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LEARNING ACTIVITY NO.1

Course SEAM 5 – Ship Handling and Maneuvering

Topic 1: Principles of Ship Handling
Topic

1. Explain the principles of ship handling and the effects of deadweight,

Learning Outcome(s) draught, trim, speed and under keel clearance on turning circles and
stopping distances

Instructor Capt. Raymundo Rafael B. Cabrejas

LESSON MAP

Principles of Ship
Handling

Definition of Ship Handling Ship conditions

Introduction that can affect ship
Terms Principles
handling

I. INTRODUCTION

Ship Handling and Maneuvering is defined as the art of proper control of a ship while
underway, especially in harbours, around docks and piers. It is one of the skills that any
ship handler finds very satisfying when well accomplished.  The most basic thing to be
understood in ship handling is to know and anticipate how a ship behaves under all
circumstances and what orders should be given to make the ship behave and move exactly
the way you want her to. The difference between the ships’ heading and the actual
direction of movement of the ship should also be constantly attended to as this is
essentially important at slow speeds and when there are wind and current.

II. DEFINITION OF TERMS

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DEADWEIGHT - is a measure of how much weight a ship can carry. It is the sum of the
weights of cargo, fuel, fresh water, ballast water, provisions, passengers, and crew.
DISPLACEMENT - is the weight of the vessel including its contents such as weights
of cargo, fuel, fresh water, ballast water, provisions, passengers, and crew.
DRAFT - is defined in technical terms as the distance between the ship’s keel and the
waterline of the vessel.

TRIM - is the difference between the draughts fore and aft.

UNDER KEEL CLEARANCE - is the depth of water below the keel of a ship. Simply
speaking, it is the space below the ship's keel and above the seabed. That is the height
obtained by depth minus draft of a vessel.

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TURNING CIRCLE - when a vessel is made to turn under a continuous helm through 360
deg it will follow a roughly circular track called turning circle

ADVANCE - is defined as the forward motion of the ship, from the moment that the ship
starts the turn. It is the distance travelled by the vessel in the direction of the original course
from the start of turn to the completion of the turn. It is measured between the point of
starting the turn until the ship’s heading has passed 90 degrees.
TRANSFER – is the distance gained towards the new course from the start of the turn until
90 degrees change of heading.
TACTICAL DIAMETER – is the distance gained to either left or right of the original
course, measured from the original course until 180 degrees change of heading.
FINAL DIAMETER – is the diameter of the circle traversed by a vessel after turning
through 360 degrees and maintaining the same speed and rudder angle, it is always less than

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the tactical diameter and is measured perpendicular to the original course and between
tangents at the points where 180 degrees and 360 degrees of the turn have been completed.
PIVOT POINT – A ship’s pivot point is a point on the centerline of the ship, where the ship
rotates when turning during a course change.
DRIFT ANGLE – is an angle at any point on the turning circle between the intersection of
the tangent at that point and the ship’s keel line.

III. SHIP HANDLING PRINCIPLES

Three basic ship motions:

1. Longitudinal motion (forward or astern).
2. Lateral motion (sideways).
3. Rotational or turning motion.

Vessels also have other behaviors worth noting when her maneuvering equipment is in
operation. Depending on the type of propeller, a ship with a single propeller when run ahead
from stop cants to either port or starboard; when to put astern from stop the stern cants at a
fast rate to port or starboard. When a ship has headway and the rudder is put over to one side,
the bow turns to the same side where the rudder is turned. Thrusters, on the other hand, move
the vessel’s end sideways. Thrusters, depending on its design increase its effectiveness as the
vessel slows down.

Factors and forces that commonly constitute a change in a vessel’s behavior while being
maneuvered:

External Factors/forces:

1. Tide.
2. A sudden change in wind velocity and direction (gust).
3. Set and drift.
4. The proximity of other vessels.
5. The depth of water.

Internal Factors/forces under the control of the Shiphandler:

1. Engine power.
2. Speed.
3. Effect of the type of propeller.
4. Rudder movement and type.
5. Thrusters.
6. Anchors and mooring lines.
7. Tugboats.

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Effects of external forces:

The effects of external forces may become advantageous or disadvantageous to the ship
handler. It is best that these effects are foreseen beforehand so that necessary steps to counter
or make use of them during the maneuver are made. As some experts put it; “ the art of ship
handling involves the effective use of the forces under one’s control to overcome the effects
of external forces”.
Among the external forces, the effects of the wind and current are the most important. These
forces greatly affect the movement of the ship. When there is wind blowing on one side of a
high sided ship moving ahead, she will not move along the line of the intended course line
but rather drift towards the lee side of the ship. Likewise, if a current is acting on one side of
a ship, she will behave in the same manner, that is, she will be moving diagonally in the
direction where the current is setting although her heading is on the course steered. To attain
the desired track we make allowance for set to compensate for a current and allowance for
leeway to compensate for the wind. Always bear in mind that currents affect ships more than
the wind and allowances made to compensate for these factors are called set because
generally it is not possible to separate the difference. If a ship steers a course of 270 degrees,
and the current is setting north, she will deviate considerably towards the north from the
course line. The angular difference between the ship’s heading and the course made good is
called the drift angle.

The set, drift and drift angle can be estimated graphically or by mathematical calculation.
This drift angle is applied opposite to the set of the current in order that the ship will progress
along the intended course line. The factors affecting the drift angle depend on the load
condition of the ship, the speed of the ship, the velocity of the wind or rate of the current and
their direction relative to the ship’s fore and aft line. Then there is also the effect to the ship’s
speed if the wind or current is ahead or astern.

Other Variable factors affecting ship handling.

1. Human factor – A delay in time between your given order and the execution of
the order will affect how you intend to move your ship. This is caused by
human factors because the individuals you are ordering may have different
responses depending on their training and ability to perform the job, or that
orders have to be relayed by an officer to the helmsman, which is a bad practice
that should be avoided so that the conning officer should be able to give his
orders directly to the helmsman.
2. Sudden breakdown or failure of the ship’s equipment.
3. Mode of communication failure from the bridge to engine room or vice-versa,
or to the fore and aft stations.

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 4. Language problems between nationalities.
5. Ship’s Momentum.

IV. OTHER CONTRIBUTING FACTORS THAT AFFECTS SHIPS TURNING

CIRCLE AND STOPPING DISTANCE.

THE SHIP’S DEADWEIGHT

The larger the ship, the greater the inertia. The larger the ship, the more time it takes for the
rudder to take effect. As well as the larger the ship, it will be more difficult to stop.

DRAFT AND TRIM

Shallow water affects the ships turning ability. The shallower the water the bigger the turning
circle will be. The rudder responds effectively at a depth of twice the draft of the vessel.
The trim can have a significant impact on a vessel’s energy demand for propulsion during
sailing. The most efficient trim for a particular ship depends on its design, operational draft
and speed.

SPEED
Slow speed requires larger rudder angles to make an effective turn or to increase the rate of
turn. Also, larger rudder angles are required to arrest the turn or to check the swing of the
ship.
The faster the ship, the more water will act on the rudder, therefore the vessel is more
sensitive to rudder angle movements.

UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE
Shallow water has contributing factor in the rudders’ effectivity. Less underkeel clearance
means less water to interact with the rudder. The lesser the UKC the slower the ship’s speed
be.

STOPPING DISTANCE
Stopping distance is the distance, which, a ship will continue to move after action is taken to
stop engines and till the ship comes to rest. Stopping distance details may be provided for sea
speed, harbour speed, half speed etc. It may be provided for loaded & light conditions.
 
Nowadays the precise course & speed over ground may be read directly on a GPS receiver. A
navigator makes the best use of this facility. A time speed graph may be prepared for ‘stop
manoeuvre. During an ‘Inertia or simple stop’ manoeuvre carried out in open sea it may be
necessary to take into account the currents, if any, as the current might continue to carry the
ship. 

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Thus a student might Wonder as to ‘why GPS is still showing, say ‘2 knot speed the while
Water alongside may appear to be still with respect to the ship. Out at sea. ship is considered
stopped when she is stopped w.r.t water in which she is floating. The direction and the
motion shown by GPS at that moment are the set and drift the current. In harbour, a stop as
desired by a pilot might mean stop w.r.t ground wharf, or w.r.t a ship alongside Which your
ship is to be double banked. A student must understand that there is no standard stopping
distance, which is true for all ships.

Following observations are important in relations to stopping distance:

1. A ship in loaded condition will take longer to stop than in light condition. 
2. A smooth hull vessel will take longer to stop than a fouled hull vessel for a given speed. 
3. A loaded tanker or bulk carrier might have to be given stopping manoeuvre well in
advance both time wise as well as distance wise. it may not be required on a medium sized
general cargo vessel in light condition. 
4. A light draft vessel, with lot of windage area is influenced a lot by prevailing wind
conditions. 
5. A vessel of fine form will take longer to stop as compared with a buff-formed vessel of
similar draft length. 

INERTIA STOP
Headway of a ship going ahead is reduced to a stop merely by cutting of the fuel without
reversing the propulsion. Stopping Distance may be associated with the speed at which the
vessel was advancing at the time of the ‘stop’ order & varies from 10% to 50% of speed in
knots represented in nautical miles.

CRASH STOP
In crash stop manoeuvre the ship is stopped by applying astern power. On a diesel ship it will
be done in 3 stages:
a) Fuel is cut off to main engines. 
b) In spite of fuel cut off, propeller continues to turn due to headway of the ship. Hence,
compressed air is used to actually stop the engines. 
c) Engines are reversed using maximum power. Rudder normally being kept amidships

References:
1. Baudu, H. (2018). Ship Handling. Netherlands: Dokmar Maritime Publishers
BV.
2. Naranjo, R. (2014). The Art of Seamanship. ME, United States: International
Marine Publishing Co.

Student Additional Activity

1. Watch the video What is ship handling? - YouTube
2. Make a summary of the video. Please write legibly

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V. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT:

I. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS: On the space provided, write the letter of your
choice.

1 It is a displacement where only the vessel’s bare weight is

included.
a. Load displacement c. Displacement
b. Light displacement d. Deadweight ____________

2 After taking draft, aft draft is deeper than forward draft. The
ship has what?
a. List c. Trim
b. Heel d. Inclination ____________
3 It is obtained by adding the UKC and draft.
a. Tide c. Freeboard
b. Depth d. Range of Tide ____________
4 This is a point where the ship rotates when turning.
a. Pilot c. Beam

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 b. Midship d. Pivot
____________
5 It is one of the internal factors which affects vessel’s
maneuverability.
a. set and drift c. speed
b. wind d. tide ____________

VI. STUDENT REFLECTION

Write a min. of 200-word Reflective Learning Report. You may refer to the guide questions
below. Write legibly and submit your work at the end of the week.

Guide questions:
1. Importance of Ship Handling.
Share your thoughts regarding the principles of ship handling.

2. What are the factors that affect ship’s turning circle and stopping distance?
Enumerate and explain why it affects ship handling?

3. Is shiphandling different in each type of vessel?

Explain what your learnings.

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