Pilotage: Difficulties facing pilots in handling large ships in approach channels and at

the berth & the use of tugs for efficient shiphandling

Kaushalendra Gupta

Background
Piloting large vessels in increasingly congested waterways, especially in approach channels and while
approaching to the berths is no simple task. These situations associated with the on-board and external
factors affecting the manoeuvrability of large ships often create decision making uncertainty
scenarios. The factors influencing the handling of large ships in particular, vary in most of the cases
depending on the nature of congested waters e.g. canal, narrow channel, shape and approach to the
berth, river, etc. The characteristics of the ships e.g. design, equipment, engines, cargo and draft also
create a number of variations in ship handling. All these factors cause a number of difficulties to the
pilots when taking appropriate decisions for safe handling of the ships in stressful and catastrophic
situations in confined waters.

The vagaries of wind and tide apart, the large ships themselves can and frequently do behave
unpredictably. It is not necessary that similar ships with identical characteristics in a same area of
confined waters shall behave in a same manner. Experience, confidence, personality and flair of an
individual pilot and his ability to take instant and flexible decisions in rapid changing circumstances,
finally identifythe difficulties he may have in handling large vessels.

Difficulties:
There are several factors, which often combine to create a number of difficulties for pilots in handling
the large ships or deep drafted vessels in relation to the depth and location of congested waters. I shall
nevertheless list hereunder the factors individually. Dominance in any one of them can cause
enormous difficulties in various circumstances. These are:

1. The environment: Space to manoeuvre i.e. fairway and time to do so. Traffic conditions
encountered in channel(s); that is, the traffic density and the number of encounters (both meeting
and overtaking).

2. The ship: Large length and beam, loading conditions, deep draft, design criteria, etc. Difficulties
faced by pilots due to following factors related to the ship:

"Back and fill" technique is no longer valid for holding a ship in a position in channel while
awaiting a turn for approaching to a berth or lock.
Inadequate ratio of mass-weight to the power particularly in shallow waters.
Lack of directional stability at low speeds.
Insufficient manoeuvring aids and lack of proper tugs.

We can summarise ship factor which governs the extent of pilots' difficulties as:
a) Size and type (In relation to degree of physical constraint)
b) Engine power and type (Mass weight to power ratio)
c) Steering capability (At low speeds in shallow water and channel)
d) Draft and trim (Relative to under-keel clearance)
e) Manoeuvring aids (Such as thrusters, variable pitch propellers (VPP), kort nozzles etc.) Although
very useful but their design is less concerned with ship handling and has the limitations such as
thrusters are often under powered and effective only with minimum speed and favourable
conditions. In the case of VPP, pilot faces greater difficulty in maintaining the directional stability
when easing down in an emergency, than with a fixed blade propeller. Bank suction is also more

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 pronounced. Risk of failures in creating neutral pitch in VPP also adds difficulty for pilots in
reliability.

3. The physical relationship between transiting vessels and the channel restraints such as the
prevailing width and depth, the channel bend radius, the unobstructed line of vision, etc.

4. External influences on a large vessel which are created by wind, current, waves and swell
(resulting in undue set, and in heave, roll and pitch movement of the ship), conditions of visibility
at the time of passage as well as the condition and sensitivity of the available navigational aids.

The prominent difficulties faced by the pilot due to external influences are:

DRIFT EFFECT DUE TO CURRENT AND WIND: Depends upon the windage area and the
draft. Difficult to estimate tidal sets and strengths and they vary a lot where banks, piers,
berths or lock entrances intercede in fast flowing streams.

SHALLOW WATER EFFECT: Manoeuvrability is badly effected and in particular stopping

distances and turning circles are increased considerably.

SQUAT: Improper control on speed may create grounding or under water damage to the
vessel with less under keel clearances.

MOMENTUM EFFECT: Added with external forces, the mass-weight problem creates
difficulty in berthing of large vessels. These are reduced if vessel has a good feedback on
speed-over-ground by a Doppler or rate-of-approach systems on the shore providing
information to the pilots. However the manoeuvres near berth become very tricky and are
often associated with difficulties.

5. Human element: The human element and its influence on a ship's safe pilotage may include,
navigational errors or misjudgements, navigational negligence, over-loading of navigational
shipboard functions during transits, lack of co-ordination among the ship's officers and pilot,
incompetence of ship's bridge resource team in executing pilot's orders and in giving him a good
feedback, etc.

6. Technical failures: These are such as the consequences of a total black out conditions on board
or the failure of the steering gear function, radar failure, engines failure, etc.

Specific situations in approach channels and berthing

Depending upon the location of vessel in confined waters of channel, canal or under water channels,
various hydrodynamic forces, wind effect, current effect, differences in pressure at bow and at the
stern due to rise of wave, etc. act on the vessel. Similarly interaction forces and hydrodynamic forces
also act on the vessels when passing or overtaking other vessels.

These cause the shift of pivot point forward or aft of the centre of gravity and also unusual swing of
bows or stern. Sketches on page 4 explain the position and shifting of the pivot point on account of
the ship's motions ahead or astern and the effects of wind on the ship. The speed and rudder angle of
the vessel plays a decisive role under these circumstances. The pilots have to control the vessel
movement to keep the vessel at the axis or centre line of the channel to avoid mishaps. While passing
vessels, the pilots have to plan the actions in advance and maintain a good understanding with the
pilots of other vessels. Some of the situations where pilots have difficulties said above are as follows
in brief:

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Bank Suction Effect: Early action by pilot to control the sheer before rudder control becomes
ineffective.

Bank Rejection Effect: This multiplies the suction effect and pilot to take early action.

Counteraction Bank Effect: To navigate in the middle of the channel with correct speed.

Negotiating a Bend: Same as above with care of turning circle and depths around.

Over-swing or over-steer: Over-swing manoeuvre to prevent the stern touching the outer edge of the
channel due to shift of pivot point forward while negotiating the bend in channel.

Control of speed and its effects: Pilot to move at a safe and ideal speed to avoid adverse effects on
the manoeuvrability of own ship and other ships passing. High speed of a vessel does damage to the
moored vessels in the vicinity and to the banks of the channel/canal.

Taking it off: Loss of rudder effectiveness and failure of propeller to bite. Pilot to reduce the speed
with a gradual deceleration of speed. Pilots have great difficulty in controlling the steering of the
large vessels when the speed is reduced particularly in emergencies.

Passing and overtaking in a channel: Advance planning, control of speed and rudder and
understanding with other vessel to avoid the interactions coupled with other canal and channel effects.
Pilots have difficulty some time when the effective squat increases and reduces the under keel
clearance due to the interactions between his ship and the passing ship.

In order to minimise difficulties, pilots to carry out following:

1) Acquire knowledge of ship's manoeuvrability characteristics and bridge resources.
2) Brief master.
3) Plan before entry in approach channel or river; rise of tide, status of current & wind, ETA at
shallow patches and tidal windows, under keel clearances with due regard to squat, roll and pitch,
traffic, visibility, availability of tugs and their types and power, etc. This is explained with the
help of sketches on page 5.
4) To keep as for as possible the CG of the vessel in the axis of channel and apply correct drift angle
with required speed and helm. Remember effective beam increases with length, beam and drift
angle and it must not exceed the safe width of navigable channel.
5) Remember that wind and current effect will depend on the windage area, under water area and the
position of the pivot point of the vessel at any time. See the positions of pivot point under various
circumstances explained by the sketches on page 3.
6) Use the bridge equipment effectively especially the Doppler for the transverse and longitudinal
speed of vessel over the ground.
7) Proper positioning of the tugs and the use of their power with proper conjunction with the ship's
motion, position of the pivot point and the wind/current effect.

Types of tugs: the advantages and disadvantages of each as to their manoeuvrability and
effectiveness in assisting a vessel under various circumstances.
Tugs make a very high contribution to the safe and efficient handling of large and deep drafted vessels
in restricted waters of channels, rivers, canals and harbours. Big vessels with high moment of inertia
(mass-power ratio) and even large container ships with excessive windage area have very poor
manoeuvrability at slow speeds. The use of tugs with appropriate bollard pull, efficient
manoeuvrability and good design provides an aid like thrusters and assist the pilot in controlling the
speed, steering and positioning of the ships.

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Explanation of the location of the pivot point

Effect of Wind with Trim

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Types of tugs:
At present following types of tugs are in use:

1. Single screw tugs:

Conventional and well known, with fixed or variable pitch propeller (VPP), some are fitted with a
nozzle, bow propeller or a 360-degree steerable bow thrusters to improve the towing power and
manoeuvrability.

2. Twin Screw tugs:

Similar design but with 2 propellers. Have better manoeuvrability and pull power.

3. Tractor tugs:
Propellers are fixed in the fore end of the tug. Propellers can be Voith-Schneidere (VS) type or Z-
pellers (360-degree steerable propellers) type. Have increased manoeuvrability and directional control
of towing/pulling power.

4. Tugs with Z-pellers aft:

Resemble with twin screw tugs, have 360-degree steerable thrusters. Have better application in ship
handling due to free movement and good power.

Advantages and disadvantages in types of tugs

In order to understand the advantages and the disadvantages of tugs for their manoeuvrability, we can
divide the tugs in following two divisions:

1. Tugs with propeller aft-fixed or VPP or Z-pellers with point of application of the towing force
amidships more like a conventional tug (Fig.2, page 6)

2. Tugs with propeller forward of the mid section-VS propeller or Z-pellers with point of application
aft, it is also called tractor type ( Fig. 1, page 6)

The advantages and disadvantages of these two divisions of the tugs are discussed hereunder in
relation to following capabilities when used in different modes / purposes:

Tugs with two main divisions

Fig 1 Tractor type, propulsion forward, Fig.2 Conventional type, propulsion aft, point of
point of application of towing force aft application of towing force amidships

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Planning of pilotage for deep drafted vessels while entering in a river/canal from sea

a) Before entry in the river/canal: familiarise with ships' characteristics and manoeuvrability data,
weather data, sea, wind, current, traffic data, etc.
b) In the river/canal: Rise and fall of tide, ETA at shallow waters and the under-keel clearances,
negotiation of bends, hydrodynamic forces, bank effects, interactions with ships, etc.
c) Differentiation of the situations: Differentiate between factors in the open water and in the
river/canal

Planning of pilotage for deep drafted vessels while entering in a river/canal from sea

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1. Use And Effectiveness
When used for athwartship pulls, with tugs either made fast forward or aft of vessel moving ahead, the
conventional type tugs have better effectiveness as they can turn around the point of application with
the help of rudder and/or propeller, whilst still applying force on the line. Conventional type of tugs
with movement ahead has less resistance through water while the tractor tug has more resistance due
to high blades (VS type) and the skeg. These facts are explained by figures 3 and 4 on page 8.

a) Conventional type gives extra power on towline by a sheering out effect.

b) Maximum pulling angle of tractor type is smaller that of a conventional tug.

2. Bollard Pulls Comparison

The towing power of tugs depends upon their engine power and type of propellers as evident in the
table bellow:

Type of propeller Bp in tons/100.bhp

Fixed propeller 1.3

Fixed / VPP with nozzle / Z-pellers 1.5
V S Propeller 1.0
Bp: Bollard pull Bhp: Brake horse power i.e. power delivered by engines

From the above it can be seen that a conventional type of tug will have more bollard pull or towing
power than a tractor tug fitted with VS propellers. The difference will be less if the tractor tug is fitted
with Z-pellers. The pull power of both types of the tugs influences their utility and effectiveness under
the different circumstances of the environment and the ship factors

Explanation of Effectiveness and Manoeuvrability of Tugs Falling into Two Main Divisions

Source: Nautical Institute (1990, 185)

Figure 3: A ship moving ahead and a tractor type of tug forward

Figure 4: A ship moving ahead with a conventional type of tug forward
Figure 5: Tractor type tug aft with shi moving ahead
Figure 6: Conventional type tug aft with ship moving ahead.

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3. MANOEUVRABILITRY IN SHIFTING POSITIONS
For making a turn of vessel under speed, conventional tug has advantage. To control the speed of
vessel, a tractor type has advantage over the conventional type. This is explained in the figures 5 and
6, showing a tractor tug and a conventional tug made fast aft of a vessel respectively. It is because; the
conventional tug has difficulty in moving from position (1) to (2) as illustrated in figure 6 on page 8.

4. PUSH-PULL METHOD WHILE MOVING AHEAD OR ASTERN

When 2 tugs are used on the same type of a vessel for turning the vessel to either side or in pushing /
pulling manoeuvres near berth, tractor tugs with VS propellers or with Z-pellers have advantage over
the conventional tugs with fixed or VP propellers. It is because they can keep on operating at right
angles with the vessel.

Summary:
Conventional tugs pull a long line from a hook amidships, forward of the propeller. They have a good
bollard power and can swing the vessel, athwart-ship easily, but are very unstable and problematic in
shifting positions and in effecting variable manoeuvres. Tractor tugs have better manoeuvrability in
pushing/pulling at right angles, in controlling the speeds, short towline and a good stability. Tractor
tugs have more freedom to move and can do rapid positioning in any direction on the pilot's order.

The number of tugs, their power and positioning are to be planned by the pilots, keeping in mind the
windage and under water area of the ship, location of the berth, wind and current status and the ship's
characteristics/design. For more effectiveness and safe manoeuvrability, a pilot must be aware of tug-
ship interaction and avoid any girting of tug by carefully planning the ship's speed. For swinging the
ship by a forward or an aft tug, the pivot point of the ship must be aft or forward for more impact by
moving the ship stern or ahead respectively.

For more effectiveness, and where a choice of tugs is available, the pilot can choose the following
types of tugs for the stated purpose:

1. Forward tug towing on line = Azimuth Stern Drive Tugs

2. Stern tug towing on line = Tractor Tugs

3. Operating at ship's side = Azimuth Stern Drive Tugs

References:
Blank, J S. (1989). Modern Towing. 3rd ed. Centreville, Md.: Cornell Maritime Press.

Boyles, R S (1990). Canal navigation. The Nautical institute on Pilotage and Shiphandling. London :
Nautical Institute.

Bussemaker, I D (1977). Tugs design and development. The Nautical Institute Conference on ship
handling (November 1977: Plymouth, UK). Plymouth Polytechnic. London: Nautical Institute.

Dand I W (1977). The physical causes of interactions and its effects. The Nautical Institute
Conference on ship handling (November 1977: Plymouth, UK). London: Nautical Institute.

Grabowski, M (1990), "Decision, support to masters, mates on watch, and pilots: the plotting expert
system". The Journal of Navigation, vol.43, no.3, pp 364-382.

Hensen, H (1990). Use of tugs in pilotage operations. The Nautical institute on Pilotage and
Shiphandling. London : Nautical Institute.

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Lectures, and handouts given by the Visiting Professor Capt. Robert Hofstee, OON, FNI.
(28-6-99 to 3-7-99 at WMU, Malm)

Lindsay, J C (1990). Narrow channel pilotage. The Nautical Institute on Pilotage and Shiphandling.
London: Nautical Institute.

Nautical Institute (1990). The Nautical Institute on pilotage and shiphandling. London: Nautical
Institute.

Paffett J A H (1990). Ships and Water. London: Nautical Institute.

Tebay P J H and Boyles, R S (1977). Techniques for handling ships in rivers, canals, locks and
channels. The Nautical Institute Conference on Ship Handling (November 1977: Plymouth, UK).
London: Nautical Institute.

van Dormail, E T H (1990). Use of tugs when locking. The Nautical institute on Pilotage and
Shiphandling. London: Nautical Institute.

Wennik, C J (1992). "Collision and grounding risk analysis for ships navigating in the confined
waters". The Journal of Navigation, vol. 45, no. 1, pp 80-90.

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