v o l . X I , pp.155-161).

7.2.3*Decoding Dream Symbols by L i n g u i s t i c Means

S i n c e language i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f c u l t u r e , the method

o f dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by l i n g u i s t i c a s s o c i a t i o n may rightly

be considered a s s p e c i a l case o f the c u l t u r e - o r i e n t e d technique

d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 7.2.1. However, as I have e x p l a i n e d at

the end o f t h a t s e c t i o n , owing to i t s prominence i n the liter-

a t u r e and to the f a c t t h a t i t e x h i b i t s some u n d e r l y i n g principles

governing i t s d i s t i n c t mode o f i n t e r p r e t i n g , I t h i n k i t appro-

p r i a t e to c o n s i d e r i t under a separate heading.

Since speech, as w e l l as w r i t i n g i n l i t e r a t e societies,

has always been a fundamental a c t i v i t y o f Homo s a p i e n s , small

wonder t h a t language should p l a y such a c r u c i a l r o l e i n our

dream life.

Metaphor may be considered a major f u n c t i o n of language.

What we are concerned w i t h here, however, are the raw f a c t s of

language: the speech sound and the s c r i p t t h a t r e p r e s e n t s i t .

In a dream i n t e r p r e t e d by any of the methods about to be

d i s c u s s e d , dream images are equated w i t h words e i t h e r as heard

 187

or as w r i t t e n . I shall term the f i r s t method "paronomastic

l i n k a g e " and the second " i d e o g r a p h i c analysis."

7.2.3.1 Paronomastic Linkage

T h i s i s simply dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by puns. Alexander

the Great i s r e p o r t e d to have dreamt, near the end o f h i s

arduous s i e g e of Tyre, t h a t he saw a s a t y r d a n c i n g . This was

i n t e r p r e t e d by h i s dream i n t e r p r e t e r as meaning sa-tyros,

'Tyre i s t h i n e ' , which s p u r r e d the e m p i r e - b u i l d e r to v i c t o r y .

Artemidorus h i m s e l f r e c o r d e d the f o l l o w i n g dream together

w i t h i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a p p a r e n t l y based on puns, which he

s a i d was r e l a t e d by "Menecrates the grammarian":

A man who wanted to have c h i l d r e n dreamt t h a t he

met someone who owed him money. He c o l l e c t e d the

debt and gave the debtor a q u i t t a n c e . T h i s was the

content o f the dream. But Menecrates goes on to

say t h a t the dream i n t e r p r e t e r s i n A l e x a n d r i a were

unable to i n t e r p r e t i t , and the man, who was a t a

l o s s as to what the dream might mean, prayed to

S e r a p i s to u n r a v e l the mystery f o r him. He dreamt

that Serapis said to him, "You w i l l not have child-

ren." F o r a man who g i v e s a q u i t t a n c e does not

receive interest . And a c h i l d a t the

moment o f i t s b i r t h i s a l s o c a l l e d TOKOC ( o f f s p r i n g ) .

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , Artemidorus gave t h i s as an example of

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n "based on etymologies of words." Granted that

the two meanings o f the Greek word i n q u e s t i o n a r e e t y m o l o g i c -

ally related, s t i l l i t i s not hard to see t h a t the r e l a t i o n is

 188

d e r i v e d from a metaphor, p r o b a b l y dead to the dreamer but not

. ,, . 30' z~
to the grammarian. X:

The Meng-chan l e i - k ' a o r e c o r d s the f o l l o w i n g punning

dream t h a t proved predictive:

A s c h o l a r went to the Temple of the Nine

Immortals to pray f o r dreams. The first time he

dreamt t h a t an Immortal t o l d him,, "The hu-lu (gourd)

has not s p r o u t e d y e t . " He f a i l e d that year.

L a t e r , i n due time he went to pray a g a i n and

dreamed t h a t the Immortal s a i d , "The hu-lu has

already sprouted." That y e a r he f a i l e d again.

When the a p p o i n t e d time came a g a i n he went to

pray and dreamt t h a t the Immortal s a i d , "The hu-lu

i s not r i p e y e t . " That y e a r he f a i l e d a t h i r d time.

F r u s t r a t e d , the s c h o l a r d i d not go to pray

anymore. Nor d i d he pass any subsequent examinations.

One day, p r e s s e d by h i s c o l l e a g u e s , he went to

pray f o r dreams a g a i n and dreamt t h a t the Immortal

s a i d , "The hu-lu i s r i p e . "

He woke up w i t h a s t a r t and t o l d the dream to

his colleagues. None of them c o u l d i n t e r p r e t i t .

He passed the examination that year. Then,

r e a d i n g the b u l l e t i n , he n o t i c e d t h a t a certain
r -
Hu preceded him, f i n r a n k j and a c e r t a i n Lu came a f t e r

him, both aged twenty. And he f i g u r e d out t h a t i n

the y e a r when he f i r s t went to pray f o r dreams,

both of them were y e t unborn.

Everyone who heard h i s t a l e thought i t marvel-
 189

loci-; l o u s , knowing t h a t s c h o l a s t i c success was temporally

31
predestined.

A g a i n , the meaning of the s e r i e s of punning dreams i n

t h i s episode c o u l d o n l y he understood hy h i n d s i g h t , owing to

the f a c t t h a t the puns i n v o l v e d the surnames and biological

development of two i n d i v i d u a l s who were t o t a l s t r a n g e r s to

the dreamer.

Some punning ffimTang dreams a c q u i r e d standard meanings

p r o b a b l y by r e a s o n of t h e i r f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e . The equat-

ion of san, 'umbrella', with san, 'dispersion', cited i n

S e c t i o n 7.2.1 i s an example. Another f a i r l y standard equat-

t i o n i s t h a t of kuan, ' c o f f i n ' , w i t h kuan, ' o f f i c i a l ' . The

"iPJ^^a^SiiPM^^^JB'S" states:

For the c o f f i n to emerge from the grave by itself

is greatly auspicious. To c a r r y a c o f f i n into

3'
one's house means o f f i c i a l appointment i s a r r i v i n g .

Which l e a d s us back to the anecdote about Y i n Hao homologizing

the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of c o f f i n dreams w i t h t h a t of money dreams

(see S e c t i o n 7.2.1). A c c o r d i n g to him, officials by nature

s t i n k , b e i n g c o r r u p t ; hence, one'dreams of c o f f i n s and corpses

when about to be a p p o i n t e d . In h i s t r a n s l a t i o n , R i c h a r d

Mather p o i n t s up the punning i n v o l v e d by i n s e r t i n g parenthet-

ically the p r o n u n c i a t i o n s f o r the two words i n q u e s t i o n .

In t h i s r e g a r d , the Meng-chan l e i - k ' a o r e c o r d s the s t o r y

of one Chao L i a n g - c h ' i , who once dreamt t h a t t h e r e were more

than ten c o f f i n s l y i n g s i d e by s i d e . S t a r t i n g from the e a s t

end, he stepped on them one a f t e r another u n t i l he reached the

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eleventh, which caved i n and caught his feet. Afterwards,

he a c t u a l l y occupied eleven official positions i n a row and

finally died i n office as a s e c r e t a r y i n the Grand C o u n c i l

(chung-shu she-jen). 5 5

B u t p u n s i n dreams were n o t a l w a y s as straightforward

as i n the examples just given. Sometimes a p u n n i n g dream

contained a twist of meaning which r e q u i r e d identification

before the d r e a m c o u l d be correctly interpreted. For example,

E m p e r o r Wen o f Sui, in his early life before his accession

to the throne, is reported to have once dreamt, while sleeping

i n a b o a t moored f o r the n i g h t , t h a t he d i d n o t h a v e a left

hand. U p o n w a k i n g u p , he f e l t the dream r e p u g n a n t . So he

went a s h o r e to a t h a t c h temple, where he f o u n d a n o l d monk

and t o l d him the dream i n i t s entirety. Thereupon the monk

s t o o d up and c o n g r a t u l a t e d him, saying, "To h a v e no l e f t hand

is t o be s i n g l e - f i s t e d (tu-ch'tlan). Y o u s h a l l become the

Son o f Heaven." " 5 4

Undoubtedly, t h e l e a r n e d monk h a d i d e n t i f i e d the phrase

tu-ch'tlan, 'single-fisted', derived from the dream imagery

of " h a v i n g no l e f t h a n d , " as a pun on t u - c h ' u a n , 'independent

authority'.

Another story tells of a c e r t a i n Ma L i a n g w h o , when his

term of office as m a g i s t r a t e of the sub-prefecture of Chiang-

l i n g was a b o u t to expire, had the b i z a r r e dream t h a t a tuft

of h a i r c r o p p e d up on h i s tongue. Then a d r e a m interpreter

explained t o h i m , " H a i r g r o w i n g on t h e tongue cannot be

shaved off. T h i s means y o u ' l l s e r v e a s e c o n d term." A n d so

36 In this case the word t ' i 'to shave', derived
it happened.
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from the dream imagery o f " h a i r on tongue," was equated w i t h

t'i, 'to s u b s t i t u t e f o r ' .

Dreams i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s way o f t e n c o n t a i n e d ominous

i m a g e r i e s which were shown to he a u s p i c i o u s o n l y upon i n t e r -

pretation. The f o l l o w i n g i s a n o t h e r example:

Li T i was handsomely mustache and bearded. On the

day b e f o r e the i m p e r i a l examination, he dreamt

t h a t someone gave him a v e r y thorough shave. He

f e l t i t abhorrent. However, an i n t e r p r e t e r said,

"You w i l l c e r t a i n l y r e c e i v e the chuang-yiian honors

{awarded to the b e s t s c h o l a r i n the examft, because

t h i s y e a r the sheng-yuan j f i r s t honor i n the prov-

i n c i a l examsj i s L i u Tzu. f j l n your dreamjjf you

took Tzu's p l a c e ( t ' i Tzu, homophonous w i t h t ' i

tzu, 'to shave o f f the mustache'), what e l s e can

t h a t mean i f not the chuang-ytlan?" When the

b u l l e t i n was r e l e a s e d , i t turned out as p r e d i c t e d . " 56

In each of the three e p i s o d e s l a s t c i t e d , the dream

i n t e r p r e t e r came up w i t h an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n s o l i n g to the

dreamer, thus r e l i e v i n g the a n x i e t y brought about by the

ominous imagery of h i s dream. Thus, the dream i n t e r p r e t e r

i n a n c i e n t China f u n c t i o n e d i n much the same way as the

p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t o f our t i m e s .

But then there were a l s o dreams w i t h i m a g e r i e s o f a

dubious c h a r a c t e r which were u n f a v o r a b l y i n t e r p r e t e d . The

Yu-yang tsa-tsu t e l l s the s t o r y of Chang Chan, a homebound

commercial t r a v e l l e r who dreamt t h a t he cooked i n a mortar.

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Perplexed by the dream, he went to c o n s u l t a p r o f e s s i o n a l

dream; ' i n t e r p r e t e r surnamed Wang, who s a i d to him, "When

you reach home, s i r , you may not be s e e i n g your w i f e ; f o r

to cook i n a mortar means there i s no pot." Chang went

home only to f i n d t h a t h i s w i f e had been dead f o r s e v e r a l

37
months a l r e a d y .

In t h i s case wu f u , 'no p o t ' , d e r i v e d from the dream

imagery of "cooking i n a mortar," was found to be homophonous

with wu f u , 'no w i f e ' . The bluntness of the i n t e r p r e t e r i n

t h i s i n s t a n c e was somewhat redeemed by the f a c t t h a t , as

it turned out, the merchant's w i f e was a l r e a d y dead when

he had the dream.

7.2.3.2 Ideographic Analysis

T h i s i s the method by which dream i m a g e r i e s are converted

i n t o the Chinese s c r i p t which i s then a n a l y z e d and i n t e r p r e t e d

w i t h a view to a s c e r t a i n i n g i t s p r e d i c t i v e import.

The "Pen-ching hstin" chapter of the Huai-nan-tzu has i t

t h a t when Ts'ang-chieh (one of the Yellow Emperor's a b l e men)

invented the w r i t i n g system, m i l l e t r a i n e d down from heaven

and ghosts wailed at night. The commentary of Kao Yu

( E a s t e r n Han) on t h i s passage s t a t e s :

Ts'ang-chieh f i r s t saw the p a t t e r n s of b i r d s '

t r a c e s , then he invented w r i t i n g . As a r e s u l t ,

d e c e i t and artifice cropped up; people strayed

from the b a s i c and f l o c k e d to the trivial.

They abandoned husbandry and sought to profit

from w i e l d i n g the awl f u s e d i n making i n s c r i p t i o n s

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on hard m a t e r i a l b e f o r e the i n v e n t i o n o f p a p e r ) .

Heaven knew t h a t they would s t a r v e , and so sent

down a spate o f m i l l e t . Ghosts were a f r a i d that

theytmightrbe denounced by w r i t t e n t e x t s , hence

39
their wailing at night. ^

T h i s comment touches on the n e g a t i v e consequences o f the

i n v e n t i o n o f w r i t i n g i n human s o c i e t y . Greater stress,

however, seems to l i e on the d i s t u r b a n c e i t caused i n the

cosmic order. F o r i f Ts'ang-chieh was indeed the i n v e n t o r

of w r i t i n g and human a t t h a t , then the i n v e n t i o n would

amount to an a c t o f i n t r u s i o n by a m o r t a l i n t o the world

beyond. Hence the r e p o r t e d anomalous phenomena a t t e n d a n t

upon the event. S c r i p t , as purveyor o f meaning, was to be

the means by which the m y s t e r i e s o f Heaven arid E a r t h would

be d i s c l o s e d to Man. Thus viewed, Ts'ang-chieh's status

as a m y t h o - c u l t u r a l hero was o f Promethean p r o p o r t i o n s .

For, l i k e f i r e , w r i t i n g was i n d i s p e n s a b l e to human civiliz-

ation.

A t any r a t e , to the t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese p o p u l a r mind,

the w r i t t e n c h a r a c t e r s were some s o r t o f e n c a p s u l a t e d i d e a s .

Moreover, s i n c e i d e a s i n themselves were n o t s u s c e p t i b l e to

temporal wear and t e a r , t h e i r potency was c o n c e i v e d o f as

c u t t i n g a c r o s s time-frames. Hence t h e i r p r e d i c t i v e power.

I d e o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s as an independent mantic art i s

very ancient. There a r e s t i l l Chinese f o r t u n e - t e l l e r s who

s p e c i a l i z e i n t h i s t e c h n i q u e , o r combine i t w i t h o t h e r s .

As a p p l i e d to dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a g a i n , i f the l e g e n d
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o f the Yellow Emperor i n t e r p r e t i n g h i s own dreams i s any

i n d i c a t i o n , i t must have a v e n e r a b l e t r a d i t i o n as w e l l .

The l i t e r a t u r e abounds i n s t o r i e s e x e m p l i f y i n g t h i s technique.

The Chin-shu r e c o r d s the f o l l o w i n g episode about an

a m b i t i o u s man who came to g r i e f :

Wang Tun l e d h i s army toward the i n t e r i o r

fi.e. s e a t o f c e n t r a l government}. When they

camped a t the l a k e , Hstl Hstin went w i t h Wu Chun

to see him, h o p i n g to t a l k him out o f the campaign.

A t t h a t time Kuo P'u was on Wang Tun's advis-

ory s t a f f . Thus, thanks to him, they met Wang

Tun, who was so p l e a s e d as to - o f f e r them a d r i n k .

Then Wang asked, "I dreamt t h a t a p i e c e o f wood

broke i n t o heaven. What do you gentlemen t h i n k of

this?"

Hstin s a i d , "That's n o t a good omen." And

Wu Chtin r e j o i n e d , "For the wood to go up and break

i n t o heaven, t h i s s p e l l s the c h a r a c t e r wei,'hot

yet'. C i t s i g n i f i e s thatJf my l o r d may n o t a c t r a s h l y

at this point."

Tun would n o t l i s t e n , and consequently suffered

defeat. 4 0
^

Had C a r l Jung been c o n s u l t e d by Wang Tun about the dream, he

p r o b a b l y would have seen i n the wood the u n m i s t a k b l e cosmic

tree. And Freud, had he been s i m i l a r l y approached, might

have come up w i t h the u b i q u i t o u s p h a l l i c symbol. Wu Chtin,

however, simply wrote the word f o r wood out as mu , and

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then added a h o r i z o n t a l s t r o k e to the upper h a l f of this

character to r e p r e s e n t heaven, and the r e s u l t was the

character wei

To g i v e another example. Ho Ghih, a f u n c t i o n a r y of

Shu Han of the Three Kingdoms p e r i o d , once dreamt t h a t a a

mulberry t r e e grew i n a w e l l . He asked the dream i n t e r p r e t e r

Chao Chih about i t . Chao Chih s a i d , "The mulberry does not

belong i n a w e l l . I t ' s bound to be transplanted. However,

the c h a r a c t e r f o r mulberry, (sang), c o n s i s t s of four

'tens' ( *"T**) and an eight' ( - V )

1
below. Your age, I'm afraid,

w i l l not exceed t h i s . " A f t e r w a r d s , Ho Chih became magistrate

41 '

of Chien-wei and indeed d i e d a t the age of f o r t y - e i g h t .

Chao Chih's a n a l y s i s of t h i s c h a r a c t e r as b e i n g composed

of f o u r 'tens' and one ' e i g h t ' was uncouth. Aimore p l a u s i b l e

a n a l y s i s , i f one was concerned w i t h s c h o l a r l i n e s s , would be

breaking i t up i n t o three tens and one ' t r e e ' ( TK*. ), w i t h

the l a t t e r as i t s c l a s s i f y i n g component. T r a d i t i o n a l l y , how-

ever, dream i n t e r p r e t e r s , l i k e the p r a c t i o n e r s of o t h e r mantic

a r t s , had a penchant f o r r i d i n g roughshod over s c h o l a r l y

niceties.

E i t h e r of the two examples j u s t c i t e d had only one

predominant dream image i d e n t i f i e d as a graphic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

of the character involved. But there were a l s o i n s t a n c e s where

two images (and i n some cases more) were c o n s i d e r e d significant

and brought i n t o p l a y , as e x e m p l i f i e d i n the f o l l o w i n g s t o r y

from the Meng-chan l e i - k ' a o :

Wang Wei of E a s t e r n township had two sons, named

Pang-ch'eng and Y i n g - c h ' i , who went to take the

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entrance examination a t the academy. The w i f e of

t h e i r mentor, P r o f e s s o r (wen-hstleh),. Ku, dreamt

t h a t the two s t u d e n t s came w i t h h a l f of their

b o d i e s wet because they had f a l l e n into the water.

Upon waking, she t o l d the dream to Ku, who remarked,

"Put the 'half (pan ) b e s i d e the 'water' (shui

7jX= y ) and we get the c h a r a c t e r 'J^ (p' an, 'academy').

May i t be t h a t those two students are going to rove

about i n t h a t august h a l l of l e a r n i n g ? " And so i t

happened.

In t h i s case i t was the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of two ideographic

elements d e r i v e d from their c o r r e s p o n d i n g dream images t h a t

brought out the c r u c i a l c h a r a c t e r .

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CHAPTER EIGHT

SUMMARY

I n the t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese scheme o f t h i n g s , the spatial

universe, d i c h o t o m i z e d as heaven and e a r t h , was pregnant with

meaning, thanks to the r e g u l a r i t y o f i t s o p e r a t i o n s and the

patterned forms and shapes o b s e r v a b l e i n the myriad things

found i n i t . The s p e c t a t o r was, o f course, man. For h i s own

good, man r e a l l y c o u l d not a f f o r d to i g n o r e any s i g n of nature,

be i t the movement of the sun, moon, and s t a r s , the r o t a t i o n s

o f the seasons, the a l t e r n a t i o n of day and n i g h t , the trembling

o f the e a r t h , or the f l o o d i n g o f r i v e r s . A l l such phenomena

were v i t a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t to him and t h e r e f o r e aroused h i s

interest.

As a c h i l d o f n a t u r e h i m s e l f , h i s own bodily processes

a l s o engaged h i s a t t e n t i o n . He soon took i t i n t o h i s head

t h a t t h i s e n t i t y t h a t was him also constituted a universe by

itself, a l b e i t i n miniature. And before long, correspondences

between the two universes, a n a l o g i c a l l y derived, were i d e n -

tified.

To the e x t e n t t h a t heaven and e a r t h were thought of by

the a n c i e n t Chinese as the source of l i f e , t h e i r concept o f

the u n i v e r s e may be d e s c r i b e d as " v i t a l i s t i c " : heaven and

e a r t h were imbued w i t h a meta-gaseous substance c a l l e d c h ' i

which, when j o i n e d to any p h y s i c a l form, animates i t . This

substance was, i n e f f e c t , the s p i r i t u a l essence o f a l l e x i s -

t e n t s , i n c l u d i n g man, except t h a t i n him i t became h i g h l y

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r e f i n e d and was manifested as conscious i n t e l l i g e n c e . It

was the power of i n t e l l i g e n c e that distinguished him from

wood, stone, b i r d , beast, i n s e c t , and f i s h . This was also

the means by which man came to make sense out of the

universe.

Thanks to t h i s l i g h t of reason i n Mm, man was able to

read the signs of nature i n a number of ways. These became

formalized as the various d i v i n a t o r y techniques which enabled

him to decode messages coming from both without and within

him.

Such messages were often perceived i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l

form d i r e c t l y through the v i s u a l , auditory, or t a c t i l e sense.

For, then as now, the medium was the message. Thus, mantic

information could be gathered not only from the sun's l i g h t

and hue, the formation of clouds, the d i r e c t i o n of winds,

the shape and l o c a t i o n of rainbows, the duration of fogs,

the paths of l i g h t n i n g , but also from the mysterious humming

i n the ear as well as the cooking pot, the barking of dogs,

the shrieking of crows, the involuntary twitching of the

e y e l i d , the unaccountable fever on the face and ears, the

jerking of muscles, cardiac p a l p i t a t i o n s , and sneezing (see

Ytt-hsia c h i . p p . 6 4 - 6 8 ) .

On top of a l l these techniques, as the Han-shu i-wen c h i

t e l l s us, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of dreams reigned supreme.

Judging from the amount and v a r i e t y of dream material

preserved i n the immense storehouse of t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese

l i t e r a t u r e , we can s a f e l y conclude that the ancient Chinese

took t h e i r dreams s e r i o u s l y . Their i n t e r e s t i n dreams,

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ranging from the s p i r i t i s t i c through the physico-psychological

to the r e l i g i o - p h i l o s o p h i c a l , may he said to have encompassed

almost the whole gamut of o n e i r i c phenomena ever experienced

hy humanity at l a r g e .

That t h i s i n t e r e s t did not include the p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y -

oriented, empirical approach to the study of dream mechanism

conducted i n the West i n the past three decades i s under-

standable. The ancient Chinese did not set up l a b o r a t o r i e s

for the study of dreams f o r the same reason that they did not

set up l a b o r a t o r i e s , i n the modern sense, f o r the study of

anything. This was not a question of technology e i t h e r , f o r

to say so would beg the question why the technology was not

there i n the f i r s t place.

As I see i t , the reason why, f o r a l l t h e i r ostentatious

concern about p r a c t i c a l i t y , the ancient Chinese did not set

much store by the p o s i t i v i s t i c , p h y s i o l o g i c a l view of dreams

was that, to them, the mystery of the dream was part of i t s

meaning, and that, consequently, any e f f o r t a t demystification

would r e s u l t i n diminishing i t s meaningfulness. For the same

reason, as f a r as I know, the ancient Chinese never attempted

to send a rocket to the moon. They preferred to v i s i t i t , i f

at a l l , i n t h e i r dreams and r e v e r i e s , and afterwards record

such v i s i t s i n t h e i r poems and legends.

As was the case with the other divinatory techniques

mentioned above, dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as p r a c t i s e d i n ancient

China did not always require a verbal form of expression.

Although we know next to nothing about the t e c h n i c a l aspect

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o f the c o r r o b o r a t i v e approach to dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as

d e s c r i b e d i n the C h o u - l i ( s e e S e c t i o n 7 . 1 ) , from what i t does

say, I g a t h e r t h a t a l l the t h r e e methods under t h i s heading

were n o n - v e r b a l i n n a t u r e . Rather, the c o n t e n t o f dreams

was taken as i t stood and i t s import was interpreted i n a

g e n e r a l i z e d way as b e i n g e i t h e r good o r bad. I do n o t rule

out the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i n some cases more s p e c i f i c signifi-

cances c o u l d be determined. I n any event, no linguistic

a s s o c i a t i o n was involved. A f t e r b e i n g so i n t e r p r e t e d , con-

f i r m a t i o n by means o f any o f the o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s was then

sought f o r . The f a c t t h a t i n the o r a c l e - b o n e inscriptions

o n l y the b a r e s t c o n t e n t o f dreams was r e c o r d e d and not the 1

l e a s t b i t o f i n t e r p r e t i v e m a t e r i a l c o u l d be found seems to

s u p p o r t my theory.

I f the f o r e g o i n g d e s c r i p t i o n f i t s the a v a i l a b l e data,

then t h i s mode o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may be termed "iconic,"

i n the sense t h a t the c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f forms and shapes ;

found i n n a t u r e as w e l l as dream i m a g e r i e s were examined i n

terms o f t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s .

I n c o n t r a s t to the i c o n i c , t h e r e was the symbolic mode

o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as e x e m p l i f i e d by the a s s o c i a t i v e approach

to dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , wherein we see a t o t a l l y different

picture. Here the meaning o f dreams was deciphered not i n

accordance w i t h what t h e i r i m a g e r i e s o s t e n s i b l y r e p r e s e n t e d ,

but through the m e d i a t i o n o f e x p l i c i t o r i m p l i c i t language

m a n i f e s t e d as e i t h e r speech o r w r i t i n g .

I t h i n k t h a t t h i s l a t t e r approach was c o n s i d e r e d by the

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ancients to be a methodological improvement on the f i r s t one

and therefore superseded i t . The l o s s of the pre-Han dream-

books, such as those two l i s t e d i n the Han-shu i-wen chih

(see Section 1 . 1 ) , was probably not a c c i d e n t a l . I f so, the

regrets expressed by some o n e i r o l o g i s t s i n l a t e r ages (see,

f o r example, the preface to the Meng-chan i - c h i h {(The vagrant

s i g n i f i c a n c e of dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) ) by Ch'en Shih-yiian of

Ming times) would be superfluous.

Beyond a doubt, the ancient Chinese were a nation of

dreamers. From high a n t i q u i t y downwards, through the temporal

c o r r i d o r and on the s o c i a l ladder, sage-kings, culture-heroes,

emperors, empresses, c o u r t i e r s , philosophers, scholars,

s o l d i e r s , poets, peasants, p r i e s t s , monks, nuns, tradespeople

and a r t i s a n s , both the highborn and the lowbred a l i k e , a l l

dreamt and somehow many of them managed to have t h e i r dreams

recorded. This i n i t s e l f was a great service to human culture,

i f only because i t preserved f o r p o s t e r i t y the most v i v i d ,

c o l o r f u l and authentic p o r t r a y a l of that other aspect of the

Chinese mind which i n t h i s day and age i s so e a s i l y overlooked,

p a r t l y because de-emphasized and even frowned upon by the mod-

ern Chinese themselves.

To some Westerners (e.g. Henry Kissinger and h i s breed)

nowadays, the q u i n t e s s e n t i a l Chinese i s e i t h e r the Mao-suited

hardhead a t the i n t e r n a t i o n a l conference table, or the shrewd

merchant behind the counter i n any Chinatown shop playing h i s

l u t e of an abacus, or even the bespectacled science student

from Peking, T a i p e i , or Hong Kong. I t would indeed tax t h e i r

 202

i m a g i n a t i o n to the h i l t i f such people were asked to see a

L i Po i n any one o f these o r an E m i l y D i c k i n s o n i n , say,

Madame Mao, a l t h o u g h some y e a r s ago h e r husband h i m s e l f

almost got nominated f o r the Nobel p r i z e , i n r e c o g n i t i o n

n o t o f h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n toward w o r l d peace but o f h i s p o e t i c

effort.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , the good people o f China s t i l l dream.

But t h a t ' s a n o t h e r story.

 203

NOTES

Chapter I: Dream as H a r b i n g e r o f F u t u r e Events

1 See Robert L. Van de C a s t l e , "Psychology of Dreaming,"

i n Dreams and Dreaming, ed. S.G.M. l e e and A.R. Mayes
( B a l t i m o r e , Md.: Penguin Books, 1973J, pp.17-22.

2 For the c h a r a c t e r s i n v o l v e d , see Appendix.

3 Hsu Tsung-ytian, T i wang s h i h - c h i c h i - t s ' u n ( P e k i n g :

Chung-hua shu-chtl, 1964), p.21.

4 To be d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 7.2.3.

5 T h i s work was l o s t d u r i n g Southern Sung times. S i n c e

Yuan times there have been s e v e r a l c o l l a t e d v e r s i o n s i n
e x i s t e n c e . A good modern e d i t i o n i s Hsu Tsung-ytian' s
work j u s t c i t e d .

6 Hsu Tsung-ytian, p.21.

7 Han-shu i-wen-chih (Po-na ed.) 10:31b.

8 T h i s work i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e l i e v e d to be the a n n a l s o f
Wei of the Warring S t a t e s e r a . I t was d i s c o v e r e d , thanks
to a tomb t h i e f , i n the second y e a r of the T'ai-k'ang
r e i g n p e r i o d (A.D. 280-289) o f the Western Chin dynasty,
o n l y to be l o s t a g a i n f o r good; see Ch'ti Wan-li, Ku-chi
t a o - t u (.Hong Kong: Lti-yuan s h u - t i e n , 1964), pp.77-78.
I am u s i n g Hsu Wen-ching's c o l l a t e d e d i t i o n ; see n e x t n o t e .

9 Hsu Wen-ching, Chu-shu c h i - n i e n t'ung-chien ( p r e f a c e d 1750;

r p t . T a i p e i : I-wen yin-shu-kuan, 1966), p.107.

10 Hsu Tsung-ytian, p.35.

11 I b i d . , pp.39-40.

12 Hsu Wen-ching, p.149.

13 I b i d . , pp.214-215.

14 I b i d .

15 Hsu Tsung-ytian, p.67.

16 See S e c t i o n 7.2.3.1.
 204

Chapter I , NOTES continued:

1.7 Shih-ching. Ode 189 (Ssu kan); Arthur Waley, The Book of
Songs (London: A l l e n and Unwin, 1937), p.283.

IS Ode 190 (Wu yang); Waley, p. 168.

1- 9 See the prefatory note to the "Yueh-ming shang" chapter,

which happens to he one of those forged during Eastern
Chin times; see Ch'tl Wan-li, op. c i t . , p. 144.
20 Shu-ching 21 ('iTlai^-shih"); c i t e d i n Michel Soymie, "Les
songes et l e u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n en Chine," i n Les songes
et l e u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s du S e u i l , 'Sources
Orientales' 2, 1959), p.259.
24 In h i s commentary, K'ung Ying-ta points out that Po-ch'ou
cannot have c a l l e d himself Heaven and Heaven cannot have
turned i t s e l f into Po-ch'ou, and that t h i s kind of ambiguity
can occur only to a dreamer; see Ch'ung-k'an Sung-pen Tso-
chuan chu-shu (1815; r p t . T a i p e i : I-wen, n.d.) 21:17a.

22- Tso-chuan, Hstlan 3; James legge, The Chinese C l a s s i c s V

(Hong Kong: Hong Kong U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1960; r p t . 1970),
294.
23 Tso-chuan. Ch'eng 17; Legge V, 404.

24 Cited i n Roger C a i l l o i s , The Dream Adventure (New York:

The Orion Press, 1963), p p . x i i - x i i i .

25 I follow Wang Meng-ou's reading and emend l i n g , 'years of

age', to ch'ih, 'teeth'; see L i - c h i chin-chu c h i n - i ( T a i p e i :
Commercial Press, 1970) v.1, pp.274-275.

26 L i - c h i 8 ('Wen-wang shih-tzu"); Legge I ( r p t . 1967), 344.

2-7- L i - c h i 3 (" T' an-kung"); Legge I , 138-139.

Chapter I I : Dream as Message from the S p i r i t World

1 Van de Castle, op. c i t . , pp.17-18.

2 I b i d . , p.19; see also C a r l A l f r e d Meier, "The Dream i n

Ancient Greece and I t s Use i n Temple Cures (Incubation),"
i n The Dream and Human S o c i e t i e s , ed. G.E. von Grunebaum
and Roger C a i l l o i s (Berkeley: U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a
Press, 1966), p.304.

3 For a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s p r a c t i c e , see Kwang-chih Chang,

Shang C i v i l i z a t i o n (New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1980), pp.31ff.
 205

Chapter I I , NOTES continued:

4 For a d e t a i l e d account of t h i s discovery, see Hu Hou-hstlan,

"Chia-ku-wen fa-hsien chih l i - s h i h c h i c h ' i t s ' a i - l i a o
chih t'ung-ehi," i n Chia-ku-hstteh Shang-shih lun-ts-ung
ch'u-chi ( r p t . Hong Kong: Wen-yu-t'ang, 1970), v.2, ts'e 4.

5 David N. Keightley, Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-

Bone I n s c r i p t i o n s of Bronze Age China (Berkeley: U n i v e r s i t y
of C a l i f o r n i a Press, 1978;, p.34.

6 Hu Hou-hstlan, "Yin-jen chan-meng k'ao," i n o p . c i t . , v.2,

ts'e 3, pp.3b-5b.
7 I b i d . , p.6ab.

8 Tso-chuan. Hsi 28; Legge V, 210. For a study of the sym-

bolism and c u l t u r a l implications involved i n t h i s dream,
see Georg von Koeppen, "Zwei Trflume aus dem Tso-chuan und
Ihre Interpretation," Z e i t s c h r i f t der Deutschen Morgen-
landischen Gesellschaft 119 11969): 135-156.

9 Tso-chuan, Hsi 51; Legge Y, 219.

10 Tso-chuan. Chao 7; Legge V, 617.

11 For an account of Po-yu's death, see Tso-chuan, Hsiang 50;

Legge V, 557.

12 Kung-sun Hsieh was the son of Tzu-k'ung, who had also been
put to death; see Tso-chuan, Hsiang 19, Legge V, 483.
Liang-chih was Po-yu's son.

13 Tso-chuan, Chao 7; Legge V, 618.

14 Cf. Daniel L. Overmyer, "Acceptance i n Context: Death and

T r a d i t i o n a l China," i n Death and Eastern Thought, ed.
Frederick H. Hoick {.Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1974), pp.
213-219.
15 Tso-chuan chu-shu 44:14a.

16 This notion of the d u a l i t y or even p l u r a l i t y of souls i s

not confinced to Chinese r e l i g i o u s thought. For a summary
of the various t r a d i t i o n s on t h i s subject, see Edward B.
Tylor, P r i m i t i v e Culture, 4th ed. (London: J . Murray, 1903),
I, 434-435.
17 Ike Hultkrantz, Conceptions of the Soul among North American
Indians Monograph Series 1 (Stockholm: Ethonographical
t

Museum of Sweden, 1953), pp.27, 241.

 206

Chapter I I , NOTES continued:

18 Nei-ching su-wen 23 ("Hsuan-ming wu-ch'i"); I l z a Veith

( t r . ) Huang T i Nei Ching Su Wen: The Yellow Emperor's
t

C l a s s i c of Internal Medicine (Baltimore: Williams and

Wilkins, 1 9 4 9 ) , p.208.

'19 Sun Ssu-miao, Ch'ien-chin pao-yao. ed. Kuo Ssu, i n P'ing-

chin-kuan ts'ung-shu, i - c h i (, 18075, 6: 8b.

20 Chuang Ytlan-ch'en, Shu-chtl-tzu, i n Po-tzu ch'tlan-shu, han

7 (Shanghai: Sao-yeh shan-fang, 1919). nei-p'ien, 2:6b.
21 I b i d . , 4:6b.

22 Ch'ung-k'an Sung-pen L i - c h i chu-shu ( r p t . T a i p e i : I-wen),

47:14a-15a.

23 Wang Ch'ung, Lun Heng (Peking: Jen-min ch'u-pan-she, 1 9 7 4 ) ,

p.315.
24.Ibid.

25 Por a discussion of this issue, see Ch'ien Mu, Chung-kuo h

ssu-hsiang-shih chung chih kui-shen-kuan," (Views on

ghosts and s p i r i t s i n the h i s t o r y of Chinese thought) i n
Ling-nun ytl h s i n (Soul and mind) ( T a i p e i : Lien-ching,
1976), pp.79-89.

26 Chuang Ytlan-ch'en, nei-p'ien, 6:3.

27 I b i d .

28 A. Leo Oppenheim, "Dreams i n Ancient Near East," Transac-

tions of the American P h i l o s o p h i c a l Society, n.s. 46(1956):
204.
V?"
29 L i u Ching-shu, I-ytlan, i n Hsueh-chin t'ao-yuan, ts' e 153,
7:1b-s-2a.

30 I b i d . , 7:4b.

31 Ibid., 7:4a.

32 T'ao Ch'ien, Sou-shen hou-chi, i n Hstieh-chin t'ao-yuan.

ts'e 152, 6:3ab.

33 Cf. George A. Hayden, Crime and Punishment i n Medieval

Chinese Drama: Three Judge Pao Pi ays (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1978), p.10.

34 T'ao Ch'ien, op. c i t . , 4:3a.

35 Cited i n Chang Peng-i, Meng-chan lei-k'ao (prefaced 1585),

 207

Chapter I I , NOTES continued:

11:11a.

36 Ch'en Ch'i-yiian, Yung-hsien-chai p i - c h i . i n P i - c h i hsiao-

shuo ta-kuan I I I (rpt. T a i p e i : Hsin-hsing shu-chtl, 1962),
2701.

37 Hsi 31, one; Ch'eng 2, one; Ch'eng 10, one; Chao 7, four;
Chao 17, one.

38 Cf. Holmes Welch, The Parting of the Way (Boston: Beacon

Press, 1957), pp.135-141. ^
39 Kuan-sheng ti-chtin sheng-chi t'u-chih (1838; r p t . Hong
Kong: Wu-sheng-t'ang, 1960), 3:5a.

40 Chu-an, Jen-wu feng-su chih-tu ts'ung-t'an (Shanghai: I-

chia-she, 1948), p.203.

41 For modern p a r a l l e l s see the case of Master Tz'u-hang i n

Taiwan and that of Ting-hsi i n Hong Kong as reported i n
Holmes Welch, The P r a c t i c e of Chinese Buddhism 1900-1950
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1967), pp.
344-345. Welch comments on the Buddhist c u l t of the
"meat-body" thus: "Indeed, the whole concept of the meat
body would seem to exemplify the a n t i t h e s i s of the doctrine
of the impermanence and to v i o l a t e the s p i r i t i n which the
hhiksus of Buddhist India were urged to sojourn i n cemet-
e r i e s , drawing lessons i n impermanence from the decompos-
i t i o n of corpses a f a i r l y r e p e l l e n t custom i n i t s e l f . "
(Ibid.)

42 Van de Castle, op. c i t . , p.17.

43 I b i d . , p.19.
44 Sandor Lorand, "Dream Interpretation i n the Talmud," i n
The New World of Dreams, ed. Ralph L. Woods and Herbert
B. Greenhouse (New York: Macmillan, 1974), pp.152-154.
45 A. Leo Oppenheim, op. c i t . , p.188.

46 Chou Liang-kung, Min h s i a o - c h i , i n Lung-wei mi-shu (1794;

r p t . T a i p e i : Hsin-hsing,1969) I I I , 1763-1764.
47 Wang Yung-ch'tian, "Hang-chou ch'i-meng ku-shih,') (Stories
of dream incubation i n Hangchow) Folklore Weekly of

48 Huang Chtin-tsai, Chin-hu lang-mo, i n P i - c h i hsiao-shuo

ta-kuan I I I , 2790.
 208

Chapter I I , NOTES continued:

49 Rolf Humphries, The Satires of Juvenal (Bloomington:

Indiana University Press, 1958), pp.85-86; c i t e d i n
L a t i n i n Oppenheim, op. c i t . , p.237.

50 Arthur Waley, The Secret History of the Mongols and Other

Pieces (London: George A l l e n and Unwin, 1963), p . 7 3 .
51 Huang Chiin-tsai, o p . c i t . , p.2790.

52 Oppenheim, p.237.

53 I b i d . , p.234.

54 I b i d . , pp.234-235.

55 Hou Han-shu (Po-na ed.) " L i - i chih," 5:12b.

56 Huang Pao-chen, Tseng-kuang s h i h - l e i t'ung-pien (Shanghai:

Wen-sheng shu-chii, 1915).

Chapter I I I : Dream as Response to Physical Stimuli

1 Hippocrates, The Medical Works of Hippocrates, t r . John

Chadwick and W.N. Mann (Oxford: Blackwell S c i e n t i f i c
Publications, 1950), pp.14, 90, 184, 214-218.

2 I b i d . , pp.194-201.

3 Cited i n Ralph L. Woods and Herbert B. Greenhouse (ed.),

The New World of Dreams (New York: Macmillan, 1974), p.177.
4,Ibid., p.178.

5 I b i d . , p.162.

6 Ibid.

7 I b i d . , p.163.

8 I b i d . , p.179.

9 Ibid.

10 See Nei-ching chiang-i (Lecture notes on the Nei-ching)

(Shanghai: K'o-hsueh chi-shu ch'u-pan-she, 1964), p.216.
11 I b i d . , p.220.
 209

Chapter I I I , NOTES continued::

12 I b i d .

13 The Neirching, t r a d i t i o n a l l y ascribed to the Yellow Emperor,

i s l i s t e d i n the Han-shu i-wen chih. I t was r e f e r r e d to f o r
the f i r s t time as Shu-wen i n the Shang-han l u n (Treatise on
typhoid fever) by Chang Chi (= Chang Chung-ching) of Han
times. I l z a Veith translated only the f i r s t t h i r t y - f o u r
chapters.

14,The Ling-shu-ching (The v i t a l a x i s ) , also ascribed to the

Yellow Emperor and often printed as a single book, i s r e -
garded by some as a sequel to the Nei-ching. I t i s not
l i s t e d i n the Han-shu i-wen chih. nor i n the Sui and T'ang
dynastic h i s t o r i e s . I t s existence was f i r s t divulged by
Shih Sung of Southern Sung^times, who said an old e d i t i o n
of i t was i n the family c o l l e c t i o n ; see Ch'tl Wan-li, Ku-
chi Tao-tu. p.87.

15 Ling-shu-ching (Peking: Jen-min wei-sheng ch'u-pan-she,

1963), 43 ("Yin-hsieh fa-meng"), pp.85-86.
16 I b i d .

17 I b i d .

18 Herbert Greenhouse, "Dream of the G u i l l o t i n e , " i n Woods

and Greenhouse (1974), pp.89-90.

19 Chang Hua, Po-wu chih, i n Po-tzu ch'uan-shu, han 7 , 10:1b.

20 Tuan Ch'eng-shih, Yu-yang tsa-tsu (1608; r p t . T a i p e i :

Hsueh-sheng shu-chti, 1975), p.50.

21 Kuan-yin-tzu, i n Po-tzu ch'uan-shu, han 8, "Erh chuf" p.2b.

22 Ernest Jones, "Freud's Theory of Dreams," i n Lee and Mayes

(1973), p.40.

23 I b i d . , pp.58-59.
24 I b i d . , p.59.

25 I b i d . , p.60.

Chapter IV: Dream as P r o j e c t i o n of Mental States

1 Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, t r . and ed.

James Strachey (New York: Basic Books, 1955), p.122.

2 I b i d . , pp.165-188
 210

Chapter IV, NOTES continued:

3 Lun-ytl 11 ("Hsien chin"):12.

4 Ibid.,-7 ("Shu erh"):5.

5 Ch'ung-k'an Sung-pen Lun-yu chu-shu (1815; r p t . T a i p e i :

I-wen) 7:2a.

6 Ibid.

7 Chang Shih, Lun-ytl Chang Hstlan- kung chi eh (Ming manuscript;

r p t . T a i p e i : Chung-kuo tzu-hsiieh ming-chu chi-ch'eng pien-
y i n chi-chin-hui, 1977) 4:3a.

8 Wei Hsiang-shu, Han-sung-t'ang yung-yen, i n Han-sung-t ang 1

ch'iian-chi (prefaced 1708), ts'e 5 , P.2a.

9 I b i d . , p.27b.

10 I b i d . , p.21b.

11 P a t r i c i a L. G a r f i e l d , Creative Dreaming (New York: Simon

and Schuster, 1974; r p t . Toronto: B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1976),
p.5.

12' I b i d . , pp.4, 51, 80^-117; see also R.G. D'Andrade, "The

E f f e c t of Culture oh Dreams," i n Lee and Mayes (1973),
p.206.

13 For a development of t h i s idea i n s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n , see

Roger Zelazny, The Dream Maker (London: Panther Books,
1968).

14 L i u Hsiang, Hsin hsti. i n Po-tzu ch'iian-shu, han 1, 2:2b-3a.

15 L i u Hsieh, Wen-hsin tiao-lung, t r . and annotated Vincent

Yu-chung Shih, b i l i n g u a l ed. ( T a i p e i : Chung-hua shu-chtl,
1970), p.2.

16 Ytl Ytleh, Chiu-chiu hsiao-hsia l u , i n Ch'un-tsai-1 ang 1

ch'tlan-chi (1892), ts'e 153t 12:11a; c f . also Lien-che Tu

Fang, "Ming meng," Ch'ing-hua hstleh-pao. 10.1 (June 1972):
55-73.

17 Ytl Ytleh, op. c i t .

18 I b i d .

19 Wang Ch'ung, Lun heng, (Shanghai: Jen-min, 1974), p.321.

20 I b i d . , pp.334-337.
 211

Chapter IV, NOTES continued:

21 An example of t h i s typei of dreams i s recorded i n Tso-chuan,

Hsiang 18. I t r e l a t e s that during the autumn of that^year,
the marquis of Ch'i invaded the northern border of Lu. At
that time Chung-hsing hsien-tzu (of Chin) was about to
attack Ch'i, when he dreamt that he was having an argument
with Duke L i (of Chin), whom he had murdered. The duke
struck him with a halberd, and h i s head f e l l o f f before
him. He kneeled down, (took i t and re-) mounted i t (on h i s
neck). Steadying i t with h i s hands while running away, he
saw Kao, the shaman of Keng-yang. On a c e r t a i n day there-
a f t e r , he saw the shaman on the road and talked to him
(about the dream and the l a t t e r said he had had) the same
(dream). (Legge V, 478) The l a s t sentence i s e l l i p t i c a l
but the meaning seems c l e a r .

22 Wang Ch'ung, p.337.

23 Tso-chuan, Chao 4; Legge V, 598-599.

24 Han-shu (Po-na ed.) 93:1h-2a.

Chapter V: Dream and R e a l i t y

1 See Arlene Sheila Gould, Dream and Reality among Five North
American Indian Peoples: An Examination of the L i t e r a t u r e
(M.A. Thesis, U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1978).

2 Burton Watson ( t r . ) , The Complete Works of Chuang-tzu

(New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), p p . 4 7 - 4 8 .

3 Ibid., p.47.

4 Rene" Descartes, Descartes: Philosophical Writings, ed.

?

Elizabeth Anscombe and Peter T. Geach (London: Thomas Nelson

and Sons, 1954), p.62.
5 See, f o r example, Norman Malcolm, Dreaming (London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1959).

6 Arthur C. Danto, A n a l y t i c a l Philosophy of Kowledge (London:

Cambridge University Press, 1968), p.170.

7 I b i d . , p.171.

8 Watson, p.49.

9 Mircea E l i a d e , Myths, Dreams and Mysteries: The Encounter

between Contemporary Faiths and Archaic R e a l i t i e s , t r .
 212

Chapter V, NOTES continued:

P h i l i p Mairet (New York: Harper and Row, 1960), Chapter V,

passim.

10 Mircea E l i a d e , Le chamanisme et l e s techniques archagques

de l'extase ( P a r i s : Payot, 1951), pp.365ff.

11 E l i a d e , Myths. Dreams and Mysteries, pp.101, 104.

12 I b i d . , p.105.
13 I b i d . , p.106.

14 I b i d . , pp.110-111.
15 L i Ytlan-cho, Chuang L i eh shih lun (Ten essays on Chuang-tzu
and L i e h - t z u ) , i n Tao-tsang 1001/1263 (se h s i a ) .

16 See A.C. Graham ( t r . ) , The Book of Lieh-tzu (London: John

Murray, 1960), p.1.

17 For A.C. Graham's t r a n s l a t i o n , see The Book of Lieh-tzu,

p.67.

18 See also A.C. Graham, pp.68-69.

19 Cf. Graham, pp.69-70.

20 Leng-yen ching i - t u chien-chu (Peking: Keng-shen fo-ching

liu-t'ung-ch'u, 1943) 5:3. I am indebted to Prof. Leon
Hurvitz. f o r helping me to t r a n s l a t e these eight l i n e s .
As i t stands, t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n i s not done: just abandoned.
See also Upasaka Lu K'uan-yti (Charles Luk, t r . ) , The
Surangama Sutra (London: Rider and Co., 1966), p.116.

21 Edward Conze(tr.), Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita, Serie

Orientale Roma XIII (Rome: I n s t i t u t o Italian Per I I Medio
Ed Estremo Oriente, 1957), p.92. Conze points out (pp.2-3)
that probably owing to the exigencies of Chinese v e r s i f i c -
a t i o n , Kumarajiva's t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s verse gives only
six comparisons instead of nine. Whatever the "exigencies"
were, both Bodhiruci and Hsllan-tsang managed to include a l l
the nine s i m i l e s i n t h e i r t r a n s l a t i o n s ; see Lo Shih-hsien,
Neng-tuan chin-kang po-jeh po^lo-mi-tuo ching tsuan-i (Hong
Kong, 1975), p.188.
22 Taisho T r i p i t a k a 8:347.

23 I Shih-chen, Lang-huan c h i . i n Hsiieh-chin t'ao-yuan, ts'e

148, chtian.:- chung, pp.7b-8b.

24 I b i d . , chtlan h s i a . p.11b-12a.
 213

Chapter V, NOTES continued:

25 I b i d . , p.11ab.

26 Leng-yen ching i - t u chien-chu 4:11-14; Luk, pp.95-96.

27 I b i d . , 3:29; Luk, p.80.

28 I b i d . , 2:20; Luk, p.49.

29 IbidV, 4:16. My t r a n s l a t i o n d i f f e r s from Luk's i n the
punctuation of the f i r s t sentence; see Luk, p.98.
30 Taisho 7:110.

31 Lien-ch'Ih ta-shih, Chu-ch'uang san-pi, i n Lien-ch'ih

ta-shih ch'tlan-chi (1897; r p t . T a i p e i : Chung-hua fo-chiao
wen-hua-kuan, 1973), pp.67b-68a.
32 Kuan-yin-tzu. i n Po-tzu ch'uan-shu. han 8, "Ssu fu," p.7b.

33 In recent times, experiments on the rapid eye movement

seemed to show a c o r r e l a t i o n between the dream narrative
and the way the eyes moved. This l e d William Dement,
one of the pioneers i n the f i e l d , to think that REMs were
indeed an i n d i c a t i o n that dreaming was taking place, and
that the a c t i o n of the dream was not instantaneous but
lasted as long as the REM period l a s t e d (see Woods and
Greenhouse, p.277). Without discounting Dement's reput-
ation as a keen observer, the question remains whether
t h i s i s true of a l l dreams i n v o l v i n g a c t i o n .

34 Kuan-yin-tzu, "Liu p i , " p.8b.

35 Ibid.

36 Ibid.

37 I b i d . , "Erh chu," p.2b.

38 I b i d . , p.3a.

39 I b i d . , "Ssu fuTchapter.
40 I b i d . , "Chiu yao" chapter.

41 See Lu Hstln ( e d i ) , T'ang Sung ch'uan-ch'i chi (Peking:

Wen-hstleh ku-chi k' an-hsing-she, 1955), PP. 108-110.

42 I b i d . , pp.81-91.

43 I b i d . , pp.29-33.
 214

Chapter V, NOTES continued:

44 Su Shih, "Hou C h i h - p i f u , " i n Ching-chin Tung-p'o wen-chi

f

shih-ltieh (Peking: Wen-hstleh ku-chi k'an-hsing-she, 1 9 5 7 ) ,

1:4-5.

45 I Shih-chen, op. c i t . , chtlan shang, p.21.

46 See Chou Ch'i-ming (ed.), Ming Ch'ing hsiao-hua ssu-chung

(Hong Kong: T'ai-p'ing shu-chti, 1963), p.93.

47 I b i d . , pp.1^5; see also Wu Chia-ch'ing, Chung-kuo hsiao-

hua hsiian ( T a i p e i : Commercial Press, 1971), "Introduction."
48 Cited i n Chou Ch'i-ming, pp.122-123.
49 "Tuan" i s a poetic equivalent f o r F i f t h month i n the Chinese
lunar calendar. I t r e f e r s to Tuan-yang, the so-called
"Dragon-Boat F e s t i v a l , " which f a l l s on the f i f t h of t h i s
month.

50 Mao Hsiang-lin, Mo-yil l u . i n P i - c h i hsiao-shuo ta-kuan I I I ,

2066.

51 See Joseph Needham, Time and Eastern Man, Occasional Paper

21 (London: Royal Anthropological I n s t i t u t e , 1965), p.v.

52 Marcel Granet, La Pens^e chinoise, i n L'Evolution de

l'humanite: Synthese c o l l e c t i v e XXV, . ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s
A l b i n Michel, 1950), pp.86, 88, 9 6 , 113; c i t e d i n
1 8

Joseph Needham (1965), p.7, n.1.

53 Needham, Science and C i v i l i z a t i o n i n China I I (Cambridge:

The U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1962), 288.

54 Needham, Time and Eastern Man, p.8; c f . Granet, La Pensee

chinoise. pp.329ff.; Needham, SCC I I , 289ff.
55 Needham, Time and Eastern Man, p.8.

56 Daniel Defoe, The L i f e and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe

(London: George Routledge and Sons, 1869), pp.94-95:
"After my broken and imperfect prayer was over, I drank the
rum i n which I had steeped the tobacco, which was so strong
and rank of the tobacco that I could scarcely get i t down;
immediately upon t h i s I went to bed. I found presently i t
flew up into my head v i o l e n t l y ; but I f e l l i n t o a sound
sleep, and waked no more t i l l , by the sun, i t must neces-
s a r i l y be near three o'clock i n the afternoon the next
day nay, to t h i s hour I am p a r t l y of opinion that I
slept a l l the next day and night, and t i l l almost three
the day a f t e r ; f o r otherwise, I know not how I should
lose a day out of my reckoning i n the days of the week, as
i t appeared some years a f t e r I had done; f o r i f I had l o s t
 215

Chapter V , NOTES continued:

i t hy crossing and recrossing the Line, I should have l o s t

more than one day; hut c e r t a i n l y I l o s t a day i n my account,
and never knew which way."

Chapter VI: Toward a Theory of Chinese Dream I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

1 Paul Ricoeur, Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Inter-

pretation (New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1970;, pp.
28ff.

2 Norman Malcolm, op. c i t . , pp.83-90.

3 Calvin S. H a l l and Robert L. Van de Castle, The Content

Analysis of Dreams (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,
1966}, p.18.

4 Ch'en Shou, San-kuo chih (Po-na ed.), "Wei chih" 29:12b-13a.

5 In t h i s regard, the Talmudic t r a d i t i o n seems to make an

even stronger claim, namely, that a l l dreams are only as
true as t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . Hence the adage: "A dream
that i s not interpreted i s l i k e a l e t t e r that i s not read."
Cited i n H a l l and Van de Castle, p.23, see also C a i l l o i s ,
The Dream Adventure, p . x i i .

6 Ch'en Shou, op. c i t . , "Wei chih" 29:12ab.

7 Artemidorus, O n e i r o c r i t i c a : The I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Dreams,

t r . Robert J . White (Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Press, 1975),
Bk.1, Sec.1 (p.14).

8 I b i d . , I, 2 (p.15).

9 For the dating of t h i s book, see Ch'u Wan-li, op. c i t . ,

pp.159-171; Bernhard Karlgren, "The E a r l y History of the
Chou-li and the Tso-chuan texts," BMFEA 3 (1931)? Sven
Broman, "Studies on the Chou-li," BMFEA 33 (1961).

10 Chou-li, "Ch'un-kuan tsung-po" chapter. Cf. Richard B.

M a t h e r ( t r . ) , Shih-shuo hsin-ytl: A New Account of Tales
of the World (Minneapolis: U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota Press,
1976), p.98, n.1.

11 Waley's t r a n s l a t i o n ; see Section 1.3.

12 Wang Fu, Ch'ien-fu lun, annotated Wang Chi-p'ei (Shanghai:

Ku-chi ch'u-pan-she, 1978), pp.371-372.
 216

Chapter V I , NOTES c o n t i n u e d :

13 A r t e m i d o r u s d e f i n e s t h e o r e m a t i c dreams as "those which

correspond e x a c t l y t o t h e i r own d r e a m - v i s i o n . F o r example,
a man who was a t sea dreamt t h a t he s u f f e r e d shipwreck,
and i t a c t u a l l y came t r u e i n the way t h a t i t had been
p r e s e n t e d i n s l e e p . " ( I , 1, p.15).

14 Meng-chan l e i - k ' a o 6:27a.

15 I b i d . , 4:13a.

16 Wang Fu, o p . c i t . , pp.376-377.

17 A r t e m i d o r u s , p.15.

18 Ibid.

19 Wang Fu, p.373.

20 A r t e m i d o r u s , p.21.

21 L i u I - c h ' i n g , Shih-shuo h s i n - y t i : A New Account o f T a l e s o f

the World, t r . R i c h a r d B. Mather ( M i n n e a p o l i s : U n i v e r s i t y
o f Minnesota P r e s s , 1976), p.98.

Chapter V I I : Methods o f Chinese Dream I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

1 C f . L e s l i e Shepard ( e d . ) , E n c y c l o p e d i a o f O c c u l t i s m and
P a r a p s y c h o l o g y ( D e t r o i t : Gale Research Co., 1978), p.247.

2 Han-shu i-wen c h i h (Po-na ed.) 10:32b.

3 See Chapter V I , n.9.

4 Sun I - j a n g , C h o u - l i c h e n g - i ( T a i p e i : Commercial Press,

1967) IV, 13.47:60-69.

5 Ibid., 13.48:88-94.

6 Tso-chuan, Chao 7; Legge V, 619.

7 Sun I - j a n g , 13.47:66.

8 Ibid.

9 Ibid., 13.48:95.

10 Ho Ping-yti, "Hou-i s h e - j i h , po-hung k u a n - j i h , ch'tleh yu

c h ' i s h i h ? " Chung Pao Monthly 2 (Hong Kong: Chung-pao
yfteh-k'an, March, 1980), 51-54.
 217

Chapter VII, NOTES continued:

11 Edward C. Whitmont, The Symbolic Quest: Basic Concepts of

A n a l y t i c a l Psychology (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969; r p t .
New York: Harper and Row, 1973), p.38.

12 Hsu Tsuhg-ytian, o p . c i t . , pp.82-84.

13 Meng-chan lei-k'ao 1:9a.

14 I b i d . , 1:5b.

15 Hsiang-meng yu-hsia c h i (Hong Kong: Ch'ang-hsing shu-chtt,

n.d.;, p.81. For a discussion of t h i s source, see
Introduction.

16 I b i d . , pp.82-83.

17 Artemidorus, I I , 26(p.106).

18 Gustavus Hindman M i l l e r , Ten Thousand Dreams Interpreted

(.Chicago: M.-A. Donohue and Co., 1901;, p.124.

19 Following J.R. Searle, I consider metonymy and synecdoche

to be s p e c i a l cases of metaphor; see John T. Searle,
Expression and Meaning (London: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y
Press, 1979), p . m .

20 Monroe Beardsley, Aesthetics (New York: Harcourt, Brace

and World, 1958;, p.134; c i t e d i n Paul Ricoeur, Inter-
pretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus-of Meaning
(Fort Worth, Texas: Texas C h r i s t i a n U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1976), p.46.

21 Meng-chan lei-k'ao 2:12b.

22 Meng-shu, i n Wu-ch'ao hsiao-shuo ta-kuan ( r p t . T a i p e i :

Hsin-hsing, 1960;, pp.627-629.

23 Charles Rycroft, The Innocence of Dreams (London: The

Hogarth Press, 1979), p.86.

24 For a discussion of metaphor of t h i s type, see J.T. Searle,

op. c i t . , pp.91-94.

25 L i Shih-chen, Pen-ts'ao kang-mu ( c . 16th cent.; r p t . Shang-

h a i : Chin-chiang shu-chii, 1885) 48:126.
26 Rycroft, p.71.

27 Sui-shu 29 (Po-na ed.), "Lieh-chuan" 34:9a.

28 Cited i n Richard Cavendish (ed.), Encyclopedia of the

 t 218

Chapter VII, NOTES continued:

Unexplained (New York: McGraw H i l l , 1 9 7 4 ) , p.78.

29 Artemidorus, IV, 80 (p.216).

30 In Ghinese too, i n t e r e s t i s c a l l e d tzu-ch'ien, ' c h i l d -

money', and c a p i t a l mu-ch'ien, 'mother-money'. This
metaphor i s very o l d .
31 Meng-chan lei-k'ao 1:33b.

32 Ytl-hsia c h i , p.87.

33 Meng-chan l e i - k ' a o , 9:16a.

34 Meng-chan lei-k'ao 2 : 1 4 b .

35 I b i d . , 2:11b. Artemidorus devotes a whole section to

dreams of tongues, i n c l u d i n g hairy ones; see O n e i r o c r i t i c a ,
I, 32 (p.33).
36 Meng-chan lei-k'ao 2:16a.s

37 Tuan Ch'eng-shih, op. c i t . , 8:50.

38 L i u An, Huai-nan-tzu (Ku-su: Chd-wen-t'ang, 1804; r p t .

T a i p e i : Chung-kuo tzu-hstleh ming-chu chi-ch'eng pien-
y i n chi-chin-hui), p.265.

39 I b i d .

40 Meng-chan lei-k'ao 1:3b ( c i t e d fronrtthe Chin-shu).

41 I b i d . , 5:14a ( c i t e d from the San-kuo chih).-

42 I b i d . , 1:29b.
 219

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Graham, A.C. The Book of L l e h Tzu. London: John Murray, 1960.

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 224

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 226

APPENDIX
L I S T OP TRANSLITERATED CHINESE WORDS

1 Words and Phrases:

chan-meng h s i meng ^
chen % : hsien-chih ) ^
chen-hsing S.% te- hsien-kung &L,'*>-
ch. ' eng-huang tfy TM. hsien-pi r^*^
cheng meng ZE> ^y- hsLang
ch'i hsiang 1^
chi meng i$r ^ hsing
chia hsii-hsu jan ^
chia hsii f $i hu-lu
chih JL, hui
ch'ih hun
ch'ih
chih meng ^ i-yu
ching ^1" jen \ ^
ching-ch'i '4ft%i j en-shen -^=" ^
ching-shen 'jfj't'f jen-tzu ^
ch'ou p'i-nang jen-wei ^ 'f-*:
chtl meng f-fi ^ jen-yin -^s
chuang-yiian %K'?Ls j u - l a i - t s a n g -fcw^tf^
chtleh-ch'i sk. pen-miao "yiian-hsin ^.'tjrJM *,c

chung ^ kan ^
chung-shu she-jen " f ^ % V
S i r / W /
kuan 1?*
chung-tao "f* ^ kuan fif
fan kui fe,
feng /IL kui
f u iM; k'ung ^
han ^ k'ung c h i shih se ~2 " E / ^ T L -
hou y^" kou
h s i 4". ^ lan T^j
 227

l e i *^ shih-hui -f* *f>

li ssu meng ^
li chi l i f e i &tpifo& ta chtleh
shih c h i f e i chi -A^lfaktf ta nuo
li chien hou M t'ai-pu -A. I K

ling Of t'ang /If

l i n g 'M teng
l i u f u ri lik f i #)
l i u hou -?T f'fx f i ^
mi eh ti-huang
mu-ch'ien ~^ 1^ t i - l i t d . 3?
mu min %K t ' i tzu $L
nan t ' i tzu
nuo ^$. t'ian-hsiang /\_ ijfc.
o meng f | ^* t'ien-jen ho-i 9^ A.'
pa-ming tsai ^
pen chtleh /v Hi t'u -.
p i - c h i hsiao-shuo 'Mo- tu-ch'uan 1% ^
ping ^ tu-ch'uan
ping-ch'en t^7 ^ tzu-ch'ien $j"
/

p'o % wang
pu =8|S wei ^
san wen-hstleh ^
san wu - ^ "
J r

san-chap 3- wu fu -^r^-
san-i -3- 4? wu f u
san-meng JH, ^ wu-hsiang -MrtS
shang t a i - f u -t. r/c ^ wu meng ^ ^
she-meng ^ - B | wu-tso -&r^T-
shen *t yu 1=}
sheng yu Jr
sheng-hsien ^ ytian ^ L -
sheng-yiian ^ yuan chou tsang kuan
shih Bf ch'tl chu mi t ' i 4 S
shih-chin yuan heng T ^ ~ ^
 228

yiin 5t

2 Personal Names:

Chang Chan & *%

Chang Ch'un
Chao Chih ^ 0 X
Chao Ching-tzu ^L""^
Chao Liang-ch'i ^ g . "ft a& Chao Shih-fu < ^
Ch'eng, Duke of W e i ^ - ' - V
Ch'eng, King of Chou l^j ffy =^
Ch'eng Chi en
Cheng Chiu ^ " J f e !
Cheng Mao "|5 r
Chia Pao-yu ^ ^-2.-
Ciang, lady 4$. i %
Chieh 7f\
Ch'ien, Lady ft.
Chin Ch un- ch' i u Ch' i n Chung-yuan ^ If tt.
Ch'ing-tu /St ^ r

Chou, Duke of T$)

Chou, King of Shang
Chou Hsuan /*/
Chou-ko ^
Ch'u, Viscount of
Chung-hsing hsien-tzu "^Afp/fri ^
Ch'un-yii Fen > f *t
Feng )C.
Feng Hou
Fu-hsi iK. Jffc
Fu Ytleh i<f UL
Han Hsuan- tzu ^
Ho Chih -fT
Hsi K'ang f&
Hsi Ytl-chieh J % Ji.- ? # c

Hsiang "t-f
Hsiang, Duke of Wei / f * f ^ . < ^
Hsiao Tao-ch'eng ^
Hsu Chen-chun ty^fzi
Hsu Hstln 1>
Hstleh Sung t | ^
Hu, Lady t#
Hua-t'ing ^ ^
Huang Shan-ku ^-/^
Huang-ti
I-chiang
I Chih'ff ^
I Y i n If ^
Jung-huang
K'ang-shu
Kao, Shaman 3 i i j L
Kuan-kung )i|> - k >
Kuan-ti !&) ^
Kuan Ytl $ j 33
Kun
Kung-sun Hsieh 3^
Kung-sun Tuan 4L
Kuo, Lady p ^
Kuo P'u f?S 4^
L i , Duke of Chin ^ 7%
L i Mu ^
L i Sheng ^
Li Ti
Liang-chih
'Liang-hsiao l^v "8"
Lien P'o
L i u Ch'ao-lin ^ ^
L i u Hstlan '/:?.
L i u Tzu % \K

Lu Mao-fang ' f t t8 ^
Lu Yu-tse^j| &J l

Lu Tung-pin g> ^
Ma Liang
Meng-chih Jk"%
Meng-hsiang J e . *f-
Mu, Duke of Cheng % ff-*.V
Ning Wu-tzu 1 " 2 ^ - ^
Niu4-
Pai CM-i &A$>
Pang-ch'eng -f? -ttfe
Pao-chi
P'ao-hsi / ? L 4 ^
P'ei Yuan-yu ?L.*r^
P'eng-tsu f
Pi-ch'ing }>& JZp
Po-ch'ou 1fa 'gfe-
Po-yu 16
Sheng-po
Shih Ch'ao
Shih Kou 3t v
^
Shih L i e n # v

Shih Sung S ^ t f e
Shou (= Chou, King of Shang)
Shu-sun Mu-tzu iL 9^ f-f- ^
Shun ^
Ssu-ma T'ien "M?
Ssu-tai 3 ro
^
Ta-hsin ^
Tai (= Ssu Tai) ^* r=

Tai ^
T'ai-shu ^
T'an-ytian, Lord ^
T'ang, King of Shang 5%
T'ao K'an ^
Teng A i ~>C
Teng, Master ^jF &^
Teng T'ung ^ *Jb^
Tsai-wo
Ts'ang-chi eh
Ts'ao, Lord ^ <cV
Tsou Yen %)\ tef"
Ts'ui P ' e n g ^ %>>
Tuan, Kung-sun
Tuan 2%
Tung-kuan ^ t*~J&*
Tzu-ch'an
Tzu-erh
Tzu-hsi ^
Tzu-kung ^-"KT
Tzu-k'ung
Tzu-liang
Tzu-ssu ^
Tzu-ta-shu 7t^-^5^

Tzu-ytl ^-SP*
Wang C h i u - l i e n -X. A / * H _
Wang Ming-ytieh 3, / I
^-^7

Wang Shao JS. J>

Wang Tun 3E.
Wang Wei ^-7*
Wei Ch'eng-chi ^ %
Wei Chieh/ftf^
Wen, Madame fx.
Wu Chtin ^
Wu-ting - j -
Wu Yu-pi jg. 4^
Yao-^L
Yao-p'u (Wei) "Si,
Yen-chi .ajfe-fc*
Yin (Mr.) ^
Yin Hao ffSi 3^-
Ying-ch'i
Ying-lung
Yu, King

Y* Ch'ien *-f -tffv

Ytian
 Ytleh F e i &
Ytieh Kuang

3 Place Names:

Chiang-an Shou-ch'un ^
Chiang-ning 5z_ t^P Sung-chiang >feV- 5-x.
Ch'eng-p'u i ffi Tan-ling # ?4
Ch'i ^ T'ang
Chin-chiang TiAch'iu
Chin-hua ^ ^ Tseng ^ j i
Chin-ling Wu-ting (bridge) -3^
Chien-t'ai l&j % Yu-shen J p .
Chien-wei ^ ^ Ytl, Mount 3 9 /
Chiu-li Ytl, abyss of "m i&l
Chti H Ytln-chien [V)
Ho-fei
Hsien-men tung "fa^ P5
Hsien-yu-fJ-.
Hsin-lo %ff %
Hstlan-tzu (Lane) -^1 ^ ^
Huai-an ^
Huan i-LS.
Keng-tsung *^p:
Keng-yang ^
Ku-su-i^S
Li-shen f t
Lin-chiang #A l**
Lin-kao -^jL
Mao-chia pu ifc.
Meng-chu "Hi
P'ei-chou 25/3 M*)
V

P'ing-ch'iao ntfb-
Po
San-ho -3,
 233

4 Other Proper Names:

An-yang ching-chi eh -^^h ^^L ^]

Chia-ching ^
Chia^ ch'ing
Chih-li
Chiu-ho, Lord ^ L < T ) ^
Chun zL
Hsien-f eng ji^ 4jg
I, C o n s t e l l a t i o n %
K'ang-hsi ^ J8
Kuan-yin ^^_T%'
Kuang-ling san ^
Pi
Po-ch'i't&-^-
T'ai-k'ang * 7 ^ ^
T'ai-p'ing ~A.-^~
T i (harharians) "fct.
T i (god)
Tuan-yang i ^ . ^
Wan-li ^ > / H

5 Names of Authors and E d i t o r s :

Chang Chi $L Chu Hsi 3h
Chang Feng-i % . Ch'ii Wan-li/. 3* 3L
Chang Hua Chuang Yiian-ch'en
Chang Shih i%L*K Feng Meng-lung ^ 7t<L
Ch'en Ch'i-yuan (^-^ ? L Ho Ping-yii^f-q- ^ -ft^
Ch'en Shih-yiian T & ^ r L - i Hsing Ping tfp
Ch'en Kao-mo ^ f c ^ - T ^ Hsii Hsiian * *..-f$" S*.
Ch'en Shou Hsii Tsung-yiian ^if.^
Cheng Hsiian ^ ~^"> Hsii Wen-ching 43? *7v ^0"
Ch'i en Mu 4& -f$ Hu Hou-hsiian TftD *^
Chou Ch'i-ming Huang Chtin-tsai-%Sf)3fc.
Chou Liang-kung f] *'
=c
Huang-fu Mi j i - T&' T%L
Chu-an 4% fit. I Shih-chen ~t 3^v
 234

Kao Yu % Wu Chia-ch'ing
K'ung An-kuo TsL^fr Ytl Ytieh J&$_
K' ung Ying- ta u Pang-Tu Lien-che ^>lLJffit%
Kuo Ssu J i Juan Ytian T?L TL*
L i Kung-tso <=V ^ Ho Ping-yti 4T ^
L i Shih-chen # Huang Pao-chen ^ ^ J j -
L i Ytian-cho ^ Ku Shih ^
Lien Ytl-k'ou ?'J 4 % L i Ytian-cho ^ ?t-4-
Lien-ch'ih ta-shih ^ i ^ ^ t f e ^ Chang Hai-p' eng |& i p < ,
%
L i u An ^ ) ^
L i u Ching-shu-fEj ^ "H
L i u Hsiang ^ ' J \%
L i u Hsieh
Liu I - c h ' i n g ^
Liu P'an-sui^
Lo Shih-hsien % &f
Lu Hstin -^^1
Ma Chtln-liang "^>^1\
Mao Hsiang-lin ^f^-/^
Pai Hsing-chienfe?3"7~
Pan Ku (D

Shen Chi-chi f??L ^

Su Shih 3
Sun I-jang <?f>-i& 7 ^
Sun Hsing-yen ^ f ; )f /[ry-
Sun Ssu-raiao ^
T'ang Hsien-tsu 5% ffj^Tiit
T'ao Ch'ien ?) ^
Tu Ytl ^
Tuan Ch'eng-shih -fiL ^ K
Wang Chi-p'ei 3 E . <g. 1%
Wang Ch'ung IZ.
Wang Pu ^ ^
Wang Meng-ou 3- ^ "Zalf
Wang Yung-ch'uan -3. ^ jfc-
Wei Cheng 4^.
Wei Hsiang-shu 'fg
 235

6 Names of Publishers:

Ch'ang-hsing shu-chtl -|L & 4r

Chin-chiang shu-chtl *
^A)
Chin-pu shu-chli $L$?
Chtl-wen-t'ang 3
Chung-hua fo-chiao wen-hua-kuan ^^^fe^k. -k.^^
Chung-hua tzu-hstleh ming-chu chi-ch'eng pien-yin c h i - c h i n -
hui <f B > * - * - * ^ r ^ ^ > ^ 4 L ^ ^ -
Fo-chiao fa-hsiang hstleh-hui
Han-f en-lou I3i> ~$*h*
Hsiieh-sheng shu-chtl ^ * ^ ?
Hsin-hsing shu-chtl ^ff-^r^ 75?
I-chia-she ' ifjx.^T-^
I-wen yin-shu-kuan X. cp^-^^
Jen-min wei-sheng ch'u-pan-she A . ^.-f%"'^- &i rt-fc. ^** -5

Keng-shen fo-chiaj* liu-t'ung-ch'u ^ ^T^>^ % j^^ft

K'o-hstleh chi-shu ch'u-pan-she -t^^
Ku-chi ch'u-pan-she
Lien-ching shu-tien
Lil-ytlan shu-tien ^ ^ " # 7 ^
Sao-yeh shan-fang ^ " i f c &f
T'ai-p'ing shu-chti "A.-^-"^"/^
Wen-hstieh ku-chi k'an-hsing-she ~K^&^TZ-^
Wen-sheng shu-chtl
Wen-yu-t'ang 7x."jtl
Wu-sheng-t'ang ~i ^ i t ?

7 T i t l e s of Written Works:
Chan-meng ching * -jr
Chen-chung c h i 'fa-^-iZ*
Chi-shen l u i ^ ' ^ ' f ^
C h i - i ^ ^
Ch'i-wu lun ^ ^ - i ^
Chi yao
 236

Chia-ku-hsueh Shang-shih lun-ts'ung ch'u-chi f l' $~ffi

J J

Ch'ien-chin pao-yao ^ ^ ' ^ ^

Ch'ien-fu lun Ffr
Chin-hu lang-mo /S^
Chin-kang ching /Qs $-J &k
Ching-chin Tung-p'o wen-chi shih-lueh
Ch'ing-hua hslieh-pao ^IH^^t^
Chiu-chiu hsiao-hsia l u
Chiu yao tl* ^
Chou-kung chi eh meng f^) --^"SKp.^
Chou-li ch&ng-i |i] ^
Chou Mu-wang /I) f^' -3,
Chu- ch' uang san-pi 'rf -3- 3^.
Chu-shu chi-nien t'ung-chien 4^f^5-d^^2
Chuang Chou meng hu-tieh lun $L ( l ) ^ * ! ^ Xfr'
Chuang L i eh shih lun ~Sj&L -f- iltr
Ch'un-tsai-t'ang ch'uan-chi
Ch'ung-k'an Sung-pen . . . chu-shu ~^^f*)*5fc 7^ ^
Chung-kuan l u n ^^ML"^
Chung-kuo hsiao-hua hstlan *f* Si
Chung-kuo ssu-hsiang-shih chung chih kui-shen-kuan

Chung-pao. <^ 4*$.

Erh chu
Erh-shih-ssu shih = ^
Han-shu i-wen-chih chiang-shu ^ ^ -XL"7V "t^^SL.
Han- sung-1 ang ch'ttan-c h i fc> IS: ^
1
&
Han-sung-t'ang yung-yen '=K"V*ir/f
Han-tan meng j&p
Hang-chou t i ch'i-meng ku-shih f^^tj fcic'gL.
Hou Ch'ih-pi f u fc
Hou-i she-jih po-hung kuan-jih ch'ueh-yu c h ' i - s h i h

Hsiang-meng ytl-hsia chi " i ^ - ^ (5. '

Hsiao f u -ySLTrf
Hsiao tao
Hsin hstl 3fj fir
Hsii Sou-shen chi -^.'.ft^f^
Hsii Chen-chiln yu-hsia chi -i^JL/B X-fi-ic-
Hsii Tao-tsang ffif
Hstian-ming wu-ch'i ^ Bff ^
Hsileh-chin t'ao-yilan H* c^.*tf/?^.
Huang-liang meng ^ ^
Huang-ti ch'ang-liu chan-meng A ty
Huang-ti nei-ching su-wen ^) i ^ " ^ " |
Huai-nan-tzu 3-
I-ylian ^ ~9l_J I-hai chu-ch'enf
Jen-wu feng-su chih-tu ts'ung-tan /^fh$1^*3^/^"^ $L
Kan-te ch'ang-liu chan-meng ~^*-f^.-Bc^p
Ku-chi tao-tu*&"^^-"ife
Kuan-sheng ti-chtin,:sheng-chi t'u-chih jty - f e - ^ ^ l 5 2l[ ^
Kuan-yin-tzu ^ 5^"
Lang-huan chi
Leng-yen i - t u chien-chu f^/3L-"t> f) e
^
L i - c h i chin-chu c h i n - i / ^ ^ ^ ^ " T 2 . 7 ' T ^ ,
/ v / v

Lien-chih ta-shih ch'-uan-chi ^^efe_ g.^^-^-

Ling-hun ytl h s i n ^
Ling-shu ching fg, ^
L i u p i -rt c_
Lun heng c h i - c h i eh i'k-jf%'fa%-
Lun ssu T&^e-'
Lun-ytl Chang Hsilan-kung chieh i&
Lung-wei mi-shu M . ^ ' f - ^ ^
Meng-chan i - c h i h <i %r
Meng-chan l e i - k ' a o ^ <fe
Meng l i e h ^
Meng-shu
Min hsiao-chi
Ming Chiing hsiao-hua ssu chung Bft 2 # < r E > ;
rt.
Ming meng BR ^* '
Mo-ytl l u 4 3fc
Mo-ho po-je po-luo-mi-tuo ching 7 ^ ^ T ^ l ^ Ig"
 238

Nan-k ' o f ai-shou chuan *T 7 ^ ^ * 1 $

Nei-ching chiang-i (*) 5: i ^ -
Neng-tuan chin-kang po-je po-luo-mi-tuo ching tsuan-i

Pen-ching hsfin
Pen-ts' ao kang-mu /K ?T *
P i - c h i hsiao-shuo ta-kuan ^z-iZ* -h-riL -fcJftfL.
Po-tzu ch'uan-shu ~W
Po-wu chih
P'ing-chin-kuan ts 'ung-shu ^-s^^if^k ^
San chu
San-kuo c h i h - ^ W ^
San-raeng c h i
Shang-han lun - f % ^ 7/5fe-
S h i h - l e i t'ung-pien ^ ^ ^
Shih meng - g r ^
Shih-shuo hsin-ytl -tit" n.^%fj -ijjr
Shu-ehu-tzu tfe X
Shuo meng t*L ^
Sou-shen hou-chi f ! t ^ ^
Ssu f u f ^
Ssu kan tf f
Su-wen ^
Ta chih-tu l u n - T t ^ " ^ ^

Taisho shinshu Daizo kyo -^vl UL "%fj f?f -/Lift 2%.

T' an-kung ^ 5
T'ang Sung Ch'uan-ch'i chi 7% ^fc-ff-
T i wang shih-chi c h i - t s 'un -TJ& X iz^jfajfy-
Ting kui - i f
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