Ecology, Environment and Social Responsibility

Global Environmental Change

S09: Loss of Biodiversity, Water Scarcity

Profesor: Ing. Bruno Portillo Seminario MSc.

Land Degradation & Soil Erosion

(USDA NRCS 2014)

Land Degradation & Soil Erosion

(USDA NRCS 2014)

Land Degradation & Soil Erosion
Soil: A type of ecosystem that provides substrate and habitat
for plants.
Main ecosystem services:
1. Produce biomass.
2. Sustain biodiversity.
3. Regulate water & nutrient cycling.
Essential to the production of over 90% of the worlds food.
Soils also support well-being via carbon storage ecosystem
service: over 4,000 billion tons of carbon (Lobos Alva, 2013).

VIDEO:
Lets talk About Soil (IASS, 2012)
http://vimeo.com/53618201
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y2bBimj0dFU
(GEF, 2014)
Land Degradation & Soil Erosion
Land & Soil Degradation.
Degradation
Soils develop in many years but are ruined fast by human
actions.
Natural losses: leaching, erosion and mass movements.
Now more frequent.
The more topsoil that is removed the more erosion that
occurs, as there are fewer roots to bind the soil.
Degraded land loses productivity production
socioeconomic problems in agro-ecosystems hitting
especially poor smallholder farmers and pastoralists.
Exacerbated by increased vulnerability to climate change
& variability.
Affects 33 %of Earths land, and +2.6 billion people in
(GEF, 2014)
+100 countries
Land & Soil Degradation.
Degradation
Main causes:
1. Erosion: Physical loss of soil due to removal by water or
wind [loss of more than 24 billion tons of soil each year ]
2. Salinization: Chemical loss of soil from salts saturation
due to irrigation, evaporation and waterlogging
3. Compaction: Physical loss of soil due to pressure from
agrimechanization equipment (tractors, harvesters)
4. Nutrient depletion: Loss of functional soil due to
reduced nutrient content after erosion or biochemical
effects (loss of soil biodiversity from toxins, pesticides,
fertilization and monolculture)

(GEF, 2014)
Land & Soil Degradation
Annual loss of per capita arable land in
developing countries, 19612009
Arable land per capita from 0.45 to 0.25 in
last 50 years (FAO, 2011 in Lobos Alva 2013)

Source: IFPRI, from FAO, FAOSTAT database.

Causes Of Soil Degradation

(FAO, ND)
Land Degradation

(NAPSWQ, Australia, supergreenme)

Land
Degradation
Land Degradation
Salinization
Damaged about 30 million of world's 237 million Ha of
irrigated farmland.
+80 million Ha affected to some degree
1.5 million Ha lost irrigated land each year to waterlogging
and salinity.

Huarmey
Land Degradation
Salinization
Peru around 300 000 of
1 000 000 irrigated Ha
are salinized, of which
90 000 unproductive,
55 000 Chao
Ica
underproductive.
Dams exacerbate the
problem and there are
no projects to recover
soils.
Risk of accentuating
land acumulation.
 Land
Degradation:
Peak Phosphorus

Since the 1960s, phosphorus

fertilizer consumption has
risen continually, from an
It is conceivable that peak annual average
world extraction could be during that decade of 28
reached as early as 2030 million tonnes to roughly
(Global Phosphorus Research Initiative,
2008). 160 million tonnes in 2008
Land
Degradation:
Peak Phosphorus
Deforestation
Forest
more than 0.5 ha
canopy cover more than 10%
not primarily under agricultural or other non-forest land use.
young forests or climatically suppressed, 5 m high.
Types
o Primary Forest
Never been logged and has developed following natural
disturbances and under natural processes, regardless of its age.
o Secondary Forest
Has been logged and has recovered naturally or artificially. Not
all secondary forests provide the same value to sustaining
biodiversity, or goods and services, as did primary forest in the
same location Source: Convention on biological diversity
Environmental Problems: Deforestation
Importance:
One of the most biologically rich terrestrial systems but only
30% of continental surface.
Tropical, temperate and boreal forests offer diverse habitats
hosting the vast majority of terrestrial species.
Forest biodiversity provide an array of goods and services, from
timber and non-timber resources to mitigating climate change.
Provide livelihoods for people worldwide, especially indigenous
communities.
THIS PROPERTIES ARE SIGNIFICANTLY GREATER IN PRIMARY
FORESTS

Source: Convention on biological diversity

 Environmental Problems: Deforestation
In the last 8000 years 45% of Earth's original forest cover has
disappeared, most cleared during 20th century.
FAO recently estimated 13 million Ha of worlds forests are lost
due to deforestation each year.
The annual net loss of forest 2000 - 2005 was 7.3 million Ha:
0.18 % of the worlds.
oMechanisms :
1. Deforestation proper.
2. Fragmentation.
Source: Convention on biological diversity
3. Degradation.
 Environmental Problems: Deforestation
Peru
o Forest area (2010): 53% .
o Primary forest area (2010): 47%

PERU Info on
GLOBAL FOREST WATCH
http://www.globalforestwatch.org/country/PER Source: Conservation International
Environmental Problems: Deforestation

Drivers
Tropical deforestation wrongly attributed only to
subsistence farmers clearing forest for farming and
firewood.
Commercial agriculture and timber industry main
agents. 10 percent of global warming within land use
change .
Demand primarily urban areas.
Population and diet pull the commodities.
Source: TEEB
Environmental Problems: Deforestation
Drivers
Soybeans: Rapid recent expansion of Amazon deforestation.
Cattle and Pasture: Large areas to generate small amounts of
food.
Timber and Paper: Continuous demand.
Palm Oil: Production more than doubled in the last decade now
main global vegetable oil. especially in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Area in SE Asia has tripled in a decade.
Vegetable oils are everywhere, totalled 196 million TM in 2014,
palm oil 58, and soybean 44.
Solutions are at sight:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0o6WHN4NDTk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tk9BntFE_BY Source: Convention on biological diversity
Environmental Problems: Deforestation
Recent actions : moratorium in soybean industry in Brazil:
deforestation slows and even stops in the next few decades
(with remote sensing).
Future actions
Reducing demand for deforestation commodities.
Increasing productivity of tropical land and moving
expansion to grasslands, not forests.
Monitor spread of biofuel production, new demand pull.
Recent successes can be duplicated , in few decades null
deforestation could be possible.
Source: Convention on biological diversity
Deforestation affects the world unequally:
Developed countries are gaining forest
Developing countries losing it
Source: FAO, UNEP, UNFF 2009 Vital Forest Graphics
 Environmental Problems: Deforestation
Peru
o 3rd largest tropical rainforest, after Brazil and Congo (DRC).
o Richest in the world, for both biodiversity and mineral and
energy resources.
o Deforestation and degradation increased with economic
growth.
o Drivers: 1st agriculture (slash-and-burn farming and
overgrazing), 2nd logging activities for domestic uses and
timber trade.
o Conversion to agriculture in the highland areas. Lowlands:
human settlements and newly opened areas (highways).
o Illegal trafficking of timber. 2001 Brazil banned mahogany ,
Peru became the primary global supplier in the market.
Source: Conservation International
Air Pollution
All of these pollutants, except for carbon dioxide (CO2), can seriously affect
human health:
o Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Ground-level
o Nitrogen oxides (NOx) ozone (O3) PM 2.5
o Sulphur oxides (SOx)
Acid rain
o Particulate matter (PM)
o Carbon monoxide (CO)
o Lead particles (Pb)
o Carbon dioxide (CO2).

Secondary pollutants
Air pollutants not directly
emitted but formed through
reactions of other emissions in
the air.
Source: IRGC 2009 Hauge et al.
Air Pollution
Environmental damage (acidification, eutrophication; and climate change) It
results in reduced agricultural productivity; reduced aquatic life.
Increasing number of other toxic and carcinogenic chemicals being detected
in the urban atmosphere.
o Lead: neuropsychological effects and damage
caused to the central nervous system.
o Sulfure dioxide: Respiratory impacts
asthma & chronic bronchitis
o Ozone: premature death,
Asthma
Affects plants.
o Carbon Monoxide
reduces the capacity of the blood to carry Oxygen- can result in death.

Source: UNEP Tookit

Air Pollution
800,000 die prematurely from air pollution each year.
Many more suffer from other impacts, such as air pollution-related cancers,
cardiopathies, reduced child development, asthma attacks, and bronchitis

Health pyramid. Source: Mike Walsh

Acute (CO, O3); Long term (PM)

London 1952: 5 days 8000 deaths
Animacin Efectos en salud : http://www.unep.org/tnt-unep/toolkit/animations/Healtheffects.swf
Animacin Material particulado: http://www.epa.gov/airnow/pm/pm.html Source: UNEP
Animacin Ozone: http://www.epa.gov/airnow/airnow/ozone/o3.html
Air Pollution

Source: UNEP Tookit

Air Pollution
o Air quality Lima monitoring sites in: San Borja, Ate, Jess Mara,
Santa Anita and Villa Mara del Triunfo

MP10 in 2011

Source: Evaluacin de la calidad del aire en Lima Metropolitana 2011 (SENAMHI)

Air Pollution
o Air quality Lima monitoring sites in: San Borja, Ate, Jess Mara,
Santa Anita and Villa Mara del Triunfo

MP10 in 2011

Source: Evaluacin de la calidad del aire en Lima Metropolitana 2011 (SENAMHI)

Air Pollution
Perus Economic impacts
Air Pollution
Perus Economic impacts

Indoor air pollution represent 0.4% of GDP (rural)

Outdoor air pollution represent 0.9% of GDP 2005 (urban).

Source: Peru Country Environmental Analysis 2006.

Air Pollution - Where does Limas pollution come from?
The districts in higher risks are Lima, Ate, SJL, Comas and Callao.
Emissions come mainly from fossil fuels

Industry
Transport

Depending on the age and standard of the vehicle, the emissions will differ.
Type of fuel and the influence of fuel quality on emissions - lead and sulphur
Source: UNEP Toolkit /Evaluacin de la calidad del aire en Lima Metropolitana 2011 (SENAMHI)
.
Air Pollution - Fuel Harmfulness index

Diesel engines produce Fuel Index

about 10 to 100 times Compressed Natural Gas 1.0
more particulate matter
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) 1.5
than gasoline engines.
Gasoline 84, 90, 95, 97 1.6
Diesel with 50 ppm SO2 2.6
Diesel with 500 ppm SO2 2.8
Diesel with 1500 ppm SO2 3.4
Kerosen 3.8
Diesel with 5000 ppm 5.5
(It can be sold in Peru till 2015)
Diesel with 10000 ppm 8.5
(Not allowed anymore in the
national market)
Coal 16.4
Air Pollution - Diesel Fuel Sulphur levels

Source: Peru Country Environmental Analysis 2006.

Air Pollution - Solutions

Source: Peru Country Environmental Analysis 2006.

 Air Pollution - Solutions
Sustainable Mobility

Mobility that meets the needs of society to move freely, gain access, communicate, trade and
establish reltionships without sacrificing other essential human or ecological requirements today or
in the future.
World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Mobility Project 2030

1. Preserve the natural environment The environment should not be degrad ed by transport-related activity.
2. Maintain human health and safety Transport systems can have a direct impact on health and safety.
3. Meet the travel needs of the population People need reliability and choice of mode s in an integrated system that
provides for those of all abilities and financial means
4. Support a good economy Transport needs to support an economy that improves the well-being of all people, with
due regard to social equity.
5. Minimize transport costs for access and mobility Reducing the cost of mobility and access will improve the ability
of transport- disadvantaged people to make use of av ailable social, cultural and economic opportunities.
6. Minimize infrastructure costs Transport systems need to be planned in a manner that their infrastructure and
services can be funded in the long term, and that best use is made of investments.
7. Maintain energy security Transport can play a significant role in helping to decouple support of a good economy
from increasing demand for fossil fuels.
8. Ensure long-term viability of the transport system Transport infrastructure and services need to be continuously
maintained; and as an integrated system, all components must work together for optimum effectiveness.
Source: Peru Country Environmental Analysis 2006.
 Air Pollution - Solutions

The model of the Urban Sprawl:

Suburbanization
Makes things apart: Jobs & Services
Over reliance on automobile
Traffic congestion
Pollution
Commute times
Policentric Cities needed

The false solution of more roads:

Induced Demand
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q16dmckC_QU

Source: Peru Country Environmental Analysis 2006.

Solid Waste
Solid wastes are any discarded materials. Solid wastes can
be solid, liquid, semi-solid or containerized gaseous
material.
There is an important body of public and private
organizations dedicated to manage the growing
production of solid waste, known as MSW, municipal solid
waste.

Does not include solid or dissolved materials in domestic sewage, or solid or

dissolved materials in irrigation return flows or industrial discharges
Does not include construction and demolition debris except asbestos,
corrugated container board, electrical fixtures with hazardous liquids,
fluorescent lights, carpeting, furniture, garbage and garbage-like debris.

Source: 2013 New York State Department of Environmental Conservation

Solid Waste
A material is discarded if it is abandoned by being:
Disposed of;
Burned or incinerated, including being burned as a
fuel for the purpose of recovering usable energy; or
Accumulated, stored or physically, chemically or
biologically treated (other than burned or
incinerated) instead of or before being disposed of.

Source: 2013 New York State Department of Environmental Conservation

Solid Waste
There is a clear
relationship between
public health and the
storage, collection and
proper disposal of solid
waste.
The percentage
distribution of the
components in the MSW
vary with location,
Waste composition reflexes the
season, economic lifestyle of the society that
conditions, and other produces it
factors.

Source: 2013 New York State Department of Environmental Conservation

Solid Waste
Problems
Landscape deterioration and land
loss.
Production of odors.
Health hazards
Fire Hazards: fermentable wastes
are easily self-igniting.
Possibility of contamination of
surface and groundwater.
Facilitate the presence of vector
pests, rodents and insects.
Severe effects on life quality,
especially linked to psychological
and physical health.
Solid Waste
Contact points
Soil adsorption, storage and biodegrading
Runoff
Leaching
Ventilation, winds
Insects, birds, rats, flies and animals
Direct dumping of untreated waste in seas, rivers
and lakes results in the plants and animals that
feed on it
Edible plants uptake of solid waste originated
toxins.
Solid Waste
Possible impacts
Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation: Low
birth weight, cancer, malformations, neurological
disease.
Uncollected waste can obstruct the storm water
runoff resulting in flood.
Mercury toxicity in the water trophic chain.
Injuries.
Plastic found in oceans ingested by animals.
Resulted in high algal population in rivers and sea.
Degrades water and soil quality.
Solid Waste
The Pacific Garbage Vortex
Solid Waste
Solid Waste
World Status
2002, 2.9 billion urban residents: 0.64 kg of MSW/person
x day (0.68 billion tonnes/ year).
2012 billion residents: 1.2 kg per person per day (1.3
billion tonnes/year).
2025, 4.3 billion urban residents: 1.42 kg/capita/day (2.2
billion tonnes/year).

Source: What a Waste 2012, World Bank

Solid Waste
OECD 34 richest industrialized nations, lead the world
in MSW generation, at nearly 1.6 million tonnes per
day.
Sub-Saharan Africa produces less than one eighth as
much, some 200,000 tonnes per day.
Top 10 MSW producing countries includes four
developing nations (Brazil, China, India, and Mexico),
urbanizing and growing income.
1st U.S. 621,000 tonnes per day
2nd China 521,000 tonnes.
U.S. seven times more than France, 10th position.

Source: What a Waste 2012, World Bank

Solid Waste
Drivers
Population growth
Urbanization and economic development:
Short life cycle goods.
No return, non biodegradable packaging.
Inorganics growing: plastics, paper, and
aluminum. Rural 40% to urban 85%.
60% of organic MSW in low-income countries,
25% in high-income countries.

Source: What a Waste 2012, World Bank

Solid Waste
Treatment and Management
World: 25% goes to recycling, composting, or
digestion.
U.S. 10% in 1980, 34% by 2010, similar increases in
other industrialized nations.
Growth driven by the maturing of both regulations
and markets for post-consumer materials.
Scrap metal and paper move ca. $30 billion per
year.
Waste management, from collection through
recycling, $400 billion worldwide (UNEP).
350% increase in the recycling of MSW is needed
Nearly complete recovery of all organics through
composting or energy.
Source: What a Waste 2012, World Bank
Solid Waste
Circular economy: policies to reduce some
materials and to reclaim or recycle most of the rest.
Japan Resource productivity (tonnes of material used per
yen of gross domestic product) less than half by 2015
from 1990 levels.
Recycling projected to double over
Material sent to landfill will a fifth.

Source: What a Waste 2012, World Bank

Solid Waste - Peru
Waste
percapita
2009:
0,798 kg/per x
day

Source: What a Waste 2012, World Bank

Solid Waste - Peru
23 000 tonnes of
MSW per day
8 landfills (4 in Lima
and 4 in regions)

Source: What a Waste 2012, World Bank

 Environmental Problems Systems Dynamics
EXERCISE: Causal Loop Diagram.
A. Brains storm and/or mind map related phenomena to the environmental problem.
B. Order this ideas in a Causal Loop Diagram as explained below:

R: Reinforcing (i.e. accelerates

change)
B: Balancing (i.e. slow downs
change, keeps equilibrium)
Delay