» GtKPTER MECHANICAL DESI OF TRANSMISSION LINES () INSULATORS ‘The overhead line conductors should be supported on the poles or towers in such a way that currents from conductors do not flow to earth through supports i.e., line conductors must be properly insulated from supports. This is achieved by securing line conductors to supports with the help of insulators. The insulators provide necessary insulation between line conductors and supports and thus prevent any leakage current from conductors to earth In general, the insulators should have the following desirable properties (i) High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load ete. (ii) High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage currents to earth, (ii) High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength is high. (iv) The insulator material should be non-porous, free from impurities and cracks otherwise the permittivity will be lowered, (¥) High ratio of puncture strength to lashover ‘The most commonly used material for insulators of overhead line is. Porcelain is produced by firing ata high temperature a mixture of kaolin, feldspar and quartz. It is mechanically stronger, gives less trouble from leakage and is less affected by changes of temperature. ‘Types of Insulators 1. Pim type insulators. The part section of a pin type insulator is shown in Fig, (). As the ‘ame suggests, the pin type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the Fig 2 (*) @ i) pole. There isa groove on the upper end of he insulator for housing the conductor. The conductor passes through this groove and is bound by the annealed wire ofthe same material as the conductor [Fig. (ii) Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages upto 33 KV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky and hence uneconomical. Causes Of ins lure: Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses. The latter type is primarily due to line voltage and may cause the breakdown ofthe insulator. The electrical break down of the insulator can occur either by flash-over or puncture, In lash- over, an arc occurs between the line conductor and insulator pin (ic. cart) and the discharge jumps across the air gaps. following shortest distance. Following figure shows the arcing distance (i.e. a+b + C) forthe insulator.ssn Incase of flash-over, the insulator will continue to act in its proper capacity unless extreme heat produced by the arc destroys the insulator. In case of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin through the body of the insulator. When such breakdown is involved, the insulator is permanently destroyed due to excessive heat. In practice, sufficient thickness of porcelain is provided in the insulator to avoid puncture by the line voltage. The ratio of puncture strength to flash- over voltage is known as safety factor ie, ey fastr finer = Puc avENE Safety factor of insulator = rast overvolige Itis desirable that the value of safety factor is high so that flash-over takes place before the insulator gets punctured, For pin type insulators, the value of safety factor is about 10, 2. Suspension type insulators. The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly as the ‘working voltage is increased. Therefore, this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33 kV. For high voltages (>33 kV), itis a usual practice to use suspension type insulators shown in Figure below. ‘They consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by meta links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other end of the string is secured tothe cross-arm of the tower. Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say 11 kV. The number of discs in series would obviously depend upon the working voltage. For instance, ifthe working volt age is 66 KV, then six discs in series will be provided on the string. Advantages (Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond 33 kV. (ijEach unit or dise of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage,usually 11 KV. Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be connected in series (ii) Ifany one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the ‘damaged disc can be replaced by the sound one. 37(iv)The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility tothe line. The connection atthe cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any direction and can take up the position where mechanical stresses are minimum. () Incase of increased demand onthe transmission line, iis found more satisfactory to supply the greater demand by raising the lin voltage than to provide another set of conductors. The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained in the suspension arrangement by adding the desired number of discs. (i)The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the conductors run below the earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefor, this arrangement provides partial protection from lightning, 3.Straim insulators, When there is dead end of the line or ther is comer ot sharp curve, the Tine is subjected to greater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain insulators are used. For low voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high voltage transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension insulators as shown in Figure below. The discs of strain insulators are used inthe vertical plane, When the tension in lines is exceedingly high, as at long river spans, two or more strings are used in parallel Svan insite fr It fg 4. Shackle insulators. In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But now a days they ae frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either in a horizontal position or ina vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or o the cross arm. Figure below shows a shackle insulator fixed tothe pole. ‘The conductor inthe groove is fixed with a soft binding wire. 77 uaPotential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String A string of suspension insulators consists of a numberof porcelain discs connected in series through metallic links. Figure()) shows 3-dise string of suspension insulators, The porcelain portion ofeach disc is in between two metal links. Therefore, each dise forms a capacitor C as shown in Figure(ii). This is known as mutual capacitance or self-capacitance. If there were mutual capecitance alone, then charging current would have been the same through all the iscs and consequently voltage across each unit would have been the same i.e., V/3 as shown in Figure(i). However, in actual practice, capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each disc and tower or earth. This is known as shunt capacitance C, Due to shunt capacitance, charging current is not the same through all the discs of the string { Figure (ii). Therefore, voltage across cach disc will be different. The disc nearest tothe line conductor will have the maximum voltage. Thus referring to Figure (ii) V5 will be much more than Vz or Vi c= vp cM a th 1 > “he ok vp ol Ns | moe Conductor ” o wo (i Ag ‘The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to be punctured. Therefore, means must be provided to equalise the potential across each uit. String Efficiency As the voltage applied across the string of suspension insulators is not uniformly distributed across various units or dises, the disc nearest to the conductor has much higher potential than the other discs. This unequal potential distribution is undesirable and is usually expressed in terms of string efficiency. ‘The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the voltage across the disc nearest tothe conductor is known as string efficiency ic, Tonge aaron the sing _—_ 19x Woltage across dis nearest o condor ‘Where ‘n’ isthe number of discs in the string, Surng efficiency = String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential distribution along the string The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform isthe voltage distribution, a4‘Mathematical expression, er ash Let us suppose tat self capacitance ofeach disc is C. Let us further assume that shunt capacitance C is some fraction K of self capacitance KC. Starting from the cross-arm_ or tower, the voltage across each unit is Vj, Vo and Vs respectively as shown, Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node A, we get, Fig 90 he hth Yor = Yocs v0, ra Voc = Vaca Vokc Y= %,0+8) « Applying Kies curen iw to node B, we Bet, = hth fa Yoe = Yacay,+yact ra Woe = Vacs (V,+¥) 0KC a Y= e+ Ve My eKa+en Ben cent VIkK+0+K)) y= vleaee ry a) ‘logs bln eed i woe Le tower) is We¥e%y Satdebsyneitses ViG+4K +R) = 44H 0+ it) Fox 00 wd i, Wane SUE, Pa cee eres Vas fn 1” TR iaaKee ETD) oe Voltage across top unit, Vp = ———V___ nesses VS oymorR og eos second unit from op, V, = ¥ (1+) ‘Voltage across third unit from top, Vs = V, (1+3K+®°) Wake cross sting : ——_Votageseress sting ___499 ‘bage Swing efficiency = [> Vokage across dise nearest to conductor v em‘Methods of Improving String Efficiency ‘thas been seen above that potential distribution in a string of suspension insulators is not uniform. The maximum voltage appears across the insulator nearest to the line conductor and ‘subetaton (recon) Secondary distribution system. tis that part of ac. distribution system which includes the range of voltages at which the ultimate consumer utilises the electrical energy delivered to him, The secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system, st 5%Itis common knowledge that electric power is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed as ac. However, for certain applications, dc. supply is absolutely necessary. For instance, dc. supply is required for the operation of variable speed machinery (i.e, d.c. ‘motors), for electrochemical work and for congested areas where storage battery reserves are necessary. For this purpose, ac. power is converted into d.c. power atthe substation by using converting machinery e.g, mercury arc rectifiers, rotary converters and motor-generator sets ‘The dc. supply from the substation may be obtained in the form of (i) 2-wire or (ii) 3-wire for distribution, 2.wire de.system. This system of distribution consists of two wires. One isthe outgoing or positive wire and the other isthe return or negative wire. The loads such as lamps, motors etc. ‘are connected in parallel between the two wires as shown in Fig. below. - = ia Fig 44 ‘wire de system. It consists of two outers and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the substation. The voltage between the outers i twice the voltage between either outer and neutral wire as shown in Fig, below. The principal advantage ofthis system is that it makes available two voltages at the consumer terminals viz., V between any outer and the neutral and 2 between the outers. Loads requiring high voltage (e.g, motors) are connected across the cuter, whereas lamps and heating circuits requiring less voltage are connected between either outer and the neutral. fe we + = ! FG us 60When te feeder ring is energised by two or more than two generating stations or substations, called inter-connected system. Fig. below shows the single line diagram of interconnected system where the closed feeder ring ABCD is supplied by two substations S; and S; at points D and C respectively. Distributors are connected to points 0, P. Q and «the feeder ring through distribution transformers. The interconnected system has the follows.2 advantagesCHAPTER 9 ECONOMICS ASPECTS OF POWER SYSTEMS ‘Load Curves The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time is known as a load curve. Ni co a i et ctw ere se we ng | WD me ou ‘The daily load curve shows the variations of load on the power station during vifferent hours of the day. ‘The area under the daily load curve gives the number of Units generated in the day. Units generated/day = Area (in kWh) under daily load curve. ‘The highest point on the daily load curvé represents the maximum demand on the station on that day. ‘The area under the daily load curve divided by the total number of hours gives the average load on the station in the day. Connected load: itis the sum of continuous ratings of al the equipments connected to supply system. Average load: The average of loads occurring on the power stati a given period (day or month or year) is known as average load average load = 220 A ner aly ea ae Load factor = Average loud _ Average load x 24 ‘Max. demand ~ Max, demand 24 = ‘Area (in KWh) under daily load curve "Tota area of rectangle in which the load curve is contained Diversiy factor = Sum of individual max. demands “Max demand on power station ‘Numerical Example 1., The maximum demand on a power station is 100 MW. Ifthe annual load factor is 40%, calculate the total energy generated in a year Energy generated/year = Max. demand x L-F. x Hours in a year 63Numerical Example 2. A 100 MW power station delivers 100 MW for 2 hours, 50 MWfor 6 hours and is shut down for the rest of each day. It is also shut down for maintenance for 45 days each year Calculate its annual load factorCHAPTER 10 TARIFF ‘The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as Tariff Objectives of tariff: Like other commodities, electrical energy is also sold at such a rate so that it not only returns the cost but also ears reasonable profit. Therefore, a tariff should include the following items: (i) Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station (ii) Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and distribution systems. (iii) Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy e.g., metering equipment, billing et. (iv) A suitable profit on the capital investment. ‘Types of Tariff LSimple tariff, When there i tariff Inthis type of tariff, the price charged per unitis constant ie, it does not vary with increase or decrease in number of units consumed. fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, itis called a simple 2, Fate rate tariff, When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform per unit rates, its called a flat rate tariff In this type of tarif, the consumers are grouped into different classes and each class of consumers is charged at a different uniform rate. ‘When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the ‘succeeding blocks of energy are charged at progressively reduced or increased rates, itis called a block rate tai. 4. Two-part tariff: When the rate of electical energy is charged on the basis of maximum ‘demand of the consumer and the units consumed, it i called a two-part tariff. In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two components viz, fixed charges and running charges. The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer while the running charges depend upon the number of units consumed by the consumer. Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of ‘maximum demand plus a certain amount per kWh of energy consumed i.e, Total charges = OR (b x kW + cx kWh) where, b= charge per kW of maximum demand = charge per kWh of energy consumed S.Three-part tariff. When the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into three parts viz, fixed charge, semi-fixed charge and running charge, itis known as a three-part tarifh ie, Total charge OR(a+bXkW+cXKWh) where a fixed charge made during each billing period. It includes interest and depreciation on the cost of secondary distribution and labour cost of collecting revenues, b charge per kW of maximum demand, charge per kWh of energy consumed. tS‘Numerical Example 1. A consumer has a maximum demand of 200 kW at 40% loadfactor. If the tariffs OR. 1 per kW of maximum demand plus 10 baiza per kwh, find the overall cost per kwh. Solution Units consumed/year = Max. demand x L.F, x Hours ina year = ‘Annual charges = Annual M.D. charges + Annual energy charges Overall cosvkWh. Numerical Example 2. An electric supply company having a maximum load of 50 MW {generates 18 x 10° units per annum and the consumers have an aggregate demand of 75 MW ‘The annual expenses including capital charges are For fuel = OR 9000 Fixed charges concerning generation OR 28000 lakhs Fixed charges concerning transmission and distribution OR 32000 Assuming 90% of the fuel cost is essential to running charges and the loss in transmission and distribution as 15% of kWh generated, derive a Two part tariff to find the actual cost of supply to the consumers. Solution: Annual fixed charges For generation For Transmission and Distribution = For fuel(10% only) = Total annual fixed charges = Thi chs fs bi sits wee gree mucEnun deme ose anos SOC W) Therefore, cost per kW of maximum demand = ‘Annual running Chagres Cost of fuel(90% Units delivered to consumers = 85% of units generated = This cost is to be spread over the units delivered to the consumers. ‘Therefore Cost / kWh =CHAPTER II POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT The cosine of angle between voltage and current in an ac, circuit is known as power factor. Power Triangle <— 0 Fe g ‘The power factor ofa circuit can be defined in one of the following three ways : @ Power factor = cos = cosine of angle between Vand J R_ Resistance oO - = 2, Resistance 6) Power factor = J = me te) Power factor = Vicos@ .._Active power VI ~ Apparent Power ‘The reactive power is neither consumed in the circuit nor it does any useful work. It merely flows back and forth in both directions in the circuit. A wattmeter does not measure reactive power vantages of Low Power Factor (i) Large kVA rating of equipment. Gi) Greater conductor ske. iil) Large copper losses. (iv) Poor voltage regulation, (W) Reduced handling capacity of system. uses of Low Power Factor ) Most ofthe ac, motors are of induction type which have low lagging power factor. ‘These motors work ata power factor which is extremely small on light load (0.2 to 0.3) and rises to 0.8 or 0.9 at full load. (ii) Are lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at low lagging power factor. (ii) The load on the power system is varying being high during moming and evening and low at other times. During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increases the magnetisation current. This results in the decreased power factor. Power Factor Improvement ‘The low power factor is mainly due tothe fact that mort cf the powes loads are inductive and, there fore, take lagging currents. In order to improve the power factor, some device taking leading power should be connected in parallel with the load. ‘Types of Power Factor Improvement 1. Static capacitors. 2. Synchronous condenser.o w i, The power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors in parallel with the equipment operating at lagging power factor. The capacitor (generally known as static capacitor) draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralises the lagging reactive ‘component of load current. This raises the power factor of the load, Static capacitors are used for power factor improvement in factories. Advantages (V) They have low losses. (ii) They require little maintenance as there are no rotating parts. (ii) They can be easly installed as they are light and require no foundation. (¥) They ean work under ordinary atmospheric conditions. Disadvantages (i) They have short service life ranging from 8 to 10 years. (i) They are easily damaged if the voltage exceeds the rated value. (iii) Once the capacitors are damaged, their repair is uneconomical. 2. Synchronous condenser. A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over- excited and, therefore, behaves asa capacitor. An over-excited synchronous motor running on no load is known as Synchronous condenser. When such a machine is connected in parallel with the supply, it takes a leading current which partly neutralises the lagging reactive component ofthe load. Thus the power factor is improved. 1 & Spam ey Advantages ie () By varying the fel excitation, the magnitude of curent drawn by the motor can be changed by any amount. This helps in achieving stepess control of power factor. i) The motor windings have high thermal stability to shor cicuitcurens i) The faults can be removed easily, Disadvantages (i) There are considerable Josss in the motor. (i) The maintenance cos is high, (i) It prodces nose. (iv) Except in sizes above 500 kVA, the cost is greater than tat of static capacitors of the same rating.(W) Asa synchronous motor has no selfstarting torque, therefore, an auxiliary equipment has to be provided for tis purpose, Numerical Example single phase motor connected to 400V, 50 Hz supply takes 31.7A ata power factor of 0.7 lagging. Calculate the capacitance required in parallel with the motor to raise the power factor to 0.9 lagging. Solution:CHAPTER 1Q Generating stations and substations earthing Grounding or Earthing: The process of connecting the metalic frame (i.e. non-current carrying pant) of electrical equipment or some electrical pat ofthe system to earth is called ‘grounding or earthing. Grounding or earthing may be classified as: (i) equipment grounding (i) system grounding, Equipment grounding deals with earthing the non current carrying metal parts of the electrical equipment. System grounding means earthing some part of the electrical system e.g. earthing cof neutral point of star connected system in generating stations and substations. By adopting proper schemes of system grounding, we can achieve many advantages including protection, reliability and safety to the power system network. Examples: Fig. (i) shows the primary winding of a distribution transformer connected between the line ‘and neutral ofa 11 KV line Ifthe secondary conductors are ungrounded, it would appear that ‘person could touch either secondary conductor without harm because there is no ground return, However, this is not true. Referring to Fig. (), there is capacitance C between primary ‘and secondary and capacitance C between secondary and ground, This capacitance coupling ‘can produce a high voltage between the secondary lines andthe ground, Depending upon the relative magnitudes of C; and Cy it may be as high as 20% to 40% of the primary voltage. Ifa person touches cither one of the secondary wires, the resulting capacitive current I. flowing through the body could be dangerous even in case of small transformers [ Fig. 26.5(i)]. For example, if is only 20 mA, the person may get a fatal electric shock. on sw FIGS os o ene If one ofthe secondary conductors is grounded, the capacitive coupling almost reduces to zero and so is the capacitive current I. As a result, the person will experience no electric shock. This explains the importance of system grounding. (Gi) Fig. (i) shows the primary winding of a distribution transformer connected between the line and neutral ofa 11 KV line. The secondary conductors are ungrounded. Suppose that the high voltage line (11 KV in this case) touches the 230 V conductor as shown in Fig. (i), This could be caused by an internal fault in the transformer or by a branch or tree falling across the 11 kV and 230 V lines. Under these circumstances, avery high voltage i imposed between the secondary conductors and ground. This would immediately puncture the 230 V insulation, causing a massive flashover. This flashover could occur anywhere on the secondary network, possibly inside a home or factory. Therefore, ungrounded secondary inthis case isa potential fire hazard and may produce grave accidents under abnormal conditions. wh)0 w fone ofthe secondary lines is grounded as shown in Fig. (i), the accidental contact between a 11 kV conductor and a 230 V conductor produces a dead short, The short- circuit current (i. fault current) follows the dotted path shown in Fig, (iv) This large current will blow the fuse on the 11 KV side, thus disconnecting the transformer and secondary distribution system from the 11 kV line, This explains the importance of system grounding in the line ofthe power system.CtepTER 13 Power carrier communication Power carrier communication isa system for carrying data on a conductor also used for electric power transmission, Electrical power is transmitted over high voltage transmission lines, distributed over medium voltage, and used inside buildings at lower voltages. Powerline communications can be applied at each stage, All power line communications systems operate by impressing a modulated carrer signal on the wiring system. Different types of powerline communications use different frequency bands, depending on the signal transmission characteristics of the power wiring used. Since the power wiring system was originally intended for transmission of AC power, in conventional use, the power wire circuits have only a limited ability to cary higher frequencies. The propagation problem is a limiting factor for each type of power line communications. Data rates over a powerline communication system vary widely. Low-frequency (about 100- 200 kHz) carriers impressed on high-voltage transmission lines may carry one or two analog voice circuits, or telemetry and control circuits with an equivalent data rate ofa few hundred bits per second; however, these circuits may be many miles long. ACIDC power Transmission In the past few years, high voltage DC transmission has become attractive because of its technical and economical advantages. However, construction of new lines, and more importantly, obtaining new right-of-ways for the lines have become very difficult due to public concern related to environmental effects. One option to overcome this problem is to utilize existing high voltage AC corridors for operating adjacent HVDC lines. A DC line can be set up on different towers or can even be installed on the same towers used for an existing AC line, The configuration of an AC and a DC line running within the same corridor is known as a hybrid corridor. The configuration of AC and DC lines sharing the same transmission line tower (hybrid tower) is called a hybrid line. END oF HAND OUT